Women’s Service and the Military: Inevitable Progress or

Gendered Organization?

Joseph R Bongiovi, UNC-Chapel Hill, Department of Sociology

DEOMI Conference, Patrick AFB, FloridaDecember 7, 2011

Importance of Women & the Military• Women make up more than half of the

population, workforce and degree earners;• The military is high profile, biggest employer

and largest federal discretionary expense;• We have the highest female participation,

with 255,000+ deployed to Iraq & Afghanistan

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Theoretical Context• Gender equality inevitably results from

rational organizations and modern institutions (Jackson, 1998); or

• “Gendered organizations” (Acker, 1990; Britton, 2000; Lorber, 1994; MacKinnon, 1989);

• Gender framing and modernizing forces interact, resisting and supporting progress towards gender equality (Ridgeway, 2011)

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Case Selection and Research Questions

• The military is traditionally male gendered (Goldstein, 2001; Herbert, 1998; Higate, 2003; McSally, 2011; Silva, 2008); however

• There has been significant progress for women since the 1970’s;

• Do women have similar opportunity as men in today’s military?

• What mechanisms enable or inhibit progress towards equality?

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Data and Methods• Publically available DoD and Census data;• Analysis of male/ female participation

rates and rank representation;• Publically accessible DoD surveys;• Data on harassment and assaults;• Service member testimonials

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Female Officer and Total Participation 1970-2011

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Results: Officer Representation• Female officer representation increased every

year, from 3.2% in 1955 to 15.9% in 2011; and• Among company grade officers it increased

from 14.1% in 1994 to 17.5% in 2011; and• Female field grade officers from 11% to

13.3%; • And flag officers from 1.2% to 7.3%.

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Results: NCO Representation• SR NCO representation increased from 7.9% in

1994 to 11% in 2011;• JR NCO increased from 11% in 1994 to 14.7%

in 2006, decreasing to 14.1% in 2011;• Enlisted increased from 14.1% in 1994 to

17.3% in 2001, decreasing to 15% in 2011;

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Participation and Representation: Evidence for Inevitable Equality?

• Participation increased until 2001, then flattened out overall;

• Representation increased annually for nearly all rank categories; but

• Participation and representation continue to be low overall.

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RANK CATEGORY RATIOS 2011 2005 2000 1995F Flag/ Field Officers 0.006 0.004 0.003 0.001M Flag/ Field Officers 0.011 0.010 0.011 0.010F/ M Flag/ Field Officers 0.552 0.387 0.296 0.146

F Field/ Company Officers 0.442 0.441 0.479 0.434M Field/ Company Officers 0.584 0.590 0.610 0.553F/M Field/ Company Officers 0.756 0.748 0.785 0.784

F SR NCO/ JR NCO 0.254 0.213 0.261 0.259M SR NCO/ JR NCO 0.324 0.322 0.340 0.338F/M SR NCO/ JR NCO 0.782 0.662 0.768 0.767

F JR NCO/ JR Enlisted 0.616 0.675 0.450 0.478M JR NCO/ JR Enlisted 0.658 0.709 0.630 0.652F/ M JR NCO/ JR Enlisted 0.936 0.953 0.714 0.73310

Results: Enlisted Rank Category Ratios

• JR NCO to JR enlisted ratio is .616 for women, .658 for men and .936 between them;

• SR NCO to JR NCO is .254 for women, .324 for men and .782 between them

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Results: Officer Rank Category Ratios• Field grade to company grade officer ratio

is .442 for women, .584 for men and .756 between them;

• Flag officer to field grade ratio is .006 for women, .011 for men and .552 between them.

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Male and Female Representation by Rank, 2011

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Rank Category Ratios: Evidence for “Gendered Organization”?

• Women continue to be a small percentage of the overall military, with diminished representation at each higher rank category;

• They are three quarters as likely to become SR NCOs or field grade officers, and half as likely to become flag officers; evidence that

• In spite of progress, the military continues to be a male “gendered organization”

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Hypothesizing Mechanisms Enabling and Inhibiting Gender Equality

• I next hypothesize mechanisms enabling and inhibiting progress towards gender equality;

• Using evidence from Department of Defense surveys, environmental data and published and unpublished service member testimonials

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Mechanisms for Gender Equality• Progress for women in general society,

particularly work, education and sports;• Regulatory changes, including Title VII and IX;• Requirements of the all volunteer force;• Positive example of the first Gulf War;• Increased personnel needs from conflicts

in Iraq and Afghanistan;• End “don’t ask, don’t tell”

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Mechanisms Against Gender Equality• Resilience of “hegemonic masculinity”;• Sexual harassment and assault;• Exclusion from combat arms;• Family support issues

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Conclusions and Future Research• Evidence supports accommodation/ progress

but persistence of a “gendered organization”; • I have hypothesized mechanisms for both;• These inform possible future actions; but• Occupation, promotion and survey detail, by

gender, is needed to test these hypotheses!

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Questions?

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