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Draft

Review on physicochemical properties of pollutants

released from fireworks: environmental and health effects

and preventions

Journal: Environmental Reviews

Manuscript ID er-2017-0063.R1

Manuscript Type: Review

Date Submitted by the Author: 14-Nov-2017

Complete List of Authors: Cao, Xinyuan; The Northeast Institute of Geography and Agroecology,

Chinese Academy of Sciences, Regional Atmospheric Environment Zhang, Xuelei; The Northeast Institute of Geography and Agroecology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Regional Atmospheric Environment Daniel, Q.Tong; Center for Spatial Information Science and Systems, George Mason University Chen, Weiwei; The Northeast Institute of Geography and Agroecology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Regional Atmospheric Environment Zhang, Shichun; The Northeast Institute of Geography and Agroecology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Regional Atmospheric Environment Zhao, Hongmei; The Northeast Institute of Geography and Agroecology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Regional Atmospheric Environment Xiu, Aijun; The Northeast Institute of Geography and Agroecology, Chinese

Academy of Sciences, Regional Atmospheric Environment

Keyword: Fireworks, Atmospheric pollutants, Physicochemical characteristics, Environmental effects, Management and preventation

https://mc06.manuscriptcentral.com/er-pubs

Environmental Reviews

Draft

Review on physicochemical properties of pollutants released from 1

fireworks: environmental and health effects and preventions 2

Xinyuan Cao, Xuelei Zhang, Daniel Q.Tong, Weiwei Chen, Shichun Zhang, Hongmei 3

Zhao, and Aijun Xiu 4

5

Xinyuan Cao. Key Laboratory of Wetland Ecology and Environment, Northeast Institute of Geography and 6

Agroecology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Changchun 130102, China; University of Chinese Academy of 7

Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China. 8

Xuelei Zhang. Key Laboratory of Wetland Ecology and Environment, Northeast Institute of Geography and 9

Agroecology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Changchun 130102, China; Center for Spatial Information Science and 10

Systems, George Mason University, Fairfax, VA 22030, USA. 11

Daniel Q.Tong. Center for Spatial Information Science and Systems, George Mason University, Fairfax, VA 22030, 12

USA; U.S. NOAA Air Resources Laboratory, College Park, MD 20740, USA. 13

Weiwei Chen, Shichun Zhang, Hongmei Zhao and Aijun Xiu. Key Laboratory of Wetland Ecology and 14

Environment, Northeast Institute of Geography and Agroecology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Changchun 15

130102, China. 16

Corresponding author: Xuelei Zhang (e-mail: [email protected]) 17

18

Abstract 19

The pollutants released from fireworks may seriously deteriorate air quality and 20

adversely impact on human health. In order to aid in obtaining comprehensive 21

observations and in the establishment of effective legislation aimed at controlling the 22

short-term effects of fireworks, we systematically reviewed the findings of previous 23

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studies of the impacts of fireworks. These studies, primarily located in Asia (more than 24

70% studies), Europe and North America, considered particle concentrations, size 25

distribution, morphology, noise and chemical composition (including water-soluble ions, 26

elements, carbonaceous material, organic matter and trace gases), along with the 27

associated human health effects during fireworks display. 41% studies suggested that 28

the concentrations of firework particles were reported to be 1 - 5 times higher than the 29

respective background values. And the mean ratios PM10/TSP, PM2.5/PM10 and 30

PM1.0/PM2.5 were 0.64, 0.72 and 0.65, respectively. During festivals, the 31

concentrations of SO42- and K+ were the highest of the water-soluble ions. For major 32

elements and gaseous pollutants, K, S and CO, SO2 had the highest concentrations, 33

respectively. The health effects of particles and gaseous pollutants, including metals, 34

emitted from fireworks need further epidemiological study to aid in the prevention of 35

health problems and the treatment of patients. Fireworks industries should technical 36

innovation to reduce pollutants emissions. Emissions inventories of fireworks display 37

should be compiled and used in Eulerian models, to forecast the spatiotemporal 38

distribution of pollutants and to further assistant the government in establishing 39

appropriate restriction levels and legislation which balance environmental protection 40

and festive spirit. 41

Key words: fireworks, atmospheric pollutants, physicochemical characteristics, 42

environmental effects, management and prevention 43

44

1 Introduction 45

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Fireworks are generally used to celebrate special events like festivals and/or 46

official celebrations, and thus become one of the most unusual sources of air pollution. 47

Traditional festivals which are characterized by the burning of fireworks include 48

Independence Day in the US (Wang et al. 2012), France's Commemoration of the 49

French Revolution (Bastille day in France), the Las Fallas in Spain (Moreno et al. 2007), 50

the Lantern Festival and Spring Festival in China (Wang et al. 2007; Tian et al. 2014 ), 51

Diwali Festival in India (Prakash et al. 2013), Guy Fawkes Day (or Bonfire Night) in the 52

UK (Agus et al. 2008), and New Year's Eve celebrations across the world (Drewnick et 53

al. 2006; Burkart et al. 2010; Licudine et al. 2011; Kwasny et al. 2009). Some typical 54

official celebrations include the Busan Culture in Korea (Shon et al. 2015), the 55

Millennium celebrated in Germany (Wehner et al. 2000), the celebration of the 2006 56

FIFA World Cup Championship in Italy (Vecchi et al. 2008) and the International 57

Fireworks Competition in Canada (Joly et al. 2010). 58

Apart from the excitement of continuous and spectacular firework displays, and the 59

visual feast of colorful lights in the sky, the burning of fireworks is a source of noise and 60

atmospheric pollutants. Fireworks have variable and heterogeneous chemical 61

compositions. Normally, fireworks contain chemicals such as sodium oxalate, charcoal, 62

sulfur, manganese, aluminum, iron, potassium chlorate, potassium perchlorate, 63

strontium nitrate, potassium nitrates and barium nitrate, etc. (Mclain 1980; Ravindra et 64

al. 2003; Wang et al. 2007). In order to enhance display effects, specific elements are 65

also added into pellets of fuel, such as strontium (Sr), copper (Cu), iron (Fe), Barium 66

(Ba), etc. Ignited fireworks in the air release gaseous and ambient particulate pollutants 67

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like carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxide, sulfur dioxide, suspended particles, 68

water-soluble ions and trace metals. The burning of fireworks may release dense 69

clouds of smoke, often degrading regional air quality to the detriment of human health 70

and the ecological environment (Clark 1997; Vecchi et al. 2008). As surface water can 71

be polluted by the deposited heavy metals from fireworks, they may also cause 72

extensive damage to vegetation. Moreover, human health, especially mortality and 73

morbidity, can also be affected by pollutants released from firework burning. 74

Due to these issues, recently the pollution caused by fireworks burning has 75

received much attention amongst the scientific community. Verma et al. (2014) 76

reviewed existing studies focusing on the effects of fireworks on air quality during the 77

Diwali festival in India, in an effort to summarize the pollution characteristics in terms of 78

their chemical components and related health effects. Another review paper focused on 79

the environmental effects of perchlorate emitted from the burning of fireworks, and 80

identified fireworks as one of the main contributors to increasing environmental 81

perchlorate contamination (Sijimol and Mohan 2014). To date, we still know little about 82

the pollution characteristics of other chemical components and the emissions from 83

fireworks in other festivals across the world. Therefore, we have conducted a 84

systematic review of past research results, focusing on emitted concentrations of 85

pollutant gases, physical and chemical characteristics of particulate pollutants, the 86

effects on human health, and the emissions levels and significance of different 87

governmental policies towards fireworks across the world. 88

In the regions suffering severe air pollution, some local governments have 89

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forbidden the burning of fireworks for festivals: for example in North Carolina (USA), 90

and Guangzhou, Shenzhen, Nanjing, Wuhan and Changchun (China). Some cities 91

have restricted firework use in their surrounding areas. Here we examine the best 92

policies that balance environmental protection and continuity of traditional culture. 93

94

2 Methodology 95

2.1 Method of analysis and synthesis 96

We conducted a comprehensive search of available literature (published before 97

June 2016) on pollutants from fireworks and their ecological and health effects, 98

considering atmospheric environmental, toxicological, epidemiological and human 99

exposure studies. The search tools of Google scholar, PubMed and China National 100

Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI) were used in this study. The search terms included 101

various combinations of firework”, “firecracker”, “cracker”, “sparkler”, “festival”, “holiday”, 102

“celebration”, “pollution”, “air quality”, “aerosol”, “component”, “size”, “concentration”, 103

“particulate”, “particle”, “PM”, “gas”, “metal”, “ion”, “health” and “effect”. 104

When more than one paper addressed analyses of the same or a similar dataset, 105

we presented all of them in the summary tables, but considered only the most 106

comprehensive or most recent published paper in our study. For example, both Liu et al. 107

(2014) and Zhao et al. (2014) studied ambient particle concentrations affected by 108

firework displays during the Spring Festival in China, but the later paper was referred in 109

our study due to its more detailed analysis of different sizes of particulates. Both Kong 110

et al. (2015) and Li et al. (2008) studied the water-soluble ions emitted from crackers 111

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during the Chinese New Year, but only the latest paper was referred in this study. 112

A total of 145 studies matched the search criteria and were included for further 113

statistical analyses. All references were further classified according to their study period, 114

geographical location, festival, pollutant type and chemical components. Further details 115

are summarized in supplement database of fireworks references. 116

117

2.2 Statistics of published literature 118

2.2.1 Temporal and spatial patterns of publications 119

There are over 140 papers concerning particle emissions from fireworks during 120

festivals and celebration events since 1995. From 1995 to 2005, there was no more 121

than one paper per year was published, showing that people paid little attention to the 122

atmospheric pollution caused by fireworks. Since the year 2006, the frequency of 123

relevant studies has increased year by year to about 20 papers per year during 2012 - 124

2014 (Figure 1a). Thus, it is timely to conduct a systematic review of pollutant 125

emissions from fireworks to enhance our knowledge of the environmental and health 126

effects of fireworks. 127

Figure 1b illustrates the spatial distribution of the published literature, revealing 128

that 70 percent of studies were carried out in China and India, which have higher 129

population densities and poor air quality. The other 30 percent were located in Europe 130

(Spain, Germany and UK) and America (the USA and Canada). 131

132

2.2.2 Festivals studied in previous publications 133

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A total of 18 festivals and celebration events were studied in previous publications 134

(Figure 2a). The New Year on January 1st of every year is celebrated in many countries 135

with fireworks, bonfires and sparkler displays during the days before and after New 136

Year’s Eve. Fireworks are used as a means of praying for luck and happiness. In China, 137

Spring Festival, Lantern Festival and New Year are the most mentioned festivals 138

(Figure 2b). The Spring Festival, on the Chinese lunar January 1st, is the most 139

important festival celebrated across the whole country. All family members get together 140

on this day, similarly to Christmas in Western countries. They eat dumplings together 141

and celebrate the new year by burning fireworks on the New Year’s Eve, the following 142

first day of the lunar year and the fifth day of the lunar year. The Lantern Festival is 143

another important traditional Chinese festival celebrated on the fifteenth day of the 144

lunar year in the Chinese calendar. It is a mark of the final day in the Chinese New Year 145

celebrations. During the Lantern Festival, people go out at night to enjoy the sight of 146

lanterns and fireworks displays. 147

The most important festivals in India (in published papers) are Diwali and Vishu 148

(Figure 2c). Diwali is a festival of light, celebrated with great enthusiasm throughout 149

India during the month of October or November and is the biggest and the brightest of 150

Indian festivals (Barman et al. 2008; Ambade et al. 2013). Vishu is another major 151

festival celebrated in parts of the adjoining state of Tamil Nadu and throughout the state 152

of Kerala during the first day of Medam, in the Malayalam calendar, which usually falls 153

during the months of April or May. This happens to coincide the beginning of the 154

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Malayalam New Year. It is celebrated irrespective of creed, religion or caste all over the 155

State (Nishanth et al. 2012). 156

In the USA, Independence Day is celebrated with centralized and intensive 157

fireworks displays on the 4th of July (Moreno et al. 2007) (Figure 2e). Las Fallas is a 158

traditional celebration held in commemoration of Saint Joseph in the city of Valencia, in 159

Spain, and also in Germany (Figure 2d). The term Fallas refers to both the celebration 160

and the monuments burnt during the celebration. A number of towns in the Valencian 161

Community have similar celebrations inspired by the original Fallas de Valencia 162

celebration. 163

Four specific celebration events have also been addressed in former studies. They 164

are the Olympic Games, the World Cup, the Millennium and the Busan National 165

Fireworks Competition. 166

Among these previous publications, the Spring Festival and Diwali are the most 167

studied festivals. 168

169

2.2.3 Geographic distribution of studied firework events 170

Fireworks displays studied in the 145 reviewed articles occurred in 67 cities 171

distributed across 14 countries. As depicted in Figure 3 (red stars), the studied cities 172

were mainly located in Asia (India, China, Korea and Iran), Europe (Spain, Malta, 173

Germany, the UK, Switzerland, Austria, Hungary and Italy) and North America (the USA 174

and Canada). 175

In particular, there were 24 and 18 cities with studies on the effects of fireworks in 176

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China and India, respectively. Most of the studies in China were located in eastern 177

China which has 73 percent of the resident population and a more advanced economy. 178

In the areas of Sinkiang and Tibet in western China, there were no studies on the 179

effects of fireworks. The geographical distribution within the territory of India is more 180

uniform. The states located in western and northeastern India, such as Gujarat, Bihar 181

and Jharkhand, should pay more attention to fireworks pollution. 182

In European countries, the Nordic regions closer to the Arctic have a cleaner 183

atmospheric background than the rest of Europe and are ideal places to study the 184

environmental effects of fireworks. Unfortunately, no studies were reported from this 185

region. Throughout North America, only five cities (4 from the USA, 1 from the Canada) 186

have studied on the emission characteristics and effects of fireworks. However, as the 187

largest fireworks consuming country, more works should be conducted in the USA to 188

protect the domestic environment and residential health. There were limited studies 189

from South America and Africa. 190

Figure 3 (yellow circles) also illustrates firework-related injuries studied during 191

fireworks burning. The studied countries were also mainly in Asia (India, China, Iran 192

and Israel), Europe (the UK, France, Denmark, Northern Ireland, Sweden, Norway, 193

Austria and Hungary) and America (the USA). Other countries like Australia, New 194

Zealand and South Africa also had studies on injuries resulting from fireworks. Overall, 195

50 percent of studies on firework-related injuries were located in Europe. 196

197

2.3 Data quality control assurance 198

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Only two research papers focused on condition-controlled pure fireworks 199

emissions in laboratory experiments (Perry et al. 1999; Betha et al. 2014). The majority 200

of reviewed data are obtained from outside monitoring. As well-known that bonfires and 201

biomass burning activities are always simultaneously conducted during the fireworks 202

display time in festival days. Moreover, due to the close distance between the 203

measurement sites to the street or residential areas, a significant influence from local 204

traffic and human beings on the measurements can be expected (Liu et al. 2014). Thus, 205

we must keep in mind that all reviewed physiochemical data in this paper are including 206

the background emissions from biomass burning and other anthropogenic sources. 207

208

3 Physical characteristics of pollutants emitted from fireworks 209

3.1 Emission strength and ambient concentration 210

Emissions of particles depended on the quantity of fireworks burnt, frequency of 211

burning, type of fireworks and quality of fireworks (Majumdar et al. 2011). Concentration 212

is a physical property quantifying the abundance of particles per unit volume of air, 213

normally expressed as the mass or number concentration. Most of the studies included 214

in this review adopted filter sampling methods to obtain the mass concentration and 215

reported the particle concentrations based on the normal aerosol size classification (i.e. 216

TSP, PM10, PM2.5 and PM1.0). Sixty out of the 145 included studies mentioned one or 217

more concentrations of TSP, PM10, PM2.5, PM1.0, and even the ratios among them, from 218

fireworks. In this section, we want to state the relative pollution intensity due to 219

fireworks in different countries, by comparing concentrations in different size bins. 220

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Furthermore, in order to assess the contribution of fireworks to regional atmospheric 221

pollution, further comparisons between particle concentrations during fireworks burning 222

and background conditions (the pre-festival days or/and post-festival days) were also 223

conducted. This section will be organized following the sequence of aerosol size 224

divisions from the coarse to fine fractions. 225

The results from 10 previous studies reporting the concentrations of TSP from 3 226

countries (China, India and Germany) during different festivals or events are 227

summarized in Table 1. However, these studies only covered 8 cities. The highest 228

concentration of TSP observed during fireworks burning was 39800 µg/m3 before the 229

year 1994 in China (Sun et al. 1995). The reasonable explanation for this abnormally 230

high value is that the authors only monitored one location for a very short time (50 231

minutes from 23:40 to 00:30 on New Year’s Eve) during the highest emission intensity 232

of fireworks. Another reason is that the Chinese government had not banned fireworks 233

during festivals, and cheap, poor quality sparklers were available for sale before 1994. 234

The mean concentration of TSP during fireworks events was 489.6 µg/m3, with a range 235

from 330.5 µg/m3 to 670.8 µg/m3 in China and India. An exceptional study from Wehner 236

et al. (2000) only reported 40.5 µg/m3 of TSP during the celebration of the Millennium in 237

Germany which has a lower population density compared to China and India. The 238

mean mass concentrations of particles during festivals were 1.05 - 2.84 times higher 239

than those of the background values (459 µg/m3 vs. 437 µg/m3 in Lanzhou and 670.8 240

µg/m3 vs. 235.9 µg/m3 in Jhansi). Only one paper monitored the number concentration 241

of TSP, which was 1.2×105 particles/cm3 during the Diwali festival, which was almost 242

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1.6 times higher than the concentrations before and after Diwali Festival. 243

Another important particle size fraction emitted from fireworks is PM10. Results of 244

PM10 concentrations during different firework events were compiled in Table 2, 245

revealing that the highest mean concentration of PM10 was 2237.3 µg/m3 in Salkia (a 246

slum in Howrah, India) during Diwali Festival (Thakur et al. 2010). This value was 247

almost 110 times higher than the lowest mean concentration of PM10 of 20.5 µg/m3 248

reported in Malta (Camilleri et al. 2010). The highest background concentration of PM10 249

was also observed in Salkia, at 538 µg/m3, which is even higher than the concentration 250

in the capital city of Delhi (122.1 µg/m3 - 167.8 µg/m3). Although Malta has the lowest 251

concentration, this study also concluded that fireworks play a remarkable negative 252

effect on air quality, especially with respect to PM10, during the summer-long religious 253

Feast festival (Camilleri et al. 2010). The mean concentration of PM10 during festivals 254

was 218.4 µg/m3, ranging from 25.4 µg/m3 to 469.3 µg/m3 in China. The mean value 255

was 479.8 µg/m3, ranging from 46 µg/m3 to 2237.3 µg/m3 in India, more than 4 times 256

than the National Ambient Air Quality Standard of PM10 (100 µg/m3) in India (Verma et 257

al. 2014). Furthermore, the mass concentration of PM10 during festivals was about 1.5 258

times and 2.3 - 4.2 times than that on non-festival days in China and India, respectively. 259

The difference in concentration, of more than a factor of 2, between China and India 260

may reflect in the different management policies on fireworks burning. Only two papers 261

mentioned the concentration of PM10 in European countries (Spain and Italy), where 262

the mean PM10 concentration was only 71.5 µg/m3 and ranging from 63.9 µg/m3 - 79 263

µg/m3; this is 1.4 times higher than the PM10 concentration (50 µg/m3) accepted by the 264

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Air Quality Standard of the European Union. 265

The finer size fraction of PM2.5 means it is harder to scavenge and has a longer 266

residence time in the atmosphere. It can also travel deep into the lungs, causing 267

damage to the human respiratory system. Therefore, greater attention needs to be paid 268

to the concentrations of PM2.5 released from fireworks (Table 3). The highest mean 269

mass concentration of PM2.5 shown in Table 3 was 6378.6 µg/m3 during the 270

international fireworks competition, 212 times higher than the standard for PM2.5 (30 271

µg/m3) in Canada (Raizenne et al. 2003). This was the result of nine 40-minute 272

fireworks displays from June to July (Joly et al. 2010). The mean concentration of PM2.5 273

was 516.1 µg/m3 (ranging from 61 µg/m3 to 6378.6 µg/m3) among 6 countries 274

comprising China, India, Canada, the USA, Spain and Germany. These countries 275

reported PM2.5 levels 1 - 4 times higher than the background concentration during 276

non-firework days. Meanwhile, the lowest mean PM2.5 concentration, of 61 µg/m3, 277

occurred in the USA and was as attributed to the greater distance between the 278

monitoring site and the fireworks burning locations (Seidel et al. 2015). However, only 279

one paper monitored the number concentration of PM2.5, in Nagpur (India) during 280

fireworks events, where the mean PM2.5 was nearly 4.5×106 particles/L: 3 - 4 times 281

higher than the background values (pre-days and post-days). A similar result was 282

reported by Majumdar et al. (2011), who also monitored the number concentrations of 283

PM1 during a fireworks display in Nagpur. During this event, the mean number 284

concentration of PM0.25-1.0 was 4,451,136 particles/L and the maximum was 8,957,897 285

particles/L. The mean number concentrations exceeded 3 times and 5 times than those 286

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in the periods before and after the event, respectively. 287

The ratios of TSP、PM10、PM2.5、PM1.0 were further analyzed in this section to 288

evaluate the size enrichment characteristics of particles emitted from fireworks. Results 289

for the different ratios of particles at each studied festival are listed in Table 4. Among 290

the compiled studies, 64% (range 38% - 86%) of the TSP (by mass) was distributed in 291

PM10. Therefore, over half of the total suspended particulate was PM10. Most of the 292

previous studies focused on the ratio between PM2.5 and PM10 (Wang et al. 2007; Xu et 293

al. 2006; Wang et al. 2014; He et al. 2014; Han et al. 2014; Shi et al. 2014; Lin et al. 294

2014; Nirmalker et al. 2013; Srivastava et al. 2015; Thakur et al. 2010). The mean ratio 295

between PM2.5 and PM10 was 0.72 (ranging from 0.60 to 0.76), indicating that the main 296

aerosol emissions from fireworks are fine particles (Huang et al. 2012). Three papers 297

studied the mass concentration ratio between PM1.0 and PM2.5 and found a mean ratio 298

of about 0.65. Only one paper reported the ratio between PM1.0 and PM2.5 in number 299

concentration, finding it to be 0.99, which means that the number percentage of 300

PM1.0-2.5 was only 1%. This further supports the findings that most particle sizes are 301

smaller than 1 µm, consistent with the conclusions of Section 3.3. 302

303

3.2 Size distribution 304

Ten papers studied the size distribution of particles emitted from fireworks, most of 305

which were published after the year 2010. Study areas were located in China 306

(Shanghai, Lanzhou and Nanjing), India (Delhi and Nagpur), Germany (Leipzgi) and 307

Spain (Alicante). 308

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In order to help scholars to better conduct future monitoring of the size distribution 309

of particles from fireworks, we firstly summarized the sampling instruments and their 310

specific models along with their output data types in Table 5. Based on their working 311

principle, the instruments were divided into 2 types, either aerosol multi-stage sampler 312

or online particle size spectrometer. The Anderson (8-stages) and DLPI (13-stages) 313

were the most widely used filter samplers in aerosol multi-stage sampling, and the 314

reported data were mass concentrations (M) of particles or elements in different size 315

bins. 316

The online particle size spectrometers are instruments capable of real-time 317

analysis of size distributions (the number size (N), surface size (S) and volume size (V)) 318

of particles ranging in size from nanometer to micrometer. Their high reliability, 319

long-term stability and performance characteristics make them suitable for long-term 320

monitoring of firework particles at atmospheric research stations. Instruments 321

combining a Differential Mobility Analyzer (DMA) and Condensation Particle Counters 322

(CPC), termed a twin differential mobility particle sizer (TDMPS) by the Leibniz Institute 323

for Tropospheric Research or so-called scanning mobility particle sizer (SMPS) by 324

GRIMM Corporation, are used to continuously measure the mobility size distributions of 325

ultrafine and fine particles. The SMPS systems from TSI Corporation, GRIMM 326

Corporation and MSP Corporation were most used in studies of online monitoring size 327

distribution of particles emitted from fireworks (Wehner et al. 2000; Remškar et al. 2014; 328

Jing et al. 2014; Joshi et al. 2015; Wang et al. 2014). More detailed comparisons of 329

different products from the above 3 corporations were provided by Watson et al. (2011), 330

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who reported differences of about 25 percent between instruments due to differences in 331

particle charging efficiency. Only one paper adopted the APS (a double-crest optical 332

particle sizer) with sub-micrometer bottom limit to study the size distribution of fireworks 333

(Zhao et al. 2012). ELPI can be used for real-time particle charge distribution and for 334

gravimetric impactor measurements. Another advantage of the impactor technology is 335

that it also enables post-measurement chemical analysis of size-classified 336

particles. This enhances our knowledge of the size distribution of enriched or toxic 337

elements, e.g. K, S, Cu and Ca (Crespo et al. 2012) and Ba (Khaparde et al. 2012), 338

thereby providing data that are useful for protection human health. The size-resolved, 339

non-refractory chemical composition of the sub-micron aerosol particles combined with 340

time-related mass concentrations can also be measured with an aerosol time-of-flight 341

mass spectrometer (ATOFMS) during fireworks in festivals or celebration events (Liu et 342

al. 1997; Drewnick et al. 2006). 343

In Figure 4, we further summarized and compared the same size attributes from 344

different studies on identical axes to capture the key characteristic of spectral size 345

distributions. This clearly shows that the number concentrations of particles were high 346

in the submicrometer size fraction, with a dominant peak located around 100 nm. The 347

six studies were conducted on Feb 3rd 2011 (Spring Festival), Nov 13th 2012 (at 50 m 348

height on a high rise building), Jan 1st 2000 (Millennium), Jan 22nd 2012 (Spring 349

Festival), New Year and Feb 10th 2013 (Spring Festival), respectively. Time periods of 350

0:00-1:00 or 0:00-4:00 were chosen to represent the effects of fireworks. It is also 351

evident in Figure 4a that an accumulation mode between around 1 µm and 3 µm was 352

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present in addition to the main peak. The volume size distribution is shown in Figure 4b. 353

Wehner et al. (2000) selected volume size distributions to highlight the increasing finer 354

particle volume in the size range of 3 nm - 800 nm during the Millennium firework 355

displays. Another study from Zhao et al. (2012) reported a clearly bimodal lognormal 356

volume size distribution of particles during the time period of concentrated fireworks 357

burning. The authors explained the dominant peak in coarse particles (centered at 5 - 6 358

µm) as the small distance (only 10 meters) between the instrument and burning 359

location, leading to the presence of undeposited coarse particles from the launch 360

process, and resuspension of road dust. However, more studies need to be conducted 361

to further verify this viewpoint. 362

Figure 4c and 4d compare time series of number size distributions of graded 363

particles from the only two relevant papers. The two studies were conducted in 364

Shanghai and Nanjing during the Spring Festival in 2009 and 2012, respectively. Wang 365

et al. (2011) monitored 12 size distributions of particles emitted from fireworks; Wang et 366

al. (2014) measured the size distribution of aerosol particles in 7 size intervals, which 367

were 10 - 30 nm, 30 - 50 nm, 50 - 100 nm, 100 - 200 nm, 200 - 500 nm, 500 - 1000 nm 368

and 1 - 10 µm. In order to facilitate the comparison between the two studies, we picked 369

out the data for size diameters of 60 nm, 170 nm, 400 nm, 650 nm and 6800 nm 370

reported by Wang et al. (2011) which lay close to the size intervals in Wang et al. (2014). 371

The main features of Figure 4c and Figure 4d are that particles with diameters of 30 - 372

50 nm, 50 - 100 nm and 100 - 200 nm had the highest number concentrations, followed 373

by 200 - 500 nm particles. Particles with diameters of 500 - 1000 nm had moderate 374

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number concentrations. These characteristics persisted throughout the events. The 375

coarser particles (> 1 µm) had the lowest number concentrations and stronger temporal 376

variability. The highest number concentration of finer particles reached 10000 cm-3. 377

These studies demonstrated that fireworks can contribute fine particles (around 30 - 378

500 nm) into our atmospheric environment. 379

What is the relationship between chemical elements and particulate sizes? Only 380

two papers focused on this issue: Crespo et al. (2012) and Khaparde et al. (2012). 381

Crespo et al. (2012) measured the aerosol elemental mass-size distributions of K, S, 382

Cu and Ca both during the Mascletà and background days using a 12-stages cascade 383

low pressure impactor (SDI). The mass size distributions of K and S, which are 384

presented as typical gunpowder elements of fireworks, were characterized by 3-modes. 385

Two equivalent dominant peaks were centered at 200 nm and 700 nm during the 386

Mascletà. Meanwhile, on the background day, both the mass size distributions of K and 387

S showed single primary peaks centered on 3 µm and 200 nm, respectively. The 388

element Cu emitted from fireworks is harmful to human health, and shows a similar to 389

the patterns of K and S in the Mascletà. However, Cu tended to be concentrated in finer 390

particles (250 nm and 500 nm) in contrast to the background pattern dominated by 4 391

µm. The typical crustal element Ca, shown in Figure 5, displayed no obvious change of 392

mass size distribution between the Mascletà and background days; mass size 393

distributions on both days were enriched in sizes 2 - 4 µm. A three-peak-curve in the 394

size distribution of Ba was also observed during fireworks burning on Indian Diwali days 395

(Khaparde et al. 2012). Thus, there are still knowledge gaps regarding the mass 396

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concentrations of enriched elements / heavy metals and the size distributions of 397

particles released from fireworks. 398

399

3.3 Morphology 400

Only 6 studies have addressed the morphology of firework particles. To identify 401

and characterize individual particulate matters, scanning electron microscopy coupled 402

with energy dispersive X-ray spectrometer (SEM-EDX) has often been used (Witt et al. 403

2010; Agrawal et al. 2011). The morphology of particles before and after combustion is 404

shown in Figure 6. Particles emitted from fireworks have regular and irregular spherical 405

shapes (Agrawal et al. 2011; Azhagurajan et al. 2014). The spherical particles are 406

formed by high temperatures and are termed fly ash particles. Analysis revealed that 407

the spherical particles were mainly composed of Al, Fe, K and Sr emitted from fireworks 408

during festivals (Witt et al. 2010), providing further evidence that the higher 409

concentrations of Al, Fe, K and Sr result from high-temperature combustion during 410

fireworks burning (Li et al. 2013). 411

412

4 Chemical compositions 413

The main ingredient of fireworks is black powder, comprised primarily of charcoal 414

powder, potassium nitrate and potassium chlorate. To improve the visual impact, 415

aluminum, iron, antimony and inorganic salts are also added. When the fireworks are 416

burning, the sulfur, charcoal powder and metal powder rapidly combust with the 417

oxidizer and large amounts of heat and light are released. This produces carbonaceous 418

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gases containing nitrogen and sulfur, as well as numerous particles (such as metal 419

oxides) (Xu et al. 2006). In this part, we will exhaustive review the chemical 420

composition of fireworks according to water-soluble ions, custal elements and trace 421

metals, carbonaceous and organic matter and trace gas emitted from fireworks. 422

423

4.1 Water-soluble ions 424

Some 23 of the 145 included papers focused on the concentrations of 425

water-soluble ions in particles during festivals. Normally, ions in ambient pollutants 426

reach the Earth surface via wet deposition, when they can cause human health 427

problems and even enter into the hydrological cycle. Thus, chemical composition is a 428

critical aspect of the laboratory analysis of particles. A total of 13 water-soluble ions 429

were analyzed in 23 published papers, and comprise 5 cations (Na+, Mg2+, K+, Ca2+ and 430

NH4+) and 8 anions (F-, Cl-, ClO4

-, NO2-, NO3

-, SO32-, SO4

2- and CO32-). Only 8 papers 431

reported on NO2-, SO3

2-, and CO32-. An overall comparison of the concentrations of 13 432

reported water-soluble ions is illustrated in Figure 7. 433

The concentrations of SO42- and K+ were greatest during festivals, when they 434

reached 23 µg/m3 and 13 µg/m3, respectively. These levels are 38.3 times and 2.7 435

times higher than the concentrations on background days (Moreno et al. 2010; Kong et 436

al. 2015). This is because sulfur and potassium are the two major components in 437

fireworks, where they act as the main oxidizer in black powder (commonly in the form of 438

perchlorate or chlorate) during fireworks burning. The fireworks release SO2 which can 439

be rapidly converted to SO42- either by oxidation catalysed by metals or by 440

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photochemical oxidation (Cheng et al. 2014). The burning of potassium follows two 441

corresponding chemical reactions, which are 2KClO3=2KCl+3O2 and KClO4=KCl+2O2 442

(Tian et al. 2014). The concentrations of other water-soluble ions during festivals were 443

observed to decrease in the order CO32- > NO3

- > Cl- > NH+ > Ca2+ > Mg2+ > Na+ > 444

NO2- > SO3

2- > F-, indicating that the secondary aerosol components (including CO32-, 445

NO3-, NH4

+) also increased gradually and became major components during festival 446

days (Chatterjee et al. 2013). The mean concentrations of CO32-, NO3

-, NH4+ were 15 447

µg/m3, 14 µg/m3 and 8.7 µg/m3 during fireworks burning, respectively; the respective 448

ratios between fireworks displays and background days were 30.3, 2.2 and 4.0, which 449

can be used as indicators of fireworks burning. Furthermore, Cl- released by chlorate 450

and/or perchlorate (e.g. potassium chlorate) present in fireworks lead to an observed 451

average Cl- concentration of 11 µg/m3. 452

453

4.2 Crustal elements and trace metals 454

Specific elements are added to fireworks to enhance the visual impact and 455

ornamental effects (Grima et al. 2012). Sr, Ba, Sb, Pb, Na, K and Cu are effective in 456

producing red, yellow-green, light green, green, yellow, violet and blue fireworks, and it 457

is therefore unsurprised to find higher concentrations of these elements following 458

fireworks displays. Ca chlorides and sulphates are used to generate orange flames and 459

to deepen fireworks colors. Most fireworks use Zn to generate smoke. Mn and its 460

oxides are also used as a fuel and oxidizer to produce brighter lights (Swanepoel et al. 461

2010). K compounds in black powder mainly work as oxidation agents during burning, 462

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and Cr is a catalyst to increase burn rate (Do et al. 2012). As a metallic fuel, Mg plays 463

an important role in generating sparks and crackling stars. Al as also contributes part 464

the part of the fuel, sparks and glitter effects. More detailed information on these 465

aspects can be found in Table 2 of Martín-Alberca and García-Ruiz (2014). In total, 47 466

elements (Na, Mg, Al, Si, P, S, Cl, K, Ca, Ti, Fe, Zn, Ba, Pb, Cr, Sr, As, Mn, Cu, Cd, Li, 467

Ni, Co, Br, Rb, Se, Sn, Pt, B, W, Tl, Th, U, V, Bi, Be, Mo, Sb, Cs, Zr, Ge, Ga, La, Ce, Eu, 468

Y, Sc) had been analyzed in 32 previous published papers; these elements include the 469

crustal elements, trace elements and rare earth elements. We selected 18 470

frequently-used metals emitted from sparklers and classified them into 3 categories (K, 471

S, Ca, Al, Si, Mg, Na; Fe, Ba, Zn, Pb, Cu; Ti, Sr, Mn, Cr, As, Cd) to conduct further 472

quantitative comparisons between previous studies (Figure 8). 473

The concentrations of major elements during festivals were observed to decrease 474

in the order K > S > Ca > Al > Si > Mg > Fe > Na > Ba > Zn > Pb > Cu > Ti > Sr > Mn > 475

Cr > As. K and S had the highest average concentrations, which were 9637.3 ng/m3 476

and 9681.9 ng/m3, owing to the highest concentrations of K+ and SO42- ions. The high 477

concentration of K may be attributed to potassium salts like nitrates, chlorates and 478

perchlorates, which are the basic materials in firework manufacturing (Grima et al. 479

2012). Meanwhile, S is always used as propellant/fuel. Additionally, the crustal 480

elements Si, Al, Ca, Mg and Na were also present at high concentrations: those of Si, 481

Al and Ca were 4678.5 ng/m3, 2488.7 ng/m3 and 2481.9 ng/m3, respectively. These 482

elements are added to fireworks in powder form to increase the burning temperature 483

and darken the color. In the 27 studies which analyzed Cu, Zn, Fe, and their mean 484

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respective concentrations were 103.0 ng/m3, 511.3 ng/m3 and 1263.7 ng/m3. These 485

elements are used to create a blue color, smoke effect and sparks. Cd and As were 486

also found in the particles released from fireworks, at mean concentrations of 179.3 487

ng/m3 and 21.5 ng/m3, which are lower than those of the other selected elements in this 488

review. This suggests that Cd and As are impurities associated with the industrial 489

process of adding specific metals (such as Pb or Zn) into fireworks (Licudine et al. 490

2012). 491

It should be noted that emission sources besides fireworks also contributed to the 492

reported concentrations of elements. K was additionally emitted from biomass burning 493

during festivals; Fe is associates with Zn suggesting that pollution emissions, in 494

particular incineration and fossil fuel combustion, may contribute to Fe during fireworks 495

burning, in addition to crustal soil. A variety of pollution sources including coal 496

combustion (As, Zn, S), waste incinerators (Sb, Cd, Cr, Zn), motor vehicles incineration 497

(Pb) and sewage sludge incineration also influenced the results (Xu et al. 2006; Ye et al. 498

2010; Shon et al. 2015). All of above were the major emission sources of Pb, besides, 499

the high background lead content had higher contribution from cement, metallurgic and 500

oil combustion dust, motor vehicles incineration and soil dust (the possible secondary 501

source) (Wang et al. 2002; Zheng et al. 2004). In addition, the major source of As with 502

toxic was industrial waste gas except coal burning. And the average background 503

concentrations of carcinogens Pb, Ba, As were 192 ng/m3, 22 ng/m3 (ranged from 1 to 504

70 ng/m3) and 15 ng/m3 (ranged from 7 to 29 ng/m3), respectively (detailed information 505

is provided in elements concentrations of the supplemental database). These sources 506

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could contribute significantly to the loadings of the elements during fireworks burning 507

and it is difficult to separate these complex pollution sources from fireworks sources. 508

For the online measurement of chemical components in fireworks, a compact509

time of flight Aerosol Mass Spectrometer (cToF-AMS) was firstly apply to perfor510

m measurements of organic aerosols (OA), sulfate (SO42-), nitrate (NO3

-), ammon511

ium (NH4+) and chloride (Cl-) (Drewnick et al. 2005). A High Resolution Time of 512

Flight Chemical Ionization Mass Spectrometer (HR-ToF-CIMS) was also used to 513

measure gas phase concentrations, using iodide as a reagent (Lee et al. 2014; 514

Reyes-Villegas et al. 2017). Once the original data were online obtained the AM515

S data would be further were post-processed by using the Igor-based standard T516

oF-AMS Analysis Toolkit SQUIRREL and PIKA, available at http://cires1.colorado.517

edu/jimenez-group/ToFAMSResources/ToFSoftware/index.html (Faber et al. 2013; 518

Drewnick et al. 2015;Wang et al. 2016). 519

According to Drewnick et al. (2015), a number of metals (mainly the alkali metals) 520

Cd, Cs, Hg, K, Na, Rb, Se in group I and Al, Ba, Bi, In, Li, Mg, Pb, Te, Tl, Sn, Sr, Zn in 521

group II. Due to very high melting point of metal oxides, they can not be measured with 522

the AMS. Thus, theoretically, the added pure metals for colorful displays in fireworks 523

after incomplete combustion which is likely to vaporize slowly but can probably still be 524

measured with AMS (McGuire et al. 2011). These metals can be used as tracers of 525

fireworks. Several studies had validated that strontium (88Sr+), barium (138Ba+, 526

154BaO+) can be used to distinguish the fireworks particles by TOF-AMS (Liu et al. 527

1997; McGuire et al. 2011; Li et al. 2017). Although Li et al. (2017) also mentioned that 528

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more species of metals of lead (206/207/208Pb+), copper (63/65Cu+) and aluminum 529

(27Al+) could be classified as fireworks-metal particles, the application of these metals 530

as tracers of fireworks should cautious. Actually, the sources of Pb, Cu and Al were 531

various, including bonfires (Vassura et al. 2014), traffic, soil dust etc. (Wang et al. 2002; 532

Zheng et al. 2004). Moreover, Drewnick et al. (2006) mentioned that potassium 533

(39/41K+) can be used as tracers of fireworks. Thus, the single application of K+ for 534

tracing of fireworks will also be affected by bonfires and other biomass burning. 535

In conclusion, we strongly recommend that potassium (39/41K+), strontium (88Sr+), 536

barium (138Ba+, 154BaO+) and their combinatory are reprehensive tracers of fireworks 537

in data post-processing of TOF-MS. 538

539

4.3 Carbonaceous and organic matter 540

Among the 145 articles, 19 papers reported the concentrations of organic carbon 541

(OC), elemental carbon (EC) and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in particles 542

during fireworks burning (Table 6). Carbonaceous particles are important components 543

in the chemical composition of fireworks. Twelve studies suggested that OC increased 544

significantly during the fireworks burning, and that the OC originated from the 545

combustion of black powder with added charcoal along with the burning of external 546

encysted shell. The mean concentration of OC was 32.1 µg/m3 (ranging from 5.1 µg/m3 547

to 80.4 µg/m3), which is 1.5 - 6.3 times higher than the background value (pre-festival, 548

post-festival or normal day). The burning of different types of fireworks, made variously 549

from colorful papers and wool or other fibers, also contributed significantly to OC in the 550

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atmosphere (Pachauri et al. 2013). Although EC only represented a small proportion of 551

the aerosol mass concentration, it contributed more to the aerosol extinction and had 552

significant radiative forcing effects (Huang et al. 2012). The mean concentration of 553

reported EC was 9.6 µg/m3 during fireworks burning, which is 1.1 - 15 times higher than 554

the background values. The particulate OC / EC ratio peaked during festivals (ranging 555

from 1.3 to 7.9), and has been adopted as an indicator of fireworks burning in 556

atmospheric monitoring (Feng et al. 2012). 557

Eleven studies reported the levels of organics, most notably PAHs (7 studies in all). 558

Sixteen PAHs including naphthalene (Nap), acenaphthylene (Acy), acenaphthene 559

(Ace), fluoranthene (Flu), phenanthrene (Phe), anthracene (Ant), fluorantene (Fluor), 560

pyrene (Pyr), benz[a]anthracene (BaA), Chrysene (Chry), benzo[b]fluoranthene (BbF), 561

benzo[k]fluoranthene (BkF), benzo[a]pyrene (BaP), indeno[cd]pyrene (IcdP), 562

dibenzo[ah]anthracene (DahA) and benzo[ghi]perylene (BghP) were measured in 563

previous studies (Li et al. 2009; Croteau et al. 2010; Sarkar et al. 2010; Feng et al. 2012; 564

Shi et al. 2014; Kong et al. 2015). The mean concentration of PAHs was 82.0 ng/m3 565

and showed no obvious change from the background value of 56.7 ng/m3 during 566

fireworks event. Therefore, it has been demonstrated by several studies that PAHs are 567

not directly sourced from fireworks burning; instead, emissions from cooking, industry 568

and vehicles might be the principal contributors to PAHs during festivals (Shi et al. 569

2014). Betha et al. (2014) used an experimental steel chamber to collect PM2.5 emitted 570

from sparklers, and quantified the PAHs in fine particles released from three commonly 571

used sparklers (low smoke sparklers (LSS), Colored sparklers (CS), Whistling 572

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sparklers (WS)). Levels of PAHs in particles emitted from LSS were found to be 573

relatively higher (by 2.6 - 3.4 times) compared to those from CS and WS. 574

Other kinds of organics were also measured in previous studies, including 575

secondary organic aerosol (SOA), hydrocarbon-like organic aerosol (HOA) and 576

oxygenated organic aerosol (HOA) (such as aliphatic compounds and derivatives, 577

halogenated aliphatic compounds, organic acids, alcohols/ketones, caprolactam, 578

chlorobenzenes, chlorophenols and dioxins) (Drewnick et al. 2006; Nishanth et al. 2012; 579

Schmid et al. 2014; Jiang et al. 2015). It was observed that the concentrations of 580

hexachlorobenzene, pentachlorophenol and PCDD/Fs during festivals were of the 581

order of 10 times above the background value (before or after festival events). This 582

indicated that the higher levels of organics found in the particles were associated with 583

the fireworks burning (Nishanth et al. 2012). 584

585

4.4 Trace gas emissions from fireworks 586

By acting as the major atmospheric constituents affecting solar and thermal 587

radiative transfer, trace gases (O3, NOx, CO, SO2, CH4, etc.) can impact the 588

atmospheric chemistry and climate (Pathak et al. 2013). In addition, these gaseous 589

pollutants from fireworks also affect human health (which will be further discussed in 590

Section 5.2). The concentrations of gaseous pollutants during festivals in previous 591

studies were systemically compiled in Table 7. Mean concentrations were found to 592

decrease in the order CO > SO2 > NO > NO2 > O3. 593

There were 29 studies focusing on gaseous pollutants emitted from fireworks 594

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during festivals or celebration events. Only 8 papers reported the concentrations of CO, 595

overall reporting an obvious increase in mean concentration from the background value 596

(pre and post days) of 264 µg/m3 to 1298.9 µg/m3 (5 times) during fireworks burning. 597

CO is usually a product of the incomplete combustion of carbon in fireworks (He et al. 598

2014). The mean concentration of SO2 was 217.6 µg/m3, some 9.2 times higher than 599

the background value (23.7 µg/m3). The reported highest concentration of SO2 was 600

3470 µg/m3 (before 1995) in China, which is almost 44 times higher than the average 601

value of reported concentrations from studies that excluded the above highest value 602

(78.4 µg/m3). This steep decline shows the effectiveness of the policy of banning 603

fireworks, as well as improvements in the quality of fireworks and adopting the correct 604

method of sampling. 605

The average concentrations of NO2 and NO during fireworks burning were 46.2 606

µg/m3 and 99.9 µg/m3, respectively. This was 1.3 times higher than the background 607

value for NO2 (34.6 µg/m3). Note that the peak concentrations of NO and NO2 also 608

reflected the contribution of traffic sources during fireworks burning. Meanwhile, the 609

concentration of O3 showed smooth variations during fireworks burning, and only one 610

study reported a notable increase, to 1.4 times higher than the background value (30 611

µg/m3) (Attri et al. 2001). 612

613

5 Environmental effects 614

5.1 Noise 615

The noise made by fireworks contributes to their festive character (Betha et al. 616

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2014), but also to noise pollution, and may be detrimental to human hearing. Seven of 617

the included 145 papers focused on noise quality during festivals, most of which took 618

place in commercial zones (expect Ambade et al. (2013) in a residential zone). The 619

mean noise level was 90 dB (92 dB in the daytime and 78 dB at night), which is 1.2 620

times higher than background value (78 dB) in commercial areas. The ambient noise 621

level was also above the permissible limit in China (60 dB in the daytime and 78 dB at 622

night), India (65 dB in the daytime and 55 dB at night) and Spain (30 dB) in commercial 623

areas (Sun et al. 1995; Mahecha et al. 2012). The mean ambient noise level in the 624

residential zone was 97 dB (ranging from 89 dB to105 dB) during Diwali but was 86 dB 625

(ranging from 72 dB to 98 dB) on normal days. Compared to Central Pollution Control 626

Board (CPCB) in India, it was 1.7 times higher than the noise level in residential areas 627

where the mean noise level was 50 dB (Mandal et al. 2012). These figures suggest that 628

there was a high noise pressure caused by fireworks burning during festivals, and that 629

firework designs need to be modified to avoid nose pollution (Lad et al. 2012). 630

631

5.2 Health effects 632

The health effects from fireworks during festivals can be divided into physical 633

explosion injuries (Berger et al. 1985) and chemical pollutants exposure (Gouder et al. 634

2014). The explosion of fireworks often causes extensive trauma and burns (to areas 635

such as skin, eyes and hands), and even noise-induced hearing loss (Brookhouser et al. 636

1992; van Kamp et al. 2005). Ocular firework injuries cover a wide spectrum of types 637

and degrees, with injuries ranging from intrusions to loss of the eye (Sacu et al. 2002). 638

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Chan et al. (2004) reported serious fireworks-related eye and adnexal injuries in 639

Northern Ireland. There have also been studies of these eye injuries in Denmark, with a 640

mean of 0.012 cases of eye lesions per ton of fireworks (Thygesen et al. 2000), and in 641

Sweden where 38% patients had permanent damage to the eyes (Sundelin et al. 2000). 642

Many males reported eyes injured by fireworks on New Year’s Eve until the year 2002 643

in Norway (Bull et al. 2011). There were also studies focused on ocular injuries due to 644

fireworks explosions in the United States (Walton et al. 1996; Wilson 1982; Canner et al. 645

2010; Tu and Granados 2015), UK (Knox et al. 2008), France (Marsal et al. 2010), 646

Austria (Sacu et al. 2002), New Zealand (Clarke et al. 1994), China (Wang et al. 2014), 647

India (Kumar et al. 2010; Elangovan et al. 2016) and Iran (Mansouri et al. 2007; Saadat 648

et al. 2010; Vaghardoost et al. 2013; Hatamabadi et al. 2013). These studies found that 649

over 80% patients were males and 70% patients were younger than 18 years, 650

indicating that ocular injuries resulting from fireworks are significantly a male and a 651

paediatric problem (Sundelin et al. 2000). Injuries to the hand, face and mouth were 652

also reported by clinical researchers (Dhir et al. 1991; Moore et al. 2000; Di Benedetto 653

et al. 2009; Al-Qattan and Al-Tamimi 2009). 654

The burning of fireworks may generate considerable amounts of sparks. These 655

sparks may drop on peoples’ clothes or combustible belongings, leading to a risk of 656

burns (Li et al. 2009). Noise pollution is another source of significant physical damage 657

caused by fireworks during festivals, leading to fatigue, increased psychological stress 658

(such as anxiety and depression), insomnia, raised cholesterol level and even the risk 659

of heart attacks. The most damaging result caused by fireworks was loss of hearing 660

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(Mandal et al. 2012; Mahecha et al. 2012). 661

Gaseous and particulate pollutants, including metals, emitted by fireworks are 662

expected to affect human health owing to their chemical properties (Ambade et al. 2013; 663

Baranyai et al. 2015). These pollutants may cause mobility and mortality, such as 664

respiratory and cardiovascular system diseases, cancer and even death (Curtis et al. 665

2006). The short-term health effects are mainly expressed as the inhalation of smoke 666

which contributes to coughs, fever and dyspnea, and even acute eosinophilic 667

pneumonia (AEP) (Hirai et al. 2000). Effects of PM10 emitted from fireworks were 668

reported to include acute lower respiratory symptoms (Hoek et al. 1998; Beig et al. 669

2013). Gouder et al. (2014) systematically reviewed the potential effect of fireworks on 670

asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). SO2 can be slowly 671

absorbed into fine particles and transported deeply into the lungs, thereby causing 672

long-term health effects. NO2 emitted from fireworks can generate biochemical 673

alterations and histological demonstrable lung damage leading to both acute and 674

chronic exposure (Bull et al. 2001; Ambade et al. 2013). The higher concentrations of 675

O3 and CO also may cause dyspnea (severe asthma) and lung diseases (such as 676

pneumonia) (Ganguly et al. 2009; Gouder et al. 2014). It has also been suggested that 677

elements like chlorine contained in fumes emitted by fireworks may cause mucosal 678

irritation and acute respiratory distress syndrome when inhaled into the respiratory 679

system (Babu et al. 2008). Health risks studies indicated that the carcinogenic potential 680

of whistling sparklers (WS) emissions were higher than it from low smoke sparklers and 681

colored sparklers and the carcinogenicity of emissions from WS was caused by metals 682

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(Betha et al. 2014). The metals in particles (such as Cd, Pb, Cr and Ni) have been 683

identified as human carcinogens and also have severe effects on asthmatics; they may 684

be associated with deaths caused by lung cancer (Verougstraete et al. 2003; Pearson 685

et al. 2005; Wang et al. 2006; Moreno et al. 2010). Only limited 4 papers focused on the 686

quantities evaluation for the health effects of heavy metals or PAHs in our compiled 687

database (Yang et al. 2014; Feng et al. 2016; Hamad et al. 2016; Harrison et al. 2017). 688

Heavy metals and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAHs) in PM2.5 released from 689

fireworks burning can raise non-carcinogenic risks and cancer risks to human health 690

through the respiratory system and dermal contact. Here, we only calculated the 691

inhalation risks because of the highly uncertainty of dermal contact area from fireworks. 692

The average exposure amount of heavy metals from fireworks by inhalation (Dinh) for 693

children and adults in a given time frame could be calculated using Eq. (1): 694

D�� =�×��×�×�

�×�� (1) 695

where Dinh is the heavy metals exposure from inhalation, mg kg-1 day-1; C is heavy 696

metal concentration, mg m-3. InhR is inhalation rate, 20 and 7.6 m3 day-1 for adult and 697

children, respectively; EF is exposure frequency, 2.1 day year-1; ED is exposure 698

duration for year, 24 and 6 year for adult and children, respectively; BW is average 699

body weight, 70 and 15 kg for adult and children; AT is the averaging time, AT(days) = 700

ED × 365. 701

However, the above formula recommended from (EPA) had been error applied to 702

evaluate the health risks of heavy metals in Feng et al. (2016), as the parameter of 703

exposure frequency (EF) of fireworks had been set to 180 days per year which 704

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obviously contrary to the objective facts. We slightly modify the Eq. (1) to represent the 705

effects of fireworks more reasonable as: 706

D�� =�×��×�×��×�

�×�� (2) 707

Where, exposure time (ET) is assumed to 8 hours for each day with fireworks 708

displays, which could expressed as 0.3 days; EDY is the number of days with fireworks 709

display in each year, we set it to 7 days according to the duration of Diwali Festival and 710

Spring Festival. 711

The lifetime average daily dose (LADD) of heavy metals exposure by inhalation 712

could be used to assess health risks by the following equation: 713

LADD =�×�

��× (

��

��+

��

��) (3) 714

where InhR$��%& and InhR'&(%) are inhalation rate for children (7.6 m3 day-1) and 715

for adults, respectively; EDY$��%& and EDY'&(%) is exposure duration, 24 and 6 year for 716

adults and children, respectively; BW$��%& and BW'&(%) are average body weight, 70 717

and 15 kg for adults and children, respectively. 718

The cancer risk can be calculated by following equations: 719

R = LADD × SF' (4) 720

R) = ∑ R (5) 721

where SF' is slope factor, which are 42, 15.1, 9.8, 0.84 and 6.4mg kg−1 day−1 for 722

Cr， As， Co, Ni and Cd (Feng et al. 2012; Wang et al. 2007). The concentrations of Co, 723

Ni and Cd were not enough to study their cancer risks, so that we only calculated the 724

cancer risk of Cr and As in this study. 725

The results of the average amount, daily exposure values and health risks of heavy 726

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metals are shown in Table 9. It indicated that it may ranged from 1.85 × 10-8 to 8.09 × 727

10−7 for adults and from 3.28 × 10-8 to 1.15 × 10−6 for children of the non-carcinogenic 728

heavy metals risk for exposure through the respiratory system. Here is the order of the 729

risk levels for the non-carcinogenic heavy metals: Pb>Zn>Sr>Cu>Mn>Ba>As>Cr. 730

Meanwhile, the carcinogenic risk for Cr is above 10-6 which showed an 731

unacceptable risk, while the carcinogenic risks for As (9.16 × 10-7) is almost lower than 732

10-6 which risks could be considered negligible by the US EPA. It indicated that Cr (the 733

carcinogenic heavy metal) is more dangerous than As and Cr is identified as the most 734

possible carcinogenic compound in fireworks, the result has been also verified in Betha 735

et al. (2014). 736

Although firework-related injuries have been studied both in terms of physical 737

injuries (29 papers) and chemical injuries (15 papers), the more explicit health effects of 738

particulate and gaseous pollutants (including metals) emitted from fireworks still need 739

further study to aid in the prevention and treatment of injuries caused by fireworks. 740

741

6 Emission control and management 742

Although festivals have a short duration, the use of fireworks creates a non-trivial, 743

unusual and serious impact on atmospheric pollution and human health (Moreno et al. 744

2007; Liu et al. 2014). Therefore, measures adopted to control and manage the burning 745

of fireworks are of considerable importance. 746

Preventative measures such as banning fireworks have been shown to be effective 747

in reducing the number of injuries resulting from fireworks. Wilson et al. (1982) 748

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compared the ocular trauma resulting from fireworks in three states in the United States, 749

finding that the number of physical injuries in Arkansas was ten times higher than in 750

Georgia and West Virginia: this showed that while banning fireworks had not been 751

totally effective (there were still injuries caused by fireworks), there was nevertheless 752

an important reduction in such injuries. Sheller et al. (1993) and D’Argenio et al. (1996) 753

reported a successful preventive measure in Denmark and Italy which roughly halved 754

the number of fireworks-related physical injuries. Chan et al. (2014) revealed an 755

increase in ocular trauma caused by fireworks burning after the lifting of the legislative 756

ban on fireworks in 1996 in Northern Ireland, followed by a reduction in the number of 757

injuries under measures reintroduced in 2002. Edwin et al. (2008) reported that the UK, 758

one of many countries introducing legislation on fireworks, banned banger fireworks 759

under the Firework Regulations of 1996/1997 and limited the sale of fireworks in 2003 760

(the Firework Act) and 2004 (the Fireworks Regulations). While these measures all 761

reduced injuries to children caused by fireworks, there remain a large number of cases 762

each year. Galea and Powles (2010) suggested that, in order to reduce the frequency 763

of firework injuries, it was necessary to burn fireworks in designated places and to only 764

sell fireworks on licensed premises in the UK. Fireworks were also regulated in South 765

Africa by Act 26 of 1956, requiring that retailers must sell fireworks with grant licenses 766

and banning the sale of fireworks to children younger than 16 years (Smittenberg et al. 767

2010). This legislation has an obvious impact on reducing children’s firework injuries, 768

similarly to the effect of legislation in the USA (Smith et al. 1996) and Hungary (Kuhn et 769

al. 2000). 770

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The environmental consequences of fireworks burning have been reported in771

previous studies and include adverse effects on air quality owing to the release772

of particulates and metals. This shows that banning fireworks is necessary to a773

void high levels of air pollution, especially the suffocating smog problem. The US774

A has already adopted measures to ban the use and sale of fireworks, or there 775

would be stricter controls on the sales and discharge period, following the State 776

Fireworks Law RCW 70.77.395 (http://www.wsp.wa.gov/fire/docs/fireworks/firework_777

bans_and_restrictions.pdf). In an attempt to limit air pollution, the Italian governm778

ent elected to limit or completely ban fireworks across all major cities ahead of 779

New Year’s Eve because of smog (http://www.dailymail.co.uk/wires/ap/article-33801780

49/Italian-cities-ban-New-Years-Eve-fireworks-smog.html). South Africa also banned781

the use and sales of fireworks during festivals in Cape Town (http://www.thepetit782

ionsite.Com/582/068/331/ban-fireworks-in-cape-town-south-africa/), and fireworks ar783

e now banned in Delhi because of severe air pollution (http://www.djvshow.com/h784

ome/fireworks-are-now-banned-in-delhi-thanks-to-air-pollution). In China, preventive 785

measures regarding fireworks have been implemented including banning fireworks786

and restricting the sale and use of fireworks (Jing et al. 2010). These measure787

s are often divided into two approaches: one is the conditional burning of firewor788

ks, involving regulated fireworks burning in designated places and times (such as789

permitted fireworks burning during the whole day of the Chinese New Year’s Ev790

e) such as the case in Beijing and Songyuan; the second is banning fireworks u791

se and sales in urban areas like Changchun and Hangzhou. 792

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In order to evaluate the effectiveness of preventive measures, we selected the 793

above four cities to conduct a comparison of hourly pollutant concentrations during the 794

Spring Festival of 2016 (Feb 7 - 8) (Figure 9a - 9d). There were obvious differences 795

between these cities because of the different regulations during Spring Festival. There 796

was a clear pollutants peak in cities adopting conditional burning (Figure 9a - 9b), with 797

the concentration of particles exceeding 600 µg/m3 (4 - 6 times higher than it in the 798

cities that banned burning) (Figure 9c - 9d). The high concentrations of particles lasted 799

for less than 6 hours during New Year’s Eve. The results clearly showed the strong 800

impact of fireworks, leading to severe air pollution, and demonstrate how the 801

implementation of strategies to control the use of fireworks can be effective in achieving 802

definite improvements during festivals. 803

The above discussion demonstrates the importance of implementing control 804

strategies to avoid the severe detrimental impacts of fireworks described in previous 805

studies. Firstly, close supervision and management of the fireworks industry is needed, 806

with the phasing-out of highly polluting models. Secondly, tight control is needed over 807

the time and location of fireworks displays. Thirdly, fireworks designs need to reduce 808

pollution emissions and explosion power (Han et al. 2007; Yan et al. 2011). 809

810

7 Summary and perspectives 811

According to our statistics, most of the papers were based on studies in Asia 812

(especially in China and India), with a few in America and Europe. However, only a few 813

of the studies in Asia focused on the health effects of fireworks. Further studies are 814

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needed in this respect to assess the occurrence of firework-related injuries and deaths 815

throughout the world. The ATOFMS should be used to study the chemical composition 816

along with the study of the size distribution of particles, and to identify correlations 817

between different types of particles released from fireworks, such as Faber et al. (2013), 818

this will help us to further evaluate the health risks of chemical in fireworks. 819

Furthermore, studies on the number concentration of particles are needed, and the 820

emission levels of particles should be monitored to establish an emissions inventory of 821

fireworks for use in numerical model-based forecasts of the burning of fireworks during 822

festivals and celebration events. 823

Very few of the studies focused on particle morphology (6/146) or noise generated 824

from fireworks (7/146). The following observations for future research are suggested to 825

study the morphology of particles resulting from fireworks, in order to better estimate 826

the shape correction factor and aerosol diameter. Noise quality also needs further 827

studies to provide recommendations to the fireworks industry with regard to reducing 828

noise pollution caused by fireworks burning. Meanwhile, some studies only focused on 829

ocular injuries and acute diseases associated with fireworks, yet injuries to the ear, face 830

and chronic diseases have received little attention, the risk levels for the 831

non-carcinogenic heavy metals in PM2.5 emitted from fireworks were observed in the 832

order Pb>Zn>Sr>Cu>Mn>Ba>As>Cr. Meanwhile, Cr (the carcinogenic heavy metal) 833

is identified as the most possible carcinogenic compound in fireworks. Additional 834

toxicological and epidemiological studies of fireworks addressing the health effects 835

from exposure to various chemical components of pollutants are also needed. 836

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Usually, fireworks only have short-term effects during festivals, and the 837

concentrations of pollutants decrease quickly after the end of the fireworks display. It is 838

still necessary to monitor the pollution caused by fireworks during this short-term period 839

and it must useful for the relevant departments to prevent and control air pollution 840

problems and human health effects resulting from fireworks displays during festivals. 841

842

Acknowledgements 843

This work was financially supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of 844

China (NSFC) (No. 41571063, 21407148 and 41771071) and National key R&D Plan 845

(No. 2017YFC0212304). 846

847

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Wang W X. 2014. Impacts of firecracker burning on aerosol chemical characteristics and 1396

human health risk levels during the Chinese New Year Celebration in Jinan, China. Science of 1397

the Total Environment, 476: 57-64. 1398

Ye C., Chen R S., and Chen M X. 2015. The impacts of Chinese Nian culture on air pollution. 1399

Journal of Cleaner Production, 1-6. 1400

Ye F., Piver W T., Ando M., and Portier C J. 2001. Effects of temperature and air pollutants on 1401

cardiovascular and respiratory diseases for males and females older than 65 years of age in 1402

Tokyo, July and August 1980-1995. Environmental Health Perspectives, 109(4): 355-359. 1403

Ye W X. 2016. Investigation and identification of fire caused by setting off fireworks. Procedia 1404

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Yerramsetti V S., Sharma A R., Navlur N G., Rapolu V., Dhulipala N S K C., and Sinha P R. 2013. 1406

The impact assessment of Diwali fireworks emissions on the air quality of a tropical urban site, 1407

Hyderabad, India, during three consecutive years. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 1408

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185(9): 7309-7325. 1409

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Environment, 81: 475-484. 1412

Yuan J., Xing Y Q., Yang Y N., Ai M., Yang A H., and Zhou L H. 2010. Clinical analysis of 1413

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Environmental Monitoring, 1: 01-5. 1425

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Characteristics of lead isotope ratios and elemental concentrations in PM10 fraction of airborne 1446

particulate matter in Shanghai after the phase-out of leaded gasoline. Atmospheric 1447

Environment, 38(8): 1191-1200. 1448

Zhong Y C. 2011. Characterization of chemical compositions and size distributions in ambient 1449

aerosols during the Folk Festival events. Chia Nan University of Pharmacy and Science. 1450

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aerosols in Xi'an City during the Spring Festival. Environmental Science, 34(2): 448-454. 1452

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Zhou B H., Wang G H., Zhang C Z., and Shi W G. 2013. Pollutions characteristics of water-souble 1453

ions of fine particle during spring festival over Xi'an southern. Environmental Chemistry, 32(3): 1454

498-504. 1455

Zou Q., Yao Y G., Ding M., Zhang X H., and Ding H D. 2014. Characteristics of water-soluble ions 1456

bounded in PM2.5 during Spring Festival in Suzhou City. Environmental Monitoring 1457

Management and Technology, 26(2):26-29. 1458

1459

1460

1461

1462

1463

1464

1465

1466

1467

1468

1469

1470

1471

1472

1473

1474

1475

1476

1477

1478

1479

1480

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Figure 1 Temporal and spatial patterns of publications referring to fireworks: (a) the time-series; (b) 1481

classified by country. 1482

Figure 2 Compilation of festivals reported in previous publications. 1483

Figure 3 Geographic and health effect distribution of studied firework events in previous publications. The 1484

red stars represent the cities with studies on the characteristics of fireworks; the yellow circles represent 1485

the countries with studies on firework-related injuries. 1486

Figure 4(a) Mean number size distribution affected by the burning of fireworks in different publications; (b) 1487

Mean volume size distribution affected by the burning of fireworks in different publications; (c) Mean 1488

number size distribution affected by the burning of fireworks in different publications in 2009, Shanghai; 1489

(d) Mean number size distribution affected by the burning of fireworks in different publications in 2012, 1490

Nanjing. 1491

Figure 5 Mass-size distributions of particulates emitted from fireworks during Mascletà and background 1492

days for K, S, Cu and Ca, which adopted from Crespo et al. (2012). 1493

Figure 6 The morphology of particles in flash powder and particles emitted from fireworks burning 1494

(Further merged from Figure 2a. of Azhagurajan et al. (2014), Figure 1a. of Agrawal et al. (2011), Figure 1495

4. and Figure 7. of Grima et al. (2012)) 1496

Figure 7 The concentration of water-soluble ions in particles emitted from fireworks during pre-burning, 1497

burning and post-burning days (µg/m3). More detailed information is provided in water-soluble 1498

concentrations of the supplement. 1499

Figure 8 The concentration of elements in particles emitted from fireworks during pre-burning, burning 1500

and post-burning days (ng/m3). More detailed information is provided in elements concentrations of the 1501

supplemental database. 1502

Figure 9 Temporal variations of pollutants and meteological conditions in different cities during New 1503

Year’s Eve, 2016. (a-b): Conditional-burning cities; (c-d): Banned-burning cities. 1504

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Table 1 Compilation of the mass and number concentrations of TSP particles during firework events (µg/m3)

Festival City Date

TSP

Reference Mean

(BG value)

Max

(pre-days)

Min

(post-days)

Spring Festival Dalian, China 1990-1994† 30200 39800 23760 Sun et al. 1995

Spring Festival Lanzhou, China Jan 31-Mar 5, 2007 459(437) Li et al. 2008

Spring Festival Lanzhou, China Jan 31-Mar 5, 2007 590 1170 90 Zhang et al. 2013

Diwali Festival Hisar, India Dec, 1999 455.8 (360.1) (375.1) Ravindra et al. 2003

Diwali Festival Delhi, India 2002-2007† 425.3 (195.1) (254) Singh et al. 2010

Diwali Festival Unknown Nov 10-15, 2012 1.2×105 $ (0.7×105 $) (0.8×105 $) Pervez et al. 2015

Diwali Festival Delhi, India Oct 16-21, 2009 571.1 852.0 430.1 Agrawal et al. 2011

Diwali Festival Agra, India Feb, 2009-Jun, 2010 330.5 Pachauri et al. 2013

Diwali Festival Jhansi, India Nov 1-5, 2013# 670.8(235.9) (243.0) (255.9) Chauhan et al. 2014

Hoili Festival Agra, India Feb, 2009-Jun, 2010 414.1 Pachauri et al. 2013

Millennium Leipzig, Germany Dec 31, 1999-Jan 1, 2000 40.5 244.0 6.4 Wehner et al. 2000

† Average value for multiple years, for more detailed information for each year see TSP concentrations of the supplement.al database.

# Average value for commercial and residential areas. More detailed information is listed in TSP concentrations of the supplemental database.

$ The unit of these data is particles/cm3

BG value: background value

Table 2 Compilation of the mass and number concentrations for PM10 particles during firework events (µg/m3)

Festival City Date

PM10

Reference Mean

(BG value)

Max

(pre-days)

Min

(post-days)

Midautumn Festival Tainan, Taiwan Sep 7-27, 2011 25.4 Tsai et al. 2015

New Year's Eve Wuhan, China Feb, 2013 96.6 526.5 42.3 Han et al. 2014

Spring Festival Lanzhou, China Jan 31-Mar 5, 2007 470 1140 160 Zhang et al. 2013

Spring festival Shanghai, China Jan 25-Feb 12, 2009 89.8 1000 4.2 Huang et al. 2012

Spring Festival Lanzhou, China Jan 31-Mar 5, 2007 349(225) Li et al. 2008

Spring Festival Dandong, China Jan 24-Feb 11, 2009 88 132 53 Liang et al. 2013

Spring Festival Tianjin, China Jan 30-Feb 24, 2013 220.1 567.4 56 Shi et al. 2014

Spring Festival Xi'an, China 2002-2007† 212.7 (144.5) (131.9) Wang et al. 2008

Spring Festival Shenyang, China Jan 29-Feb 16, 2008 160 400 20 Hong et al. 2010

Spring Festival Hohhot, China 2005-2009† 182.9 777.4 45.2 Han et al. 2010

Spring Festival Dandong, China Feb 17-19, 2007 100 Li et al. 2009

Spring Festival Dandong, China Feb 6-8, 2008 187 Li et al. 2009

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Spring Festival Zhengzhou, China 2014 365 1000 32 Liu et al. 2014

Spring Festival Nanning, China Feb 2-20, 2011 145 276 19 Yan et al. 2011

Spring Festival Tianjin, China Jan 30-Feb 24, 2013 213 Tian et al. 2014

Lantern festival Beijing, China Feb 12-15, 2006 338.4 466.2 85.6 Wang et al. 2007

Lantern festival Beijing, China Feb 17-18, 2011 469.3 687 23 He et al. 2012

Busan Culture Busan, Korea 2011-2013† 29.0 Shon et al. 2015

New Year's Eve Nagpur, India Dec 28, 2008-Jan 3, 281 430 131.6 Khaparde et al. 2012

Diwali Festival Jhansi, India Nov 1-5, 2013# 349.9 (116.5) 124.5 133.3 Chauhan et al. 2014

Diwali Festival Hisar, India Dec, 1999 174.5 134.4 167.8 Ravindra et al. 2003

Diwali Festival Lucknow, India Oct 31-Nov 2, 2005 753.3 963.3 527.5 Barman et al. 2008

Diwali Festival Delhi, India 2002-2007† 286.4 (122.1) (167.8) Singh et al. 2010

Diwali Festival Delhi, India Oct 27-31, 2008 767 (276) (282) Perrino et al. 2011


Diwali Festival Kolkata, India Nov, 2010 542.5(137.5) (261) (487.5) Chatterjee. 2013

Diwali Festival eastern India Oct-Nov, 2011 555.5 (212.8) (284.4) Nirmalker et al. 2013

Diwali Festival Delhi, India Oct 9-18, 2009 507.2 (244.3) (346.7) (339.8) Sarkar et al. 2010

Diwali Festival Delhi, India 2010-2013† 864(336) Ganguly et al. 2015

Diwali Festival Jabalpur, India 2012-2014† 128 (93.6) (103.1) Srivastava et al. 2015

Diwali Festival Nagpur, India Oct 25-Nov 6, 2008 283.7 526.2 166.8 Khaparde et al. 2012

Diwali Festival Brahmaputra, 2009 49.8 Deka et al. 2013

Diwali Festival Salkia, India Nov 7-25, 2008 2237.3 (529.1) (538.0) Thakur et al. 2010

Diwali Festival Nagpur, India Oct 22-28, 2011 930 (251.1) (591.9) Rao et al. 2012

Vishnu Festival Kannur, India Apr 12-17, 2011 71.2 118.3 52.0 Nishanth et al. 2012

Festas Malta Jul-Oct, 2005 38.9 58 25.1 Camilleri et al. 2010

Festas Gozo, Malta Jul-Oct, 2005 20.5 39.6 10.2 Camilleri et al. 2010

Las Fallas Valencia, Spain Mar 15-20, 2005 79 (37.7) (41.5) Moreno et al. 2007

2006 FIFA World Milan, Italy Jul 10, 2006 63.9(29.3) Vecchi et al. 2008

† Average values for multiple years, for detailed information for each year see PM10 concentrations of the supplement.al database.

# Average values for commercial and residential areas, for more detailed information for each area see PM10 concentrations of the supplemental database.

BG value: background value.

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Table 3 Compilation of the mass and number concentrations of PM2.5 particles during firework events (µg/m3)

Festival City Date PM2.5

Reference

Mean Max (pre) Min(post)

New Year's Eve Wuhan, China Feb, 2013 75.2 216.9 31.8 Han et al. 2014

New Year Jinan, China Jan 27-Feb 8, 2011 183.0 217 117 Li et al. 2013

Spring Festival Tianjin, China Jan 30-Feb 24, 2013 153.0 430.6 32.6 Shi et al. 2014

Spring Festival Beijing, China 2010-2013† 139.2 773.0 5.9 Ye et al. 2015

Spring Festival Zhengzhou, China 2014 173 500 17 Liu et al. 2014

Spring Festival Nanjing, China Jan 24-Feb 21, 2014 318 (119.6) (88.9) Kong et al. 2014

Spring Festival Jinan, China 2008 464.0 Yang et al. 2014

Spring Festival Suzhou, China Feb 9-15, 2013 100.9 592.1 21.1 Zou et al. 2014

Spring Festival Shanghai, China Jan 25-Feb 12, 2009 61.5 950 2.11 Huang et al. 2012

Spring Festival Shanghai, China Jan 21 –Feb 6, 2009 91 382 33 Feng et al. 2012

Spring Festival Chengdu, China Feb 10-28, 2010 155.5 321.8 42.2 Tang et al. 2013

Spring Festival Tianjin, China Jan 30-Feb 24, 2013 140.6 Tian et al. 2014

Lantern Festival Nanjing, China Feb 14, 2014 118.4 Kong et al. 2015

Lantern Festival Beijing, China Feb 12-15, 2006 122.7 184.3 26.1 Wang et al. 2007



Diwali Festival Jabalpur, India 2012-2014† 87.3 (53.4) (72.1) Srivastava et al. 2015

Diwali Festival eastern India Oct-Nov, 2011 395.4 (136.7) (98.6) Nirmalker et al. 2013

Diwali Festival Nagpur, India Oct 22-28, 2011 271 (139.0) (251.1) Rao et al. 2012

Diwali Festival Salkia, India Nov 7-25, 2008 1199.7 (388.1) (344.1) Thakur et al. 2010

Fireworks event Nagpur, India 4464472$ (1344598)$ (1118739)$ Majumdar et al. 2011

International fireworks

Competition Montréal, Canada Jun-Jul, 2007 6378.6 9941.2 3215.7 Joly et al. 2010

Independence Day Ogden, USA Jul 4, 2006-2013 61 96 17 Seidel et al. 2015

Mascletàs Alicante, Spain Jun 19-24, 2013 629 1261 41 Caballero et al. 2015

New Year Mainz, Germany Dec 28, 2004-Jan 4, 2005 111.4 611.1 3.4 Dreunick et al. 2006

$ The units of these data are particles/L

† Average values for multi-years. More detailed information for each year are included in PM2.5 concentrations of the supplemental database.

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Table 4 The ratios of TSP, PM10, PM2.5, and PM1.0 particles during different firework events

Festival City Date PM10/TSP PM2.5/PM10 PM1.0/PM2.5

Reference

(pre, post) (pre, post) (pre, post)

Lantern festival Beijing, China Feb 12-15, 2006 0.76

Wang et al. 2007 (0.70,0.59)

Spring Festival Beijing, China Jan 31-Feb 25, 2003 0.71 Xu et al. 2006

Spring Festival Nanjing, China Jan 19-31, 2012 0.6 0.68 Wang et al. 2014

Spring Festival Chengdu, China Feb 9-14, 2013 0.75 He et al. 2014

New Year’s Eve Wuhan, China Feb, 2013 0.78

Han et al. 2014 (0.41,0.75)

Spring festival Tianjin, China Jan 30-Feb 24, 2013 0.76

Shi et al. 2014 (0.70,0.58)

Lantern festival Yanshui, Taiwan Feb 21-25, 2013 0.76 0.73

Lin et al. 2014 (0.63,0.68) (0.71,0.42)

Diwali Festival eastern India Oct-Nov, 2011 0.71 0.53

Nirmalker et al. 2013 (0.64,0.35) (0.33,0.59)

Diwali Festival Delhi, India 2002 0.63

Singh et al. 2010 (0.67,0.60)


Singh et al. 2010 (1.06,0.76)


Singh et al. 2010 (0.52,0.61)


Singh et al. 2010 (0.54,0.70)


Singh et al. 2010 (0.84,0.85)


Singh et al. 2010 (0.41,0.57

Diwali Festival Jabalpur, India Nov 10-16, 2012 0.75

Srivastava et al. 2015 (0.58,0.79)

Diwali Festival Jabalpur, India Oct 31-Nov 6, 2013 0.62


Diwali Festival Jabalpur, India Oct 20-26, 2014 0.67


Diwali Festival Jhansi, India Nov 1-5, 2013 0.53

Chauhan et al. 2014 (0.51,0.52)

Diwali Festival Hisar, India Dec, 1999 0.38

Ravindra et al. 2003 (0.37,0.45)

Diwali Festival Salkia, India Nov 7-25, 2008 0.76

Thakur et al. 2010 (0.70,0.58)

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Fireworks event 0.99$ Majumdar et al. 2011

$:The ratio between number concentrations.

Table 5 The sampling instruments and their specific models along with outputed data type

Type Instruments (Model) Size range Data type Reference

Aerosol

multi-stage

sampler

8-stage cascade impactor (Anderson TE20-800) 0 – 10 µm M

Chelani et al. 2010

Khaparde et al. 2012

Nirmalkar et al. 2013

Wang et al. 2014

13-stage cascade impactor (Dekati DLPI) 30 nm – 10 µm M Remškar et al. 2014

12-satge cascade impactor (Dekati SDI) 45 nm – 8.5µm M Crespo et al. 2012

10-stage Model 100-R (MSP MOUDI) 56 nm – 18µm M Lin et al. 2014

Online particle

size

spectrometer

DMAs (TSI 3025) + CPC (TSI 3010) 3 nm - 800 nm N, V Wehner et al. 2000

DMA (TSI 3080) + CPC (TSI 3785) 14 nm – 700 nm N Remškar et al. 2014

DMA (TSI 3080) + CPC (TSI 3788) + EC (TSI 3080) 14 nm – 661 nm M Jing et al. 2014

DMA + CPC + OPC (GRIMM 5.403C, 1.108) 10 nm – 20 µm N Joshi et al. 2015

WPS (MSP 1000XP-A) 10 nm – 10 µm N Wang et al. 2014

APS (TSI 3321) 500 nm – 20 µm N, S, V Zhao et al. 2012

ELPI (Dekati ELPI) 6 nm – 10 µm N Wang et al. 2011

ATOFMS 2 nm – 1 µm M Liu et al. 1997

Drewnick et al. 2006

DLPI: Dekati® Low Pressure Impactor; SDI: Small Deposit Area Impactor; MOUDI: Micro-Orifice Uniform Deposit Impactors; APS:

Aerodynamic Particle Sizer Spectrometer; DMA: Differential Mobility Analyzer; CPC: Condensation Particle Counters; OPC: Scanning

Mobility Particle Sizer; ELPI: Electrical Low Pressure Impactor; WPS: Wide-range Particle Spectrometer; ATOFMS: Aerosol time-of-flight

mass spectrometer

Table 6 Carbonaceous and organic pollutants emitted from fireworks during festivals

References Cities

OC/EC (µg/m3) Organics (ng/m3)

Instrument OC EC OC/EC Type Concentration

Huang et al. 2012 China TOR (DRI 2001) 11.7(7.7,5.2)

Tian et al. 2014 China DRI/OGC 11.6(7.7) 4.4(4.2) 2.6(1.8)

Yang et al. 2014 China Semi-continuous OC/EC analyser (Sunset 19.6(14.5) 3.6(1.6) 5.4(9.1)

Cheng et al. 2014 China TOR (DRI 2001) 26(24) 8.6(6.5) 3.0(3.7)

Tsai et al. 2015 China CHN-O-Rapid elemental analyzer 5.1(6.8,2.7) 4.0(3.8,1.4) 1.3(1.8,1.9

Agrawal et al. 2011 India OT21 (Magee scientific, USA) 5.0

Perrino et al. 2011 India TOR (DRI) 39 4.8 8.1

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Pachauri et al. 2013 India TOR (DRI) 80.4(30.3) 10.2(5.0) 7.9(6.1)

Moreno et al. 2007 Spain LECO elemental analyser 14.2(7.2,10.4)

Vecchi et al. 2008 Italy TOT 10.9 3.2 3.4

Feng et al. 2012 China TOR (DRI 2001A) 21.5(9.7,6.4) 3.7(3.9,2.9) 5.8(2.5,2.3 PAHs 75.8(40.7,15)

Kong et al. 2015 China TH-150C on quartz fiber filters (Wuhan) 56.9(18.2,9.0) 8.3(6.9,3.0) 6.9(2.6,3.0 PAHs 70.9(50.6,29)

Sarkar et al. 2010 India CHNS-O analyzer 70.5(54.4,92.4) 40.5(12.7,18.6) 1.7(4.3,5.0 PAHs 44.3(102.6,42.6)

Li et al. 2009 China PAHs 111.3(95.9,

Shi et al. 2014 China PAHs 107.8(74.3,56.9)

Schmid et al. 2014 Swiss

hexachlorobenzene 0.3(0.067)

pentachloropheno 0.2(0.02)

PCDD/Fs 6x10-5

Betha et al. 2014

PAHs

1622.5 (CS)

2161.8 (WS)

5541.8 (LSS)

Jiang et al. 2015 China SOA, OOA

Nishanth et al. 2012 India aliphatic

Drewnick et al. 2006 German HOA, OOA

Croteau et al. 2010 U.S.A PAHs

TOR: Thermal optical reflectance; DRI/OGC: Desert research institute/Oregon graduate center; TH-150C: Medium-volume air samplers; TOT: Thermal-optical; OT21: Optical

transmissionometer Model

SOA: secondary organic aerosol; HOA: hydrocarbon-like organic aerosol; OOA: oxygenated organic aerosol

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Table 7 The concentration of gaseous pollutants emitted from fireworks (µg/m3)

Festival City Date SO2 NO2 NO CO O3 Reference

Spring Festival Shanghai, China 2009 53 (91,14) 21(77,1) 31(89,2) Zhang et al. 2010

Spring Festival Dandong, China 2009 72 (101,49) 24 (33,17) Liang et al. 2010

Spring Festival Xi'an, China 2002-2007† 48(68,58) 38 (42,31) Wang et al. 2008

Spring Festival Nanning, China 2011 30 (75,11) 32 (39,24) 1348 (1661,976) Yan et al. 2011

Spring Festival Luoyang, China 2006 68 51 Han et al. 2007

Spring Festival Luoyang, China 2007 59 48 Han et al. 2007

Spring Festival Hohhot, China 2007 210(339,94) 81(274,39) Han et al. 2010

Spring Festival Wuhan, China 2013 29 (82,7) 40(63,21) 15(38,3) 1333(2944,629) 27(62,4) Han et al. 2014

Spring Festival Chengdu, China 2013 60 30 1253 35 He et al. 2014

Spring Festival Dandong, China 2007 177 33 Li et al. 2009

Spring Festival Dandong, China 2008 310 68 Li et al. 2009

Spring Festival Dalian, China 1990-1994† 3470 Sun et al. 1995

Spring Festival Xi'an, China 2012 200 Zhang et al. 2013

Spring festival Erdos, China 2011 65 32 Deng et al. 2011

Lantern festival Beijing, China 2011 71 1796 31 He et al. 2012

Busan Culture Busan, Korea 2011 46 Shon et al. 2015

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Vishu festival Kannur, India 2010 3(6,1) 2 35(76,8) Nishanth et al. 2012

Vishu festival Kannur, India 2011 5(10,2) 2 21(71,7) Nishanth et al. 2012

Diwali Festival Rajnandgaon, India 2011 13(10,12) 100(88,93) Ambade et al. 2013

Diwali Festival Nagpur, India Oct 22-28 17 70 Rao et al. 2012

Diwali Festival Lucknow, India 2005 139(120,164) Barman et al. 2008

Diwali Festival Jhansi, India 2013 30(10,11) 60(22,21) Chauhan et al. 2014

Diwali Festival Delhi, India 2004 41(83,11) Ganguly et al. 2009

Diwali Festival Delhi, India 2006 92 4729 63 (180,22) Ganguly et al. 2009

Diwali Festival Dibrugarh, India 2012 8(16,3) 12(31,2) 94 940 (2191,140) 25(55,2) Pathak et al. 2013

Diwali Festival Hisar, India 1999 17 (12,9) 26 (19,38) Ravindra et al. 2003

Diwali Festival Delhi, India 2002-2007† 50(13,29) 62 (25,33) Singh et al. 2010

Diwali Festival Salkia, India 2008 12 (10,10) 98(86,80) Thakur et al. 2010

Diwali Festival Hyderabad, India 2009-2011† 15(11,17) 26 (24,36) Yerramsetti et al. 2013

Diwali Festival Delhi, India 2010 53 Ganguly et al. 2015

Diwali Festival Delhi, India 2014 669(860,524) 86 (160,56) Ganguly et al. 2015

Diwali Festival Jabalpur, India 2012 43(30,32) 470 (331,370) Srivastava et al. 2015

Diwali Festival Jabalpur, India 2013 20 (18,24) 150 (150,141) Srivastava et al. 2015

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Diwali Festival Jabalpur, India 2014 19(11,15) 301(300,290) Srivastava et al. 2015

Millennium Leipzig, Germany 1999- 2000 6 Wehner et al. 2000

Mascletàs Alicante, Spain 2013 20 (178,0) 559 51(153,9) Caballero et al. 2015

† Average values for multi-years. More detailed information for each year seen gaseous concentrations of the supplemental database.

The italics represented the value before festivals or celebrations and the bold represented the value after festivals or celebrations.

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Table 8 Summary of reported noise levels during firework events around the world

Festival City Date Noise(dB)

Reference during(D,N)m pre(D,N)m post(D,N)m

Spring

Festival

Dandong, China Feb 17-18, 2007 80

Li et al.2009

(108,66)

Spring

Festival

Dalian, China 1990-1994 103

Sun et al.1995

(110,86)

Diwali Festival Kolhapur, India Oct 17-19, 2009 71

Lad et al. 2012

(70,72)

Diwali Festival Rajasthan, India Nov, 2010 73 63

Mahecha et al. 2012

(68,78) (64,63)

Diwali Festival Delhi, India 2006-2008 78 Mandal et al. 2012

Diwali Festival Rajnandgaon, India(R) Oct 24-28, 2011 97 87 84

Ambade et al. 2013

(105,89) (97,77) (99,67)

Mascletàs Alicante, Spain Jun 19-24, 2007 120 Crespo et al. 2012

Table 9 Daily exposure values (mg kg−1

day−1

) and health risks of heavy metals.

Elements Dinh of children Dinh of adult LADD HIchildren HIadult Rt

Zn 1.15E-06 6.51E-07 1.81E-06 3.83E-06 2.16E-06

Sr 5.71E-07 3.22E-07 8.94E-07 1.90E-03 1.07E-03

Ba 1.99E-07 1.12E-07 3.11E-07 1.39E-03 7.85E-04

Mn 3.14E-07 1.77E-07 4.91E-07 4.49E-05 2.53E-05

Cr 3.28E-08 1.85E-08 5.13E-08 1.15E-03 6.47E-04 2.15E-06

As 5.98E-08 3.37E-08 9.35E-08

9.16E-07

Cu 5.04E-07 2.84E-07 7.89E-07 1.25E-05 7.07E-06

Pb 1.43E-06 8.09E-07 2.24E-06 4.08E-04 2.30E-04

∑ 4.26E-06 2.41E-06 6.68E-06 3.52E-03 1.98E-03 2.29E-06

Dinh represented the exposure by respiratory inhalation, mg kg-1 day-1.

HIchildren and HIadult are represented the hazard index of children and adult, respectively.

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Draft

172x65mm (300 x 300 DPI)

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Draft

300x237mm (300 x 300 DPI)

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Draft

101x70mm (300 x 300 DPI)

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Draft

393x337mm (300 x 300 DPI)

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Draft

531x749mm (300 x 300 DPI)

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Draft

431x185mm (300 x 300 DPI)

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Draft

306x238mm (300 x 300 DPI)

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Draft

424x698mm (300 x 300 DPI)

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Draft

366x264mm (300 x 300 DPI)

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