6796196 My Chemistry Folio Form 5 2008 Raw Data

8/8/2019 6796196 My Chemistry Folio Form 5 2008 Raw Data

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MARA JUNIOR SCIENCE

COLLEGE TAIPING,PERAK

FOLIO CHEMISTRY FORM 5:

CHEMICAL FOR CONSUMER

NAME :MUHAMMAD ABDUL AZIZ B.MAT YUSOF

CLASS :404/504

COLLEGE NO.:10167

I/C :940630-03-5241


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Soap and Detergents

Soap1. Cleansing agents are chemical substance used to remove grease and dirt.

2. There are two type of cleansing agents :

a) Soaps

b) Detergents

3. Soaps are sodium or potassium salt of fatty acids that contains 12 to 18

carbon atoms per molecule.


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4. Soaps are cleansing agents made from animal fats or vegetable oil by

saponification.

The History of Soap Manufacturing

1. Soap have been used for more than 3000 years. It was recorded that theBabylonians were making soaps around 2800 B.C.

2. The Purifying Oils were recorded on Hebrew tablets in 4000 B.C.

3. In ancients time, soap made from ashes of plants which contain sodium

carbonate and potassium carbonate. The ashes were boiled with lime

(calcium oxide) to produce caustic potash (potassium hydroxide). Caustic

potash is then boiled with the animal fats to produce soap.

a) Ash + Lime boiled Caustic Potash

(K2CO3) (CaO) (KOH)

b) Caustic Potash + Animal Fats boiled Soap

4. In 1861, the Belgian Chemist Ernest Solvay (1838-1922) discovered the

process to make soda (sodium carbonate) from common salt (sodium

chloride) and calcium carbonate.

5. This process is known as the Solvay Process which produces sodium

carbonate cheaply for industrial use. Sodium carbonate (often called soda or

soda ash) is used for making glass, soaps and detergents.

6. Michel Chevreul (1786-1889), a French chemist, was noted for his research in

the composition of animal fats are composed of fatty acids and glycerol. This

discovery contributed to the rapid development of the soap and candle

industry.

Preparation of soap by saponification

1. Soap is a cleansing agents produced by the reaction between sodium

hydroxide or potassium hydroxide with animal fats or vegetable oils. This

reaction is known as saponification.


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2. Fats and vegetable oils are large, naturally occurring ester molecules. When

fats or oils are boiled with concentrated alkalis, such as sodium hydroxide,

saponification occur and the ester molecules are broken down into soap and

glycerol.

Fats or vegetable oils + concentrated alkalis soap +glycerol

3. Saponification is the alkaline hydrolysis of ester using alkali solutions. From

the chemist aspect, soaps are sodium salts or potassium salts of long chain

carboxylic acids (with 12 to 18 carbon atoms per molecule).

4. Some examples of soaps are shown below.

a) Sodium palmitate, C15H31COONa

b) Sodium oleate, C17H33COONa

c) Sodium stearate, C17H35COONa

Additives such as perfume, colouring matter and sometimes antiseptics are

added to soaps to enhance their marketability .

5. Glyceryl tristearates are naturally occurring esters commonly found in animal

fats and vegetable oils. When the ester is boiled with concentrated sodium

hydroxide solution, saponification (alkaline hydrolysis) occurs and mixture of

sodium stearate (soap) and glycerol is obtained.

CH2COOC17H35 CH2OH

CHCOOC17H35 + 3NaOH CHOH

(heating)

CH2COOC17H35 3C17H35COONa +CH2OH

Glyceryl tristearate Sodium stearate (soap)Glycerol

6. The soap produced can be precipitated by adding common salt (sodium

chloride) to the reaction mixture.


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7. The sodium chloride added reduced the solubility of soap in water. As a

result, precipitation of soap occurs.

8. The properties of soap depend on :

a) The type of alkali used for saponification

b) The type of animal fats or vegetable oils used.

9. Soaps produced from sodium hydroxide are hard, whereas soaps produced

from potassium hydroxide are soft.

10.Animal fats (tallow) from cows and vegetable oils (such as palm oil or olive

oil) ae used for making soap.

The structure of soap molecule

1. When soap is dissolved in water, it will dissociate and produce sodium ions

and carboxylate ions (RCOO-). For example, sodium stearate dissolves in

water to form sodium ions and stearate ions.

C17H35COONa (s) + water C17H35COO- (aq)

sodium stearate stearate ions

+ Na + (aq)

2. The active substance in soap is the carboxylate ion, for example, stearate

ion. The stearate ion consist of two parts : the head and the tail. The

head id negatively charged and the tail is a long hydrocarbon chain.

3. The head contains the -C-O- ions which dissolves readily in water

(hydrophilic) but does not dissolve in oil. Conversely, the tail contains a long

hydrocarbon chain which is insoluble in water (hydrophobic) but dissolves

readily in oil.

4. Soaps made from palmitic acid are known as sodium palmitate. Figure 5.2

shows the structure of the palmitate ion in soaps.

5. The figure 5.3 9a) shows the molecular model of palmitate ion and Figure 5.3

(b) shows the simple representation of the structure of the palmitate ion.

O


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(pg 548)

(a) The molecular model of the palmitate ion.

(b) The diagrammatic representation of the soap ion.


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Detergents1. Detergents are synthetic cleansing agents made from hydrocarbons obtained

from petroleum fractions. Thus, detergents are petrochemicals.

2. Detergents can be classified into three main types, depending on the charge

on the detergent ion.

a) Anionic detergents where the head of the detergent particle contains a

negatively charged ion.

Example : R O SO3-Na+ (Sodium alkyl sulphate)

b) Cationic detergents where the head of the detergent particle contains

a positively charged ion.

Example : R N (CH3)3+BR-

c) Non ionic detergents

Example : R O CH2CH2OH

3. There are two types of anionic detergents :

a) Detergent molecule with a benzene ring such as sodium alkylbenzene

sulphonate.

Where R represents a

long hydrocarbon chain.

Positively

charged

ion

Negatively

charged

ion


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We can represent the detergent ion, alkylbenzene sulphonate ion, more

simply as :

b) Detergent molecule without a benzene ring such as sodium alkyl

sulphate.

We can represent the detergent ion, alkyl sulphate ion as :

R OSO3-

Preparation of detergents

1. The detergent, sodium alkyl sulphate can be prepared from alcohols with

chain lengths of 12 to 18 carbon atoms in two steps.

Steps 1: Reaction with concentrated sulphuric acid

Step 2 : Neutralisation with sodium hydroxide solution.


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2. An example of a long chain alcohol is didecan 1 ol, CH3(CH2)10CH2OH. The

detergent prepared from dodecan -1 ol is called sodium dodecyl sulphate

(IUPAC name) or sodium lauryl sulphate (common name). CH3(CH2)10CH2O-

SO3-Na+ .

3. Sodikum alkylbenzene sulphinates, were first used in 1940s. It can be

prepared in three steps. The starting materials for making this detergents ina long chain alkene, RCH = CH2 , obtained from the cracking of petroleum.

a) Step 1 : Alkylation

Alkylation is the introduction of the alkyl group to an organic molecule.

b) Step 2 : Sulphonation

Alkylbenzene produced the react with concentrated sulphuric acid acid

to form alkylbenzene sulphonic acid.

Sulphonation is the introduction of the sulphonic acid group, -SO3H to

an organic molecule to form sulphonic acid.


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c) Step 3 : Neutralisation

Alkylbenzene sulphonic acid produced is the reacted with sodium

hydroxide to form sodium alkylbenzenesulphonate, the detergent

The structure of detergent molecule

When a detergent is dissolved in water, it dissociates to form sodium ions (Na+)

and detergent ions. The detergent ions have the same basic structure as the soap

ions, that is consist of two parts :

a) The head is the sulphate group (-OSO3-), which is negatively charged

and hydrophilic (dissolves readily in water but not in oils and grease).

b) The tail is the long hydrocarbon chain, which is neutral and

hydrophobic (dissolves readily in oils and grease, but not in water).

alkyl sulphate ion

Alkylbenzene sulphonate ion

The cleansing of soap and detergent


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1. The cleansing action of soap or detergent depends on their chemical bonding

and structures.

a) The ionic head (negatively charged) is soluble in water (hydrophilic)

but insoluble in oily layer.

b) The long hydrocarbon tail (neutral) is insoluble in water (hydrophobic)

but soluble in oily layer.

2. Oil cannot be washed away from clothing with water because oil (a covalent

molecult0 is insoluble in water.

3. Lifting greasy dirt from the surface cloth. When soap or detergent is added to

the dirty surface of a piece of cloth covered with a layer of oil or grease.

a) The negatively charged head (hydrophilic) of soap ions or detergent

ions dissolves in water.

b) The hydrocarbon tail (hydrophobic) of soap or detergent ions

dissolves in the layer of grease.

4. I the water is agitated slightly, the grease begins to be lifted off the surface.

This cause by the forces of attraction between the water molecules and the

negatively charged heads.

The cleansing action of soap


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5. On further agitation during washing, the greasy dirt is lifted from the surface.

6. Emulsifying dirt in water

a) Soaps and detergents can act as emulsifying agents to emulsify oils

and grease.

b) The process of emulsification breaks large drops of grease into smaller

droplets that floats in water. The greasy droplets repel on another

because they carry the same charge. As a result, the grease is

suspended in the solution.

c) When the cloth is rinsed with the water, the droplet will be carried

away.

d) The cleaning process become more efficient in the water containing

the soap or detergent solution is stirred

Additives in detergents

1. Modern detergents used for washing clothes usually contains a few types of

additives to :

a) Increase their cleaning power.

b) Make them attractive and saleable.

2. Only about 20% of the substances in a detergent are cle4ansing agents

(sodium alkyl sulphate or sodium alkylbenzene sulphonate). The other

substances are additives. The examples of addictives and their functions are

described as follows :

3. Builders : Sodium tripolyphosphate (Na5P3O10)

a) Sodium tripolyphospathe is usd to soften hard water. In the presence

of sodium tripolyphosphate, Ca2+ ions and Mg2+ ions are removed.

b) Sodium tripolyphosphate increases the pH value of water. In this way,

muddy dirt can be removed.

4. Whitening / bleaching agents : sodium perborate

a) Bleaches (bleaching agents) remove coloured stains by oxidation

process. When coloured stanis are oxidized, the colour will disappear.

b) The whitening (bleaching) agents commonly used in detergent is

sodium perborate (NaH2BO43H2O). Sodium perborate decomposes in


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hot water to release oxygen (an oxidising agents) which is responsible

for the whitening (bleaching) action.

c) Unlike chlorine, oxygen does not bleach the colour of dyes are not

damaging to fabrics. When properly used, the perborate bleaches

make fabrics whiter than chlorine bleaches and the colourful dyes of

the fabrics do not fade when dirty stains are removed.

d) Besides sodium perborate, sodium hypochlorite, (NaCIO) can also be

used as bleaches in detergents. The IUPAC name of sodium

hypochlorite is sodium chlorate (I).

e) Sodium hypochlorite releases chlorine that bleaches with dirty stains.

However, high concentrations of chlorine can be quite damaging to

fabrics. These bleaches do not work well on synthetic fabrics (polyster

fabrics), often causing a yellowing rather than the desire whitening.

Also chlorine causes the dyes on fabrics to fade.

5. Biological enzymes : Amylase, lipase, and protease

a) Protein stains such blood, milk, and tomato sauce cannot be removed

by the ordinary detergents because these types of stains are insoluble

in water.

b) Biological enzymes in detergents can break down fat and protein

molecules in food stains. The fatty acids, glycerol and amino acids

produced are soluble in water and are removed during washing.

6. Brighteners

a) Figure below shows the action of brighteners. The brighteners absorb

the invisible ultra-violet and re-radiate it as blue light.

Brightener

Cloth


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b) Brighteners make fabrics appear whiter and brighter because the blue

light can hide any yellowing on the fabrics. Blue light added to the

yellow light reflected on old fabrics make them look white.

7. Drying agents ; Sodium sulphate and sodium silicate

Anhydrous sodium sulphate and sodium silicate (Na2S2O3) are used as drying

agents to ensure that the detergent in powdered firm is always in a dry

condition.

8. Stabilisers

a) The functions of stabilizers is to prevents the formation of foam.

b) In an automatic washing machine, excessive foam can stop the pump

working. So, washing powders for automatic washing machine are

made using detergents that are good at removing and emulsifying

grease, but do not produced foam.

9. Perfumes

Perfumes are added to make clothes smell fresh and clean.

The effectiveness of soaps and detergents as cleansing agents

Advantages of soaps

1. Soaps are effective cleansing agents in soft water, that is water does not

contain Mg

2+

and Ca

2+

ions.

2. Soaps do not cause pollution problems to the environment. This is because

soaps are made from chemical found in animals and plants. This means that

soaps are biodegradable, that is they can be composed by the action of

bacteria.

Disadvantages of soaps

1. Soaps are ineffective in hard water, that is, water that contains magnesium

and calcium salts.

2. In hard water, soaps will react with Mg2+

and thus, soaps do not lather in hardwater.

3. Scum is grey solid that is insoluble in water. It consists of magnesium

stearate and calcium stearate.

4. Soaps are not also effective in acidic water, for example rainwater containing

dissolves acids. H+ ions from acids will react with soap ions to produce

carboxylic acids molecular size that are insoluble in water.


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5. Stearic acids and other carboxylic acids do not act as cleansing agents

because they exist mainly as molecules and do not anionic hydrophilic ends

(head) that dissolves in water.

Advantages of detergents

1. Detergents are cleansing agents that are effective in soft water as well as

hard water. This is because detergents do not form scum with Mg+ and Ca2+

ions found in hard water.

2. The detergents ions (R O SO3- and R SO3

- )react with Mg+ and Ca2+ ions in

hard water. However, the magnesium salts and calcium salts which are

formed are soluble in water. Hence, the scum is not formed and the

detergents are still active in hard water and lathers easily.

3. Detergents are synthetic cleansing agents. This means that the structure of

the hydrocarbon chain can be modified to produce detergents with specific

properties. Nowadays, different types of detergents have been synthesised

for specific uses such as shampoos and dish cleaner.

4. Furthermore, detergents are also effective in acidic water because H+ ion is

acidic water do not combined with detergents ions.

Disadvantages of detergents

1. Most detergents have branched hydrocarbon chains and are non-

biodegradable, that is, they cannot decomposed by bacteria. As a result, non-

biodegradable detergents cause water pollution.

2. Phosphates in detergents act as fertilizers and promotes the growth of water

plants and algae. When the plants die and decay, they will used up the

oxygen dissolves in water. This will decrease the oxygen content in water and

kill fishes and other aquatic lives.

3. Detergents produce a lot of foam in water. The layer of foam that covers the

water surface will prevents oxygen from dissolving in water. This condition

will cause fish and other aquatic life ti die from oxygen starvation.

4. Additives such as sodium hydrochlorite (bleaching agents) releases chlorine

gas in water that is acidic. Chlorine gas is highly toxic and kills aquatic life.

Uses of food additivesTypes of additives and examples

1. Food preservative have been used since ancient times. Ancient civilization

used salt to preserve meat and fish, herbs and spices to improve the flavor of

food.


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2. Food additives are chemicals that are added to food in small quantities for

specific purposes such as protection against bacterial attack or restoring the

colour of food destroyed during food processing.

3. Food additives are used :

a) To retard food spoilage and to preserve food (longer shelf life).

b) To make food taste better or smell better.

c) To add colouring to food so that the food looks fresher, more

interesting or more appealing.

4. There are two main groups of food additives :

a) Preservatives and antioxidants to protect food from being spoiled by

bacterial attact or atmospheric oxidation. In this way, the food can be

kept longer.

b) Flavouring agents, stabilizers, thickening agents (thickeners), and dyes

(colouring agents) to enhance the taste, smell and appearance of the

food.

5. Table below show a list of different types of food additives, their functions

and examples of each types.

Type of foodadditive Examples of food additive

Preservatives Sodium nitrite ; sodium nitrate ; benzoic acid ; sodiumbenzoate ; sulphur dioxide ; sodium sulphite ; sorbic acid; sodium sorbate

Antioxidants Ascorbic acid (vitamin C) ; BHA (butylatedhydroxyanisole) ; BHT (butylated hydrixitoluene) ; citricacid ; sodim citrate

Flavouring agents Monosodium glutamate (MSG) ; aspartameStabilisers andthickening agents

Gelatin ; acacia gum (agar)

Dyes (colouring

agents)

Azo compounds ; tripheny compounds

Functions of food additives

Preservatives

1. Preservatives are chemicals that are added to food to retard or to prevent the

growth of microorganism such as bacteria, mould or fungus, so that the food

can be stored for a long time.


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2. In ancient times, food additives from natural sources such as salt, sugar and

vinegar were used to preserve food and to make the food taste better.

3. Nowadays, synthetic preservatives are used, table below shows the types of

preservatives commonly used. Many of the preservatives are organic acids

and salts of organic acids.

Preservative Molecular formula UsesSodium nitriteSodium nitrate

NaNO2NaNO3

To preserve meat, cheese and driedfish.

To prevent food poisoning in cannedfoods.

To maintain the natural colour of meatand to make them look fresh

Benzoic acidSodiumbenzoate

C6H5COOHC6H5COONa

To preserve sauce (olyster, tomato orchilli), fruit juice, jam and margarine

Sulphur dioxide

Sodium sulphite

SO2

Na2SO3

Used as bleaches and antioxidants to

prevent browning in fruit juices. Maintain the colour and freshness of

vegetables.

To prevents the growth of yeast

Antioxidants

1. Antioxidants are chemicals that are added to foods to prevent the oxidation

of fats and oils by oxygen in the air.

2. Foods containing fats or oils are oxidized and become rancid when exposed

to air.

3. When the fats and oils are oxidized, rancid product are formed. This makes

the food unpalatable. The rancid product are volatile organic compound with

foul odours (for example , butanoic acid, C3H7COOH).

4. Antioxidants are added to fats, oils, cakes, sausages, biscuits and fried foods

to slow down the oxidation process so that these foods do not become rancid.

Flavouring agents

1. There are two types of flavouring agents : artificial flavours and flavour

enhancer. They are added to foods to make them taste better.

2. Flavour enhancer have little or no taste of their own. They are chemicals that

are added to food to bring out the flavours or to enhance the taste of food.

3. An example of a flavour enhancer is monosodium glutamate (MSG). MSG is

used to enhance the flavours of other foods.

4. Artificial flavour includes sweeteners and other flavours such as peppermint or

vanilla. Aspartame and saccharin are examples of artificial sweeteners.


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5. Both aspartame and saccharin can be used as a substitute for sugar to

enhance the sweetness in food and drink. However, the used of saccharin is

banned in many countries because it is carcinogenic. Aspartame has largely

replaced saccharin as the artificial sweetener or choice.

6. Many esters have fruity odours and tastes and are used as artificial flavours.

Table below shows some examples of esters that are used in making drinks.

Ester Benzylethanoate

Octylethanoate

Ethylbutanoate

Flavour Strawberry Orange Pineapple

Stabilisers and thickening agents

1. Stabilisers and thickening agents improve the texture and the blending of

foods.

2. Stabilisers are chemicals that are used to enable oil and water in the food tomix together properly in order to form an emulsion of oil and water. Examples

of stabilizers are gelatin and acacia gum.

3. Stabilisers are added to improve the texture of foods. For examples,

stabilisers are added to ice-cream and peanut butter to keep them smooth

and creamy.

4. In the presence of stabilisers, the emulsion of oil does not separate from

water. This means that the stabilisers improves the stability of some foods

such as ice-cream and salad dressings (mayonnaise).

5. Without stabilisers, ice crystals would form in ice-cream, particles of

chocolate would settle out of chocolate milk, oil and vinegar in salad dressing

will separate as soon as mixing is stopped.

6. Thickening agents are chemicals that are added to foods to thicken the liquid

and to prevent the foods from becoming liquid. Thickening agents (also called

thickeners) absorb water and thicken the liquid in foods to produce a jelly-like

structure.

7. Most thickening agents are natural carbohydrates. Gelatin and pectin are

added to help jams and jellies to set.

Dyes

1. Dyes (colouring agents) are chemicals that are added to foods to give them

colour so as to improve their appearance.

2. Some foods are naturally coloured, but the colour is lost during food

processing. The foods industry uses synthetic food colours to :

a) Restore the colour of food lost during food processing.


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b) Enhance natural colours, so as to increase the attractiveness of foods.

c) Give colour to foods that do not have colour.

3. Some dyes are naturally plant pigments while others are synthetically

prepared. The synthetic colours used in foods are azo and triphenyl

compounds. Both these compounds are organic compounds.

4. The synthetic dyes , brilliant blue, is an example of triphenyl compound. The

synthetic dye, tartrazine and sunset yellow are examples of azo compounds.

5. Azo compounds are organic compounds containing the diazo group, - N = N -,

and are usually yellow , red, brown, black in colour. Triphenyl compounds are

organic compounds containing three phenyl groups, -C6H5, and are usually

green. Blue or purple in colour.

Effect of food additives on health

1.The types of food additives allowed and the quantity permitted are controlled

by the 1983 Food Act and the 1985 Food Regulation.

2. The permissible quantity depends on the type of food and the food additives.

For example, benzoic acid added must not exceed 800 mg per kg in cordial

drinks, whereas sodium nitrite must not exceed 100 mg per kg in meat

product.

3. The excessive intake of food additives for a prolonged period of time will ruin

our health. The side effects arising from taking food additives are allergy,

cancer, brain damage and hyperactivity.

4. Allergy

a) Food additives such as sodium sulphite (preservative), BHA and BHT

(antioxidants), MSG (flavouring) and some food colours (e.g, Yellow

No. 5) can cause allergic reactions in some people.

b) The symptoms of MSG allergy are giddiness, chest pain and difficulty in

breathing. This condition is called the Chinese restaurant syndrome

c) The presence of sodium nitrate or sodium nitrite in food can cause

blue baby syndrome that is fatal for babies. This syndrome is due to

the lack of oxygen in the blood. Hence, the use of nitrate and nitrite isallowed in baby foods.

5. Cancer

a) Chemicals that cause cancer are called carcinogens. Sodium nitrite (a

preservative) is a potent carcinogen.

b) The nitrite react with the amines in food to produce nitrosamine which

can cause cancer.

6. Brain damage


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Excessive intake of nitrites for a prolonged periodof time can cause brain

damage. In this condition, the supply of oxygen to the brain is disrupted and

this cause brain damage.

7. Hyperactivity

a) Food additives such as tartrazine can cause hyperactivity.

b) Children who are hyperactivity become very active, find it difficult to

relax or sleep and are very restless.

The rationale for using food additives

Advantages

1. To prevent food spoilage

a) Oxidation and microorganism (bacteria, fungi) are the main causes inthe decomposition of food. In hot climate, meat and fish rot easily. The

use of preservatives is an effective way to prevent food spoilage and to

ensure that foods can be supplied throughout the year.

b) If preservative are not used, food spoilage might drastically reduce the

food supply, making foods to cost more.

c) Few deaths are associates with the use of food additives. However,

many people die due to food poisoning caused by bacterial toxins.

2. To improve nutritional value

During food processing, vitamins and minerals may be destroyed. Thus,

additives that improve nutrition can be added. These additives include

vitamin B, C and D, and minerals such as iron. The addition of these additives

increase the nutritional value of foods.

3. For medical reasons

a) Aspartame and sorbitol are used to make foods and drinks sweet

without using sugar. These food additives are particularly useful as

artificial sweeteners for diabetic patients.

b) Artificial sweeteners give the sweet taste but without adding calories

to the food. Thus, they can be used to reduce obesity.

c) Potassium iodide is added to table salt to reduce the incidence of

goitre.


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d) Vitamin C is added to friut juices to prevent scurvy. Vitamin D is added

to margarine to prevent rickets.

Disadvantage

1. Eating food additives such as preservatives, antioxidants and flavourenhancers is excess quantities over a long period of time is detrimental to

health.

2. Some food additives are used to make foods look more appealing. These

additives have little nutritional value. Eating such foods increases the risk of

health hazard.

3. Some foods are fortified with excess amounts of nutrients, such as vitamins

A and D, or of trace elements, such as copper and zinc. Eating foods with

excessive amounts of nutrients can ruin our health.

MedicinesSources and uses of traditional medicines

1. A medicine is a substance used to prevent or cure diseases or to reduce pain

and suffering due to illnesses.

2. Traditional medicines are medicines derived from natural sources such asplants and animals without being processed chemically.

3. Since ancients, mankind had used various types of plants and roots, animals

and animal part to cure diseases.

4. Medicines obtained from plants are known as herbal medicines. The sources

and uses of some herbal medicines are shown in table below :

Plant Part of the plantused

Uses

Garlic Corm For preventing flu attack For reducing high bloodpressure

Ginger Rhizome(horizontalunderground stem)and leaves

For treating stomach pain dueto wind in the stomach

For supplying heat energy tokeep the body warm

For preventing flu attackAloe vera Leaves For preventing itchy skin

For treating burns (scalding)on the skin

Lemon (lime) Fruits For treating boils or abscesses


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on the skin

For preventing flu attack

For treating skin diseasesQuinine Bark of Chinchona

tree For treating malaria

For preventing muscle cramps

Ginseng Roots As a tonic to improve the

overall health of humanbeings

For increasing energy,endurance and reducingfatigue

Lemon grass Stem/leaves Has antibacterial andantifungal properties

For treating coughTongkat Ali Roots As a tonic for after a birth and

general health

Modern medicines

1. Before the 20th century, most medicines were extracted from plants (herbal

medicines). Since 1900. Thousands of modern drugs have been synthesised

from organic compound.

2. Modern medicines can be classified as follows based on their effects on the

human body.

3. Some examples of modern medicines are analgesics, antibiotics,

psychotherapeutic drugs.

4. Modern drugs have a trade name and a generic name. For example, the

analgesic aspirin (generic name) is sold under different brand names such as

Caprin and Disprin. Similarly, paracetamol (generic name) is sold under the

trade name of Panadol.

5. Modern medicines usually contain a mixture of active ingredients prepared in

different forms, such as capsules, pills, solutions or suspensions. For

example, Alka-Seltzer (used as an antacid) contains sodium bicarbonate

(NaHCO3), citric acid and aspirin. It is the sodium bicarbonate then neutralizes

the excess stomach acid.

Fucntion of each type of modern drug

Analgesics

1. Analgesics are medicines that relieve pain. Examples of analgesics are

aspirin, paraccetamol, and codeine. Analgesics are sometimes called

painkillers.

2. Aspirin and paracetamol are mild painkillers whereas codeine is powerful

painkillers.


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3. Analgesics relive pain but do not cure the disease.

4. Aspirin : pain relief and anti-inflammatory action

a) The IUPAC name of aspirin is acetyl aslicylec acid. Aspirin contains two

functional groups, a carboxylic acid group and the ester group. Thus,

aspirin is aicidc in nature.

b) Uses of aspirin

Aspirin reduces fever and inflammable as well as relives pain. Aspirin

is used to :

(i) Reduce fever

(ii) Relieve headaches, muscle aches and joint aches

(iii) Treat arthritis, a disease caused by inflammation of the joints

(iv) Act as an anticoagulant. It prevents the clotting of blood andreduce the risk of the heart attack and strokes.

5. Paracetamol

a) Paracetamol have the following structural formula. Thus, unlike

aspirin, paracetamol is neutral in nature.

Pic pg 561

b) Paracetamol is similar to aspirin in its effects (that is, reduces fever

and relieves pain) but it does not reduce inflammation.

c) Paracetamol also reduces or relieves flu symptoms such as fever, bone

aches and runny nose.

6. Codeine

a) Codeine is an organic compound that contains the elements of carbon,hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen.

b) Codeine is an analgesics and is used to relive mirror to moderate pain.

Codeine is more powerful than morphine. Codeine and morphine are

narcotic drugs

c) Codeine is also used in cough mixtures for suppressing coughs.


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Antibiotics : antibacterial medicine

1. Antibiotics are chemicals that destroy or prevent the growth of infectious

microorganism.

2. Two examples of antibiotics are penicillin and streptomycin.

3. Antibiotics are used to treat diseases caused by bacteria.

4. Antibiotics are not effective against diseases caused by viral infections such

as influenza, measles, or small pox.

5. Penicillin

a) Penicillin is derived from the mould Penicillium notatum.

b) Penicillin are used to treat diseases, caused by bacteria, such as

pneumonia, gonorrhea and syphilis.

c) Penicillin is only effective on certain bacteria. For example, it cannotbe used to treat tuberculosis.

6. Streptomycin is the antibiotic that is effective in treating tuberculosis.

Psychotherapeutic medicines

1. Psychotherapeutic medicines are a group of drugs for treating mental or

emotional illnesses.

2. Psychotherapeutic drugs can be divided into a few groups as shown in table

below :

Types of psychotherapeuticdrugs

Example

a) Stimulants Caffeine, amphetamineb) Antidepressant Prozacc) Antipsychotic

agentsChloropromazin

3. Stimulants

a) Stimulants are naturally occurring or synthetic drugs that stimulate

(excite) the activity of the brain and central nervous system.

b) Adrenaline is a stimulant that the body produces when it needs to

prepare for demanding or energetic activities.

c) Stimulants make a person more alert, more energetic, less tired and

more cheerful.


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d) Examples of stimulants are caffeine and amphetamines. Caffeine is a

week, naturally occurring stimulant and is found on coffee, tea and Cola

drinks.

e) Amphetamines are strong synthetic stimulants and increase alertness

and physical ability.

f) Amphetamines increase the heart and respiration rates, as well as the

blood pressure. As a result, it causes the body to postpone the need of

sleep and can reverse, partially and temporarily, the symptoms of

fatigue.

4. Antidepressants

a) Depression is a chronic illness. Most cases of depression are caused by

a chemical imbalance in the brain.

b) People experiencing depression feel hopeless. They experience a loss of

interest in everyday activities such as work or hobbies.

c) There is a strong correlation between the amounts of special chemicals(called neurotransmitters) in the brain and a persons mood. If these

chemicals get too low, the person may feel depressed.

d) Antidepressants are medicines that increase the brains level of

neurotransmitters, thus improving mood.

e) Antidepressants make a person feel calm and sleepy.

5. Antipsychotic medicines

a) Psychosis is the serious mental illness in which people lose touch with

reality. People with psychosis may,

Hear voice and see things that are not really there (hallucinations)

Have belief that are not based on reality (delusions)

b) In psychiatry, there are a number of disorders that are classified under

psuchosis, such as schizophrenias (madness), psychotic depression,

mania and so on.


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c) Psychotic patients have extreme mood swings. Their mood changes

rapidly from high spirit to deep depression.

d) Antipsychotic medicines do not cure symptoms to help the person live a

more normal life.

Side effects of traditional medicines

1. It is generally believed that traditional medicines have little side effects

compared to modern medicines. In fact, traditional medicines are sometimes

used to counteract the side effects of some modern medicines.

2. However, taking high doses of quinine for a prolonged period may cause

hearing loss. German health officials recently reported 40 cases of liver

damage which were linked to the herbal medicine containing kava-kava.

3. While the use of traditional medicine is rising globally, health experts have

insufficient data about how it affects patients.

4. The World Health Organisation( WHO) hopes to set up a global monitoring

system to monitor the adverse side effects of traditional medicines.

Side effects of modern medicines

Type ofmodern drug

Side effects

Aspirin Can cause bleeding in the stomach because aspirin is vey

acidic.

Can cause allergic reactions, skin rashes and asthmatic attacks

Amphetamines

People who abuse amphetamines are excitable and talkative.

Psychologically additive and can cause heart attack. Can cause anxiety, sleeplessness, aggressive behavior and

decrease appetite.

Can cause enlarged pupils, heavy perspiration and tremblinghands.

Codeine Can cause addiction.

Penicillin Can cause allergic reactions.

Can cause death for people who are allergic to it.

Streptomycin Can cause nausea, vomiting, dizziness, rashes and fever.

Can cause loss of hearing following long-term use.

Stimulants Can cause addiction.


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Antidepressants

Can cause addiction.

Can cause headaches, grogginess and loss of appetite.

Antipsychoticdrugs

Can cause dry mouth, blurred vision, urinary retention,constipation.

Can cause tremor and restlessness.

Sedation (make people calmer, or to make people sleepy)

Correct ways of using medicines

In taking any medicine, we should know why the medicine is prescribed, how the

medicine should be used, what special precautions should be followed, what special

diet should be followed, what are the side effects, and what storage conditions are

needed. In addition, we should note the following points :

1. Self-medication

Do not prescribe medicines for yourself (self-medication) or for other people.

Discuss with your doctor and listen to him concerning the medicine to betaken.

2. Follow the instructions given

Follow the instructions given by your doctor or pharmacist concerning the

dosage and method of taking the medicine.

3. Medicines for adult and children

Medicines for adult should not be given to children and vice versa.

4. Side effects

Visit the doctor immediately if there are symptoms of allergy or other effects

of the drugs.

5. Expiry date

Like foods, medicines also have expiry date. Do not take medicines after their

expiry dates.

6796196 My Chemistry Folio Form 5 2008 Raw Data

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