Chemistry Folio f5

7/30/2019 Chemistry Folio f5

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1. Soap and Detergent

CHEMISTRY

ASSIGNMENT

Chemicals forConsumer

NAME : RADZIAH BINTI ZAINUDDINFORM : 5

CHEMISTRY TEACHER :

DUE DATE : 2nd JANUARY 2013


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a) Definition of soap and some examples of soap

Soap is water soluble sodium or potassium salts of fatty acids which consist of 12 to

18 atoms per molecule.

Soap Fatty acid Raw materials

Sodium oleat Oleic acid Olive oil, corn oil

Sodium palmitate Palmitic acid Palm oil

Sodium laurate Lauric acid Coconut oil

b) History of soap manufacturing

c) Soap preparation process in laboratory by saponification

Soap production is a process that started since 7th centuary by boiling vegetables andanimals oils with ashes of plants.

The first soap is made in Italy in the year 600 A.D. The ingredients used then were fatsand potassium carbonate.

Soap made that are not efficient because the ingredients used are not pure and thetechniques used are less satisfactory.

In the year 700 A.D., Spain prodeced a better quality soap using olive oil, and notanimal fats .

Around year 1800, the Americans mixed fats and grease with coal to produce yellowsoap.

In 1790, Nicholas Lablanc found a way to produce sodium hydroxide from cooking salt (sodiumchloride). This enables the production of pure alkali which is an important ingredient .

In 1816, Michel Chevreul proposed his finding that facts are composed of fatty acids andglycerol. His finding enables scientists to understand the chemical reactions that happened.


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1. Soap is made by boiling a mixture of:

(a) fats or vegetable oil

(b) concentrated alkali (sodium hydroxide/potassium hydroxide)

Fats + sodium hydroxide soap + glycerol

Vegetable oil + sodium hydroxeide soap + glycerol

2. The process of making soup is called saponification.

3. Saponification involves alkaline hydrolysis of fats or vegetable oil catalysed by

concentrated alkali.

4. An example of the saponification process is shown below:

5. This reaction can also be written as below:

](s) + 3NaOH(aq) 3RCOONa(aq) + (aq)

d) Definition of detergent and some examples of detergent

Detergent is a non-soap cleansing agent. It is divided into naturaldetergent (made

from animal or vegetable oil) and synthetic detergent (made from petroleum).

Detergent is the sodium salt of the organic acid known as sulphonic acid.

Examples of detergent are lauryl sulphate, alkylbenzene sulphonate and alkyl

sulphate.

e) Steps in the preparation of detergent

boil

boil

palm oil sodiumhydroxide sodium palmitate glycerol


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Altering the structure of the hydrocarbon chain

Replacing the ionised detergent component with other functional groups

1. The detergent, sodium alkyl sulphate can be prepared from alcohols with chain lengths of 12

to 18 carbon atoms in two steps.

Steps 1: Reaction with concentrated sulphuric acid

Step 2: Neutralisation with sodium hydroxide solution.

2. An example of a long chain alcohol is didecan 1 ol, CH3(CH2)10CH2OH. The detergent

prepared from dodecan -1 ol is called sodium dodecyl sulphate (IUPAC name) or sodium

lauryl sulphate (common name). CH3(CH2)10CH2O-SO3-Na

+.

3. Sodikum alkylbenzene sulphinates, were first used in 1940s. It can be prepared in three

steps. The starting materials for making this detergents in a long chain alkene, RCH = CH2 ,

obtained from the cracking of petroleum.

a) Step 1 : Alkylation

Alkylation is the introduction of the alkyl group to an organic molecule.

b) Step 2 : Sulphonation


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Alkylbenzene produced the react with concentrated sulphuric acid acid to form

alkylbenzene sulphonic acid.

Sulphonation is the introduction of the sulphonic acid group, -SO3H to an organic

molecule to form sulphonic acid.

c) Step 3 : Neutralisation

Alkylbenzene sulphonic acid produced reacted with sodium hydroxide to form

sodium alkylbenzene sulphonate, the detergent


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f) The cleansing action of soap and detergent

SOAP

When soap dissolves in water, the soap is ionised to form cations and anions of soap.

Example:(COONa(s)

(aq)+

The cleansing action of soap is explained by the poperties of the structure of anions of soap.

a. Anions of soap has a structure that consists of two components, which are the long-

chained hydrocarbon component which is hydrophobic and the ionised component

which is hydrophilic.

b. The hydrophobic component is covalent in nature and dissolves in grease or oil, but not

in water.

c. The hydrophilic component is ionic and dissolves in water, but not in grease or oil.

d. Both of these properties of the anions of soap enable the soap to clean a surface

efficiently.

e. Structure of anions of soap can be classified as below:

sodium palmitate

(soap)

Palmitate ion

(anions of soap)

Sodium ion

(cation)


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When detergent dissolves in water, it is ionised to sodium cations and anions of detergent

(alkylbenzene sulphonate and;

the alkyl sulphate ions)

R OSO3

The cleansing action of detergent can be explained by the structural properties of the anions

of detergent.

a. The anions of detergent consist of two components, which are the hydrophobic and

hydrophilic components.

b. The hydrophobic component dissolves i grease or oil, but not in water.

c. The hydrophilic component dissolves in water, but not in grease or oil.

In fact, the structural properties of the anions of detergent are similar to the anions of soap.

Therefore, the cleansing action of detergent is almost the same as that of soap.

g) Compare and contrast the effectiveness of cleansing action of soap and

detergent in hard water

Hard water contains a great amount of calcium and magnesium ions. These ions react with

the soap to form an insoluble precipitate known as soap scum.

THE EFFECTIVENESS OF CLEANSING ACTION

PROPERTIES SOAP

Cleaning power Less powerful More powerful

Ease of rinsing It is difficult to wash away all soapon clothes. The soap that remainsleave and odour and spoils thefabrics

Rinse out well from clothes

pH Slightly alkaline Can be controlled to suit thecleaning task

Molecular structure Determined by the fatty acidsfound in the oil or fat used toproduce soap

Can be modified to suit thecleaning task. For example, adetergent can be made speciallyfor cleaning toilet bowls

Formation of scum Form scum with hard water Does not form scum with hardwater


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ADDITIVES

IN

DETERGENT

Bleach: sodiumpercarbonate andsodium hypochlorite(NaOCL)

To remove colouredstains withoutbleachig the colour ofthe cloth.

Fluorescent

material:

To make white

cotton sheets appearwhiter and moreradiant (also acts aswhitening agent)

Phosphatecompounds: Tri-polyphosphate

To eliminate mudcontained in dirt andsoftening water.Drying agents: Sodium

sulphate and sodiumsilicate

To ensure detergent inthe powder form isalways dry.

Sodium silicate also helpsto reduce acidity ofwater.

Sodium

carboxymethylcellulose:

To prevent dirt thathas been removedfrom sticking backonto the cloth

Perfume:

To give clothes

fragrance afterwashing

h) Detergent consists of various additives. Purposes of adding detergent

additives are


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i) Labels of different cleansing agents


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2. FOOD ADDITIVES

a) The purposes of using food additives.

1. Food additives are chemicals that are added to food in small quantities for specific

purposes such as protection against bacterial attack or restoring the colour of food

destroyed during food processing.

2. Food additives used are:

a) To retard food spoilage and to preserve food (longer shelf life).

b) To make food taste better or smell better.

c) To add colouring to food so that the food looks fresher, more interesting or more

appealing.

b) The types of food additives with respective examples and functions.

FOOD

ADDITIVES

stabilizer andthickener

colouringagents

flavouringagents

antioxidants

preservatives


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Preservatives

I. According to the Food Act, 1985, only a few types of chemical substances are permitted

to be used as preservatives in food.Sulphur dioxide Propanoic acid

Benzoic acid Sodium nitrate ) or potassium nitrate

Sodium benzoate Sodium nitrate or potassium nitrate

Ascorbic acid Ethanoic acid

II. Table below shows the preservatives that are commonly used in food such as soft

drinks, syrups, fruit juices, margarine, processed meat, fish paste and dried vegetables.

Preservatives Uses Functions/effects

Sodium nitrate Uses in production of meat,especially frozen meat such as

sausage and canned meat

Causes the meat to appearfresh and can last longer.

Acts as colouring agentwhich causes the meat toappear reddish on colour.

Sodium benzoate Normally added to a variety offruit juices, soft drinks, saucesand margarine to enable thefood or drink to last longer

Used as preservative toprevent the growth of yeastand bacteria.

If used in excess will causedisturbance to the nerves,allergy and cancer.

Antioxidants

I. Oils and fats as well as certain vitamins can undergo oxidation by air when exposed toair. Oxidation can decompose or break-up food into smaller molecules which are toxicand emit a foul smell.

II. Therefore, chemicals such as ascorbic acid, ascorbyl palmitate, citric acid and isopropylcitrate are added into foods such as oils, fats, biscuits and deep-fried foods asantioxidants to prevent damage due to oxidation.

III. The quantity of antioxidant used in food is controlled as not to jeopardise the health ofconsumers.

Flavouring agents

I. Artificial flavouring has to be added to give or enhance the taste or flavour foods.

II. Examples:

Flavouring agents Explanation

Monosodium glutamate

(MSG)

A type of salt of the amino acid called glutamic acid.

Can enhance the taste of food even in quantities as smallas 0.1%.

Normally added into meat, fish, vegetables and soup. Nevertheless, the indiscriminate usage of MSG especially

in junk food can cause detrimental long term effects to


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the health (can affect the mental development ofchildren).

It can also cause Chinese Restaurant Syndromewhereby the victim of this syndrome will feel numbed orparalysed and will suffer from rapid increase in heartbeat.

Saccharin (artificial

sweetener)

Approximately 400 times sweeter than sugar.

The use of saccharin is banned in most countriesbecause it can cause cancer.

Aspartame Replace saccharin.

Chemical substance produced from a type of amino acidknown as aspartic acid.

Approximately 200 times sweeter than sugar.

Suitable to be added into the food of diabetics whosebody cannot digest sugar.

It is very low calorie, making it suitable for use by weightwatchers.

Nevertheless, it will lose its sweet taste when subjected

to heat. Unsuitable for use in baking.

Stabiliser and thickener

I. Stabiliser is a type of chemical substance added to food such as cream, salad sauce,powdered milk, ice cream and creamed soup to help the oil and water mix togethermore effectively and be maintained in the form of emulsion permanently to prevent thefood from separating into layers as well as settling.

II. This is to enable the food such as ice cream and biscuits be swallowed without havingto be chewed for a long time.

III. Examples gelatine, acacia gum and lecithin.

IV. Thickener is a type of chemical substance added to food to alter the originalconsistency of the food into a fine and smooth texture as well as to thicken gravy byabsorbing water so that the food will form a jelly-like consistency known as gel.

V. Examples starch (eg: corn-flour), agar-agar, gelatine, pectin.

Colouring agents

I. Processing can cause different foods to lose their original colours. For example, greenpeas will become dull and its colour will fade when processed. Therefore, to restore theoriginal colour of food, colouring is added.

II. Colouring consists of organic compounds which are very complex and can be dividedinto two categories:

a) Azo compoundsb) Triphenyl compounds

III. These chemical substances are obtained from petroleum. For example, tartazine is atype of azo compound normally added to soft drinks (orange juice).


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IV. Another example brilliant blue FCF (a type of triphenyl compound gives a blue colourto food).

c) 12 labels from different food showing the list of ingredients found. The

additives used in each food are identified and the function of each of them is

found.


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d) The disadvantages of using food additives with their effects on health and the

environment.

ADDITIVES EFFECTS

Sugar Obesity and diabetes. Sweeteners with no energy content may bealternative for people who like sweet foods.

Salt Sodium in salty foods has been liked to high blood pressure.Sodium nitrite Can react with proteins in the stomach or during cooking

(especially in frying) to form carcinogenic N-nitro samines.

Nitrates, sorbic acids Develop various allergic.

Sulphur dioxide,sodium benzoate

Can cause wheeziness and tight chest in asthmatics. Othersdevelop sore, scratchy throatso or skin rashes and hives.

Tartrazine (azo dye) May cause reactions in some people especially asthmatics,hyperactivity and rashes in children. This causes chidrenhyperactive and lack of sleep.

Aspartame Itching without a rash, hives, respiratory allergies, headaches,dizziness, nausea, numbness, muscle spasms, weight gain,depression, fatigue, breathing difficulties, memory loss, heartpalpitations,, angioedema (swelling of the eyelids, lips, hands, orfeet) and anxiety attacks.

MSG Typical symptoms include headache, a burning sensation alongthe back of the neck, chest tightness or pain, nausea, sweatingand a sensation of facial pressure.

Azo dyes In 1937, the yellow dye of butter (dimethylazobenzene) was foundto cause cancer in rats.


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3. Medicine

a) Medicine can be classified into traditional medicines and modern medicines.

Examples of traditional medicines, their sources and uses are stated.

Plants/Herbs Part of the plant used Uses

Ginseng Roots Refresh body and enhance body

strength

Aloe vera Leaves The juice is applied on skin to treat

itchiness and wounds or burn.

Mint Leaves Increase body temperature to induce

sweating.

Cocaine Leaves Acts as anaesthetics.

Garlic Corm Has antibiotic properties and reduces

the stickiness of platelets.

Lime Fruits Diluted lime juice without sugar can

cleanse body system and treat skin

problem if drank often.

Lime juice with water can be drunk

every morning to increase digestive

juices and to cleanse the liver.

Eurycoma Roots Boiled with water and drank as tonic for


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longifolia

post-natal women.

Roots skin Boiled with water and drank like tea to

reduce body temperature for patients

with fever.

Ginger

Rhizome Used together with garlic to treat

flatulence in the body.

Used during winter to warm the body

and to prevent the common cold.

Quinine Bark of the cinchona tree To treat malaria and muscle cramps.

b) There are many types of modern medicines. These include analgesics,

antibiotics and psychotherapeutic medicines. Types of modern medicines

with their respective examples and functions are stated.

1. Analgesics are medicines that can relieve pain by acting on receptors on the nervecells of the spinal cord or brain.

2. Examples aspirin, paracetamol and codein.

3. Aspirin and paracetamol are mild painkillers whereas codeine is powerful painkillers.

4. Aspirin : pain relief and anti-inflammatory action

a) The IUPAC name of aspirin is acetyl aslicylec acid. Aspirin contains two functional

groups, a carboxylic acid group and the ester group. Thus, aspirin is aicidc in nature.

b) Uses of aspirin

Aspirin reduces fever and inflammable as well as relives pain. Aspirin is used to :(i) Reduce fever

(ii) Relieve headaches, muscle aches and joint aches

(iii) Treat arthritis, a disease caused by inflammation of the joints

(iv) Act as an anticoagulant. It prevents the clotting of blood and reduce the risk

of the heart attack and strokes.

5. Paracetamol

a) Paracetamol have the following structural formula. Thus, unlike aspirin,

paracetamol is neutral in nature.

b) Paracetamol is similar to aspirin in its effects (that is, reduces fever and relieves

pain) but it does not reduce inflammation.


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c) Paracetamol also reduces or relieves flu symptoms such as fever, bone aches and

runny nose.

6. Codeine

a) Codeine is an organic compound that contains the elements of carbon, hydrogen,

oxygen and nitrogen.

b) Codeine is an analgesics and is used to relive mirror to moderate pain. Codeine is

more powerful than morphine. Codeine and morphine are narcotic drugs

c) Codeine is also used in cough mixtures for suppressing coughs.

1. Antibiotics are chemicals that destroy or prevent the growth of infectious

microorganism.

2. Two examples of antibiotics are penicillin and streptomycin.

3. Antibiotics are used to treat diseases caused by bacteria.

4. Antibiotics are not effective against diseases caused by viral infections such as

influenza, measles, or small pox.

5. Penicillin

a) Penicillin is derived from the mould genus Penicillium notatum.

b) Penicillin is used to treat diseases, caused by bacteria, such as pneumonia,

gonorrhoea, anthrax, meningitis and syphilis.

c) Penicillin is only effective on certain bacteria. For example, it cannot be used to

treat tuberculosis.

6. Streptomycinis the antibiotic that is effective in treating tuberculosis, pneumonia and

dysentery.

1. Psychotherapeutic medicines are a group of drugs for treating mental or emotional

illnesses (psychiatric patients) by altering the emotions as well as the behaviour and

thoughts of the patient.

2. Psychotherapeutic drugs can be divided into a few groups as shown in table below :

Types of psychotherapeutic drugs Example

a) Stimulants Caffeine, amphetamine

b) Antidepressant Prozac

c) Antipsychotic agents Chloropromazin


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3. Stimulants

a) Stimulants are naturally occurringor synthetic drugs that stimulate (excite) the

activity of the brain and central nervous system.

b) Adrenaline is a stimulant that the body produces when it needs to prepare for

demanding or energetic activities.

c) Stimulants make a person more alert, more energetic, less tired and more cheerful.

d) Examples of stimulants are caffeine and amphetamines. Caffeine is a week,

naturally occurring stimulant and is found on coffee, tea and Cola drinks.

e) Amphetamines are strong synthetic stimulants and increase alertness and physical

ability.

f) Amphetamines increase the heart and respiration rates, as well as the blood

pressure. As a result, it causes the body to postpone the need of sleep and can

reverse, partially and temporarily, the symptoms of fatigue.

4. Antidepressants

a) Depression is a chronic illness. Most cases of depression are caused by a chemical

imbalance in the brain.

b) People experiencing depression feel hopeless. They experience a loss of interest in

everyday activities such as work or hobbies.

c) There is a strong correlation between the amounts of special chemicals (called

neurotransmitters) in the brain and a persons mood. If these chemicals get too

low, the person may feel depressed.

d) Antidepressants are medicines that increase the brains level of neurotransmitters,

thus improving mood.

e) Antidepressants make a person feel calm and sleepy.

5. Antipsychotic medicines

a) Psychosis is the serious mental illness in which people lose touch with reality.

People with psychosis may,

Hear voice and see things that are not really there (hallucinations)

Have belief that are not based on reality (delusions)

b) In psychiatry, there are a number of disorders that are classified under psuchosis,

such as schizophrenias (madness), psychotic depression, mania and so on.

c) Psychotic patients have extreme mood swings. Their mood changes rapidly from

high spirit to deep depression.

d) Antipsychotic medicines do not cure symptoms to help the person live a more

normal life.

6. Hormones and Steroids

a) Hormonesare chemicals produced by humans endocrine gland to control

physiological processes and homeostasis in the human body.

b) Hormones perform their functions in metabolism, reproduction and other

physiology activities.

c) Insulin is a type of peptide hormone secreted by pancreas to control the blood sugar

level.


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d) Steroids are natural lipid compounds used in medical field such anabolic steroid and

the corticosteroid.

I. Anabolic steroids are used as medicines to treat a few types of severe

illnesses such as Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS) and cancer

where these medicines prevent the gradual loss of muscle tissues. Anabolic

steroids are often misused by sports personalities to build and strengthen

their muscle tissues as well as to treat injured muscles quicker than usual.II. Corticosteroids used as medicines are cortisone and prednisone. These

medicines have anti-inflammatory properties and are used to treat asthma

and rheumatoid arthritis.

c) Side effects of using modern and traditional medicines by including specific

examples.

Type of moderndrug

Side effects

Aspirin Can cause bleeding in the stomach because aspirin is vey acidic.

Can cause allergic reactions, skin rashes and asthmatic attacks

Amphetamines

People who abuse amphetamines are excitable and talkative.

Psychologically additive and can cause heart attack.

Can cause anxiety, sleeplessness, aggressive behaviour and decrease

appetite.

Can cause enlarged pupils, heavy perspiration and trembling hands.

Codeine Can cause addiction.

Penicillin Can cause allergic reactions.

Can cause death for people who are allergic to it.

Streptomycin Can cause nausea, vomiting, dizziness, rashes and fever.

Can cause loss of hearing following long-term use.

Stimulants Can cause addiction.

Antidepressants Can cause addiction.

Can cause headaches, grogginess and loss of appetite.

Antipsychotic

drugs

Can cause dry mouth, blurred vision, urinary retention, constipation.

Can cause tremor and restlessness.

Sedation (make people calmer, or to make people sleepy)

d) The correct usage of modern and traditional medicines.


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In taking any medicine, we should know why the medicine is prescribed, how the medicine should

be used, what special precautions should be followed, what special diet should be followed, what

are the side effects and what storage conditions are needed. In addition, we should note the

following points :

1. Self-medication

Do not prescribe medicines for yourself (self-medication) or for other people. Discuss with

your doctor and listen to him concerning the medicine to be taken.

2. Follow the instructions given

Follow the instructions given by your doctor or pharmacist concerning the dosage and

method of taking the medicine.

3. Medicines for adult and children

Medicines for adult should not be given to children and vice versa.

4. Side effects

Visit the doctor immediately if there are symptoms of allergy or other effects of the drugs.5. Expiry date

Like foods, medicines also have expiry date. Do not take medicines after their expiry dates.

e) Taking drugs excessively and without a doctors prescription is called drug

abuse.

i) Drugs that are normally abused.

Heroin Cocaine

Methamphetamine Crack Cocaine

LSD Ecstasy

Opium Marijuana


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Psilocybin Mushrooms PCP

ii) Reasons why teenagers take drugs.

1. They want to have fun, friends and the status of being the risk-taker.

2. Stress relief.

3. To forget or escape from the problems.

4. Being a rebel and a risk-taker.

5. Relief of boredom.

6. Escaping difficult decisions.7. A feeling of being special.

8. Being part of a significant group of people.

9. Being addicted.

10.Curiosity.

iii)The side effects of these drugs on health.

1. Death.

2. Physical debilitation.

3. Heart conditions.

4. Cancer.

5. Dizziness.

6. Nausea.

iv)The impacts of drug abuse on our society.


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1. Economies are held back

2. Families are made less happy

3. Occasionally even torn asunder by serious injury, death or deeply negative

consequences of drug abuse

4. Liver disease is a particularly common problem

5. Affecting the economy

6. Fairly negligible

Conclusions

A common thread runs through all drug abuse: the precedence that it takes overeverything else in the abuser's life. This makes spouses and children feel as if they arecoming in second in a race with a chemical. The same goes for career aspirations,financial decisions and other important things that should be first and foremost in anyadult's mind.

v) Ways to prevent the drug abuse.

a. Effectively deal with peer pressure. The biggest reason teens using drugs is because their

friends utilize their peer pressure. No one likes to be left out and teens find themselves

doing things they normally wouldnt do, just to fit in. In these cases, you need to either

find a better group of friends that wont pressure you doing harmful things, or you need

to find a good way to say no. Teens should prepare a good excuse or plan ahead of time,

to keep from giving into tempting situations.

b. Deal with life pressure. People today are overworked and overwhelmed, and often feel

like a good break or a reward is deserved. But in the end, drugs only make life morestressful and many of us all too often fail to recognize this in the moment. To prevent

using drugs as a reward, find other ways to prevent stress and unwind. Take up

exercising, read a good book, volunteer with the need, create something. Anything

positive and relaxing helps take the mind off using drugs to relieve stress.

c. Seek help for mental illness. Mental illness and substance abuse often go hand-in-hand.

Those with mental illness may turn to drugs as a way to ease the pain. Those suffering

from some on mental illness, such as anxiety, depression or post-traumatic stress

disorder should seek the help of a trained professional for treatment before it leads to

substance abuse.

d. Examine the risk factor. If youre aware of the biological, environmental and physical risk

factors you pass, youre more likely to overcome them. A history of substance abuse in

the family, living in the social setting that glorifies drug abuse and/or family life that

models drug abuse can be risk factors.

e. Keep a well-balanced life. People take up drugs when something in their life is not

working, or when they are unhappy about their lives or where their lives are going. Look

at lifes big picture, and have priorities in order.

Chemistry Folio f5

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Transcript of Chemistry Folio f5