Folio Chemistry Nazmi

8/8/2019 Folio Chemistry Nazmi

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Name: Mohamad Afiq bin RehimClass: 408

Colledge no:10636

TitleManufactured Substances in Industry

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(A) Sulphuric acid Manufacture of sulphuric acid

Contact process produces more than 90% of the world sulphuric acid.

Content Page(A) Sulphuric acid

Manufacture of sulphuric acid 1 3Properties of sulphuric acid 4

The uses of sulphuric acid 5 7Sulphur dioxide and environmental pollution 8 9

(B) Ammonia and its salt

Manufacture of ammonia 10 11

Properties of ammonia 12

The uses and preparation of ammonia 13

(C) Alloys

Arrangement of atoms in metals 14

What are alloys? 15Composition,properties and uses of alloys 16

(D) Synthetic polymers

What are polymers? 17

Properties of polymers 18

Monomer in synthetic polymer 19

Example and uses of synthetic polymers 20

(E) Glass and ceramics

Glass- Component and properties of glass 21

Example and uses of glass 22Ceramics- Component and properties of ceramics 23

Example and uses of ceramics 24

(F) Composite materialsWhat are composite materials 25

Example and their uses 26

Conclusion of topic 27

Acknowledgement 28

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Raw materials used for the manufacture of sulphuric acid :-(i) sulphur

(ii) air (iii) water.

Contact process consists of 3 stages:

~ Production of sulphur dioxide~ Conversion of sulphur dioxide is sulphur trioxide.~ Production of sulphuric acid

Stage I: Production of sulphur dioxide

(a)Sulphur is burnt in air to produce sulphur dioxide.S(s) + O 2(g) SO 2(g)

(b)Burning of metal sulphides such as zinc sulphide and lead sulphide also produces sulphur dioxide.

2ZnS(s) + 3O 2(g) 2SO 2(g) + 2ZnO(s)2PbS(s) + 3O 2(g) 2SO 2(g) + 2PbO(s)

(c)The sulphur dioxide is then mixed with excess air.The mixture is dried and purified toremove impurities such as arsenic compounds.

(d)Arsenic compounds found in sulphur will poison the catalyst in the converter, making thecatalyst ineffective.

Stage II: Conversion of sulphur dioxide to sulphur trioxide

(a)The mixture of sulphur dioxide and excess oxygen is passed through a converter.The sulphur dioxide is oxidised to sulphur trioxide.

2SO 2(g) + O 2(g) 2SO 3(g)

(b)Optimum conditions used are as follows.(i) Temperature : 450 C(ii) Pressure : 1 atmosphere

(iii) Catalyst : Vanadium(V) oxide,V 2O5

Stage III : Production of sulphuric acid

(a) The sulphur trioxide is first dissolved in concentrated sulphuric acid to form a productcalled oleum, H 2S2O7

SO 3(g) + H 2SO 4(aq) H2S2O7(l)

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(b) Sulphur trioxide is not dissolved in water to form sulphuric acid.This is because reaction between sulphur trioxide and water is very vigorous and produces a large amount of heat.The reaction causes the production of a large cloud of sulphuric acid mist.The mistis corrosive, pollutes the air and is difficult to condense.

(c) The oleum is then diluted with water to produce concentrated sulphuric acid of about98%.H2S2O7(l) + H 2O(l) 2H 2SO 4(aq)

Flow chart of Contact process.

burns in air

O2V2O5,450 C, 1 atm

concentrated H 2SO 4

water

water

Figure 1 : The manufacture of sulphuric acid through the Contact process

The manufacture of sulphuric acid, H 2 SO 4 in the Contact Process

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Sulphuric acid, H2SO4 Oleum, H2S2O7

Sulphur trioxide, SO 3

Sulphur dioxide,SO2

Sulphur

Sulphur dioxide, SO2

Sulphuric acid, H 2SO 4

Oleum,H 2S2O7


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Oilyliquid

Highlycorrosive

Non-volatileacid

Viscouscolourless

liquid

Dense

Soluble inwater

Density

1.83g cm -3

Diproticacid

Boiling point

340 oC

Melting point

10oC

Molar mass 98 g mol -1

ChemicalFormula:

H2SO 4

Propertiesof sulphuric

acid
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Uses of sulphuric acid

There are many fertilizers that can be made of sulphuric acid. Some of them are:

a) Calcium hydrogen phosphate (superphosphate)

b) Ammonium sulphate

c) Potassium sulphate

Sulphuric acid is used as:

to manufacture fertilisers

to manufacture paint pigment

to manufacture detergents

to manufacture synthetic fibre

to clean metals

to manufacture plastics

as an electrolyte in car batteries

to manufacture other chemicals

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2 H2SO4

(aq) + Ca3(PO

4)

2(s)

Ca(H

2PO

4)

2(aq)+ 2CaSO

4(s)

sulphuric acid + tricalcium phosphate calcium hydrogen phosphate

H2SO4(aq) +2NH

3(aq) (NH

4)

2SO

4(aq)

sulphuric acid + aqueous ammonia ammonium sulphate

H2SO4(aq) +2KOH

(aq) K 2SO 4(aq) + 2H 2O(l)

sulphuric acid + potassium hydroxide solution Potassium sulphate
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Manufacture of car batteries Manufacture of detergents Manufacture of fertilisers

Manufacture of paints Manufacture of plastic items Manufacture of pesticides

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Metallurgy

Fertilisers

Paint pigment

Detergents

SyntheticFibre

Plastics

Electrolytes


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Figure 2 : Uses of sulphuric acid

Sulphur dioxide and environmental pollution

1) Sulphur dioxide is released through:-

(a) Burning of sulphur during Contact process(b) Extraction of some metals from their sulphides ores(c) Burning of coals or fuels with high sulphur content

2) Acid rain occurs when there is sulphurous acid,sulphuric acid and nitric acid in the rain.These strong acids will cause the pH of rain to fall between 2.4 and 5.0

3) Sulphur dioxide accounts for most of the acid rain problems.(a) When sulphur dioxide dissolves in rainwater,sulphurous acid is formed

SO 2(g) + H 2O (l) H2SO 3(aq)(b) Sulphur dioxide can react with oxygen and water to form sulphuric acid

2SO 2(g) + O 2(g) + 2H 2O(l) 2H 2SO4(aq)

Ways to control and reduce the effects of acid rain:

Use low-sulphur fuelsAdd calcium oxide(lime), CaO; calcium hydroxide,Ca(OH) 2 and powdered llimestoneCaCO 3 into the acidic lake or river to neutralize the acids present:

CaO(s) + 2H (aq) Ca (aq) +H 2O(l)Ca(OH) 2(s) + 2H (aq) Ca (aq) + 2H 2O(l)CaCO 3(s) + 2H (aq) Ca (aq) + CO 2(g) + H 2O(l)

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Environmental problems cause by acid rain

corrodes buildings,monuments and statuescalcium carbonate in the marble reacts with H 2SO 4 from the rain to form calcium sulphate.CaCO 3(s) + H 2SO 4(aq) CaSO 4(s) + CO 2(g) +

H2O(l)

corrodes metallic structureThe iron from the steel bridges reacts with sulphuricacid to form iron(II) sulphate.

Fe(s) + H 2SO 4(aq) FeSO 4(aq) + H 2(g)

increase the acidity of water Acid rain disturbs the ecosystemFish and other aquatic organisms which cannot live in

acidic water may die.

increase the acidity of the soil plants cannot grow well in acidic soilreaction of sulphuric acid with aluminium compoundsin the soil forms aluminium sulphate which candamage the roots of trees.

leaches minerals and nutrients in the soil.acid react with minerals in the soil to form doublesalts.dissolved salts carried by the rainwater to river.

plants lack of essential nutrients for growth.

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(B) Ammonia and its salts

Manufacture of ammonia in industry

Ammonia is manufactured in industries through Haber process.

Raw materials for the Haber process are(i)hydrogen

(ii)nitrogen

Nitrogen gas is obtained from the fractional distillation of liquid air.

Hydrogen gas is obtained by:(i)Reaction between methane from natural gas and steam

CH 4(g) + 2H 2O(l) 4H 2(g) + CO 2(g)(ii)The reaction between heated coke and steam

C(s) + H 2O(l) H2(g) + CO(g)

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The manufacture of ammonia,NH 3 through the Haber Process.

Nitrogen and hydrogen are mixed according to the ratio 1 mole N 2 : 3 moles H 2.

The mixture is compressed to 200 atm and heated to a temperature of about 450 C

The mixture is then passed through layers of heated iron catalyst in a reactor.Ammonia is produced.

N2(g) + 3H 2(g) 2NH 3(g)The reaction is reversible and the production of ammonia gives out heat.The high pressureand iron catalyst speed up the rate of reaction.

The ammonia gas produced is liquefied ans separated to get a better yield.

The unreacted nitrogen and hydrogen are recycled and passed back into the reactor together with the new source of nitrogen and hydrogen.About 98% of nitrogen and hydrogen areconverted into ammonia.

Ammonium fertilisers

Plants need nutrients like nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and calcium to grow.

Nitrogen-make proteins in stalks and leaves

Nitrogen is absorbed by plants in the form of soluble nitrate ions, NO 3-

Ammonium fertilisers contain ammonium ions.In the soil, the ammonium ions areconverted to nitrate ions by bacteria

Examples of ammonium fertilisers:

(a) Ammonium nitrate, NH 4 NO 3

(b) Ammonium sulphate, (NH 4)2SO 4(c) Ammonium phosphate, (NH 4)2HPO 4(d) Urea,CO(NH 2)2

Fertilisers that contain a high percentage of nitrogen are more effective.

Ammonium fertilisers can be prepared by reactions between ammonia solution and acids.

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Properties of ammonia

Chemical reaction of ammonia:(a) Reacting as a base

Ammonia ionises partially in water and therefore is a weak base.

NH3

(g) + H2

O(l) NH4

(aq) + OH (aq)Ammonia undergoes neutralisation with acids to form ammonium salts.

Ammonia + acid ammonium salt

(b) Reacting with aqueous metal ions

alkaline gas

very soluble in

water

less dense than

air

pungent smell

colourless gas

Physical properties of

ammonia

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Ammonia solution can precipitate some metal hydroxides from their aqueous saltsolutions.The metal ions combine with the hydroxide ions from aqueous ammonia to

produce insoluble metal hydroxides : Mn (aq) + nOH (aq) M(OH)n(s)

Uses of ammonia

To make fertilisers- provide plants the nitrogen they need to grow- these fertilisers are ammonium salts obtained from the neutralization of ammonia

with different acids. Examples:(a) Ammonium phosphate

- reaction of ammonia with phosphoric acid produces ammonium phosphatesNH 3(aq) + H 3PO(aq) NH 4H2PO 4(aq)

2 NH 3(aq) + H 3PO(aq) (NH 4)2HPO 4(aq)- good fertilisers because they provide two important nutrients,phosphorus and

nitrogen.

(b) Ammonium nitrate- ammonia is neutralised by nitric acid,ammonium nitrate is formed

NH 3(aq) + HNO 3(aq) NH 4 NO 3(aq)

(c) Ammonium sulphate- ammonia is neutralised by sulphuric acid

2NH 3(aq) + H 2SO 4(aq) (NH 4)2SO 4(aq)

(d) Urea- At a temperature of 200 C and a high pressure of 200 atm, ammonia reactswith carbon dioxide to produce urea.

2NH 3(g) + CO 2(g) CO(NH 2)2(s) + H 2O(l)

- used as a raw material for the manufacture of nitric acid in the Ostwad process.- Liquid ammonia used as cooling agent- used as an alkali to prevent the coagulation of latex- Ammonia salts is used as smelling salts to revive people who have fainted

Preparation of ammoniaThe chief commercial method of producing ammonia is by the Haber-Bosch process , whichinvolves the direct reaction of elemental hydrogen and elemental nitrogen.N 2 + 3H 2 2NH 3This reaction requires the use of a catalyst , high pressure (1001,000 atmospheres), andelevated temperature (400550 C [7501020 F]). Actually, the equilibrium between theelements and ammonia favours the formation of ammonia at low temperature, but hightemperature is required to achieve a satisfactory rate of ammonia formation. Several differentcatalysts can be utilized. Normally the catalyst is iron containing iron oxide . However, bothmagnesium oxide on aluminum oxide that has been activated by alkali metal oxides and

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ruthenium on carbon have been employed as catalysts. In the laboratory, ammonia is bestsynthesized by the hydrolysis of a metal nitride .Mg 3 N 2 + 6H 2O 2NH 3 + 3Mg(OH) 2

(C) Alloys

Arrangement of atoms in metals

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Pure metals

Pure metal is made up of one type of atoms,thus all atoms are of the same size.In solid state ,the atoms in a pure metal are orderly arrangedand closely packed together.Thus,pure metals have highdensities.

Ductile

Malleable

Goodconductors of

heat andelectricity

High melting & boiling points

High density

Physical properties of pure metals

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Although the forces of attraction between the metal atoms are strong,they are not

rigid.Therefore when a force is applied,the layers of atoms can slide over one another.Thusmetals are ductile or can be stretched.

Force

Layersof atoms slideover one another

Figure 3 : Metals are ductile

The arrangement of atoms in pure metals are not perfect.There are some empty spaces in between the atoms.When a metal is knocked or pressed,groups of atoms may slide and thensettle into new position.So,metals are malleable.

Force

Figure 4 : Metals are malleable

Pure metals are weak and soft due to their ductility and malleability

What are alloys?

An alloy is a mixture of two or more elements with a certain fixed composition in which themajor component is a metal.

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Pure metals are normally soft and easily oxidised.This is the reason why monuments or statues are made of bronze(an alloy) and not copper(a pure metal).

Alloy are stronger,harder,resistant to corrosion,have a better finish and lustrous.

Why make alloys?

The aim of making alloy is:(a) to increase the strength and hardness of a pure metal(b) to increase the resistance to corrosion of a pure metal(c) to improve the appearance of a pure metal

Figure 5 : Making alloy

Composition, properties and uses of alloys

Alloy Composition Properties UsesBronze 90% copper,

10% tinHard,strong,does not corrodeeasily,shiny surface

Medals,statues,monuments,artobjects

Brass 70% copper 30% zinc

Harder than copper Musical instruments,kitchenware, door knobs,bullet

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cases,electric parts,ornaments

Cupro-nickel 75% copper 25% nickel

Beautifulsurface,shiny,hard,does not corrode easily

Coins

Steel 99% iron1% carbon

Hard,strong Buildings,bridges,body of cars,railway tracks

Stainless steel 74% iron,8% carbon18%chronium

Shiny,strong,does not rust Cutlery,surgicalinstruments,sinks,

pipesDuralumin 93%aluminium

3% copper 3%magnesium1%manganese

Light,strong Body of aircraft and bullet trains

Pewter 96% tin3% copper 1% antimony

Shiny, strong,does notcorrode

Art objects,souvenirs

9-carat gold 37.5% gold11% silver 51.5 % copper

Shiny, strong,does notcorrode

Jewellery

(D) Synthetic Polymer

What are polymers?

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Polymers are large long-chain molecules formed by joining together many identicalrepeating sub-units called monomers.

Polymerisation is a process by which the monomers are joined together into chain-likemolecule called polymer.

Formation of polymer

Polymers can be divided into 2 types.

Natural PolymersNATURAL POLYMER MONOMER

Rubber IsopreneCellulose Glucose

Starch GlucoseProtein Amino acid

Fat Fatty acid and glycerol

Nucleic acid Nucleotides

Examples of natural polymers and their monomers

i) Natural polymers and their uses

Polymers

Natural PolymersExist in living things in natureEx:Protein,cellulose,wool,silk,

starch,natural rubber & DNA

Synthetic PolymersThey are man-made in laboratory throughchemical processes.Ex: Plastics, nylon

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NATURAL POLYMER USERubber Tyres, eraser, condom, electric insulation, elastic bands

and belts.Cellulose Paper, textiles, pharmaceuticals, and explosivesStarch To stiffen cloth (as in laundering), used in cooking to

thicken foods, manufactured of adhesives , paper , textiles and as a mold in the manufacture of sweets.Protein Essential in the diet of animals for the growth and repair

of tissue,Fat Maintaining healthy skin and hair , insulating body organs

against shock, promoting healthy cell function and serveas energy stores for the body

Synthetic Polymer

Synthetic polymers are prepared through 2 types of polymerisation processes:(a)Addition polymerisation(b)Condensation polymerisation

Addition polymerisation- involves monomers with double bonds between the carbon atoms.- During addition polymerisation, the double bonds between pairs of carbon atoms break

and the carbon atoms pf adjacent ethene molecules join together to form a molecule of poly or polythene.

Condensation polymerisation

- involves the joining up of monomers with the formation of other smaller and simplemolecules.

Plastics

Plastics are the largest group of synthethic polymers with the following properties:(a)Can be easily moulded(b)Low density(c)Strong(d)Inert to chemicals(e)Insulator of heat and electricity(f)Can be coloured

Name of polymer Equation for polymerisation

Properties Uses

Polyethylene(polythene)

H H H H n C=C CC

Durable,light,impermeable,Inert to chemicals,easilymelted,insulator

Shopping bags,Plastic cups and

plates,toys

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H H H H n

Ethene PolythenePolypropylene(polypropene)

H CH 3 H CH 3 n C=C CC

H H H Hn

Propene Polypropene

Durable,light,impermeable,Inert to chemicals,easily

melted,insulator,can bemoulded and coloured

Bottles,furniture, battery casing,

pipes,toys

Teflon F F F F n C=C CC

F F F F nTetrafluo- Teflonroethene

Durable,non-stick,Chemically inert,strong,impermeable

Coating for non-stick pans,electricalinsulators

Synthetic fibre

Synthetic fibre are long-chain polymers which are not easily stretched and have highstrength.

Polynamides and polyester are two groups of synthetic polymers used as fibres for makingtekstil.

Example of polynamide polymers is nylon.

Example of polyester polymers is terylene.

Nylon and terylene are produced through condensation polymerisation.

TYPE OF POLYMER USEPolythene a) Make buckets

b) Make plastic bags

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c) Make raincoatsd) Make filmse) Make rubbish bins

Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) a) Make water pipes b) Make electric cables

c) Make matsd) Make vinyl recordse) Make clothes hangers

Polypropene a) Make ropes b) Make bottlesc) Make chairsd) Make drink canse) Make carpets

Perspex a) Make car windows b) Make plane windowsc) Make spectacle lenses (optical

instruments) Nylon a) Make ropes b) Make curtainsc) Make stockingsd) Make clothes

Polystyrene a) Make packing boxes b) Make buttonsc) Make noticeboards

Terylene a) Make textile items such as clothesand cloths

Disposal of synthetic polymers has caused environmental pollution problems:

(a) Synthetic polymers are not easily biodegradable,thus their waste will block or clog upthe drainage system,thereby causing flash flood.

(b) Waste plastics pollute the lake and river,making the water not suitable for aquaticorganisms to live in

Ways to solve the problems caused by the use of synthetic polymers:(a) Reuse(b) Recycle

(c) Use biodegradable synthetic polymer (d) Dispose of unwanted synthetic polymers in a proper manner.

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(E) Glass and ceramicsGlass

The major component of glass is silica or silicon dioxide,SiO 2 which can be found in sand.

Glass can made by heating a mixture of silicon dioxide and metal carbonates to atemperature above 1500 C.

Figure 6 : Structure of silicon dioxide

Type of glass Composition Properties Uses

Chemicallyinert

Electricalinsulator

Heat insulator

Impermeableto liquid

Hard but brittle

Transparent

Physical properties of

glass

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Fused glass Silicon dioxide High melting pointHigh temperatureand chemicaldurability

Resistant tothermal shock transparent toultraviolet andinfrared light

LaboratoryglasswareArc tubes inlampsLenses

Telescope mirrorsOptical fibres

Soda-lime glass silicon dioxideSodium oxideCalcium oxide

Low melting pointHigh thermalexpansioncoefficientDoes notwithstand heatCracks easily withsudden change intemperatureGood chemicaldurabilityEasy to mouldand shapeTransparent tovisible light

Containers suchas bottles,jars.Flat glassWindowpanesMirrorsLight bulbsIndustrial and artobjects.

Borosilicate glass Silicon dioxideBoron oxideSodium oxideCalcium oxide

Transparent tovisible lightresistant tochemicalsLower thermalexpansioncoefficientResistant tothermal shock Can withstandwide range of

temperaturechanges

CookwareLaboratoryglasswareAutomobileheadlightsglass pipelinesElectrical tubes

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Ceramics

Ceramics are made from clay such as kaolin.Kaolin is rich in kaolinite(hydratedaluminosilicate,Al 2O3.2SiO 2.2H 2O)

Examples of ceramics are bricks,tile,mugs and clay pots.

Resistcompression

Very highmelting point

Good insulator of electricity

and heat

Chemicallyinert and doesnot corrode

Brittle

Very hard andstrong

Properties of ceramics

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3 main differences between glass and ceramic:Glass can be heated until molten repeatedly but not ceramicsGlass is usually transparent whereas ceramics are notGlass has a lower melting point than ceramics.

Property Uses ExamplesHard and strong Building materials Tiles,bricks,roofs,cement,

abrasive for grindingAttractive,easily moulded andglazed

Decorative pieces andhousehold items

Vases,porcelain ware,sinks, bathtubs

Chemically inert and non-corrosive

Kitchenware Cooking pots,plates,bowls

Very high melting point andgood insulator of heat

Insulation Lining of furnace, engine parts

Electrical insulators Insulating parts in electricalappliances

Spark plugs,insulators inovens and electrical cables

Inert and non-compressible Medical and dental apparatus Artificial teeth and bones

Do notcorrode

Inert tochemicals

Good heatinsulators

Goodelectricalinsulators

Brittle

strong under compression

Hard and donot bend

Common properties of

glass and

ceramics

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`(F) Composite materials

A composite material is a structural material that is formed by combining two or moredifferent materials such as metals,alloys,glass,ceramics and polymers.

Some common composite materials are:a. Reinforced concrete

b.Superconductor c. Fibre opticd. Fibre glasse. Photochromic glass

Reinforced concrete

Reinforced concrete is formed when concrete is reinforced with steel wire netting or steelrods.

Essential for the construction of large structures like high-rise buildings,bridges and oil platforms.

Has a greater strength than ordinary concrete and has higher resistance to impact.

Superconductors

capable of conducting electricity without any electrical resistance when they are cooled toan extremely low temperature.

most of them are alloys of metal compounds or ceramics of metal oxides

Superconductors also used in :(a) magnetic energy-storage system(b) magnetically levitated train(c) generators(d) transformers(e) computer parts(f) very sensitive devices for measuring magnetic fields, voltage or current.

Fibre Optic

consists of a bundle of glass or plastic threads that are surrounded by a glass cladding.

used to replace copper wire in long distance telephones lines,in mobile phones,videocameras and to link computers within local area networks.

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Fibre glass

produced when glass fibres are embedded in plastic resins to produce glass fibre reinforced plastics.

has high tensile strength,can be easily coloured,moulded and shaped,inert to chemicals andis low in density.

Photochromic glass

changes from transparent to coloured when it is exposed to ultraviolet light, and reverts totransparency when the light is dimmed or blocked.

can be produced by embedding photochromic substances like fine silver chloride.

photochromic glass helps to:(a) protect our eyes from harmful ultraviolet rays and glare from the sun(b) control the amount of light that passes through it automatically(c) reduce refraction of light.

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Eng Nguan Hong,Lim Eng Wah,Lim Yean Ching., 2009. Focus Ace SPM Chemistry.,Penerbitan Pelnagi Sdn. Bhd., (page 261 287)

http://www.ravensdown.co.nz/Resources/Education/Properties+of+Sulphuric+Acid.htm

http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/20940/ammonia/277712/Preparation-of-ammonia

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass

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http://www.ravensdown.co.nz/Resources/Education/Properties+of+Sulphuric+Acid.htmhttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/20940/ammonia/277712/Preparation-of-ammoniahttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/20940/ammonia/277712/Preparation-of-ammoniahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glasshttp://www.tutorvista.com/content/chemistry/chemistry-ii/metals/metalsindex.phphttp://www.ravensdown.co.nz/Resources/Education/Properties+of+Sulphuric+Acid.htmhttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/20940/ammonia/277712/Preparation-of-ammoniahttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/20940/ammonia/277712/Preparation-of-ammoniahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glasshttp://www.tutorvista.com/content/chemistry/chemistry-ii/metals/metalsindex.php

Folio Chemistry Nazmi

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