The Short-Run Tradeoff CHAPTER 35 Between …...The Phillips Curve Phillips curve: shows the...

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EconomicsPrinciples of

N. Gregory Mankiw

The Short-Run Tradeoff

Between Inflation and

Unemployment

Seventh Edition

CHAPTER

35

Wo

jcie

ch G

erso

n (

18

31

-19

01)

In this chapter,

look for the answers to these questions

• How are inflation and unemployment related in the short run? In the long run?

• What factors alter this relationship?

• What is the short-run cost of reducing inflation?

• Why were U.S. inflation and unemployment both so low in the 1990s?



2© 2015 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as


Introduction

In the long run, inflation & unemployment are

unrelated:

The inflation rate depends mainly on growth in

the money supply.

Unemployment (the “natural rate”) depends on

the minimum wage, the market power of unions,

efficiency wages, and the process of job search.

One of the Ten Principles:

In the short run, society faces a trade-off

between inflation and unemployment.



The Phillips Curve

Phillips curve: shows the short-run trade-off

between inflation and unemployment

1958: A.W. Phillips showed that

nominal wage growth was negatively

correlated with unemployment in the U.K.

1960: Paul Samuelson & Robert Solow found

a negative correlation between U.S. inflation

& unemployment, named it “the Phillips Curve.”



Deriving the Phillips Curve

Suppose P = 100 this year.

The following graphs show two possible

outcomes for next year:

A. Agg demand low,

small increase in P (i.e., low inflation),

low output, high unemployment.

B. Agg demand high,

big increase in P (i.e., high inflation),

high output, low unemployment.



5

Deriving the Phillips Curve

u-rate

inflation

PC

A. Low agg demand, low inflation, high u-rate

B. High agg demand, high inflation, low u-rate

Y

P

SRAS

AD1

AD2

Y1

103A

105

Y2

B

6%

3%A

4%

5%B



The Phillips Curve: A Policy Menu?

Since fiscal and mon policy affect agg demand,

the PC appeared to offer policymakers a menu

of choices:

low unemployment with high inflation

low inflation with high unemployment

anything in between

1960s: U.S. data supported the Phillips curve.

Many believed the PC was stable and reliable.



Evidence for the Phillips Curve?

Inflation rate

(% per year)

Unemployment

rate (%)

0

2

4

6

8

10

0 2 4 6 8 10

During the 1960s,

U.S. policymakers

opted for reducing

unemployment

at the expense of

higher inflation

196163

6562

64

6667

68



The Vertical Long-Run Phillips Curve

1968: Milton Friedman and Edmund Phelps

argued that the tradeoff was temporary.

Natural-rate hypothesis: the claim that

unemployment eventually returns to its normal or

“natural” rate, regardless of the inflation rate

Based on the classical dichotomy and the

vertical LRAS curve



9

The Vertical Long-Run Phillips Curve

u-rate

inflation

In the long run, faster money growth only causes

faster inflation.

Y

PLRAS

AD1

AD2

Natural rate

of output

Natural rate of

unemployment

P1

P2

LRPC

low

infla-

tion

high

infla-

tion



Reconciling Theory and Evidence

Evidence (from ’60s):

PC slopes downward.

Theory (Friedman and Phelps):

PC is vertical in the long run.

To bridge the gap between theory and evidence,

Friedman and Phelps introduced a new variable:

expected inflation – a measure of how much

people expect the price level to change.



11

The Phillips Curve Equation

Short run

Fed can reduce u-rate below the natural u-rate

by making inflation greater than expected.

Long run

Expectations catch up to reality,

u-rate goes back to natural u-rate whether inflation

is high or low.

Unemp.

rate

Natural

rate of

unemp.= – a

Actual

inflation

Expected

inflation–



12

How Expected Inflation Shifts the PC

Initially, expected &

actual inflation = 3%,

unemployment =

natural rate (6%).

Fed makes inflation

2% higher than expected,

u-rate falls to 4%.

In the long run,

expected inflation

increases to 5%,

PC shifts upward,

unemployment returns to

its natural rate.

u-rate

inflation

PC1

LRPC

6%

3%PC2

4%

5%

A

B C

A C T I V E L E A R N I N G 1A numerical example

Natural rate of unemployment = 5%

Expected inflation = 2%

In PC equation, a = 0.5

A. Plot the long-run Phillips curve.

B. Find the u-rate for each of these values of actual

inflation: 0%, 6%. Sketch the short-run PC.

C. Suppose expected inflation rises to 4%.

Repeat part B.

D. Instead, suppose the natural rate falls to 4%.

Draw the new long-run Phillips curve,

then repeat part B. © 2015 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as


A C T I V E L E A R N I N G 1Answers

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

unemployment rate

infl

ati

on

ra

te

LRPCAAn increase

in expected

inflation

shifts PC to

the right.PCD

LRPCD

PCB

PCCA fall in the

natural rate

shifts both

curves

to the left.



0

2

4

6

8

10

0 2 4 6 8 10

The Breakdown of the Phillips Curve

Inflation rate

(% per year)

Unemployment

rate (%)

Early 1970s:

unemployment increased,

despite higher inflation. Friedman &

Phelps’

explanation:

expectations

were catching

up with reality.

0

2

4

6

8

10

0 2 4 6 8 10

196163

6562

64

6667

68

69 70 71

72

73



Another PC Shifter: Supply Shocks

Supply shock:

an event that directly alters firms’ costs and

prices, shifting the AS and PC curves

Example: large increase in oil prices



17

How an Adverse Supply Shock Shifts the PC

u-rate

inflation

SRAS shifts left, prices rise, output & employment fall.

Inflation & u-rate both increase as the PC shifts upward.

Y

P

SRAS1

AD PC1

PC2A

B

SRAS2

A

Y1

P1

Y2

BP2



18

The 1970s Oil Price Shocks

The Fed chose to

accommodate the

first shock in 1973

with faster money growth.

Result:

Higher expected inflation,

which further shifted PC.

1979:

Oil prices surged again,

worsening the Fed’s tradeoff.

38.001/1981

32.501/1980

14.851/1979

10.111/1974

$ 3.561/1973

Oil price per barrel



The 1970s Oil Price Shocks

Inflation rate

(% per year)

Unemployment

rate (%)

0

2

4

6

8

10

0 2 4 6 8 10

Supply

shocks &

rising

expected

inflation

worsened

the PC

tradeoff.1972

73

7475

76

77

78

7980

81



The Cost of Reducing Inflation

Disinflation: a reduction in the inflation rate

To reduce inflation,

Fed must slow the rate of money growth,

which reduces agg demand.

Short run:

Output falls and unemployment rises.

Long run:

Output & unemployment return to their natural

rates.



21

Disinflationary Monetary Policy

Contractionary monetary

policy moves economy

from A to B.

Over time,

expected inflation falls,

PC shifts downward.

In the long run,

point C:

the natural rate

of unemployment,

lower inflation. u-rate

inflationLRPC

PC1

natural rate of

unemployment

A

PC2

C

B



22

The Cost of Reducing Inflation

Disinflation requires enduring a period of

high unemployment and low output.

Sacrifice ratio:

percentage points of annual output lost

per 1 percentage point reduction in inflation

Typical estimate of the sacrifice ratio: 5

To reduce inflation rate 1%,

must sacrifice 5% of a year’s output.

Can spread cost over time, e.g.

To reduce inflation by 6%, can either

sacrifice 30% of GDP for one year

sacrifice 10% of GDP for three years



23

Rational Expectations, Costless Disinflation?

Rational expectations: a theory according to

which people optimally use all the information

they have, including info about govt policies,

when forecasting the future

Early proponents:

Robert Lucas, Thomas Sargent, Robert Barro

Implied that disinflation could be much less

costly…



24

Rational Expectations, Costless Disinflation?

Suppose the Fed convinces everyone it is

committed to reducing inflation.

Then, expected inflation falls,

the short-run PC shifts downward.

Result:

Disinflations can cause less unemployment

than the traditional sacrifice ratio predicts.



The Volcker Disinflation

Fed Chairman Paul Volcker

Appointed in late 1979 under high inflation &

unemployment

Changed Fed policy to disinflation

1981–1984:

Fiscal policy was expansionary,

so Fed policy had to be very contractionary

to reduce inflation.

Success: Inflation fell from 10% to 4%,

but at the cost of high unemployment…



The Volcker Disinflation

Inflation rate

(% per year)

Unemployment

rate (%)

0

2

4

6

8

10

0 2 4 6 8 10

Disinflation turned out to be very costly

u-rate

near 10%

in 1982–831979

8081

82

83

84

85

86

87



The Greenspan Era

1986: Oil prices fell 50%.

1989–90:

Unemployment fell, inflation rose.

Fed raised interest rates, caused a

mild recession.

1990s:

Unemployment and inflation fell.

2001: Negative demand shocks

created the first recession in a decade.

Policymakers responded with expansionary monetary

and fiscal policy.



The Greenspan Era

Inflation rate

(% per year)

Unemployment

rate (%)

0

2

4

6

8

10

0 2 4 6 8 10

Inflation and unemployment

were low during most of

Alan Greenspan’s years

as Fed Chairman.

1987

90

922000

949698

06

02

05



The Phillips Curve During the

Financial Crisis

The early 2000s housing market

boom turned to bust in 2006

Household wealth fell,

millions of mortgage defaults

and foreclosures, heavy losses

at financial institutions

Result:

Sharp drop in aggregate demand,

steep rise in unemployment

Ben BernankeChair of FOMC,

Feb 2006 – Jan 2014



The Phillips Curve During and

after the Financial CrisisInflation rate

(% per year)

Unemployment

rate (%)

2006-2009:

The financial crisis caused aggregate

demand to plummet, sharply increasing

unemployment and reducing inflation.

0

2

4

6

8

10

0 2 4 6 8 10

2006

20072008

2011

20102009

2012

2010-2012:

A slow recovery reduced

unemployment and increased inflation.



31

CONCLUSION

The theories in this chapter come from some of

the greatest economists of the 20th century.

They teach us that inflation and unemployment

are:

unrelated in the long run

negatively related in the short run

affected by expectations,

which play an important role in the economy’s

adjustment from the short-run to the long run

Summary

• The Phillips curve describes the short-run tradeoff between inflation and unemployment.

• In the long run, there is no tradeoff: inflation is determined by money growth,

while unemployment equals its natural rate.

• Supply shocks and changes in expected inflation shift the short-run Phillips curve, making the

tradeoff more or less favorable.



Summary

• The Fed can reduce inflation by contracting the money supply, which moves the economy along

its short-run Phillips curve and raises

unemployment. In the long run, though,

expectations adjust and unemployment returns

to its natural rate.

• Some economists argue that a credible commitment to reducing inflation can lower the

costs of disinflation by inducing a rapid

adjustment of expectations.



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