THE OFFICIAL GUIDE FOR GMAT® VERBAL REVIEW 2017 VERBAL REVIEW.pdfThe Graduate Management Admission...

THEOFFICIALGUIDEFORGMAT®VERBALREVIEW2017

PublishedbyJohnWiley&Sons,Inc.,Hoboken,NewJersey.

Nopartofthispublicationmaybereproduced,storedinaretrievalsystemortransmittedinanyformorbyanymeans,electronic,mechanical,photocopying,recording,scanningorotherwise,exceptaspermittedunderSections107or108ofthe1976UnitedStatesCopyrightAct,withouteitherthepriorwrittenpermissionofthePublisher,orauthorizationthroughpaymentoftheappropriateper-copyfeetotheCopyrightClearanceCenter,222RosewoodDrive,Danvers,MA01923,(978)750-8400,fax(978)646-8600,orontheWebatwww.copyright.com.RequeststothePublisherforpermissionshouldbeaddressedtothePermissionsDepartment,JohnWiley&Sons,Inc.,111RiverStreet,Hoboken,NJ07030,(201)748-6011,fax(201)748-6008,oronlineathttp://www.wiley.com/go/permissions.

Thepublisherandtheauthormakenorepresentationsorwarrantieswithrespecttotheaccuracyorcompletenessofthecontentsofthisworkandspecificallydisclaimallwarranties,includingwithoutlimitationwarrantiesoffitnessforaparticularpurpose.Nowarrantymaybecreatedorextendedbysalesorpromotionalmaterials.Theadviceandstrategiescontainedhereinmaynotbesuitableforeverysituation.Thisworkissoldwiththeunderstandingthatthepublisherisnotengagedinrenderinglegal,accounting,orotherprofessionalservices.Ifprofessionalassistanceisrequired,theservicesofacompetentprofessionalpersonshouldbesought.Neitherthepublishernortheauthorshallbeliablefordamagesarisingherefrom.ThefactthatanorganizationorWebsiteisreferredtointhisworkasacitationand/orapotentialsourceoffurtherinformationdoesnotmeanthattheauthororthepublisherendorsestheinformationtheorganizationorWebsitemayprovideorrecommendationsitmaymake.Further,readersshouldbeawarethatInternetWebsiteslistedinthisworkmayhavechangedordisappearedbetweenwhenthisworkwaswrittenandwhenitisread.

Trademarks:Wiley,theWileyPublishinglogo,andrelatedtrademarksaretrademarksorregistered

trademarksofJohnWiley&Sons,Inc.and/oritsaffiliates.TheGMACandGMATlogos,GMAC®,

GMASS®,GMAT®,GMATCAT®,GraduateManagementAdmissionCouncil®,andGraduate

ManagementAdmissionTest®areregisteredtrademarksoftheGraduateManagementAdmission

Council®(GMAC®)intheUnitedStatesandothercountries.Allothertrademarksarethepropertyoftheirrespectiveowners.WileyPublishing,Inc.isnotassociatedwithanyproductorvendormentionedinthisbook.

ForgeneralinformationonourotherproductsandservicesortoobtaintechnicalsupportpleasecontactourCustomerCareDepartmentwithintheU.S.at(877)762-2974,outsidetheU.S.at(317)572-3993orfax(317)572-4002.

Wileyalsopublishesitsbooksinavarietyofelectronicformats.Somecontentthatappearsinprintmaynotbeavailableinelectronicbooks.FormoreinformationaboutWileyproducts,pleasevisitourWebsiteatwww.wiley.com.

ISBN978-1-119-25395-2(pbk);ISBN978-1-119-25396-9(ePDF);ISBN978-1-119-25398-3(ePUB)

UpdatestothisbookareavailableontheDownloadstabatthissite:http://www.wiley.com/go/gmat2017updates.

Contents1.0WhatIstheGMAT®Exam?

1.0WhatIstheGMAT®Exam?

1.1WhyTaketheGMAT®Exam?

1.2GMAT®ExamFormat

1.3WhatIstheContentoftheExamLike?

1.4QuantitativeSection

1.5VerbalSection

1.6WhatComputerSkillsWillINeed?

1.7WhatAretheTestCentersLike?

1.8HowAreScoresCalculated?

1.9AnalyticalWritingAssessmentScores

1.10TestDevelopmentProcess

2.0HowtoPrepare

2.1HowCanIBestPreparetoTaketheTest?

2.2WhatAboutPracticeTests?

2.3WhereCanIGetAdditionalPractice?

2.4GeneralTest-TakingSuggestions

3.0ReadingComprehension

3.1WhatIsMeasured

3.2Test-TakingStrategies

3.3TheDirections

3.4SampleQuestions

3.5AnswerKey

3.6AnswerExplanations

4.0CriticalReasoning

4.1WhatIsMeasured

4.3TheDirections

4.4SampleQuestions

4.5AnswerKey

5.0SentenceCorrection

5.1BasicEnglishGrammarRules

5.2StudySuggestions

5.3WhatIsMeasured

5.5TheDirections

5.6SampleQuestions

5.7AnswerKey

AppendixAAnswerSheets

ReadingComprehensionAnswerSheet

CriticalReasoningAnswerSheet

SentenceCorrectionAnswerSheet

Advert

OnlineQuestionBankInformation

Visitgmat.wiley.comtoaccessweb-basedsupplementalfeaturesavailableintheprintbookaswell.Thereyoucanaccessaquestionbankwithcustomizablepracticesetsandanswerexplanationsusing300ReadingComprehension,CriticalReasoning,andSentenceCorrectionquestions.WatchexclusivevideoshighlightingtheskillsnecessarytoperformwellontheVerbalsectionoftheexamandaddressingconcernsofnon-nativeEnglishspeakers.

1.0WhatIstheGMAT®Exam?

1.0WhatIstheGMAT®Exam?TheGraduateManagementAdmissionTest®(GMAT®)isastandardized,three-parttestdeliveredinEnglish.Thetestwasdesignedtohelpadmissionsofficersevaluatehowsuitableindividualapplicantsarefortheirgraduatebusinessandmanagementprograms.Itmeasuresbasicverbal,mathematical,andanalyticalwritingskillsthatatest-takerhasdevelopedoveralongperiodoftimethrougheducationandwork.

TheGMATexamdoesnotmeasureaperson’sknowledgeofspecificfieldsofstudy.Graduatebusinessandmanagementprogramsenrollpeoplefrommanydifferentundergraduateandworkbackgrounds,soratherthantestyourmasteryofanyparticularsubjectarea,theGMATexamwillassessyouracquiredskills.YourGMATscorewillgiveadmissionsofficersastatisticallyreliablemeasureofhowwellyouarelikelytoperformacademicallyinthecorecurriculumofagraduatebusinessprogram.

Ofcourse,therearemanyotherqualificationsthatcanhelppeoplesucceedinbusinessschoolandintheircareers—forinstance,jobexperience,leadershipability,motivation,andinterpersonalskills.TheGMATexamdoesnotgaugethesequalities.ThatiswhyyourGMATscoreisintendedtobeusedasonestandardadmissionscriterionamongother,moresubjective,criteria,suchasadmissionsessaysandinterviews.

1.1WhyTaketheGMAT®Exam?GMATscoresareusedbyadmissionsofficersinover6,000graduatebusinessandmanagementprogramsworldwide.SchoolsthatrequireprospectivestudentstosubmitGMATscoresintheapplicationprocessaregenerallyinterestedinadmittingthebest-qualifiedapplicantsfortheirprograms,whichmeansthatyoumayfindamorebeneficiallearningenvironmentatschoolsthatrequireGMATscoresaspartofyourapplication.

BecausetheGMATexamgaugesskillsthatareimportanttosuccessfulstudyofbusinessandmanagementatthegraduatelevel,yourscoreswillgiveyouagoodindicationofhowpreparedyouaretosucceedacademicallyinagraduatemanagementprogram;howwellyoudoonthetestmayalsohelpyouchoosethebusinessschoolstowhichyouapply.Furthermore,thepercentiletableyoureceivewithyourscoreswilltellyouhowyourperformanceonthetestcomparestotheperformanceofothertesttakers,givingyouonewaytogaugeyourcompetitionforadmissiontobusinessschool.

Myth-vs-FACT

M–IfIdon’tscoreinthe90thpercentile,Iwon’tgetintoanyschoolIchoose.

F–Veryfewpeoplegetveryhighscores.

Fewerthan50ofthemorethan200,000peopletakingtheGMATexameachyeargetaperfectscoreof800.Thus,whileyoumaybeexceptionallycapable,theoddsareagainstyourachievingaperfectscore.Also,theGMATexamisjustonepieceofyourapplicationpacket.AdmissionsofficersuseGMATscoresinconjunctionwithundergraduaterecords,applicationessays,interviews,lettersofrecommendation,andotherinformationwhendecidingwhomtoacceptintotheirprograms.

Schoolsconsidermanydifferentaspectsofanapplicationbeforemakinganadmissionsdecision,soevenifyouscorewellontheGMATexam,youshouldcontacttheschoolsthatinterestyoutolearnmoreaboutthemandtoaskabouthowtheyuseGMATscoresandotheradmissionscriteria(suchasyourundergraduategrades,essays,andlettersofrecommendation)toevaluatecandidatesforadmission.Schooladmissionsoffices,websites,andmaterialspublishedbyschoolsarethekeysourcesofinformationwhenyou

aredoingresearchaboutwhereyoumightwanttogotobusinessschool.

FormoreinformationontheGMAT,testpreparationmaterials,examregistration,howtouseandsendyourGMATscorestoschools,andapplyingtobusinessschool,visitmba.com.

1.2GMAT®ExamFormatTheGMATexamconsistsoffourseparatelytimedsections(seethetableonthenextpage).TheteststartswithoneAnalyticalWritingAssessment(AWA)essayprompt,andyouwillhave30minutestotypeyouressayonacomputerkeyboard.TheAWAisfollowedimmediatelybythe30-minuteIntegratedReasoningsection,whichfeatures12questionpromptsinfourdifferentquestionformats.Thetestendswithtwo75-minute,multiple-choicesections:theQuantitativesection,with37questions,andtheVerbalsection,with41.

TheGMATisacomputer-adaptivetest(CAT),whichmeansthatinthemultiple-choicesectionsofthetest,thecomputerconstantlygaugeshowwellyouaredoingonthetestandpresentsyouwithquestionsthatareappropriatetoyourabilitylevel.Thesequestionsaredrawnfromahugepoolofpossibletestquestions.So,althoughwetalkabouttheGMATasonetest,theGMATexamyoutakemaybecompletelydifferentfromthetestofthepersonsittingnexttoyou.

Here’showitworks.AtthestartofeachGMATmultiple-choicesection(VerbalandQuantitative),youwillbepresentedwithaquestionofmoderatedifficulty.Thecomputerusesyourresponsetothatfirstquestiontodeterminewhichquestiontopresentnext.Ifyourespondcorrectly,thetestusuallywillgiveyouquestionsofincreasingdifficulty.Ifyourespondincorrectly,thenextquestionyouseeusuallywillbeeasierthantheoneyouansweredincorrectly.Asyoucontinuetorespondtothequestionspresented,thecomputerwillnarrowyourscoretothenumberthatbestcharacterizesyourability.Whenyoucompleteeachsection,thecomputerwillhaveanaccurateassessmentofyourability.

Myth-vs-FACT

M–GettinganeasierquestionmeansIansweredthelastonewrong.

F–Gettinganeasierquestiondoesnotnecessarilymeanyougotthepreviousquestionwrong.

Toensurethateveryonereceivesthesamecontent,thetestselectsaspecificnumberofquestionsofeachtype.Thetestmaycallforyournextquestiontobearelativelyhardproblem-solvingiteminvolvingarithmeticoperations.But,iftherearenomorerelativelydifficultproblem-solvingitemsinvolvingarithmetic,youmightbegivenaneasieritem.

Mostpeoplearenotskilledatestimatingitemdifficulty,sodon’tworrywhentakingthetestorwastevaluabletimetryingtodeterminethedifficultyofthequestionsyouareanswering.

Becauseeachquestionispresentedonthebasisofyouranswerstoallpreviousquestions,youmustanswereachquestionasitappears.Youmaynotskip,returnto,orchangeyourresponsestopreviousquestions.Randomguessingcansignificantlyloweryourscores.Ifyoudonotknowtheanswertoaquestion,youshouldtrytoeliminateasmanychoicesaspossible,thenselecttheansweryouthinkisbest.Ifyouansweraquestionincorrectlybymistake—orcorrectlybyluckyguess—youranswerstosubsequentquestionswillleadyoubacktoquestionsthatareattheappropriatelevelofdifficultyforyou.

Eachmultiple-choicequestionusedintheGMATexamhasbeenthoroughlyreviewedbyprofessionaltestdevelopers.Newmultiple-choicequestionsaretestedeachtimethetestisadministered.Answerstotrialquestionsarenotcountedinthescoringofyourtest,butthetrialquestionsarenotidentifiedandcouldappearanywhereinthetest.Therefore,youshouldtrytodoyourbestoneveryquestion.

Thetestincludesthetypesofquestionsfoundinthisguide,buttheformatandpresentationofthequestionsaredifferentonthecomputer.Whenyoutakethetest:

Onlyonequestionatatimeispresentedonthecomputerscreen.

Theanswerchoicesforthemultiple-choicequestionswillbeprecededbycircles,ratherthanbyletters.

Differentquestiontypesappearinrandomorderinthemultiple-choicesectionsofthetest.

Youmustselectyouranswerusingthecomputer.

Youmustchooseananswerandconfirmyourchoicebeforemovingontothenextquestion.

Youmaynotgobacktochangeanswerstopreviousquestions.

FormatoftheGMAT®Exam

Questions Timing

AnalyticalWriting

AnalysisofanArgument

1 30min.

IntegratedReasoning

Multi-SourceReasoning

TableAnalysis

GraphicsInterpretation

Two-PartAnalysis

12 30min.

Optionalbreak

Quantitative

ProblemSolving

DataSufficiency

37 75min.

Optionalbreak

Verbal

ReadingComprehension

CriticalReasoning

SentenceCorrection

41 75min.

TotalTime: 210min.

1.3WhatIstheContentoftheExamLike?ItisimportanttorecognizethattheGMATexamevaluatesskillsandabilitiesdevelopedoverarelativelylongperiodoftime.Althoughthesectionscontainquestionsthatarebasicallyverbalandmathematical,thecompletetestprovidesonemethodofmeasuringoverallability.

Keepinmindthatalthoughthequestionsinthisguidearearrangedbyquestiontypeandorderedfromeasytodifficult,thetestisorganizeddifferently.Whenyoutakethetest,youmayseedifferenttypesofquestionsinanyorder.

1.4QuantitativeSectionTheGMATQuantitativesectionmeasuresyourabilitytoreasonquantitatively,solvequantitativeproblems,andinterpretgraphicdata.

Twotypesofmultiple-choicequestionsareusedintheQuantitativesection:

ProblemSolving

DataSufficiency

ProblemsolvinganddatasufficiencyquestionsareintermingledthroughouttheQuantitativesection.Bothtypesofquestionsrequirebasicknowledgeof:

Arithmetic

Elementaryalgebra

Commonlyknownconceptsofgeometry

ToreviewthebasicmathematicalconceptsthatwillbetestedintheGMATQuantitativequestionsandfortest-takingtipsspecifictothequestiontypesintheQuantitativesectionoftheGMATexam,samplequestions,andanswerexplanations,seeTheOfficialGuideforGMAT®Review,2017Edition,orTheOfficialGuideforGMAT®QuantitativeReview,2017Edition;bothareavailableforpurchaseatmba.com.

1.5VerbalSectionTheGMATVerbalsectionmeasuresyourabilitytoreadandcomprehendwrittenmaterial,toreasonandevaluatearguments,andtocorrectwrittenmaterialtoconformtostandardwrittenEnglish.BecausetheVerbalsectionincludesreadingsectionsfromseveraldifferentcontentareas,youmaybegenerallyfamiliarwithsomeofthematerial;however,neitherthereadingpassagesnorthequestionsassumedetailedknowledgeofthetopicsdiscussed.

Threetypesofmultiple-choicequestionsareusedintheVerbalsection:

ReadingComprehension

CriticalReasoning

SentenceCorrection

ThesequestiontypesareintermingledthroughouttheVerbalsection.

Fortest-takingtipsspecifictoeachquestiontypeintheVerbalsection,samplequestions,andanswerexplanations,seechapters3through5.

1.6WhatComputerSkillsWillINeed?YouonlyneedminimalcomputerskillstotaketheGMATComputer-AdaptiveTest(CAT).Youwillberequiredtotypeyouressaysonthecomputerkeyboardusingstandardword-processingkeystrokes.Inthemultiple-choicesections,youwillselectyourresponsesusingeitheryourmouseorthekeyboard.

TolearnmoreaboutthespecificskillsrequiredtotaketheGMATCAT,downloadthefreetest-preparationsoftwareavailableatmba.com.

1.7WhatAretheTestCentersLike?TheGMATexamisadministeredatatestcenterprovidingthequietandprivacyofindividualcomputerworkstations.Youwillhavetheopportunitytotaketwooptionalbreaks—oneaftercompletingtheIntegratedReasoningsectionandanotherbetweentheQuantitativeandVerbalsections.Anerasablenotepadwillbeprovidedforyouruseduringthetest.

1.8HowAreScoresCalculated?YourGMATscoresaredeterminedby:

Thenumberofquestionsyouanswer

Whetheryouanswercorrectlyorincorrectly

Thelevelofdifficultyandotherstatisticalcharacteristicsofeachquestion

YourVerbal,Quantitative,andTotalGMATscoresaredeterminedbyacomplexmathematicalprocedurethattakesintoaccountthedifficultyofthequestionsthatwerepresentedtoyouandhowyouansweredthem.Whenyouanswertheeasierquestionscorrectly,yougetachancetoanswerharderquestions—makingitpossibletoearnahigherscore.Afteryouhavecompletedallthequestionsonthetest—orwhenyourtimeisup—thecomputerwillcalculateyourscores.YourscoresontheVerbalandQuantitativesectionsarecombinedtoproduceyourTotalscore.Ifyouhavenotrespondedtoallthequestionsinasection(37Quantitativequestionsor41Verbalquestions),yourscoreisadjusted,usingtheproportionofquestionsanswered.

YourGMATscoreincludesapercentilerankingthatcomparesyourskilllevelwithothertesttakersfromthepastthreeyears.Thepercentilerankofyourscoreshowsthepercentageofteststakenwithscoreslowerthanyourscore.EveryJuly,percentilerankingtablesareupdated.Visitmba.com/percentilerankingstoviewthemostrecentpercentilerankingstables.

1.9AnalyticalWritingAssessmentScoresTheAnalyticalWritingAssessmentconsistsofonewritingtask:AnalysisofanArgument.Youressayisscoredonascaleof0to6,with6beingthehighestscoreand0thelowest.Ascoreofzeroisgivenforresponsesthatareoff-topic,areinaforeignlanguage,merelyattempttocopythetopic,consistonlyofkeystrokecharacters,orareblank.

Thereaderswhoevaluatetheresponsesarecollegeanduniversityfacultymembersfromvarioussubjectmatterareas,includingmanagementeducation.Thesereadersreadholistically—thatis,theyrespondtotheoverallqualityofyourcriticalthinkingandwriting.(Fordetailsonhowreadersarequalified,visitmba.com.)Inaddition,responsesmaybescoredbyanautomatedscoringprogramdesignedtoreflectthejudgmentofexpertreaders.

Eachresponseisgiventwoindependentratings.Iftheratingsdifferbymorethanapoint,athirdreaderadjudicates.(Becauseofongoingtrainingandmonitoring,discrepantratingsarerare.)

YourAnalyticalWritingAssessmentandIntegratedReasoningscoresarecomputedandreportedseparatelyfromtheothersectionsofthetestandhavenoeffectonyourVerbal,Quantitative,orTotalscores.TheschoolsthatyouhavedesignatedtoreceiveyourscoresmayreceiveyourresponsestotheAnalyticalWritingAssessmentwithyourscorereport.Yourowncopyofyourscorereportwillnotincludecopiesofyourresponses.

1.10TestDevelopmentProcessTheGMATexamisdevelopedbyexpertswhousestandardizedprocedurestoensurehigh-quality,widelyappropriatetestmaterial.Allquestionsaresubjectedtoindependentreviewsandarerevisedordiscardedasnecessary.Multiple-choicequestionsaretestedduringGMATtestadministrations.AnalyticalWritingAssessmenttasksaretestedonmba.comregistrantsandthenassessedfortheirfairnessandreliability.Formoreinformationontestdevelopment,seemba.com.

2.0HowtoPrepare

2.1HowCanIBestPreparetoTaketheTest?WeattheGraduateManagementAdmissionCouncil®(GMAC®)firmlybelievethatthetest-takingskillsyoucandevelopbyusingthisguide—andTheOfficialGuideforGMAT®Review,2017Edition,andTheOfficialGuideforGMAT®QuantitativeReview,2017Edition,ifyouwantadditionalpractice—areallyouneedtoperformyourbestwhenyoutaketheGMAT®

exam.ByansweringquestionsthathaveappearedontheGMATexambefore,youwillgainexperiencewiththetypesofquestionsyoumayseeonthetestwhenyoutakeit.Asyoupracticewiththisguide,youwilldevelopconfidenceinyourabilitytoreasonthroughthetestquestions.Noadditionaltechniquesorstrategiesareneededtodowellonthestandardizedtestifyoudevelopapracticalfamiliaritywiththeabilitiesitrequires.Simplybypracticingandunderstandingtheconceptsthatareassessedonthetest,youwilllearnwhatyouneedtoknowtoanswerthequestionscorrectly.

2.2WhatAboutPracticeTests?Becauseacomputer-adaptivetestcannotbepresentedinpaperform,wehavecreatedGMATPrep®softwaretohelpyouprepareforthetest.Thesoftwareisavailablefordownloadatnochargeforthosewhohavecreatedauserprofileonmba.com.Itisalsoprovidedonadisk,byrequest,toanyonewhohasregisteredfortheGMATexam.ThesoftwareincludestwopracticeGMATexamsplusadditionalpracticequestions,informationaboutthetest,andtutorialstohelpyoubecomefamiliarwithhowtheGMATexamwillappearonthecomputerscreenatthetestcenter.

Werecommendthatyoudownloadthesoftwareasyoustarttoprepareforthetest.Takeonepracticetesttofamiliarizeyourselfwiththetestandtogetanideaofhowyoumightscore.Afteryouhavestudiedusingthisbook,andasyourtestdateapproaches,takethesecondpracticetesttodeterminewhetheryouneedtoshiftyourfocustootherareasyouneedtostrengthen.

Myth-vs-FACT

M–YouneedveryadvancedmathskillstogetahighGMATscore.

F–ThemathskillstestedontheGMATexamarequitebasic.

TheGMATexamonlyrequiresbasicquantitativeanalyticskills.Youshouldreviewthemathskills(algebra,geometry,basicarithmetic)presentedinbothTheOfficialGuideforGMAT®Review,2017EditionandTheOfficialGuideforGMAT®QuantitativeReview,2017Edition,buttherequiredskilllevelislow.ThedifficultyofGMATQuantitativequestionsstemsfromthelogicandanalysisusedtosolvetheproblemsandnottheunderlyingmathskills.

2.3WhereCanIGetAdditionalPractice?Ifyoucompleteallthequestionsinthisguideandthinkyouwouldlikeadditionalpractice,youmaypurchaseTheOfficialGuideforGMAT®Review,2017Edition,orTheOfficialGuideforGMAT®QuantitativeReview,2017Edition,andotherprepproductsatmba.com.

Note:TheremaybesomeoverlapbetweenthisbookandthereviewsectionsoftheGMATPrep®software.

2.4GeneralTest-TakingSuggestionsSpecifictest-takingstrategiesforindividualquestiontypesarepresentedlaterinthisbook.Thefollowingaregeneralsuggestionstohelpyouperformyourbestonthetest.

1.UseyourtimewiselyAlthoughtheGMATexamstressesaccuracymorethanspeed,itisimportanttouseyourtimewisely.Onaverage,youwillhaveabout1¾minutesforeachVerbalquestion,about2minutesforeachQuantitativequestion,andabout2½minutesforeachIntegratedReasoningquestion,someofwhichhavemultiplequestions.Onceyoustartthetest,anonscreenclockwillcontinuouslycountthetimeyouhaveleft.Youcanhidethisdisplayifyouwant,butitisagoodideatochecktheclockperiodicallytomonitoryourprogress.Theclockwillautomaticallyalertyouwhen5minutesremainintheallottedtimeforthesectionyouareworkingon.

2.AnswerpracticequestionsaheadoftimeAfteryoubecomegenerallyfamiliarwithallquestiontypes,usethesamplequestionsinthisbooktopreparefortheactualtest.ItmaybeusefultotimeyourselfasyouanswerthepracticequestionstogetanideaofhowlongyouwillhaveforeachquestionduringtheactualGMATexamaswellastodeterminewhetheryouareansweringquicklyenoughtocompletethetestinthetimeallotted.

3.ReadalltestdirectionscarefullyThedirectionsexplainexactlywhatisrequiredtoanswereachquestiontype.Ifyoureadhastily,youmaymissimportantinstructionsandloweryourscores.Toreviewdirectionsduringthetest,clickontheHelpicon.Butbeawarethatthetimeyouspendreviewingdirectionswillcountagainstthetimeallottedforthatsectionofthetest.

4.ReadeachquestioncarefullyandthoroughlyBeforeyouansweramultiple-choicequestion,determineexactlywhatisbeingasked,theneliminatethewronganswersandselectthebestchoice.Neverskimaquestionorthepossibleanswers;skimmingmaycauseyoutomissimportantinformationornuances.

5.DonotspendtoomuchtimeonanyonequestionIfyoudonotknowthecorrectanswer,orifthequestionistootime-consuming,trytoeliminatechoicesyouknowarewrong,selectthebestoftheremaininganswerchoices,andmoveontothenextquestion.Trynottoworryabouttheimpactonyourscore—guessingmayloweryourscore,butnotfinishingthesectionwillloweryourscoremore.

Bearinmindthatifyoudonotfinishasectionintheallottedtime,youwillstillreceiveascore.

6.ConfirmyouranswersONLYwhenyouarereadytomoveonOnceyouhaveselectedyouranswertoamultiple-choicequestion,youwillbeaskedtoconfirmit.Onceyouconfirmyourresponse,youcannotgobackandchangeit.Youmaynotskipquestions,becausethecomputerselectseachquestiononthebasisofyourresponsestoprecedingquestions.

Myth-vs-FACT

M–Itismoreimportanttorespondcorrectlytothetestquestionsthanitistofinishthetest.

F–ThereisaseverepenaltyfornotcompletingtheGMATexam.

Ifyouarestumpedbyaquestion,giveityourbestguessandmoveon.Ifyouguessincorrectly,thecomputerprogramwilllikelygiveyouaneasierquestion,whichyouarelikelytoanswercorrectly,andthecomputerwillrapidlyreturntogivingyouquestionsmatchedtoyourability.Ifyoudon’tfinishthetest,yourscorewillbereducedgreatly.Failingtoanswerfiveverbalquestions,forexample,couldreduceyourscorefromthe91stpercentiletothe77thpercentile.Pacingisimportant.

Myth-vs-FACT

M–Thefirst10questionsarecriticalandyoushouldinvestthemosttimeonthose.

F–Allquestionscount.

Itistruethatthecomputer-adaptivetestingalgorithmusesthefirst10questionstoobtainaninitialestimateofyourability;however,thatisonlyaninitialestimate.Asyoucontinuetoanswerquestions,thealgorithmself-correctsbycomputinganupdatedestimateonthebasisofallthequestionsyouhaveanswered,andthenadministersitemsthatarecloselymatchedtothisnewestimateofyourability.Yourfinalscoreisbasedonallyourresponsesandconsidersthedifficultyofallthequestionsyouanswered.Takingadditionaltimeonthefirst10questionswillnotgamethesystemandcanhurtyourabilitytofinishthetest.

7.PlanyouressayanswersbeforeyoubegintowriteThebestwaytoapproachtheAnalysisofanArgumentsectionistoreadthedirectionscarefully,takeafewminutestothinkaboutthequestion,andplanaresponsebeforeyoubeginwriting.Takecaretoorganizeyourideasanddevelopthemfully,butleavetimetorereadyourresponseandmakeanyrevisionsthatyouthinkwouldimproveit.

3.0ReadingComprehension

3.0ReadingComprehensionReadingcomprehensionquestionsappearintheVerbalsectionoftheGMAT®exam.TheVerbalsectionusesmultiple-choicequestionstomeasureyourabilitytoreadandcomprehendwrittenmaterial,toreasonandevaluatearguments,andtocorrectwrittenmaterialtoconformtostandardwrittenEnglish.BecausetheVerbalsectionincludescontentfromavarietyoftopics,youmaybegenerallyfamiliarwithsomeofthematerial;however,neitherthepassagesnorthequestionsassumeknowledgeofthetopicsdiscussed.ReadingcomprehensionquestionsareintermingledwithcriticalreasoningandsentencecorrectionquestionsthroughouttheVerbalsectionofthetest.

Youwillhave75minutestocompletetheVerbalsection,oranaverageofabout1¾minutestoanswereachquestion.Keepinmind,however,thatyouwillneedtimetoreadthewrittenpassages—andthattimeisnotfactoredintothe1¾minuteaverage.Youshouldthereforeplantoproceedmorequicklythroughthereadingcomprehensionquestionsinordertogiveyourselfenoughtimetoreadthepassagesthoroughly.

Readingcomprehensionquestionsbeginwithwrittenpassagesupto350wordslong.Thepassagesdiscusstopicsfromthesocialsciences,humanities,thephysicalorbiologicalsciences,andsuchbusiness-relatedfieldsasmarketing,economics,andhumanresourcemanagement.Thepassagesareaccompaniedbyquestionsthatwillaskyoutointerpretthepassage,applytheinformationyougatherfromthereading,andmakeinferences(orinformedassumptions)basedonthereading.Forthesequestions,youwillseeasplitcomputerscreen.Thewrittenpassagewillremainvisibleontheleftsideaseachquestionassociatedwiththatpassageappearsinturnontherightside.Youwillseeonlyonequestionatatime,however.Thenumberofquestionsassociatedwitheachpassagemayvary.

Asyoumovethroughthereadingcomprehensionsamplequestions,trytodetermineaprocessthatworksbestforyou.Youmightbeginbyreadingapassagecarefullyandthoroughly,thoughsometest-takersprefertoskimthepassagesthefirsttimethrough,oreventoreadthefirstquestionbeforereadingthepassage.Youmaywanttorereadanysentencesthatpresentcomplicatedideasorintroducetermsthatarenewtoyou.Readeachquestionandseriesofanswerscarefully.Makesureyouunderstandexactlywhatthequestionisaskingandwhattheanswerchoicesare.

Ifyouneedto,youmaygobacktothepassageandreadanypartsthatarerelevanttoansweringthequestion.Specificportionsofthepassagesmaybehighlightedintherelatedquestions.

Thefollowingpagesdescribewhatreadingcomprehensionquestionsaredesignedtomeasure,presentthedirectionsthatwillprecedequestionsofthistype,anddescribethevariousquestiontypes.Thischapteralsoprovidestest-takingstrategies,samplequestions,anddetailedexplanationsofallthequestions.Theexplanationsfurtherillustratethewaysinwhichreadingcomprehensionquestionsevaluatebasicreadingskills.

3.1WhatIsMeasuredReadingcomprehensionquestionsmeasureyourabilitytounderstand,analyze,andapplyinformationandconceptspresentedinwrittenform.Allquestionsaretobeansweredonthebasisofwhatisstatedorimpliedinthereadingmaterial,andnospecificpriorknowledgeofthematerialisrequired.

TheGMATreadingcomprehensionquestionsevaluateyourabilitytodothefollowing:

Understandwordsandstatements.

Althoughthequestionsdonottestyourvocabulary(theywillnotaskyoutodefineterms),theydotestyourabilitytointerpretspecialmeaningsoftermsastheyareusedinthereadingpassages.ThequestionswillalsotestyourunderstandingoftheEnglishlanguage.Thesequestionsmayaskabouttheoverallmeaningofapassage.

Understandlogicalrelationshipsbetweenpointsandconcepts.

Thistypeofquestionmayaskyoutodeterminethestrongandweakpointsofanargumentorevaluatetherelativeimportanceofargumentsandideasinapassage.

Drawinferencesfromfactsandstatements.

Theinferencequestionswillaskyoutoconsiderfactualstatementsorinformationpresentedinareadingpassageand,onthebasisofthatinformation,reachconclusions.

Understandandfollowthedevelopmentofquantitativeconceptsastheyarepresentedinwrittenmaterial.

Thismayinvolvetheinterpretationofnumericaldataortheuseofsimplearithmetictoreachconclusionsaboutmaterialinapassage.

Therearesixkindsofreadingcomprehensionquestions,eachofwhichtestsadifferentskill.Thereadingcomprehensionquestionsaskaboutthefollowingareas:

MainideaEachpassageisaunifiedwhole—thatis,theindividualsentencesandparagraphssupportanddeveloponemainideaorcentralpoint.Sometimesyouwillbetoldthecentralpointinthepassageitself,andsometimesitwillbenecessaryforyoutodeterminethecentralpointfromtheoverallorganizationordevelopmentofthepassage.Youmaybeaskedinthiskindof

questionto

recognizeacorrectrestatement,orparaphrasing,ofthemainideaofapassage

identifytheauthor’sprimarypurposeorobjectiveinwritingthepassage

assignatitlethatsummarizes,brieflyandpointedly,themainideadevelopedinthepassage

SupportingideasThesequestionsmeasureyourabilitytocomprehendthesupportingideasinapassageanddifferentiatethemfromthemainidea.Thequestionsalsomeasureyourabilitytodifferentiateideasthatareexplicitlystatedinapassagefromideasthatareimpliedbytheauthorbutthatarenotexplicitlystated.Youmaybeaskedabout

factscitedinapassage

thespecificcontentofargumentspresentedbytheauthorinsupportofhisorherviews

descriptivedetailsusedtosupportorelaborateonthemainidea

Whereasquestionsaboutthemainideaaskyoutodeterminethemeaningofapassageasawhole,questionsaboutsupportingideasaskyoutodeterminethemeaningsofindividualsentencesandparagraphsthatcontributetothemeaningofthepassageasawhole.Inotherwords,thesequestionsaskforthemainpointofonesmallpartofthepassage.

InferencesThesequestionsaskaboutideasthatarenotexplicitlystatedinapassagebutareimpliedbytheauthor.Unlikequestionsaboutsupportingdetails,whichaskaboutinformationthatisdirectlystatedinapassage,inferencequestionsaskaboutideasormeaningsthatmustbeinferredfrominformationthatisdirectlystated.Authorscanmaketheirpointsinindirectways,suggestingideaswithoutactuallystatingthem.Inferencequestionsmeasureyourabilitytounderstandanauthor’sintendedmeaninginpartsofapassagewherethemeaningisonlysuggested.Thesequestionsdonotaskaboutmeaningsorimplicationsthatareremotefromthepassage;rather,theyaskaboutmeaningsthataredevelopedindirectlyorimplicationsthatarespecificallysuggestedbytheauthor.

Toanswerthesequestions,youmayhaveto

logicallytakestatementsmadebytheauthoronestepbeyondtheirliteralmeanings

recognizeanalternativeinterpretationofastatementmadebytheauthor

identifytheintendedmeaningofawordusedfigurativelyinapassage

Ifapassageexplicitlystatesaneffect,forexample,youmaybeaskedtoinferitscause.Iftheauthorcomparestwophenomena,youmaybeaskedtoinferthebasisforthecomparison.Youmaybeaskedtoinferthecharacteristicsofanoldpolicyfromanexplicitdescriptionofanewone.Whenyoureadapassage,therefore,youshouldconcentratenotonlyontheexplicitmeaningoftheauthor’swords,butalsoonthemoresubtlemeaningimpliedbythosewords.

ApplyinginformationtoacontextoutsidethepassageitselfThesequestionsmeasureyourabilitytodiscerntherelationshipsbetweensituationsorideaspresentedbytheauthorandothersituationsorideasthatmightparallelthoseinthepassage.Inthiskindofquestion,youmaybeaskedto

identifyahypotheticalsituationthatiscomparabletoasituationpresentedinthepassage

selectanexamplethatissimilartoanexampleprovidedinthepassage

applyideasgiveninthepassagetoasituationnotmentionedbytheauthor

recognizeideasthattheauthorwouldprobablyagreeordisagreewithonthebasisofstatementsmadeinthepassage

Unlikeinferencequestions,applicationquestionsuseideasorsituationsnottakenfromthepassage.Ideasandsituationsgiveninaquestionarelikethosegiveninthepassage,andtheyparallelideasandsituationsinthepassage;therefore,toanswerthequestion,youmustdomorethanrecallwhatyouread.Youmustrecognizetheessentialattributesofideasandsituationspresentedinthepassagewhentheyappearindifferentwordsandinanentirelynewcontext.

LogicalstructureThesequestionsrequireyoutoanalyzeandevaluatetheorganizationandlogicofapassage.Theymayaskyou

howapassageisconstructed—forinstance,doesitdefine,compareor

contrast,presentanewidea,orrefuteanidea?

howtheauthorpersuadesreaderstoaccepthisorherassertions

thereasonbehindtheauthor’suseofanyparticularsupportingdetail

toidentifyassumptionsthattheauthorismaking

toassessthestrengthsandweaknessesoftheauthor’sarguments

torecognizeappropriatecounterarguments

Thesequestionsmeasureyourabilitynotonlytocomprehendapassagebutalsotoevaluateitcritically.However,itisimportantforyoutorealizethatlogicalstructurequestionsdonotrelyonanykindofformallogic,nordotheyrequireyoutobefamiliarwithspecifictermsoflogicorargumentation.Youcananswerthesequestionsusingonlytheinformationinthepassageandcarefulreasoning.

AboutthestyleandtoneStyleandtonequestionsaskabouttheexpressionofapassageandabouttheideasinapassagethatmaybeexpressedthroughitsdiction—theauthor’schoiceofwords.Youmaybeaskedtodeducetheauthor’sattitudetoanidea,afact,orasituationfromthewordsthatheorsheusestodescribeit.Youmayalsobeaskedtoselectawordthataccuratelydescribesthetoneofapassage—forinstance,“critical,”“questioning,”“objective,”or“enthusiastic.”

Toanswerthistypeofquestion,youwillhavetoconsiderthelanguageofthepassageasawhole.Ittakesmorethanonepointed,criticalwordtomakethetoneofanentirepassage“critical.”Sometimes,styleandtonequestionsaskwhataudiencethepassagewasprobablyintendedfororwhattypeofpublicationitprobablyappearedin.Styleandtonequestionsmayapplytoonesmallpartofthepassageortothepassageasawhole.Toanswerthem,youmustaskyourselfwhatmeaningsarecontainedinthewordsofapassagebeyondtheliteralmeanings.Didtheauthorusecertainwordsbecauseoftheiremotionalcontent,orbecauseaparticularaudiencewouldexpecttohearthem?Remember,thesequestionsmeasureyourabilitytodiscernmeaningexpressedbytheauthorthroughhisorherchoiceofwords.

3.2Test-TakingStrategies1. Donotexpecttobecompletelyfamiliarwithanyofthematerialpresentedinreadingcomprehensionpassages.

Youmayfindsomepassageseasiertounderstandthanothers,butallpassagesaredesignedtopresentachallenge.Ifyouhavesomefamiliaritywiththematerialpresentedinapassage,donotletthisknowledgeinfluenceyourchoiceofanswerstothequestions.Answerallquestionsonthebasisofwhatisstatedorimpliedinthepassageitself.

2. Analyzeeachpassagecarefully,becausethequestionsrequireyoutohaveaspecificanddetailedunderstandingofthematerial.

Youmayfinditeasiertodotheanalysisfirst,beforemovingtothequestions.Or,youmayfindthatyouprefertoskimthepassagethefirsttimeandreadmorecarefullyonceyouunderstandwhataquestionasks.Youmayevenwanttoreadthequestionbeforereadingthepassage.Youshouldchoosethemethodmostsuitableforyou.

3. Focusonkeywordsandphrases,andmakeeveryefforttoavoidlosingthesenseofwhatisdiscussedinthepassage.

Keepthefollowinginmind:

Notehoweachfactrelatestoanideaoranargument.

Notewherethepassagemovesfromoneideatothenext.

Separatemainideasfromsupportingideas.

Determinewhatconclusionsarereachedandwhy.

4. Readthequestionscarefully,makingcertainthatyouunderstandwhatisasked.

Ananswerchoicethataccuratelyrestatesinformationinthepassagemaybeincorrectifitdoesnotanswerthequestion.Ifyouneedto,referbacktothepassageforclarification.

5. Readallthechoicescarefully.

Neverassumethatyouhaveselectedthebestanswerwithoutfirstreadingallthechoices.

6. Selectthechoicethatanswersthequestionbestintermsoftheinformationgiveninthepassage.

Donotrelyonoutsideknowledgeofthematerialtohelpyouanswerthe

questions.

7. Rememberthatcomprehension—notspeed—isthecriticalsuccessfactorwhenitcomestoreadingcomprehensionquestions.

3.3TheDirectionsThesearethedirectionsthatyouwillseeforreadingcomprehensionquestionswhenyoutaketheGMATexam.Ifyoureadthemcarefullyandunderstandthemclearlybeforegoingtositforthetest,youwillnotneedtospendtoomuchtimereviewingthemonceyouareatthetestcenterandthetestisunderway.

Thequestionsinthisgrouparebasedonthecontentofapassage.Afterreadingthepassage,choosethebestanswertoeachquestion.Answerallquestionsfollowingthepassageonthebasisofwhatisstatedorimpliedinthepassage.

3.4SampleQuestionsEachofthereadingcomprehensionquestionsisbasedonthecontentofapassage.Afterreadingthepassage,answerallquestionspertainingtoitonthebasisofwhatisstatedorimpliedinthepassage.Foreachquestion,selectthebestanswerofthechoicesgiven.

LineHumanbeings,bornwithadrivetoexploreandexperiment,thriveonlearning.Unfortunately,corporationsareorientedpredominantlytowardcontrollingemployees,notfosteringtheirlearning.(5)Ironically,thisorientationcreatestheveryconditionsthatpredestineemployeestomediocreperformances.Overtime,superiorperformancerequiressuperiorlearning,becauselong-termcorporatesurvivaldependsoncontinuallyexploring(10)newbusinessandorganizationalopportunitiesthatcancreatenewsourcesofgrowth.Tosurviveinthefuture,corporationsmustbecome“learningorganizations,”enterprisesthatareconstantlyabletoadaptandexpandtheir(15)capabilities.Toaccomplishthis,corporationsmustchangehowtheyviewemployees.Thetraditionalviewthatasinglecharismaticleadershouldsetthecorporation’sdirectionandmakekeydecisionsisrootedinanindividualisticworldview.Inan(20)increasinglyinterdependentworld,suchaviewisnolongerviable.Inlearningorganizations,thinkingandactingareintegratedatalljoblevels.Corporateleadershipisshared,andleadersbecomedesigners,teachers,andstewards,rolesrequiring(25)newskills:theabilitytobuildsharedvision,torevealandchallengeprevailingmentalmodels,andtofosterbroader,moreintegratedpatternsofthinking.Inshort,leadersinlearningorganizationsareresponsibleforbuildingorganizationsinwhich(30)employeesarecontinuallylearningnewskillsandexpandingtheircapabilitiestoshapetheirfuture.

Questions1-4refertothepassage.

1. Accordingtothepassage,traditionalcorporateleadersdifferfromleadersinlearningorganizationsinthattheformer

A. encourageemployeestoconcentrateondevelopingawiderangeofskills

B. enableemployeestorecognizeandconfrontdominantcorporatemodelsandtodevelopalternativemodels

C. makeimportantpolicydecisionsaloneandthenrequireemployeesinthecorporationtoabidebythosedecisions

D. instillconfidenceinemployeesbecauseoftheirwillingnesstomakeriskydecisionsandaccepttheirconsequences

E. areconcernedwithofferingemployeesfrequentadviceandcareerguidance

2. Whichofthefollowingbestdescribesemployeebehaviorencouragedwithinlearningorganizations,assuchorganizationsaredescribedinthepassage?

A. Carefullydefiningone’sjobdescriptionandtakingcaretoavoiddeviationsfromit

B. Designingmentoringprogramsthattrainnewemployeestofollowproceduresthathavebeenusedformanyyears

C. Concentratingone’seffortsonmasteringoneaspectofacomplicatedtask

D. Studyinganorganizationalproblem,preparingareport,andsubmittingittoacorporateleaderforapproval

E. Analyzingaproblemrelatedtoproductivity,makingadecisionaboutasolution,andimplementingthatsolution

3. Accordingtotheauthorofthepassage,corporateleadersofthefutureshoulddowhichofthefollowing?

A. Theyshouldencourageemployeestoputlong-termgoalsaheadofshort-termprofits.

B. Theyshouldexercisemorecontroloveremployeesinordertoconstrainproductioncosts.

C. Theyshouldredefineincentivesforemployees’performanceimprovement.

D. Theyshouldprovideemployeeswithopportunitiestogainnew

skillsandexpandtheircapabilities.

E. Theyshouldpromoteindividualmanagerswhoarecommittedtoestablishedcompanypolicies.

4. Theprimarypurposeofthepassageisto

A. endorseatraditionalcorporatestructure

B. introduceanewapproachtocorporateleadershipandevaluatecriticismsofit

C. explaincompetingtheoriesaboutmanagementpracticesandreconcilethem

D. contrasttwotypicalcorporateorganizationalstructures

E. proposeanalternativetoacommoncorporateapproach

LineTheGrossDomesticProduct(GDP),whichmeasuresthedollarvalueoffinishedgoodsandservicesproducedbyaneconomyduringagivenperiod,servesasthechiefindicatorofthe(5)economicwell-beingoftheUnitedStates.TheGDPassumesthattheeconomicsignificanceofgoodsandservicesliessolelyintheirprice,andthatthesegoodsandservicesaddtothenationalwell-being,notbecauseofanyintrinsicvaluetheymay(10)possess,butsimplybecausetheywereproducedandbought.Additionally,onlythosegoodsandservicesinvolvedinmonetarytransactionsareincludedintheGDP.Thus,theGDPignorestheeconomicutilityofsuchthingsasaclean(15)environmentandcohesivefamiliesandcommunities.Itisthereforenotmerelycoincidental,sincenationalpoliciesincapitalistandnoncapitalistcountriesalikearedependentonindicatorssuchastheGDP,thatboththeenvironmentandthesocial(20)structurehavebeenerodedinrecentdecades.NotonlydoestheGDPmaskthiserosion,itcanactuallyportrayitasaneconomicgain:anoilspilloffacoastalregion“adds”totheGDPbecauseitgeneratescommercialactivity.Inshort,thenation’s(25)centralmeasureofeconomicwell-beingworkslikea

calculatingmachinethataddsbutcannotsubtract.

Questions5–10refertothepassage.

A. identifywaysinwhichtheGDPcouldbemodifiedsothatitwouldserveasamoreaccurateindicatoroftheeconomicwell-beingoftheUnitedStates

B. suggestthattheGDP,inspiteofcertainshortcomings,isstillthemostreliableindicatoroftheeconomicwell-beingoftheUnitedStates

C. examinecrucialshortcomingsoftheGDPasanindicatoroftheeconomicwell-beingoftheUnitedStates

D. arguethatthegrowthoftheUnitedStateseconomyinrecentdecadeshasdiminishedtheeffectivenessoftheGDPasanindicatorofthenation’seconomicwell-being

E. discusshowtheGDPcametobeusedastheprimaryindicatoroftheeconomicwell-beingoftheUnitedStates

6. Whichofthefollowingbestdescribesthefunctionofthesecondsentenceofthepassageinthecontextofthepassageasawhole?

A. ItdescribesanassumptionabouttheGDPthatisdefendedinthecourseofthepassage.

B. ItcontributestoadiscussionoftheoriginsoftheGDP.

C. ItclarifiesacommonmisconceptionabouttheuseoftheGDP.

D. ItidentifiesamajorflawintheGDP.

E. ItsuggestsarevisiontothemethodofcalculatingtheGDP.

7. Itcanbeinferredthattheauthorofthepassagewouldagreewithwhichofthefollowingaboutthe“economicsignificance”ofthosegoodsandservicesthatareincludedintheGDP?

A. Itisacomprehensiveindicatorofanation’seconomicwell-being.

B. Itisnotaccuratelycapturedbythepriceofthosegoodsandservices.

C. Itisusuallylessthantheintrinsicvalueofthosegoodsandservices.

D. ItismoredifficulttocalculatethantheeconomicsignificanceofthosegoodsandservicesthatarenotincludedintheGDP.

E. Itiscalculateddifferentlyincapitalistcountriesthaninnoncapitalistcountries.

8. ThecomparisonoftheGDPtoacalculatingmachineservestodowhichofthefollowing?

A. RefuteanassertionthatthecalculationsinvolvedintheGDParerelativelycomplexinnature

B. IndicatethattheGDPisbettersuitedtorecordcertaintypesofmonetarytransactionsthanothers

C. SuggestthatitislikelythattheGDPwillbesupplantedbyother,moresophisticatedeconomicindicators

D. IllustratethepointthattheGDPhasnowayofmeasuringthedestructiveimpactofsuchthingsasoilspillsonthenation’seconomicwell-being

E. ExemplifyanassertionthattheGDPtendstoexaggeratetheamountofcommercialactivitygeneratedbysuchthingsasoilspills

9. ThepassageimpliesthatnationalpoliciesthatrelyheavilyoneconomicindicatorssuchastheGDPtendto

A. becomeincreasinglycapitalisticinnature

B. disregardtheeconomicimportanceofenvironmentalandsocialfactorsthatdonotinvolvemonetarytransactions

C. overestimatetheamountofcommercialactivitygeneratedbyenvironmentaldisasters

D. overestimatetheeconomicsignificanceofcohesivefamiliesandcommunities

E. assumethattheeconomicsignificanceofgoodsandservicesdoesnotliesolelyinthepriceofthosegoodsandservices

10. ItcanbeinferredthattheauthorofthepassagewouldagreewithwhichofthefollowingassessmentsoftheGDPasanindicatoroftheeconomicwell-beingoftheUnitedStates?

A. Itmaskssocialandenvironmentalerosionmorefullythanthechiefeconomicindicatorsofothernations.

B. Itisbasedoninaccurateestimationsofthepricesofmanygoodsandservices.

C. Itoverestimatestheamountofcommercialactivitythatisgenerated

intheUnitedStates.

D. Itisconducivetoerrorbecauseitconflatesdistincttypesofeconomicactivity.

E. Itdoesnottakeintoaccounttheeconomicutilityofcertainenvironmentalandsocialconditions.

LineIn1971researchershopingtopredictearthquakesintheshorttermbyidentifyingprecursoryphenomena(thosethatoccurafewdaysbeforelargequakesbutnototherwise)turnedtheirattentiontochanges(5)inseismicwavesthathadbeendetectedpriortoearthquakes.Anexplanationforsuchchangeswasofferedby“dilatancytheory,”basedonawell-knownphenomenonobservedinrocksinthelaboratory:asstressbuilds,microfracturesinrockclose,(10)decreasingtherock’svolume.Butasstresscontinuestoincrease,therockbeginstocrackandexpandinvolume,allowinggroundwatertoseepin,weakeningtherock.Accordingtothistheory,sucheffectscouldleadtoseveralprecursoryphenomenain(15)thefield,includingachangeinthevelocityofseismicwaves,andanincreaseinsmall,nearbytremors.Researchersinitiallyreportedsuccessinidentifyingthesepossibleprecursors,butsubsequentanalysesoftheirdataproveddisheartening.Seismicwaves(20)withunusualvelocitieswererecordedbeforesomeearthquakes,butwhilethehistoricalrecordconfirmsthatmostlargeearthquakesareprecededbyminortremors,theseforeshocksindicatenothingaboutthemagnitudeofanimpendingquakeandare(25)indistinguishablefromotherminortremorsthatoccurwithoutlargeearthquakes.Inthe1980s,someresearchersturnedtheireffortsfromshort-termtolong-termprediction.Notingthatearthquakestendtooccurrepeatedlyin(30)certainregions,LindhandBakerattemptedtoidentifypatternsofrecurrence,orearthquakecycles,onwhichtobasepredictions.Inastudyofearthquake-pronesitesalongtheSanAndreasFault,theydeterminedthatquakesoccurredatintervalsofapproximately22

(35)yearsnearonesiteandconcludedthattherewasa95percentprobabilityofanearthquakeinthatareaby1992.Theearthquakedidnotoccurwithinthetimeframepredicted,however.

LineEvidenceagainstthekindofregular(40)earthquakecyclesthatLindhandBakertriedtoestablishhascomefromarelativelynewfield,paleoseismology.Paleoseismologistshaveunearthedanddatedgeologicalfeaturessuchasfaultscarpsthatwerecausedby(45)earthquakesthousandsofyearsago.TheyhavedeterminedthattheaverageintervalbetweentenearthquakesthattookplaceatonesitealongtheSanAndreasFaultinthepasttwomillenniawas132years,butindividualintervalsrangedgreatly,(50)from44to332years.

11. Thepassageisprimarilyconcernedwith

A. explainingwhyonemethodofearthquakepredictionhasprovenmorepracticablethananalternativemethod

B. suggestingthataccurateearthquakeforecastingmustcombineelementsoflong-termandshort-termprediction

C. challengingtheusefulnessofdilatancytheoryforexplainingtheoccurrenceofprecursoryphenomena

D. discussingthedeficiencyoftwomethodsbywhichresearchershaveattemptedtopredicttheoccurrenceofearthquakes

E. describingthedevelopmentofmethodsforestablishingpatternsintheoccurrenceofpastearthquakes

12. Accordingtothepassage,laboratoryevidenceconcerningtheeffectsofstressonrocksmighthelpaccountfor

A. differencesinmagnitudeamongearthquakes

B. certainphenomenathatoccurpriortoearthquakes

C. variationsintheintervalsbetweenearthquakesinaparticulararea

D. differencesinthefrequencywithwhichearthquakesoccurinvariousareas

E. theunreliabilityofshort-termearthquakepredictions

13. Itcanbeinferredfromthepassagethatoneproblemwithusingprecursoryphenomenatopredictearthquakesisthatminortremors

A. typicallyoccursomedistancefromthesitesofthelargeearthquakesthatfollowthem

B. aredirectlylinkedtothemechanismsthatcauseearthquakes

C. aredifficulttodistinguishfrommajortremors

D. haveprovendifficulttomeasureaccurately

E. arenotalwaysfollowedbylargeearthquakes

14. Accordingtothepassage,someresearchersbasedtheirresearchaboutlong-termearthquakepredictiononwhichofthefollowingfacts?

A. Thehistoricalrecordconfirmsthatmostearthquakeshavebeenprecededbyminortremors.

B. TheaverageintervalbetweenearthquakesinoneregionoftheSanAndreasFaultis132years.

C. Someregionstendtobethesiteofnumerousearthquakesoverthecourseofmanyyears.

D. Changesinthevolumeofrockcanoccurasaresultofbuildingstressandcanleadtotheweakeningofrock.

E. Paleoseismologistshavebeenabletounearthanddategeologicalfeaturescausedbypastearthquakes.

15. Thepassagesuggestswhichofthefollowingaboutthepaleoseismologists’findingsdescribedinlines42–50?

A. Theysuggestthatthefrequencywithwhichearthquakesoccurredataparticularsitedecreasedsignificantlyoverthepasttwomillennia.

B. Theysuggestthatpaleoseismologistsmaysomedaybeabletomakereasonablyaccuratelong-termearthquakepredictions.

C. Theysuggestthatresearchersmaysomedaybeabletodeterminewhichpastoccurrencesofminortremorswereactuallyfollowedbylargeearthquakes.

D. Theysuggestthattherecurrenceofearthquakesinearthquake-

pronesitesistooirregulartoserveasabasisforearthquakeprediction.

E. Theyindicatethatresearchersattemptingtodeveloplong-termmethodsofearthquakepredictionhaveoverlookedimportantevidenceconcerningthecausesofearthquakes.

16. Theauthorimplieswhichofthefollowingabouttheabilityoftheresearchersmentionedinline18topredictearthquakes?

A. Theycanidentifywhenanearthquakeislikelytooccurbutnothowlargeitwillbe.

B. Theycanidentifytheregionswhereearthquakesarelikelytooccurbutnotwhentheywilloccur.

C. Theyareunabletodetermineeitherthetimeortheplacethatearthquakesarelikelytooccur.

D. Theyarelikelytobemoreaccurateatshort-termearthquakepredictionthanatlong-termearthquakeprediction.

E. Theycandeterminetheregionswhereearthquakeshaveoccurredinthepastbutnottheregionswheretheyarelikelytooccurinthefuture.

LineAkeydecisionrequiredofadvertisingmanagersiswhethera“hard-sell”or“soft-sell”strategyisappropriateforaspecifictargetmarket.Thehard-sellapproachinvolvestheuseofdirect,forceful(5)claimsregardingthebenefitsoftheadvertisedbrandovercompetitors’offerings.Incontrast,thesoft-sellapproachinvolvestheuseofadvertisingclaimsthatimplysuperioritymoresubtly.Onepositiveaspectofthehard-sellapproachis(10)itsuseofverysimpleandstraightforwardproductclaimspresentedasexplicitconclusions,withlittleroomforconfusionregardingtheadvertiser’smessage.However,someconsumersmayresentbeingtoldwhattobelieveandsomemaydistrust(15)themessage.Resentmentanddistrustoftenleadtocounterargumentationandtoboomerangeffectswhereconsumerscometobelieveconclusionsdiametricallyopposedtoconclusionsendorsedin

advertisingclaims.Bycontrast,theriskof(20)boomerangeffectsisgreatlyreducedwithsoft-sellapproaches.Onewaytoimplementthesoft-sellapproachistoprovideinformationthatimpliesthemainconclusionstheadvertiserwantstheconsumertodraw,butleavetheconclusions(25)themselvesunstated.Becauseconsumersareinvitedtomakeuptheirownminds,implicitconclusionsreducetheriskofresentment,distrust,andcounterargumentation.Recentresearchonconsumermemoryand(30)judgmentsuggestsanotheradvantageofimplicitconclusions.Beliefsorconclusionsthatareself-generatedaremoreaccessiblefrommemorythanbeliefsfromconclusionsprovidedexplicitlybyotherindividuals,andthushaveagreaterimpacton(35)judgmentanddecisionmaking.Moreover,self-generatedbeliefsareoftenperceivedasmoreaccurateandvalidthanthebeliefsofothers,becauseotherindividualsmaybeperceivedaslessknowledgeable,ormaybeperceivedas(40)manipulativeordeliberatelymisleading.

LineDespitetheseadvantages,implicitconclusionsmaynotalwaysbemoreeffectivethanexplicitconclusions.Oneriskisthatsomeconsumersmayfailtodrawtheirownconclusionsandthusmissthe(45)pointofthemessage.Inferentialactivityislikelyonlywhenconsumersaremotivatedandabletoengageineffortfulcognitiveprocesses.Anotherriskisthatsomeconsumersmaydrawconclusionsotherthantheoneintended.Evenifinferential(50)activityislikelythereisnoguaranteethatconsumerswillfollowthepathprovidedbytheadvertiser.Finally,athirdriskisthatconsumersmayinfertheintendedconclusionbutquestionthevalidityoftheirinference.

17. Itcanbeinferredfromthepassagethatonereasonanadvertisermightpreferahard-sellapproachtoasoft-sellapproachisthat

A. therisksofboomerangeffectsareminimizedwhentheconclusionsanadvertiserwantstheconsumertodrawarethemselvesleftunstated

B. counterargumentationislikelyfromconsumerswhofailtodrawtheirownconclusionsregardinganadvertisingclaim

C. inferentialactivityislikelytooccurevenifconsumersperceivethemselvestobemoreknowledgeablethantheindividualspresentingproductclaims

D. researchonconsumermemorysuggeststhattheexplicitconclusionsprovidedbyanadvertiserusingthehard-sellapproachhaveasignificantimpactondecisionmaking

E. theinformationpresentedbyanadvertiserusingthesoft-sellapproachmayimplydifferentconclusionstodifferentconsumers

18. Eachofthefollowingismentionedinthepassageasacharacteristicofthehard-sellapproachEXCEPT:

A. Itsoverallmessageisreadilygrasped.

B. Itappealstoconsumers’knowledgeabouttheproduct.

C. Itmakesexplicitclaimsthattheadvertisedbrandissuperiortootherbrands.

D. Itusesstatementsthatareexpressedveryclearly.

E. Itmakesclaimsintheformofdirectconclusions.

19. Itcanbeinferredfromthepassagethatadvertiserscouldreduceoneoftherisksdiscussedinthelastparagraphiftheywereabletoprovide

A. motivationforconsumerstothinkabouttheadvertisement’smessage

B. informationthatimpliestheadvertiser’sintendedconclusionbutleavesthatconclusionunstated

C. subtleevidencethattheadvertisedproductissuperiortothatofcompetitors

D. informationcomparingtheadvertisedproductwithitscompetitors

E. opportunityforconsumerstogeneratetheirownbeliefsor

conclusions

A. pointouttherisksinvolvedintheuseofaparticularadvertisingstrategy

B. makeacaseforthesuperiorityofoneadvertisingstrategyoveranother

C. illustratethewaysinwhichtwoadvertisingstrategiesmaybeimplemented

D. presenttheadvantagesanddisadvantagesoftwoadvertisingstrategies

E. contrastthetypesoftargetmarketsforwhichtwoadvertisingstrategiesareappropriate

21. Whichofthefollowingbestdescribesthefunctionofthesentenceinlines25–28inthecontextofthepassageasawhole?

A. Itreiteratesadistinctionbetweentwoadvertisingstrategiesthatismadeinthefirstparagraph.

B. Itexplainshowaparticularstrategyavoidsadrawbackdescribedearlierintheparagraph.

C. Itsuggeststhatariskdescribedearlierintheparagraphislessseriousthansomeresearchersbelieveittobe.

D. Itoutlineswhythestrategydescribedintheprevioussentenceinvolvescertainrisksforanadvertiser.

E. Itintroducesanargumentthatwillberefutedinthefollowingparagraph.

22. Itcanbeinferredfromthepassagethatonesituationinwhichtheboomerangeffectoftenoccursiswhenconsumers

A. havebeenexposedtoforcefulclaimsthatarediametricallyopposedtothoseinanadvertiser’smessage

B. havepreviousself-generatedbeliefsorconclusionsthatarereadilyaccessiblefrommemory

C. aresubjectedtoadvertisingmessagesthataretargetedatspecificmarketstowhichthoseconsumersdonotbelong

D. areconfusedregardingthepointoftheadvertiser’smessage

E. cometoviewtheadvertiser’smessagewithsuspicion

23. Itcanbeinferredfromthepassagethattheresearchmentionedinline29supportswhichofthefollowingstatements?

A. Implicitconclusionsaremorelikelytocaptureaccuratelythepointoftheadvertiser’smessagethanareexplicitconclusions.

B. Counterargumentationislesslikelytooccurifanindividual’sbeliefsorconclusionsarereadilyaccessiblefrommemory.

C. Thehard-sellapproachresultsinconclusionsthataremoredifficultfortheconsumertorecallthanareconclusionsresultingfromthesoft-sellapproach.

D. Whenthebeliefsofothersarepresentedasdefiniteandforcefulclaims,theyareperceivedtobeasaccurateasself-generatedbeliefs.

E. Despitetheadvantagesofimplicitconclusions,thehard-sellapproachinvolvesfewerrisksfortheadvertiserthandoesthesoft-sellapproach.

LineCoralreefsareoneofthemostfragile,biologicallycomplex,anddiversemarineecosystemsonEarth.Thisecosystemisoneofthefascinatingparadoxesofthebiosphere:howdoclear,andthusnutrient-(5)poor,waterssupportsuchprolificandproductivecommunities?Partoftheanswerlieswithinthetissuesofthecoralsthemselves.Symbioticcellsofalgaeknownaszooxanthellaecarryoutphotosynthesisusingthemetabolicwastesofthe(10)corals,therebyproducingfoodforthemselves,fortheircoralhosts,andevenforothermembersofthereefcommunity.Thissymbioticprocessallowsorganismsinthereefcommunitytousesparsenutrientresourcesefficiently.(15)Unfortunatelyforcoralreefs,however,avarietyofhumanactivitiesarecausingworldwidedegradationofshallowmarinehabitatsbyaddingnutrientstothewater.Agriculture,slash-and-burnlandclearing,sewagedisposal,andmanufacturing(20)thatcreateswasteby-productsallincreasenutrientloadsinthesewaters.Typicalsymptomsofreef

declinearedestabilizedherbivorepopulationsandanincreasingabundanceofalgaeandfilter-feedinganimals.Declinesinreefcommunitiesare(25)consistentwithobservationsthatnutrientinputisincreasingindirectproportiontogrowinghumanpopulations,therebythreateningreefcommunitiessensitivetosubtlechangesinnutrientinputtotheirwaters.

A. describingtheeffectsofhumanactivitiesonalgaeincoralreefs

B. explaininghowhumanactivitiesareposingathreattocoralreefcommunities

C. discussingtheprocessbywhichcoralreefsdeteriorateinnutrient-poorwaters

D. explaininghowcoralreefsproducefoodforthemselves

E. describingtheabundanceofalgaeandfilter-feedinganimalsincoralreefareas

25. Thepassagesuggestswhichofthefollowingaboutcoralreefcommunities?

A. Coralreefcommunitiesmayactuallybemorelikelytothriveinwatersthatarerelativelylowinnutrients.

B. Thenutrientsonwhichcoralreefcommunitiesthriveareonlyfoundinshallowwaters.

C. Humanpopulationgrowthhasledtochangingoceantemperatures,whichthreatenscoralreefcommunities.

D. Thegrowthofcoralreefcommunitiestendstodestabilizeunderwaterherbivorepopulations.

E. Coralreefcommunitiesaremorecomplexanddiversethanmostecosystemslocatedondryland.

26. Theauthorrefersto“filter-feedinganimals”(lines23–24)inorderto

A. provideanexampleofacharacteristicsignofreefdeterioration

B. explainhowreefcommunitiesacquiresustenanceforsurvival

C. identifyafactorthathelpsherbivorepopulationsthrive

D. indicateacauseofdecreasingnutrientinputinwatersthatreefsinhabit

E. identifymembersofcoralreefcommunitiesthatrelyoncoralreefsfornutrients

27. Accordingtothepassage,whichofthefollowingisafactorthatisthreateningthesurvivalofcoralreefcommunities?

A. Thewaterstheyinhabitcontainfewnutrientresources.

B. Adeclineinnutrientinputisdisruptingtheirsymbioticrelationshipwithzooxanthellae.

C. Thedegradedwatersoftheirmarinehabitatshavereducedtheirabilitytocarryoutphotosynthesis.

D. Theyaretoobiologicallycomplextosurviveinhabitatswithminimalnutrientinput.

E. Wasteby-productsresultinanincreaseinnutrientinputtoreefcommunities.

28. Itcanbeinferredfromthepassagethattheauthordescribescoralreefcommunitiesasparadoxicalmostlikelyforwhichofthefollowingreasons?

A. Theyarethrivingeventhoughhumanactivitieshavedepletedthenutrientsintheirenvironment.

B. Theyareabletosurviveinspiteofanoverabundanceofalgaeinhabitingtheirwaters.

C. Theyareabletosurviveinanenvironmentwithlimitedfoodresources.

D. Theirmetabolicwastescontributetothedegradationofthewatersthattheyinhabit.

E. Theyaredecliningevenwhenthewatersurroundingthemremainsclear.

LineSupposewewereinaspaceshipinfreefall,whereobjectsareweightless,andwantedtoknowasmallsolidobject’smass.Wecouldnotsimplybalancethatobjectagainstanotherofknownweight,aswe

(5)wouldonEarth.Theunknownmasscouldbedetermined,however,byplacingtheobjectonaspringscaleandswingingthescaleinacircleattheendofastring.Thescalewouldmeasurethetensioninthestring,whichwoulddependonboth(10)thespeedofrevolutionandthemassoftheobject.Thetensionwouldbegreater,thegreaterthemassorthegreaterthespeedofrevolution.Fromthemeasuredtensionandspeedofwhirling,wecoulddeterminetheobject’smass.(15)Astronomersuseananalogousprocedureto“weigh”double-starsystems.Thespeedwithwhichthetwostarsinadouble-starsystemcircleoneanotherdependsonthegravitationalforcebetweenthem,whichholdsthesystemtogether.This(20)attractiveforce,analogoustothetensioninthestring,isproportionaltothestars’combinedmass,accordingtoNewton’slawofgravitation.Byobservingthetimerequiredforthestarstocircleeachother(theperiod)andmeasuringthedistance(25)betweenthem,wecandeducetherestrainingforce,andhencethemasses.

29. Itcanbeinferredfromthepassagethatthetwoproceduresdescribedinthepassagehavewhichofthefollowingincommon?

A. Theyhavebeenappliedinpractice.

B. Theyrelyontheuseofadevicethatmeasurestension.

C. Theirpurposeistodetermineanunknownmass.

D. Theycanonlybeappliedtosmallsolidobjects.

E. Theyinvolveattractionbetweenobjectsofsimilarmass.

30. Accordingtothepassage,thetensioninthestringmentionedinlines8–9isanalogoustowhichofthefollowingaspectsofadouble-starsystem?

A. Thespeedwithwhichonestarorbitstheother

B. Thegravitationalattractionbetweenthestars

C. Theamountoftimeittakesforthestarstocircleoneanother

D. Thedistancebetweenthetwostars

E. Thecombinedmassofthetwostars

31. Whichofthefollowingbestdescribestherelationshipbetweenthefirstandthesecondparagraphofthepassage?

A. Thefirstparagraphprovidesanillustrationusefulforunderstandingaproceduredescribedinthesecondparagraph.

B. Thefirstparagraphdescribesahypotheticalsituationwhoseplausibilityistestedinthesecondparagraph.

C. Thefirstparagraphevaluatestheusefulnessofaprocedurewhoseapplicationisdescribedfurtherinthesecondparagraph.

D. Thesecondparagraphprovidesevidencetosupportaclaimmadeinthefirstparagraph.

E. Thesecondparagraphanalyzesthepracticalimplicationsofamethodologyproposedinthefirstparagraph.

32. Theauthorofthepassagementionsobservationsregardingtheperiodofadouble-starsystemasbeingusefulfordetermining

A. thedistancebetweenthetwostarsinthesystem

B. thetimeittakesforeachstartorotateonitsaxis

C. thesizeoftheorbitthesystem’stwostarsoccupy

D. thedegreeofgravitationalattractionbetweenthesystem’sstars

E. thespeedatwhichthestarsystemmovesthroughspace

LineHomeostasis,ananimal’smaintenanceofcertaininternalvariableswithinanacceptablerange,particularlyinextremephysicalenvironments,haslonginterestedbiologists.Thedesertratandthe(5)camelinthemostwater-deprivedenvironments,andmarinevertebratesinanall-waterenvironment,encounterthesameregulatoryproblem:maintainingadequateinternalfluidbalance.Fordesertratsandcamels,theproblemis(10)conservationofwaterinanenvironmentwherestandingwaterisnonexistent,temperatureishigh,andhumidityislow.Despitethesehandicaps,

desertratsareabletomaintaintheosmoticpressureoftheirblood,aswellastheirtotalbody-(15)watercontent,atapproximatelythesamelevelsasotherrats.Onecountermeasureisbehavioral:theseratsstayinburrowsduringthehotpartoftheday,thusavoidinglossoffluidthroughpantingorsweating,whichareregulatorymechanismsfor(20)maintaininginternalbodytemperaturebyevaporativecooling.Also,desertrats’kidneyscanexcreteaurinehavingtwiceashighasaltcontentasseawater.Camels,ontheotherhand,relymoreonsimple(25)endurance.Theycannotstorewater,andtheirrelianceonanentirelyunexceptionalkidneyresultsinarateofwaterlossthroughrenalfunctionsignificantlyhigherthanthatofdesertrats.Asaresult,camelsmusttoleratelossesinbodywater(30)ofupto30percentoftheirbodyweight.Nevertheless,camelsdorelyonaspecialmechanismtokeepwaterlosswithinatolerablerange:bysweatingandpantingonlywhentheirbodytemperatureexceedsthatwhichwouldkilla(35)human,theyconserveinternalwater.Marinevertebratesexperiencedifficultywiththeirwaterbalancebecausethoughthereisnoshortageofseawatertodrink,theymustdrinkalotofittomaintaintheirinternalfluidbalance.Butthe(40)excesssaltsfromtheseawatermustbedischargedsomehow,andthekidneysofmostmarinevertebratesareunabletoexcreteaurineinwhichthesaltsaremoreconcentratedthaninseawater.Mostoftheseanimalshavespecialsalt-secreting(45)organsoutsidethekidneythatenablethemtoeliminateexcesssalt.

33. Whichofthefollowingmostaccuratelystatesthepurposeofthepassage?

A. Tocomparetwodifferentapproachestothestudyofhomeostasis

B. Tosummarizethefindingsofseveralstudiesregardingorganisms’maintenanceofinternalvariablesinextremeenvironments

C. Toargueforaparticularhypothesisregardingvariousorganisms’conservationofwaterindesertenvironments

D. Tociteexamplesofhowhomeostasisisachievedbyvariousorganisms

E. Todefendanewtheoryregardingthemaintenanceofadequatefluidbalance

34. Itcanbeinferredfromthepassagethatsomemechanismsthatregulateinternalbodytemperature,likesweatingandpanting,canleadtowhichofthefollowing?

A. Ariseintheexternalbodytemperature

B. Adropinthebody’sinternalfluidlevel

C. Adecreaseintheosmoticpressureoftheblood

D. Adecreaseintheamountofrenalwaterloss

E. Adecreaseintheurine’ssaltcontent

35. Itcanbeinferredfromthepassagethattheauthorcharacterizesthecamel’skidneyas“entirelyunexceptional”(line26)primarilytoemphasizethatit

A. functionsmuchasthekidneyofaratfunctions

B. doesnotaidthecamelincopingwiththeexceptionalwaterlossresultingfromtheextremeconditionsofitsenvironment

C. doesnotenablethecameltoexcreteasmuchsaltasdothekidneysofmarinevertebrates

D. issimilarinstructuretothekidneysofmostmammalslivinginwater-deprivedenvironments

E. requiresthehelpofotherorgansineliminatingexcesssalt

LineIn1994,ateamofscientistsledbyDavidMcKaybeganstudyingthemeteoriteALH84001,whichhadbeendiscoveredinAntarcticain1984.Twoyearslater,theMcKayteamannouncedthatALH84001,(5)whichscientistsgenerallyagreeoriginatedonMars,

containedcompellingevidencethatlifeonceexistedonMars.ThisevidenceincludesthediscoveryoforganicmoleculesinALH84001,thefirsteverfoundinMartianrock.Organic(10)molecules—complex,carbon-basedcompounds—formthebasisforterrestriallife.TheorganicmoleculesfoundinALH84001arepolycyclicaromatichydrocarbons,orPAHs.Whenmicrobesdie,theirorganicmaterialoftendecaysintoPAHs.(15)SkepticismabouttheMcKayteam’sclaimremains,however.Forexample,ALH84001hasbeenonEarthfor13,000years,suggestingtosomescientiststhatitsPAHsmighthaveresultedfromterrestrialcontamination.However,McKay’s(20)teamhasdemonstratedthattheconcentrationofPAHsincreasesasonelooksdeeperintoALH84001,contrarytowhatonewouldexpectfromterrestrialcontamination.Theskeptics’strongestargument,however,isthatprocessesunrelatedto(25)organiclifecaneasilyproducealltheevidencefoundbyMcKay’steam,includingPAHs.Forexample,starformationproducesPAHs.Moreover,PAHsfrequentlyappearinothermeteorites,andnooneattributestheirpresencetolifeprocesses.Yet(30)McKay’steamnotesthattheparticularcombinationofPAHsinALH84001ismoresimilartothecombinationsproducedbydecayingorganismsthantothoseoriginatingfromnonbiologicalprocesses.

A. describenewwaysofstudyingthepossibilitythatlifeonceexistedonMars

B. reviseatheoryregardingtheexistenceoflifeonMarsinlightofnewevidence

C. reconcileconflictingviewpointsregardingthepossibilitythatlifeonceexistedonMars

D. evaluatearecentlyproposedargumentconcerningtheoriginof

ALH84001

E. describeacontroversyconcerningthesignificanceofevidencefromALH84001

37. ThepassageassertswhichofthefollowingabouttheclaimthatALH84001originatedonMars?

A. ItwasinitiallyproposedbytheMcKayteamofscientists.

B. Itisnotamatterofwidespreadscientificdispute.

C. IthasbeenquestionedbysomeskepticsoftheMcKayteam’swork.

D. IthasbeenunderminedbyrecentworkonPAHs.

E. ItisincompatiblewiththefactthatALH84001hasbeenonEarthfor13,000years.

38. ThepassagesuggeststhatthefactthatALH84001hasbeenonEarthfor13,000yearshasbeenusedbysomescientiststosupportwhichofthefollowingclaimsaboutALH84001?

A. ALH84001maynothaveoriginatedonMars.

B. ALH84001containsPAHsthataretheresultofnonbiologicalprocesses.

C. ALH84001maynothavecontainedPAHswhenitlandedonEarth.

D. TheorganicmoleculesfoundinALH84001arenotPAHs.

E. TheorganicmoleculesfoundinALH84001couldnotbetheresultofterrestrialcontamination.

39. ThepassagesuggeststhatifameteoritecontainedPAHsthatweretheresultofterrestrialcontamination,thenonewouldexpectwhichofthefollowingtobetrue?

A. ThemeteoritewouldhavebeenonEarthformorethan13,000years.

B. ThemeteoritewouldhaveoriginatedfromasourceotherthanMars.

C. ThePAHscontainedinthemeteoritewouldhaveoriginatedfromnonbiologicalprocesses.

D. ThemeteoritewouldcontainfewerPAHsthanmostothermeteoritescontain.

E. ThePAHscontainedinthemeteoritewouldbeconcentratedtoward

themeteorite’ssurface.

40. Whichofthefollowingbestdescribesthefunctionofthelastsentenceofthefirstparagraph?

A. ItidentifiesapossibleorganicsourceforthePAHsfoundinALH84001.

B. ItdescribesafeatureofPAHsthatisnotsharedbyothertypesoforganicmolecules.

C. Itexplainshowacharacteristiccommontomostmeteoritesoriginates.

D. ItsuggestshowtheterrestrialcontaminationofALH84001mighthavetakenplace.

E. ItpresentsevidencethatunderminestheclaimthatlifeonceexistedonMars.

41. ThepassagesuggeststhatMcKay’steamwouldagreewithwhichofthefollowingregardingthePAHsproducedbynonorganicprocesses?

A. ThesePAHsarenotlikelytobefoundinanymeteoritethathasbeenonEarthfor13,000yearsormore.

B. ThesePAHsarenotlikelytobefoundinanymeteoritethatoriginatedfromMars.

C. ThesePAHsarenotlikelytobeproducedbystarformation.

D. ThesePAHsarelikelytobefoundincombinationsthatdistinguishthemfromthePAHsproducedbyorganicprocesses.

E. ThesePAHsarelikelytobefoundinfewermeteoritesthanthePAHsproducedbyorganicprocesses.

LineIncurrenthistoriography,thepictureofaconsistent,unequivocaldeclineinwomen’sstatuswiththeadventofcapitalismandindustrializationisgivingwaytoananalysisthatnotonlyemphasizesbothchange(whether(5)improvementordecline)andcontinuitybutalsoaccountsforgeographicalandoccupationalvariation.Thehistoryofwomen’sworkinEnglishfarmhousecheesemakingbetween1800and1930isacaseinpoint.InherinfluentialWomenWorkersandtheIndustrial

(10)Revolution(1930),Pinchbeckarguedthattheagriculturalrevolutionoftheeighteenthandearlynineteenthcenturies,withitsattendantspecializationandenlargedscaleofoperation,curtailedwomen’sparticipationinthebusinessofcheeseproduction.Earlier,she(15)maintained,womenhadconcernedthemselveswithfeedingcows,rearingcalves,andevensellingthecheeseinlocalmarketsandfairs.Pinchbeckthoughtthattheadventofspecializationmeantthatwomen’sworkincheesedairyingwasreducedsimplyto(20)processingthemilk.“Dairymen”(anewsocialcategory)raisedandfedcowsandsoldthecheesethroughfactors,whowerealsomen.Withthisnarrowingofthescopeofwork,Pinchbeckbelieved,womenlostbusinessability,independence,andinitiative.(25)ThoughPinchbeckportrayedprecapitalist,preindustrialconditionsassuperiortowhatfollowed,recentscholarshiphasseriouslyquestionedthenotionofagoldenageforwomeninprecapitalistsociety.Forexample,scholarsnotethatwomen’scontrolseldom(30)extendedtothedisposaloftheproceedsoftheirwork.Inthecaseofcheese,theriseoffactorsmayhavecompromisedwomen’sabilitytomarketcheeseatfairs.Butmerelysellingthecheesedidnotnecessarilyimplyaccesstothemoney:Davidoffcites(35)thecaseofanEssexmanwhoappropriatedallbutafractionofthemoneyfromhiswife’scheesesales.Byfocusingonsomewhatperipheraloperations,moreover,Pinchbeckmissedasubstantialelementofcontinuityinwomen’sparticipation:throughoutthe(40)periodwomendidthecentralworkofactuallymakingcheese.TheirpersistenceinEnglishcheesedairyingcontrastswithwomen’searlydisappearancefromarableagricultureinsoutheastEnglandandfromAmericancheesedairying.Comparingthese(45)threedivergentdevelopmentsyieldssomereasonsforthedifferencesamongthem.Englishcheese-makingwomenworkedinasettinginwhichculturalvalues,agriculturalconditions,andthenatureoftheirworkcombinedtosupporttheircontinued

(50)participation.Intheothercases,oneormoreoftheseelementswaslacking.

A. presentrecentlydiscoveredevidencethatsupportsaconventionalinterpretationofahistoricalperiod

B. describehowreinterpretationsofavailableevidencehavereinvigoratedaonce-discreditedscholarlyposition

C. explainwhysomehistorianshavetendedtoemphasizechangeratherthancontinuityindiscussingaparticularperiod

D. explorehowchangesinaparticularoccupationservetocountertheprevailingviewofahistoricalperiod

E. examineaparticularareaofhistoricalresearchinordertoexemplifyageneralscholarlytrend

43. RegardingEnglishlocalmarketsandfairs,whichofthefollowingcanbeinferredfromthepassage?

A. Bothbeforeandaftertheagriculturalrevolution,thesellersofagriculturalproductsatthesevenuesweremen.

B. Knowingwhotheactivesellerswereatthesevenuesmaynotgiveareliableindicationofwhocontrolledtherevenuefromthesales.

C. TherewerenoparallelinstitutionsatwhichAmericancheesemakerscouldselltheirownproducts.

D. Priortotheagriculturalrevolution,thesellersofagriculturalproductsatthesevenuesweregenerallytheproducersthemselves.

E. Priortotheagriculturalrevolution,womensoldnotonlycheesebutalsoproductsofarableagricultureatthesevenues.

44. ThepassagedescribestheworkofPinchbeckprimarilyinorderto

A. demonstratethatsomeoftheconclusionsreachedbyrecenthistorianswereanticipatedinearlierscholarship

B. provideaninstanceoftheviewpointthat,accordingtothepassage’sauthor,isbeingsuperseded

C. illustratethewaysinwhichrecenthistorianshavebuiltontheworkoftheirpredecessors

D. provideapointofreferenceforsubsequentscholarshiponwomen’sworkduringtheagriculturalrevolution

E. showtheeffectthatthespecializationintroducedintheagriculturalandindustrialrevolutionshadonwomen’swork

45. Itcanbeinferredfromthepassagethatwomendidworkin

A. Americancheesemakingatsomepointpriortoindustrialization

B. arableagricultureinnorthernEnglandbothbeforeandaftertheagriculturalrevolution

C. arableagricultureinsoutheastEnglandaftertheagriculturalrevolution,inthoselocalesinwhichculturalvaluessupportedtheirparticipation

D. thesaleofcheeseatlocalmarketsinEnglandevenaftertheagriculturalrevolution

E. someareasofAmericancheesedairyingafterindustrialization

LineExactlywhenintheearlymoderneraNativeAmericansbeganexchanginganimalfurswithEuropeansforEuropean-madegoodsisuncertain.Whatisfairlycertain,eventhoughtheyleft(5)nowrittenevidenceofhavingdoneso,isthatthefirstEuropeanstoconductsuchtradeduringthemodernperiodwerefishingcrewsworkingthewatersaroundNewfoundland.Archaeologistshadnoticedthatsixteenth-centuryNativeAmerican(10)siteswerestrewnwithironboltsandmetalpins.Onlylater,uponreadingNicolasDenys’s1672accountofseventeenth-centuryEuropeansettlementsinNorthAmerica,didarchaeologistsrealizethatsixteenth-centuryEuropeanfishing(15)crewshaddismantledandexchangedpartsoftheirshipsforfurs.BythetimeEuropeanssailingtheAtlanticcoastofNorthAmericafirstdocumentedthefurtrade,itwasapparentlywellunderway.Thefirsttorecord(20)suchtrade—thecaptainofaPortuguesevesselsailingfromNewfoundlandin1501—observedthataNativeAmericanaboardtheshipworeVenetiansilverearrings.Anotherearlychroniclernotedin1524that

(25)NativeAmericanslivingalongthecoastofwhatisnowNewEnglandhadbecomeselectiveaboutEuropeantradegoods:theyacceptedonlyknives,fishhooks,andsharpmetal.BythetimeCartiersailedtheSaintLawrenceRivertenyearslater,NativeAmericanshad(30)tradedwithEuropeansformorethanthirtyyears,perhapshalfacentury.

46. TheauthorofthepassagedrawsconclusionsaboutthefurtradeinNorthAmericafromallofthefollowingsourcesEXCEPT

A. Cartier’saccountsoftradingwithNativeAmericans

B. aseventeenth-centuryaccountofEuropeansettlements

C. asixteenth-centuryaccountwrittenbyasailingvesselcaptain

D. archaeologicalobservationsofsixteenth-centuryNativeAmericansites

E. asixteenth-centuryaccountofNativeAmericansinwhatisnowNewEngland

47. ThepassagesuggeststhatwhichofthefollowingispartiallyresponsibleforthedifficultyinestablishingtheprecisedatewhenthefurtradeinNorthAmericabegan?

A. AlackofwrittenaccountsbeforethatofNicolasDenysin1672

B. Alackofwrittendocumentationbefore1501

C. AmbiguitiesintheevidencefromNativeAmericansources

D. UncertaintyaboutNativeAmericantradenetworks

E. UncertaintyabouttheoriginofartifactssupposedlytradedbyEuropeanfishingcrewsforfurs

48. Whichofthefollowing,iftrue,moststrengthenstheauthor’sassertioninthefirstsentenceofthesecondparagraph?

A. WhenEuropeansretracedCartier’svoyageinthefirstyearsoftheseventeenthcentury,theyfrequentlytradedwithNativeAmericans.

B. Fursfrombeavers,whichwereplentifulinNorthAmericabutnearlyextinctinEurope,becameextremelyfashionableinEuropeinthefinaldecadesofthesixteenthcentury.

C. Firingarmswererarelyfoundonsixteenth-centuryNativeAmericansitesoronEuropeanlistsoftradinggoodssincesucharmsrequiredfrequentmaintenanceandrepair.

D. EuropeansandNativeAmericanshadestablishedtradeprotocols,suchasbodylanguageassuringoneanotheroftheirpeacefulintentions,thatantedatetheearliestrecordsoftrade.

E. Duringthefirstquarterofthesixteenthcentury,anItalianexplorerrecordedseeingmanyNativeAmericanswithwhatappearedtobecopperbeads,thoughtheymayhavebeenmadeofindigenouscopper.

49. Whichofthefollowingbestdescribestheprimaryfunctionoflines11–16?

A. Itoffersareconsiderationofaclaimmadeintheprecedingsentence.

B. Itrevealshowarchaeologistsarrivedataninterpretationoftheevidencementionedintheprecedingsentence.

C. Itshowshowscholarsmisinterpretedthesignificanceofcertainevidencementionedintheprecedingsentence.

D. Itidentifiesoneofthefirstsignificantaccountsofseventeenth-centuryEuropeansettlementsinNorthAmerica.

E. ItexplainswhyDenys’saccountofseventeenth-centuryEuropeansettlementsisthoughttobesignificant.

50. ItcanbeinferredfromthepassagethattheauthorwouldagreewithwhichofthefollowingstatementsaboutthefurtradebetweenNativeAmericansandEuropeansintheearlymodernera?

A. Thistrademayhavebegunasearlyasthe1480s.

B. Thistradeprobablydidnotcontinuemuchbeyondthe1530s.

C. Thistradewasmostlikelyatitspeakinthemid-1520s.

D. Thistradeprobablydidnotbeginpriorto1500.

E. Thereisnowrittenevidenceofthistradepriortotheseventeenthcentury.

51. WhichofthefollowingcanbeinferredfromthepassageabouttheNativeAmericansmentionedinline25?

A. Theyhadlittleusefordecorativeobjectssuchasearrings.

B. Theybecameincreasinglydependentonfishingbetween1501and1524.

C. By1524,onlycertaingroupsofEuropeanswerewillingtotradewiththem.

D. TheselectivityoftheirtradingchoicesmadeitdifficultforthemtoengageinwidespreadtradewithEuropeans.

E. TheselectivityoftheirtradingchoicesindicatesthattheyhadbeentradingwithEuropeansforasignificantperiodoftimepriorto1524.

52. Thepassagesupportswhichofthefollowingstatementsaboutsixteenth-centuryEuropeanfishingcrewsworkingthewatersoffNewfoundland?

A. Theywrotenoaccountsoftheirfishingvoyages.

B. TheyprimarilysailedundertheflagofPortugal.

C. TheyexchangedshippartswithNativeAmericansforfurs.

D. TheycommonlytradedjewelrywithNativeAmericansforfurs.

E. TheycarriedsurplusmetalimplementstotradewithNativeAmericansforfurs.

53. WhichofthefollowingcanbeinferredfromthepassageaboutevidencepertainingtothefurtradebetweenNativeAmericansandEuropeansintheearlymodernera?

A. AlackofwrittenevidencehasmadeitdifficulttoestablishwhichEuropeansfirstparticipatedinthistrade.

B. Ingeneral,thephysicalevidencepertainingtothistradehasbeenmoreusefulthanthewrittenevidencehasbeen.

C. Thereismorewrittenevidencepertainingtothistradefromtheearlypartofthesixteenthcenturythanfromlaterinthatcentury.

D. Theearliestwrittenevidencepertainingtothistradedatesfromatimewhenthetradewasalreadywellestablished.

E. Someimportantpiecesofevidencepertainingtothistrade,suchasDenys’s1672account,werelongoverlookedbyarchaeologists.

54. Thepassagesuggestswhichofthefollowingaboutthesixteenth-centuryNativeAmericanswhotradedwithEuropeansonthecoastofwhatisnowcalledNewEngland?

A. By1524theyhadbecomeaccustomedtoexchanginggoodswith

Europeans.

B. TheywereunfamiliarwithmetalsbeforeencounteringEuropeans.

C. TheyhadnopracticalusesforEuropeangoodsotherthanmetalsandmetalimplements.

D. By1524theyhadbecomedisdainfulofEuropeantradersbecausesuchtradershadtreatedthemunfairlyinthepast.

E. By1524theydemandedonlythemostprizedEuropeangoodsbecausetheyhadcometorealizehowvaluablefurswereonEuropeanmarkets.

Thispassagewasadaptedfromanarticlepublishedin1992.

LineWhilethereisnoblueprintfortransformingalargelygovernment-controlledeconomyintoafreeone,theexperienceoftheUnitedKingdomsince1979clearlyshowsoneapproachthatworks:privatiza-(5)tion,inwhichstate-ownedindustriesaresoldtopri-vatecompanies.By1979,thetotalborrowingsandlossesofstate-ownedindustrieswererunningatabout£3billionayear.Bysellingmanyoftheseindustries,thegovernmenthasdecreasedthese(10)borrowingsandlosses,gainedover£34billionfromthesales,andnowreceivestaxrevenuesfromthenewlyprivatizedcompanies.Alongwithadramati-callyimprovedoveralleconomy,thegovernmenthasbeenabletorepay12.5percentofthenet(15)nationaldebtoveratwo-yearperiod.Infact,privatizationhasnotonlyrescuedindividualindustriesandawholeeconomyheadedfordisaster,buthasalsoraisedthelevelofperformanceineveryarea.AtBritishAirwaysand(20)BritishGas,forexample,productivityperemployeehasrisenby20percent.AtAssociatedBritishPorts,labordisruptionscommoninthe1970sandearly1980shavenowvirtuallydisappeared.AtBritishTelecom,thereisnolongerawaitinglist—as(25)therealwayswasbeforeprivatization—tohaveatelephoneinstalled.

Partofthisimprovedproductivityhascomeaboutbecausetheemployeesofprivatizedindustriesweregiventheopportunitytobuyshares(30)intheirowncompanies.Theyrespondedenthusiasticallytotheofferofshares:atBritishAerospace,89percentoftheeligibleworkforceboughtshares;atAssociatedBritishPorts,90percent;andatBritishTelecom,92percent.(35)Whenpeoplehaveapersonalstakeinsomething,theythinkaboutit,careaboutit,worktomakeitprosper.AttheNationalFreightConsortium,thenewemployee-ownersgrewsoconcernedabouttheircompany’sprofitsthatduringwage(40)negotiationstheyactuallypressedtheiruniontoloweritswagedemands.Someeconomistshavesuggestedthatgivingawayfreeshareswouldprovideaneededaccelerationoftheprivatizationprocess.Yetthey(45)missThomasPaine’spointthat“whatweobtaintoocheapweesteemtoolightly.”Inorderforthefar-rangingbenefitsofindividualownershiptobeachievedbyowners,companies,andcountries,employeesandotherindividualsmustmaketheir(50)owndecisionstobuy,andtheymustcommitsomeoftheirownresourcestothechoice.

55. Accordingtothepassage,allofthefollowingwerebenefitsofprivatizingstate-ownedindustriesintheUnitedKingdomEXCEPT:

A. Privatizedindustriespaidtaxestothegovernment.

B. Thegovernmentgainedrevenuefromsellingstate-ownedindustries.

C. Thegovernmentrepaidsomeofitsnationaldebt.

D. Profitsfromindustriesthatwerestillstate-ownedincreased.

E. Totalborrowingsandlossesofstate-ownedindustriesdecreased.

56. Accordingtothepassage,whichofthefollowingresultedinincreasedproductivityincompaniesthathavebeenprivatized?

A. Alargenumberofemployeeschosetopurchasesharesintheircompanies.

B. Freeshareswerewidelydistributedtoindividualshareholders.

C. Thegovernmentceasedtoregulatemajorindustries.

D. Unionsconductedwagenegotiationsforemployees.

E. Employee-ownersagreedtohavetheirwageslowered.

57. Itcanbeinferredfromthepassagethattheauthorconsiderslabordisruptionstobe

A. aninevitableprobleminaweaknationaleconomy

B. apositivesignofemployeeconcernaboutacompany

C. apredictorofemployeereactionstoacompany’soffertosellsharestothem

D. aphenomenonfoundmoreofteninstate-ownedindustriesthaninprivatecompanies

E. adeterrencetohighperformancelevelsinanindustry

58. Thepassagesupportswhichofthefollowingstatementsaboutemployeesbuyingsharesintheirowncompanies?

A. Atthreedifferentcompanies,approximatelynineoutoftenoftheworkerswereeligibletobuysharesintheircompanies.

B. Approximately90percentoftheeligibleworkersatthreedifferentcompanieschosetobuysharesintheircompanies.

C. Theopportunitytobuyshareswasdiscouragedbyatleastsomelaborunions.

D. Companiesthatdemonstratedthehighestproductivitywerethefirsttoallowtheiremployeestheopportunitytobuyshares.

E. Eligibilitytobuyshareswascontingentonemployees’agreeingtoincreasedworkloads.

59. Whichofthefollowingstatementsismostconsistentwiththeprincipledescribedinlines35–37?

A. Ademocraticgovernmentthatdecidesitisinappropriatetoownaparticularindustryhasinnowayabdicateditsresponsibilitiesasguardianofthepublicinterest.

B. Theidealwayforagovernmenttoprotectemployeeinterestsistoforcecompaniestomaintaintheirshareofacompetitivemarketwithoutgovernmentsubsidies.

C. Thefailuretoharnessthepowerofself-interestisanimportantreasonthatstate-ownedindustriesperformpoorly.

D. Governmentsthatwanttoimplementprivatizationprogramsmusttrytoeliminateallresistancetothefree-marketsystem.

E. Theindividualshareholderwillreaponlyaminuteshareofthegainsfromwhateversacrificesheorshemakestoachievethesegains.

60. WhichofthefollowingcanbeinferredfromthepassageabouttheprivatizationprocessintheUnitedKingdom?

A. Itdependstoapotentiallydangerousdegreeonindividualownershipofshares.

B. ItconformsinitsmostgeneraloutlinestoThomasPaine’sprescriptionforbusinessownership.

C. Itwasoriginallyconceivedtoincludesomegivingawayoffreeshares.

D. Ithasbeensuccessful,eventhoughprivatizationhasfailedinothercountries.

E. Itistakingplacemoreslowlythansomeeconomistssuggestisnecessary.

61. Thequotationinlines45–46ismostprobablyusedto

A. counterapositionthattheauthorofthepassagebelievesisincorrect

B. stateasolutiontoaproblemdescribedintheprevioussentence

C. showhowopponentsoftheviewpointoftheauthorofthepassagehavesupportedtheirarguments

D. pointoutaparadoxcontainedinacontroversialviewpoint

E. presentahistoricalmaximtochallengetheprincipleintroducedinthethirdparagraph

LineThenewschoolofpoliticalhistorythatemergedinthe

1960’sand1970’ssoughttogobeyondthetraditionalfocusofpoliticalhistoriansonleadersandgovernmentinstitutionsbyexaminingdirectly(5)thepoliticalpracticesofordinarycitizens.Liketheoldapproach,however,thisnewapproachexcludedwomen.TheverytechniquesthesehistoriansusedtouncovermasspoliticalbehaviorinthenineteenthcenturyUnitedStates—quantitativeanalysesof(10)electionreturns,forexample—wereuselessinanalyzingthepoliticalactivitiesofwomen,whoweredeniedthevoteuntil1920.Byredefining“politicalactivity,”historianPaulaBakerhasdevelopedapoliticalhistorythatincludes(15)women.Sheconcludesthatamongordinarycitizens,politicalactivismbywomeninthenineteenthcenturyprefiguredtrendsintwentiethcenturypolitics.Defining“politics”as“anyactiontakentoaffectthecourseofbehaviorof(20)governmentorofthecommunity,”Bakerconcludesthat,whilevotingandholdingofficewererestrictedtomen,womeninthenineteenthcenturyorganizedthemselvesintosocietiescommittedtosocialissuessuchastemperanceandpoverty.Inother(25)words,Bakercontends,womenactivistswereearlypractitionersofnonpartisan,issue-orientedpoliticsandthusweremoreinterestedinenlistinglawmakers,regardlessoftheirpartyaffiliation,onbehalfofcertainissuesthaninensuringthatone(30)partyoranotherwonanelection.Inthetwentiethcentury,moremendrewclosertowomen’sideasaboutpoliticsandtookupmodesofissue-orientedpoliticsthatBakerseeswomenashavingpioneered.

A. enumeratereasonswhybothtraditionalscholarlymethodsandnewerscholarlymethodshavelimitations

B. identifyashortcominginascholarlyapproachanddescribean

alternativeapproach

C. provideempiricaldatatosupportalong-heldscholarlyassumption

D. comparetwoscholarlypublicationsonthebasisoftheirauthors’backgrounds

E. attempttoprovideapartialanswertoalong-standingscholarlydilemma

63. Thepassagesuggestswhichofthefollowingconcerningthetechniquesusedbythenewpoliticalhistoriansdescribedinthefirstparagraphofthepassage?

A. Theyinvolvedtheextensiveuseofthebiographiesofpoliticalpartyleadersandpoliticaltheoreticians.

B. Theywereconceivedbypoliticalhistorianswhowerereactingagainstthepoliticalclimatesofthe1960’sand1970’s.

C. TheywereofmoreuseinanalyzingthepositionsofUnitedStatespoliticalpartiesinthenineteenthcenturythaninanalyzingthepositionsofthoseinthetwentiethcentury.

D. Theywereofmoreuseinanalyzingthepoliticalbehaviorofnineteenth-centuryvotersthaninanalyzingthepoliticalactivitiesofthosewhocouldnotvoteduringthatperiod.

E. Theyweredevisedasameansoftracingtheinfluenceofnineteenth-centurypoliticaltrendsontwentieth-centurypoliticaltrends.

64. ItcanbeinferredthattheauthorofthepassagequotesBakerdirectlyinthesecondparagraphprimarilyinorderto

A. clarifyapositionbeforeprovidinganalternativetothatposition

B. differentiatebetweenanoveldefinitionandtraditionaldefinitions

C. provideanexampleofapointagreedonbydifferentgenerationsofscholars

D. provideanexampleoftheprosestyleofanimportanthistorian

E. amplifyadefinitiongiveninthefirstparagraph

65. Accordingtothepassage,PaulaBakerandthenewpoliticalhistoriansofthe1960’sand1970’ssharedwhichofthefollowing?

A. Acommitmenttointerestgrouppolitics

B. Adisregardforpoliticaltheoryandideology

C. Aninterestinthewaysinwhichnineteenth-centurypoliticsprefiguredcontemporarypolitics

D. Arelianceonsuchquantitativetechniquesastheanalysisofelectionreturns

E. Anemphasisonthepoliticalinvolvementofordinarycitizens

66. Whichofthefollowingbestdescribesthestructureofthefirstparagraphofthepassage?

A. Twoscholarlyapproachesarecompared,andashortcomingcommontobothisidentified.

B. Tworivalschoolsofthoughtarecontrasted,andathirdisalludedto.

C. Anoutmodedscholarlyapproachisdescribed,andacorrectiveapproachiscalledfor.

D. Anargumentisoutlined,andcounterargumentsarementioned.

E. Ahistoricaleraisdescribedintermsofitspoliticaltrends.

67. Theinformationinthepassagesuggeststhatapre-1960spoliticalhistorianwouldhavebeenmostlikelytoundertakewhichofthefollowingstudies?

A. Ananalysisofvotingtrendsamongwomenvotersofthe1920’s

B. Astudyofmalevoters’gradualideologicalshiftfrompartypoliticstoissue-orientedpolitics

C. Abiographyofaninfluentialnineteenth-centuryministerofforeignaffairs

D. Ananalysisofnarrativeswrittenbypreviouslyunrecognizedwomenactivists

E. Astudyofvotingtrendsamongnaturalizedimmigrantlaborersinanineteenth-centuryloggingcamp

LineSeekingacompetitiveadvantage,someprofessionalservicefirms(forexample,firmsprovidingadvertising,accounting,orhealthcareservices)haveconsideredofferingunconditional(5)guaranteesofsatisfaction.Suchguaranteesspecify

whatclientscanexpectandwhatthefirmwilldoifitfailstofulfilltheseexpectations.Particularlywithfirst-timeclients,anunconditionalguaranteecanbeaneffectivemarketingtooliftheclientisvery(10)cautious,thefirm’sfeesarehigh,thenegativeconsequencesofbadservicearegrave,orbusinessisdifficulttoobtainthroughreferralsandword-of-mouth.However,anunconditionalguaranteecan(15)sometimeshindermarketingefforts.Withitsimplicationthatfailureispossible,theguaranteemay,paradoxically,causeclientstodoubttheservicefirm’sabilitytodeliverthepromisedlevelofservice.Itmayconflictwithafirm’sdesireto(20)appearsophisticated,ormayevensuggestthatafirmisbeggingforbusiness.Inlegalandhealthcareservices,itmaymisleadclientsbysuggestingthatlawsuitsormedicalprocedureswillhaveguaranteedoutcomes.Indeed,professionalservice(25)firmswithoutstandingreputationsandperformancetomatchhavelittletogainfromofferingunconditionalguarantees.Andanyfirmthatimplementsanunconditionalguaranteewithoutundertakingacommensuratecommitmentto(30)qualityofserviceismerelyemployingapotentiallycostlymarketinggimmick.

68. Theprimaryfunctionofthepassageasawholeisto

A. accountforthepopularityofapractice

B. evaluatetheutilityofapractice

C. demonstratehowtoinstituteapractice

D. weightheethicsofusingastrategy

E. explainthereasonsforpursuingastrategy

69. AllofthefollowingarementionedinthepassageascircumstancesinwhichprofessionalservicefirmscanbenefitfromofferinganunconditionalguaranteeEXCEPT:

A. Thefirmishavingdifficultyretainingitsclientsoflongstanding.

B. Thefirmishavingdifficultygettingbusinessthroughclientrecommendations.

C. Thefirmchargessubstantialfeesforitsservices.

D. Theadverseeffectsofpoorperformancebythefirmaresignificantfortheclient.

E. Theclientisreluctanttoincurrisk.

70. Whichofthefollowingiscitedinthepassageasagoalofsomeprofessionalservicefirmsinofferingunconditionalguaranteesofsatisfaction?

A. Alimitonthefirm’sliability

B. Successfulcompetitionagainstotherfirms

C. Abilitytojustifyfeeincreases

D. Attainmentofanoutstandingreputationinafield

E. Improvementinthequalityofthefirm’sservice

71. Thepassage’sdescriptionoftheissueraisedbyunconditionalguaranteesforhealthcareorlegalservicesmostclearlyimpliesthatwhichofthefollowingistrue?

A. Thelegalandmedicalprofessionshavestandardsofpracticethatwouldbeviolatedbyattemptstofulfillsuchunconditionalguarantees.

B. Theresultofalawsuitormedicalprocedurecannotnecessarilybedeterminedinadvancebytheprofessionalshandlingaclient’scase.

C. Thedignityofthelegalandmedicalprofessionsisunderminedbyanyattemptsatmarketingofprofessionalservices,includingunconditionalguarantees.

D. Clientswhoselawsuitsormedicalprocedureshaveunsatisfactoryoutcomescannotbeadequatelycompensatedbyfinancialsettlementsalone.

E. Predictingthemonetarycostoflegalorhealthcareservicesismoredifficultthanpredictingthemonetarycostofothertypesofprofessionalservices.

72. Whichofthefollowinghypotheticalsituationsbestexemplifiesthe

potentialproblemnotedinthesecondsentenceofthesecondparagraph(lines15–19)?

A. Aphysician’sunconditionalguaranteeofsatisfactionencouragespatientstosueformalpracticeiftheyareunhappywiththetreatmenttheyreceive.

B. Alawyer’sunconditionalguaranteeofsatisfactionmakesclientssuspectthatthelawyerneedstofindnewclientsquicklytoincreasethefirm’sincome.

C. Abusinessconsultant’sunconditionalguaranteeofsatisfactionisunderminedwhentheconsultantfailstoprovidealloftheservicesthatarepromised.

D. Anarchitect’sunconditionalguaranteeofsatisfactionmakesclientswonderhowoftenthearchitect’sbuildingsfailtopleaseclients.

E. Anaccountant’sunconditionalguaranteeofsatisfactionleadsclientstobelievethattaxreturnspreparedbytheaccountantarecertaintobeaccurate.

73. Thepassagemostclearlyimplieswhichofthefollowingabouttheprofessionalservicefirmsmentionedinlines24–27?

A. Theyareunlikelytohaveofferedunconditionalguaranteesofsatisfactioninthepast.

B. Theyareusuallyprofitableenoughtobeabletocompensateclientsaccordingtothetermsofanunconditionalguarantee.

C. Theyusuallypracticeinfieldsinwhichtheoutcomesarepredictable.

D. Theirfeesareusuallymoreaffordablethanthosechargedbyotherprofessionalservicefirms.

E. Theirclientsareusuallyalreadysatisfiedwiththequalityofservicethatisdelivered.

LineIna1918editorial,W.E.B.DuBoisadvisedAfricanAmericanstostopagitatingforequalityandtoproclaimtheirsolidaritywithWhiteAmericansforthedurationoftheFirstWorldWar.Theeditorial(5)surprisedmanyAfricanAmericanswhoviewedDuBoisasanuncompromisingAfricanAmerican

leaderandachiefopponentoftheaccommodationisttacticsurgedbyBookerT.Washington.Infact,however,DuBoisoftenshiftedpositionsalongthe(10)continuumbetweenWashingtonandconfrontationistssuchasWilliamTrotter.In1895,whenWashingtoncalledonAfricanAmericanstoconcentrateonimprovingtheircommunitiesinsteadofopposingdiscriminationandagitatingforpolitical(15)rights,DuBoispraisedWashington’sspeech.In1903,however,DuBoisalignedhimselfwithTrotter,Washington’smilitantopponent,lessforideologicalreasonsthanbecauseTrotterhaddescribedtohimWashington’seffortstosilencethoseintheAfrican(20)AmericanpresswhoopposedWashington’spositions.DuBois’swartimepositionthusreflectednotachangeinhislong-termgoalsbutratherapragmaticresponseinthefaceofsocialpressures:(25)governmentofficialshadthreatenedAfricanAmericanjournalistswithcensorshipiftheycontinuedtovoicegrievances.Furthermore,DuBoisbelievedthatAfricanAmericans’contributionstopastwareffortshadbroughtthem(30)somelegalandpoliticaladvances.DuBois’saccommodationismdidnotlast,however.UponlearningofsystematicdiscriminationexperiencedbyAfricanAmericansinthemilitary,hecalledonthemto“returnfighting”fromthewar.

A. identifyinghistoricalcircumstancesthatled

DuBoistoalterhislong-termgoals

B. defining“accommodationism”andshowinghowDuBoisusedthisstrategytoachievecertaingoals

C. accountingforaparticularpositionadoptedbyDuBoisduringtheFirstWorldWar

D. contestingtheviewthatDuBoiswassignificantlyinfluencedby

eitherWashingtonorTrotter

E. assessingtheeffectivenessofastrategythatDuBoisurgedAfricanAmericanstoadopt

75. ThepassageindicateswhichofthefollowingaboutDuBois’sattitudetowardWashington?

A. ItunderwentashiftduringtheFirstWorldWarasDuBoisbecamemoresympatheticwithTrotter’sviews.

B. Itunderwentashiftin1903forreasonsotherthanDuBois’sdisagreementwithWashington’saccommodationistviews.

C. ItunderwentashiftasDuBoismadealong-termcommitmenttothestrategyofaccommodation.

D. ItremainedconsistentlypositiveeventhoughDuBoisdisagreedwithWashington’seffortstocontroltheAfricanAmericanpress.

E. ItwasshapedprimarilybyDuBois’sappreciationofWashington’spragmaticapproachtotheadvancementoftheinterestsofAfricanAmericans.

76. ThepassagesuggestswhichofthefollowingaboutthecontributionsofAfricanAmericanstotheUnitedStateswareffortduringtheFirstWorldWar?

A. ThecontributionsweremadelargelyinresponsetoDuBois’s1918editorial.

B. ThecontributionshadmuchthesameeffectasAfricanAmericans’contributionstopreviouswars.

C. ThecontributionsdidnotenddiscriminationagainstAfricanAmericansinthemilitary.

D. ThecontributionsweremadeinprotestagainstTrotter’sconfrontationisttactics.

E. Thecontributionsweremadeprimarilybycivilrightsactivistswhoreturnedtoactivismafterthewar.

77. TheauthorofthepassagereferstoWashington’scalltoAfricanAmericansin1895primarilyinorderto

A. identifyDuBois’scharacteristicpositiononthecontinuumbetweenaccommodationismandconfrontationism

B. explainwhyDuBoiswassympatheticwithWashington’sviewsin

C. clarifyhowTrotter’sviewsdifferedfromthoseofWashingtonin1895

D. supportanassertionaboutDuBois’stendencytoshifthispoliticalpositions

E. dismisstheclaimthatDuBois’spositioninhis1918editorialwasconsistentwithhispreviousviews

78. Accordingtothepassage,whichofthefollowingistrueofthestrategythatDuBois’s1918editorialurgedAfricanAmericanstoadoptduringtheFirstWorldWar?

A. ItwasastrategythatDuBoishadconsistentlyrejectedinthepast.

B. ItrepresentedacompromisebetweenDuBois’sownviewsandthoseofTrotter.

C. Itrepresentedasignificantredefinitionofthelong-termgoalsDuBoisheldpriortothewar.

D. ItwasadvocatedbyDuBoisinresponsetohisrecognitionofthediscriminationfacedbyAfricanAmericansduringthewar.

E. ItwasadvocatedbyDuBoisinpartbecauseofhishistoricalknowledgeofgainsAfricanAmericanshadmadeduringpastwars.

LineThefactthatsuperiorservicecangenerateacompetitiveadvantageforacompanydoesnotmeanthateveryattemptatimprovingservicewillcreatesuchanadvantage.Investmentsinservice,(5)likethoseinproductionanddistribution,mustbebalancedagainstothertypesofinvestmentsonthebasisofdirect,tangiblebenefitssuchascostreductionandincreasedrevenues.Ifacompanyisalreadyeffectivelyonaparwithitscompetitors(10)becauseitprovidesservicethatavoidsadamagingreputationandkeepscustomersfromleavingatanunacceptablerate,theninvestmentinhigherservicelevelsmaybewasted,sinceserviceisadecidingfactorforcustomersonlyinextreme(15)situations.Thistruthwasnotapparenttomanagersofone

regionalbank,whichfailedtoimproveitscompetitivepositiondespiteitsinvestmentinreducingthetimeacustomerhadtowaitfora(20)teller.Thebankmanagersdidnotrecognizethelevelofcustomerinertiaintheconsumerbankingindustrythatarisesfromtheinconvenienceofswitchingbanks.Nordidtheyanalyzetheirserviceimprovementtodeterminewhetheritwouldattract(25)newcustomersbyproducinganewstandardofservicethatwouldexcitecustomersorbyprovingdifficultforcompetitorstocopy.Theonlymeritoftheimprovementwasthatitcouldeasilybedescribedtocustomers.

A. contrastpossibleoutcomesofatypeofbusinessinvestment

B. suggestmorecarefulevaluationofatypeofbusinessinvestment

C. illustratevariouswaysinwhichatypeofbusinessinvestmentcouldfailtoenhancerevenues

D. tracethegeneralproblemsofacompanytoacertaintypeofbusinessinvestment

E. criticizethewayinwhichmanagerstendtoanalyzethecostsandbenefitsofbusinessinvestments

80. Accordingtothepassage,investmentsinservicearecomparabletoinvestmentsinproductionanddistributionintermsofthe

A. tangibilityofthebenefitsthattheytendtoconfer

B. increasedrevenuesthattheyultimatelyproduce

C. basisonwhichtheyneedtobeweighed

D. insufficientanalysisthatmanagersdevotetothem

E. degreeofcompetitiveadvantagethattheyarelikelytoprovide

81. Thepassagesuggestswhichofthefollowingaboutserviceprovidedbytheregionalbankpriortoitsinvestmentinenhancingthatservice?

A. Itenabledthebanktoretaincustomersatanacceptablerate.

B. Itthreatenedtoweakenthebank’scompetitivepositionwithrespecttootherregionalbanks.

C. Ithadalreadybeenimprovedafterhavingcauseddamagetothebank’sreputationinthepast.

D. Itwasslightlysuperiortothatofthebank’sregionalcompetitors.

E. Itneededtobeimprovedtoattainparitywiththeserviceprovidedbycompetingbanks.

82. Thepassagesuggeststhatbankmanagersfailedtoconsiderwhetherornottheserviceimprovementmentionedinlines18–20

A. wastoocomplicatedtobeeasilydescribedtoprospectivecustomers

B. madeameasurablechangeintheexperiencesofcustomersinthebank’soffices

C. couldbesustainedifthenumberofcustomersincreasedsignificantly

D. wasaninnovationthatcompetingbankscouldhaveimitated

E. wasadequatetobringthebank’sgenerallevelofservicetoalevelthatwascomparablewiththatofitscompetitors

83. Thediscussionoftheregionalbankinthesecondparagraphserveswhichofthefollowingfunctionswithinthepassageasawhole?

A. Itdescribesanexceptionalcaseinwhichinvestmentinserviceactuallyfailedtoproduceacompetitiveadvantage.

B. Itillustratesthepitfallsofchoosingtoinvestinserviceatatimewheninvestmentisneededmoreurgentlyinanotherarea.

C. Itdemonstratesthekindofanalysisthatmanagersapplywhentheychooseonekindofserviceinvestmentoveranother.

D. Itsupportstheargumentthatinvestmentsincertainaspectsofservicearemoreadvantageousthaninvestmentsinotheraspectsofservice.

E. Itprovidesanexampleofthepointaboutinvestmentinservicemadeinthefirstparagraph.

84. Theauthorusestheword“only”inline27mostlikelyinorderto

A. highlighttheoddityoftheserviceimprovement

B. emphasizetherelativelylowvalueoftheinvestmentinservice

improvement

C. distinguishtheprimaryattributeoftheserviceimprovementfromsecondaryattributes

D. singleoutacertainmeritoftheserviceimprovementfromothermerits

E. pointoutthelimiteddurationoftheactualserviceimprovement

LineFindingsfromseveralstudiesoncorporatemergersandacquisitionsduringthe1970’sand1980’sraisequestionsaboutwhyfirmsinitiateandconsummatesuchtransactions.Onestudyshowed,forexample,(5)thatacquiringfirmswereonaverageunabletomaintainacquiredfirms’pre-mergerlevelsofprofitability.Asecondstudyconcludedthatpost-acquisitiongainstomostacquiringfirmswerenotadequatetocoverthepremiumspaidtoobtain(10)acquiredfirms.Athirddemonstratedthat,followingtheannouncementofaprospectivemerger,thestockoftheprospectiveacquiringfirmtendstoincreaseinvaluemuchlessthandoesthatofthefirmforwhichitbids.Yetmergersandacquisitions(15)remaincommon,andbidderscontinuetoassertthattheirobjectivesareeconomicones.Acquisitionsmaywellhavethedesirableeffectofchannelinganation’sresourcesefficientlyfromlesstomoreefficientsectorsofitseconomy,butthe(20)individualacquisitionsexecutivesarrangingthesedealsmustseethemasadvancingeithertheirownortheircompanies’privateeconomicinterests.Itseemsthatfactorshavinglittletodowithcorporateeconomicinterestsexplainacquisitions.These(25)factorsmayincludetheincentivecompensationofexecutives,lackofmonitoringbyboardsofdirectors,andmanagerialerrorinestimatingthevalueoffirmstargetedforacquisition.Alternatively,theacquisitionactsofbiddersmayderivefrom(30)modeling:amanagerdoeswhatothermanagersdo.

A. reviewresearchdemonstratingthebenefitsofcorporatemergersandacquisitionsandexaminesomeofthedrawbacksthatacquisitionbehaviorentails

B. contrasttheeffectsofcorporatemergersandacquisitionsonacquiringfirmsandonfirmsthatareacquired

C. reportfindingsthatraisequestionsaboutareasonforcorporatemergersandacquisitionsandsuggestpossiblealternativereasons

D. explainchangesinattitudeonthepartofacquiringfirmstowardcorporatemergersandacquisitions

E. accountforarecentdeclineintherateofcorporatemergersandacquisitions

86. Thefindingscitedinthepassagesuggestwhichofthefollowingabouttheoutcomesofcorporatemergersandacquisitionswithrespecttoacquiringfirms?

A. Theyincludeadecreaseinvalueofmanyacquiringfirms’stocks.

B. Theytendtobemorebeneficialforsmallfirmsthanforlargefirms.

C. Theydonotfulfilltheprofessedgoalsofmostacquiringfirms.

D. Theytendtobebeneficialtosuchfirmsinthelongtermeventhoughapparentlydetrimentalintheshortterm.

E. Theydiscouragemanysuchfirmsfromattemptingtomakesubsequentbidsandacquisitions.

87. Itcanbeinferredfromthepassagethattheauthorwouldbemostlikelytoagreewithwhichofthefollowingstatementsaboutcorporateacquisitions?

A. Theirknownbenefitstonationaleconomiesexplaintheirappealtoindividualfirmsduringthe1970’sand1980’s.

B. Despitetheiradverseimpactonsomefirms,theyarethebestwaytochannelresourcesfromlesstomoreproductivesectorsofanation’seconomy.

C. Theyareaslikelytooccurbecauseofpoormonitoringbyboardsofdirectorsastobecausedbyincentivecompensationformanagers.

D. Theywillbelessprevalentinthefuture,sincetheiractualeffectswillgainwiderrecognition.

E. Factorsotherthaneconomicbenefittotheacquiringfirmhelptoexplainthefrequencywithwhichtheyoccur.

88. Theauthorofthepassagementionstheeffectofacquisitionsonnationaleconomiesmostprobablyinorderto

A. provideanexplanationforthemergersandacquisitionsofthe1970’sand1980’soverlookedbythefindingsdiscussedinthepassage

B. suggestthatnationaleconomicinterestsplayedanimportantroleinthemergersandacquisitionsofthe1970’sand1980’s

C. supportanoneconomicexplanationforthemergersandacquisitionsofthe1970’sand1980’sthatwascitedearlierinthepassage

D. citeandpointouttheinadequacyofonepossibleexplanationfortheprevalenceofmergersandacquisitionsduringthe1970’sand1980’s

E. explainhowmodelingaffectedthedecisionsmadebymanagersinvolvedinmergersandacquisitionsduringthe1970’sand1980’s

89. Accordingtothepassage,duringthe1970’sand1980’sbiddingfirmsdifferedfromthefirmsforwhichtheybidinthatbiddingfirms

A. tendedtobemoreprofitablebeforeamergerthanafteramerger

B. weremoreoftenconcernedabouttheimpactofacquisitionsonnationaleconomies

C. wererunbymanagerswhoseactionsweremodeledonthoseofothermanagers

D. anticipatedgreatereconomicadvantagesfromprospectivemergers

E. experiencedlessofanincreaseinstockvaluewhenaprospectivemergerwasannounced

90. Accordingtothepassage,whichofthefollowingwastrueofcorporateacquisitionsthatoccurredduringthe1970’sand1980’s?

A. Fewoftheacquisitionsthatfirmsmadeweresubsequentlydivested.

B. Mostsuchacquisitionsproducedonlysmallincreasesinacquiredfirms’levelsofprofitability.

C. Mostsuchacquisitionswerebasedonanoverestimationofthevalueoftargetfirms.

D. Thegainsrealizedbymostacquiringfirmsdidnotequaltheamountsexpendedinacquiringtargetfirms.

E. Abouthalfofsuchacquisitionsledtolong-termincreasesinthevalueofacquiringfirms’stocks.

91. Theauthorofthepassageimpliesthatwhichofthefollowingisapossiblepartialexplanationforacquisitionbehaviorduringthe1970’sand1980’s?

A. Managerswishedtoimitateothermanagersprimarilybecausetheysawhowfinanciallybeneficialotherfirms’acquisitionswere.

B. Managersmiscalculatedthevalueoffirmsthatweretobeacquired.

C. Lackofconsensuswithinboardsofdirectorsresultedintheirimposingconflictinggoalsonmanagers.

D. Totalcompensationpackagesformanagersincreasedduringthatperiod.

E. Thevalueofbiddingfirms’stockincreasedsignificantlywhenprospectivemergerswereannounced.

LineInadditiontoconventionalgalaxies,theuniversecontainsverydimgalaxiesthatuntilrecentlywentunnoticedbyastronomers.Possiblyasnumerousasconventionalgalaxies,thesegalaxieshavethe(5)samegeneralshapeandeventhesameapproximatenumberofstarsasacommontypeofconventionalgalaxy,thespiral,buttendtobemuchlarger.Becausethesegalaxies’massisspreadoutoverlargerareas,theyhavefarfewerstarsperunit(10)volumethandoconventionalgalaxies.Apparentlytheselow-surface-brightnessgalaxies,astheyarecalled,takemuchlongerthanconventionalgalaxiestocondensetheirprimordialgasandconvertittostars—thatis,theyevolvemuchmoreslowly.(15)Thesegalaxiesmayconstituteananswertothelong-standingpuzzleofthemissingbaryonicmassintheuniverse.Baryons—subatomicparticlesthat

aregenerallyprotonsorneutrons—arethesourceofstellar,andthereforegalactic,luminosity,andso(20)theirnumberscanbeestimatedbasedonhowluminousgalaxiesare.However,theamountofheliumintheuniverse,asmeasuredbyspectroscopy,suggeststhattherearefarmorebaryonsintheuniversethanestimatesbasedon(25)galacticluminosityindicate.Astronomershavelongspeculatedthatthemissingbaryonicmassmighteventuallybediscoveredinintergalacticspaceorassomelargepopulationofgalaxiesthataredifficulttodetect.

92. Accordingtothepassage,conventionalspiralgalaxiesdifferfromlow-surface-brightnessgalaxiesinwhichofthefollowingways?

A. Theyhavefewerstarsthandolow-surface-brightnessgalaxies.

B. Theyevolvemorequicklythanlow-surface-brightnessgalaxies.

C. Theyaremorediffusethanlow-surface-brightnessgalaxies.

D. Theycontainlessheliumthandolow-surface-brightnessgalaxies.

E. Theyarelargerthanlow-surface-brightnessgalaxies.

93. Itcanbeinferredfromthepassagethatwhichofthefollowingisanaccuratephysicaldescriptionoftypicallow-surface-brightnessgalaxies?

A. Theyarelargespiralgalaxiescontainingfewerstarsthanconventionalgalaxies.

B. Theyarecompactbutverydimspiralgalaxies.

C. Theyarediffusespiralgalaxiesthatoccupyalargevolumeofspace.

D. Theyaresmall,youngspiralgalaxiesthatcontainahighproportionofprimordialgas.

E. Theyarelarge,densespiralswithlowluminosity.

94. Itcanbeinferredfromthepassagethatthe“long-standingpuzzle”referstowhichofthefollowing?

A. Thedifferencebetweentherateatwhichconventionalgalaxiesevolveandtherateatwhichlow-surface-brightnessgalaxiesevolve

B. Thediscrepancybetweenestimatesoftotalbaryonicmassderivedfrommeasuringheliumandestimatesbasedonmeasuringgalacticluminosity

C. Theinconsistencybetweentheobservedamountofheliumintheuniverseandthenumberofstarsintypicallow-surface-brightnessgalaxies

D. Uncertaintiesregardingwhatproportionofbaryonicmassiscontainedinintergalacticspaceandwhatproportioninconventionalgalaxies

E. Difficultiesinvolvedindetectingverydistantgalaxiesandininvestigatingtheirluminosity

95. Theauthorimpliesthatlow-surface-brightnessgalaxiescouldconstituteananswertothepuzzlediscussedinthesecondparagraphprimarilybecause

A. theycontainbaryonicmassthatwasnottakenintoaccountbyresearchersusinggalacticluminositytoestimatethenumberofbaryonsintheuniverse

B. they,likeconventionalgalaxiesthatcontainmanybaryons,haveevolvedfrommassive,primordialgasclouds

C. theymaycontainrelativelymorehelium,andhencemorebaryons,thandogalaxieswhoseheliumcontenthasbeenstudiedusingspectroscopy

D. theyhaverecentlybeendiscoveredtocontainmorebaryonicmassthanscientistshadthoughtwhenlow-surface-brightnessgalaxieswerefirstobserved

E. theycontainstarsthataresignificantlymoreluminousthanwouldhavebeenpredictedonthebasisofinitialstudiesofluminosityinlow-surface-brightnessgalaxies

96. Theauthormentionsthefactthatbaryonsarethesourceofstars’luminosityprimarilyinordertoexplain

A. howastronomersdeterminethatsomegalaxiescontainfewerstarsperunitvolumethandoothers

B. howastronomersareabletocalculatethetotalluminosityofagalaxy

C. whyastronomerscanusegalacticluminositytoestimatebaryonic

D. whyastronomers’estimatesofbaryonicmassbasedongalacticluminosityaremorereliablethanthosebasedonspectroscopicstudiesofhelium

E. howastronomersknowbrightgalaxiescontainmorebaryonsthandodimgalaxies

97. Theauthorofthepassagewouldbemostlikelytodisagreewithwhichofthefollowingstatements?

A. Low-surface-brightnessgalaxiesaremoredifficulttodetectthanareconventionalgalaxies.

B. Low-surface-brightnessgalaxiesareoftenspiralinshape.

C. Astronomershaveadvancedplausibleideasaboutwheremissingbaryonicmassmightbefound.

D. Astronomershavedevisedausefulwayofestimatingthetotalbaryonicmassintheuniverse.

E. Astronomershavediscoveredasubstantialamountofbaryonicmassinintergalacticspace.

A. describeaphenomenonandconsideritsscientificsignificance

B. contrasttwophenomenaanddiscussapuzzlingdifferencebetweenthem

C. identifyanewlydiscoveredphenomenonandexplainitsorigins

D. comparetwoclassesofobjectsanddiscussthephysicalpropertiesofeach

E. discussadiscoveryandpointoutitsinconsistencywithexistingtheory

LineMicro-wearpatternsfoundontheteethoflong-extinctspecimensoftheprimatespeciesaustralopithecinemayprovideevidenceabouttheirdiets.Forexample,onthebasisoftoothmicro-wear(5)patterns,WalkerdismissesJolly’shypothesisthataustralopithecinesatehardseeds.HealsodisputesSzalay’ssuggestionthattheheavyenamelof

australopithecineteethisanadaptationtobonecrunching,sincebothseedcrackingandbone(10)crunchingproducedistinctivemicro-wearcharacteristicsonteeth.Hisconclusionthataustralopithecineswerefrugivores(fruiteaters)isbaseduponhisobservationthatthetoothmicro-wearcharacteristicsofeastAfrican(15)australopithecinespecimensareindistinguishablefromthoseofchimpanzeesandorangutans,whicharecommonlyassumedtobefrugivorousprimates.However,researchonthedietsofcontemporaryprimatessuggeststhatmicro-wear(20)studiesmayhavelimitedutilityindeterminingthefoodsthatareactuallyeaten.Forexample,insecteating,whichcancausedistinctmicro-wearpatterns,wouldnotcausemuchtoothabrasioninmodernbaboons,whoeatonlysoft-bodiedinsects(25)ratherthanhard-bodiedinsects.Inaddition,thedietsofcurrentomnivorousprimatesvaryconsiderablydependingontheenvironmentsthatdifferentgroupswithinaprimatespeciesinhabit;ifaustralopithecineswereomnivorestoo,wemight(30)expecttofindconsiderablepopulationvariationintheirtoothmicro-wearpatterns.Thus,Walker’sdescriptionofpossibleaustralopithecinedietsmayneedtobeexpandedtoincludeamuchmorediversediet.

99. Accordingtothepassage,WalkerandSzalaydisagreeonwhichofthefollowingpoints?

A. Thestructureandcompositionofaustralopithecineteeth

B. Thekindsofconclusionsthatcanbedrawnfromthemicro-wearpatternsonaustralopithecineteeth

C. Theideathatfruitwasapartoftheaustralopithecinediet

D. Theextenttowhichseedcrackingandbonecrunchingproducesimilarmicro-wearpatternsonteeth

E. Thefunctionoftheheavyenamelonaustralopithecineteeth

100. ThepassagesuggeststhatWalker’sresearchindicatedwhichofthefollowingaboutaustralopithecineteeth?

A. Theyhadmicro-wearcharacteristicsindicatingthatfruitconstitutedonlyasmallpartoftheirdiet.

B. Theylackedmicro-wearcharacteristicsassociatedwithseedeatingandbonecrunching.

C. Theyhadmicro-wearcharacteristicsthatdifferedincertainwaysfromthemicro-wearpatternsofchimpanzeesandorangutans.

D. Theyhadmicro-wearcharacteristicssuggestingthatthedietofaustralopithecinesvariedfromoneregiontoanother.

E. Theylackedthemicro-wearcharacteristicsdistinctiveofmodernfrugivores.

101. Thepassagesuggeststhatwhichofthefollowingwouldbetrueofstudiesoftoothmicro-wearpatternsconductedonmodernbaboons?

A. Theywouldinaccuratelysuggestthatsomebaboonseatmoresoft-bodiedthanhard-bodiedinsects.

B. Theywouldsuggestthatinsectsconstitutethelargestpartofsomebaboons’diets.

C. Theywouldrevealthattherearenosignificantdifferencesintoothmicro-wearpatternsamongbaboonpopulations.

D. Theywouldinadequatelyreflecttheextenttowhichsomebaboonsconsumecertaintypesofinsects.

E. Theywouldindicatethatbaboonsincertainregionseatonlysoft-bodiedinsects,whereasbaboonsinotherregionseathard-bodiedinsects.

102. Thepassagesuggestswhichofthefollowingaboutthemicro-wearpatternsfoundontheteethofomnivorousprimates?

A. Thepatternsprovideinformationaboutwhatkindsoffoodsarenoteatenbytheparticularspeciesofprimate,butnotaboutthefoodsactuallyeaten.

B. Thepatternsofvariousprimatespecieslivinginthesameenvironmentresembleoneanother.

C. Thepatternsmaynotprovideinformationabouttheextenttowhichaparticularspecies’dietincludesseeds.

D. Thepatternsprovidemoreinformationabouttheseprimates’dietthandothetoothmicro-wearpatternsofprimateswhoarefrugivores.

E. Thepatternsmaydifferamonggroupswithinaspeciesdependingontheenvironmentwithinwhichaparticulargrouplives.

103. Itcanbeinferredfromthepassagethatifstudiesoftoothmicro-wearpatternswereconductedonmodernbaboons,whichofthefollowingwouldmostlikelybetrueoftheresultsobtained?

A. Therewouldbeenoughabrasiontoallowadeterminationofwhetherbaboonsarefrugivorousorinsectivorous.

B. Theresultswouldsuggestthatinsectsconstitutethelargestpartofthebaboons’diet.

C. Theresultswouldrevealthattherearenosignificantdifferencesintoothmicro-wearpatternsfromoneregionalbaboonpopulationtoanother.

D. Theresultswouldprovideanaccurateindicationoftheabsenceofsomekindsofinsectsfromthebaboons’diet.

E. Theresultswouldbeunlikelytoprovideanyindicationofwhatinferencesabouttheaustralopithecinedietcanorcannotbedrawnfrommicro-wearstudies.

104. ItcanbeinferredfromthepassagethatWalker’sconclusionabouttheaustralopithecinedietwouldbecalledintoquestionunderwhichofthefollowingcircumstances?

A. Thetoothenamelofaustralopithecinesisfoundtobemuchheavierthanthatofmodernfrugivorousprimates.

B. Themicro-wearpatternsofaustralopithecineteethfromregionsotherthaneastAfricaareanalyzed.

C. Orangutansarefoundtohaveamuchbroaderdietthaniscurrentlyrecognized.

D. TheenvironmentofeastAfricaatthetimeaustralopithecineslivedthereisfoundtohavebeenfarmorevariedthaniscurrentlythought.

E. Theareainwhichtheaustralopithecinespecimenswerefoundisdiscoveredtohavebeenveryrichinsoft-bodiedinsectsduringtheperiodwhenaustralopithecineslivedthere.

105. Theauthorofthepassagementionsthedietsofbaboonsandotherlivingprimatesmostlikelyinorderto

A. provideevidencethatrefutesWalker’sconclusionsaboutthefoodsmakingupthedietsofaustralopithecines

B. suggestthatstudiesoftoothmicro-wearpatternsareprimarilyusefulfordeterminingthedietsoflivingprimates

C. suggestthataustralopithecineswereprobablyomnivoresratherthanfrugivores

D. illustratesomeofthelimitationsofusingtoothmicro-wearpatternstodrawdefinitiveconclusionsaboutagroup’sdiet

E. suggestthattoothmicro-wearpatternsarecausedbypersistent,asopposedtooccasional,consumptionofparticularfoods

3.5AnswerKey1. C

100. B

101. D

102. E

103. D

104. C

105. D

3.6AnswerExplanationsThefollowingdiscussionofreadingcomprehensionisintendedtofamiliarizeyouwiththemostefficientandeffectiveapproachestothekindsofproblemscommontoreadingcomprehension.TheparticularquestionsinthischapteraregenerallyrepresentativeofthekindsofreadingcomprehensionquestionsyouwillencounterontheGMAT.Rememberthatitistheproblemsolvingstrategythatisimportant,notthespecificdetailsofaparticularquestion.

Questions1-4refertothepassageonpage22.

1. Accordingtothepassage,traditionalcorporateleadersdifferfromleadersinlearningorganizationsinthattheformer

A. encourageemployeestoconcentrateondevelopingawiderangeofskills

B. enableemployeestorecognizeandconfrontdominantcorporatemodelsandtodevelopalternativemodels

C. makeimportantpolicydecisionsaloneandthenrequireemployeesinthecorporationtoabidebythosedecisions

D. instillconfidenceinemployeesbecauseoftheirwillingnesstomakeriskydecisionsandaccepttheirconsequences

E. areconcernedwithofferingemployeesfrequentadviceandcareerguidance

Supportingidea

Thisquestionrequiresunderstandingofthecontrastthepassagedrawsbetweenleadersoftraditionalcorporationsandleadersoflearningorganizations.Accordingtothesecondparagraph,theformeraretraditionallycharismaticleaderswhosetpolicyandmakedecisions,whilethelatterfosterintegratedthinkingatalllevelsoftheorganization.

A. Accordingtothepassage,itisleadersinlearningorganizations,nottraditionalcorporateleaders,whoencouragethedevelopmentofawiderangeofskills.

B. Leadersinlearningorganizationsarethosewhowanttheiremployeestochallengedominantmodels.

C. Correct.Thesecondparagraphstatesthattraditionalcorporate

leadersareindividualistic;theyalonesetthecorporation’sdirectionandmakekeydecisions.

D. Thepassagedoesnotaddressthequestionofwhethertraditionalcorporateleadersinstillconfidenceinemployees.Infact,thefirstparagraphsuggeststhattheymaynot;rather,theymightcomeacrossasobjectionablycontrolling.

E. Thepassagesuggeststhatadviceandguidancearemorelikelytobeofferedbyleadersoflearningorganizationsthanbyleadersoftraditionalcorporations.

ThecorrectanswerisC.

2. Whichofthefollowingbestdescribesemployeebehaviorencouragedwithinlearningorganizations,assuchorganizationsaredescribedinthepassage?

A. Carefullydefiningone’sjobdescriptionandtakingcaretoavoiddeviationsfromit

B. Designingmentoringprogramsthattrainnewemployeestofollowproceduresthathavebeenusedformanyyears

C. Concentratingone’seffortsonmasteringoneaspectofacomplicatedtask

D. Studyinganorganizationalproblem,preparingareport,andsubmittingittoacorporateleaderforapproval

E. Analyzingaproblemrelatedtoproductivity,makingadecisionaboutasolution,andimplementingthatsolution

Application

Thesecondparagraphofthepassageindicatesthatemployeesoflearningorganizationsareencouragedtothinkandactforthemselves;theylearnnewskillsandexpandtheircapabilities.

A. Avoidingdeviationsfromone’scarefullydefinedjobdescriptionwouldmorelikelybeencouragedinatraditionalcorporation,asdescribedinthefirstparagraph,thaninalearningorganization.

B. Anyemployeetrainingthatinvolvesfollowinglong-standingprocedureswouldmorelikelybeencouragedinatraditionalcorporationthanalearningorganization.

C. Accordingtothepassage,masteringonlyoneaspectofatask,no

matterhowcomplicated,wouldbeinsufficientinalearningorganization,inwhichbroadpatternsofthinkingareencouraged.

D. Asdescribedinthepassage,theroleofcorporateleadersinlearningorganizationsisnot,characteristically,toapproveemployees’solutionstoproblems,butrathertoenableandempoweremployeestoimplementsolutionsontheirown.

E. Correct.Employeesinlearningorganizationsareexpectedtoactontheirowninitiative;thus,theywouldbeencouragedtoanalyzeandsolveproblemsontheirown,implementingwhateversolutionstheydevised.

ThecorrectanswerisE.

3. Accordingtotheauthorofthepassage,corporateleadersofthefutureshoulddowhichofthefollowing?

A. Theyshouldencourageemployeestoputlong-termgoalsaheadofshort-termprofits.

B. Theyshouldexercisemorecontroloveremployeesinordertoconstrainproductioncosts.

C. Theyshouldredefineincentivesforemployees’performanceimprovement.

D. Theyshouldprovideemployeeswithopportunitiestogainnewskillsandexpandtheircapabilities.

E. Theyshouldpromoteindividualmanagerswhoarecommittedtoestablishedcompanypolicies.

Supportingidea

Thisquestionfocusesonwhattheauthorrecommendsinthepassageforfuturecorporateleaders.Inthesecondparagraph,theauthorstatesthat,amongotherthings,corporateleadersneedtobeteacherstoprovidechallengestotheiremployeesandcreateanatmospherewhereemployeesarecontinuallylearningnewskillsandexpandingtheircapabilitiestoshapetheirfuture.

A. Thepassagedoesnotdirectlydiscusstheissueofcorporategoalsandprofitabilityinthelongorshortterm.

B. Thepassagedoesnotaddressthetopicofproductioncosts,anditsuggeststhatitsauthorwouldfavorreducing,ratherthanincreasing,corporateleaders’controloveremployees.Thefirst

paragraphstatesthatleaderswhoattempttocontrolemployeesleadthoseemployeestoperforminmediocrefashion.

C. Thepassagedoesnotdiscussincentivizingemployees’performance;rather,employees,performancewillimprove,thepassagesuggests,underdifferentcorporateleadership.

D. Correct.Thefinalsentenceofthepassagestatesdirectlythatleadersmustbuildorganizationsinwhichemployeescanlearnnewskillsandexpandtheircapabilities.

E. Thefirstparagraphindicatesthatclingingtoestablishedcompanypoliciesisastrategyforthefuturethatislikelytobeunproductive.

ThecorrectanswerisD.

A. endorseatraditionalcorporatestructure

B. introduceanewapproachtocorporateleadershipandevaluatecriticismsofit

C. explaincompetingtheoriesaboutmanagementpracticesandreconcilethem

D. contrasttwotypicalcorporateorganizationalstructures

E. proposeanalternativetoacommoncorporateapproach

Mainidea

Thisquestiondependsonunderstandingthepassageasawhole.Thefirstparagraphexplainsthewayinwhichcorporationsfailtofacilitatehowhumanslearn.Thesecondparagraphsuggeststhatcorporationsshouldchangethewaytheyviewemployeesinordertopromotelearning,anditexplainsthepositiveoutcomesthatwouldresultfromthatshiftinthinking.

A. Thefirstparagraphexplainsthatthetraditionalcorporatestructureleadstomediocreperformance;itdoesnotendorsethatstructure.

B. Thesecondparagraphintroducestheconceptofalearningorganizationanditsattendantapproachtocorporateleadership.Ratherthanidentifyinganycriticismsofthatapproach,thepassageendorsesitwholeheartedly.

C. Thepassagediscussesthedifferencebetweentheideaofasinglecharismaticleaderandthatofasharedcorporateleadership,butit

doesnotattempttoreconcilethesetwoideas.

D. Thepassage’smainfocusisonadvocatingaparticularapproach,notonmerelycontrastingitwithanother.Furthermore,itportraysonlyoneoftheapproachesastypical.Itsuggeststhattheorganizationalstructurethatreliesonasinglecharismaticleaderistypicalbutthatanotherapproach,thatinwhichleadershipisshared,shouldinsteadbecometypical.

E. Correct.Thepassageidentifiesacommoncorporateapproach,onebasedoncontrollingemployees,andproposesthatcorporationsshouldinsteadbecomelearningorganizations.

Questions5–10refertothepassageonpage24.

A. identifywaysinwhichtheGDPcouldbemodifiedsothatitwouldserveasamoreaccurateindicatoroftheeconomicwell-beingoftheUnitedStates

B. suggestthattheGDP,inspiteofcertainshortcomings,isstillthemostreliableindicatoroftheeconomicwell-beingoftheUnitedStates

C. examinecrucialshortcomingsoftheGDPasanindicatoroftheeconomicwell-beingoftheUnitedStates

D. arguethatthegrowthoftheUnitedStateseconomyinrecentdecadeshasdiminishedtheeffectivenessoftheGDPasanindicatorofthenation’seconomicwell-being

E. discusshowtheGDPcametobeusedastheprimaryindicatoroftheeconomicwell-beingoftheUnitedStates

Mainidea

Thisquestionrequiresdeterminingthemainpurposeofthepassageasawhole.ThepassagebeginsbybroadlydefiningGDPanddescribinghowitisusedasanindicatoroftheeconomicwell-beingoftheUnitedStates.ThepassagethendescribesinmoredetailwhatisandisnottakenintoaccountbytheGDPandthendrawsacausalconnectionbetweenthelimitationsofwhattheGDPmeasuresanddisturbingtrendswithintheU.S.inrecentdecades.

A. ThereisnodiscussioninthepassageaboutmodifyinghowtheGDP

iscalculated.

B. ThepassagemakesnojudgmentaboutthemeritsofusingtheGDPinrelationtoothereconomicindicators.

C. Correct.ThepassageportraystheGDPashavinglimitationsthatmakeitaproblematicindicatorofrealeconomicwell-being.

D. ThepassagedoesnotportraytheGDPasbeinganylessusefulasaneconomicindicatorthaniteverwas.

E. ThereisnodiscussioninthepassageofthehistoryofhowtheGDPcametobeusedasaneconomicindicator.

6. Whichofthefollowingbestdescribesthefunctionofthesecondsentenceofthepassageinthecontextofthepassageasawhole?

A. ItdescribesanassumptionabouttheGDPthatisdefendedinthecourseofthepassage.

B. ItcontributestoadiscussionoftheoriginsoftheGDP.

C. ItclarifiesacommonmisconceptionabouttheuseoftheGDP.

D. ItidentifiesamajorflawintheGDP.

E. ItsuggestsarevisiontothemethodofcalculatingtheGDP.

Evaluation

Answeringthisquestionrequiresunderstandinghowaparticularpartofthepassagefunctionsinthepassageasawhole.ThesecondsentencedescribestheGDPasbeingsolelyconcernedwiththepricesofgoodsandservicesproducedintheUnitedStates,asidefromanyotherkindofvalue.Thepassagethengoesontoimplythatbyignoringvalueotherthanprice,theGDPmayactuallymaskproblemspresentinthenation’soveralleconomy.

A. ThepassageisconcernedwithcallingintoquestiontheuseoftheGDP,notdefendingit.

B. ThepassagedoesnotmentionhowtheGDPcametobeusedasaprimaryeconomicindicator.

C. ThepassagedoesnotdescribethefunctionoftheGDPasbeingcommonlymisunderstood.

D. Correct.ThelimitationsoftheGDPasdescribedinthesecond

sentencearethen,intherestofthepassage,tiedtoproblemsintheUnitedStates.

E. ThepassagemakesnoexplicitrecommendationsaboutrevisinghowtheGDPismeasured.

7. Itcanbeinferredthattheauthorofthepassagewouldagreewithwhichofthefollowingaboutthe“economicsignificance”ofthosegoodsandservicesthatareincludedintheGDP?

A. Itisacomprehensiveindicatorofanation’seconomicwell-being.

B. Itisnotaccuratelycapturedbythepriceofthosegoodsandservices.

C. Itisusuallylessthantheintrinsicvalueofthosegoodsandservices.

D. ItismoredifficulttocalculatethantheeconomicsignificanceofthosegoodsandservicesthatarenotincludedintheGDP.

E. Itiscalculateddifferentlyincapitalistcountriesthaninnoncapitalistcountries.

Inference

Thisquestionaskswhattheauthorimpliesaboutapieceofinformationgiveninthepassage.ThepassagestatesthattheGDPassumesthattheeconomicsignificanceofgoodsandservicesliessolelyintheirprice(lines5–7)andthattheGDPignorestheeconomicutility(lines13–14)ofthingssuchasahealthyenvironmentandacohesivesocialstructure.ThepassagethenimpliesthattheworseningproblemswiththeenvironmentandsocialstructureinrecentdecadesareduetothewaytheGDPiscalculated.

A. IndescribingtheGDPaslimitedinwhatitmeasures,theauthorwouldnotagreethattheGDPisacomprehensiveindicator.

B. Correct.TheauthorimpliesthatbecausetheGDPignorestheeconomicutilityofcertainthings,itisaninaccurateindicatorofeconomicwell-being.

C. Theauthormakesnocomparisonbetweentheeconomicvalueandtheintrinsicvalueofgoodsandservices.

D. TheauthormakesnojudgmentaboutthedifficultyofmeasuringthevalueofgoodsandservicesnotmeasuredbytheGDP.

E. Theauthordoesnotindicatehownoncapitalistcountriescalculate

ThecorrectanswerisB.

8. ThecomparisonoftheGDPtoacalculatingmachineservestodowhichofthefollowing?

A. RefuteanassertionthatthecalculationsinvolvedintheGDParerelativelycomplexinnature

B. IndicatethattheGDPisbettersuitedtorecordcertaintypesofmonetarytransactionsthanothers

C. SuggestthatitislikelythattheGDPwillbesupplantedbyother,moresophisticatedeconomicindicators

D. IllustratethepointthattheGDPhasnowayofmeasuringthedestructiveimpactofsuchthingsasoilspillsonthenation’seconomicwell-being

E. ExemplifyanassertionthattheGDPtendstoexaggeratetheamountofcommercialactivitygeneratedbysuchthingsasoilspills

Evaluation

Thisquestionaskshowacertainstatementinthepassagefunctionsinthepassageasawhole.Inlines13–16and20–24,respectively,thepassageindicatesthattheGDPnotonlyignoresproblemsaffectinganation’seconomybutthatitactuallycanportraytheseproblemsaseconomicgains,anditsubsequentlyusestheexampleofanoilspilladdingtotheGDPtoillustratethis.ThepassagethenclosesbydescribingtheGDPasacalculatingmachinethatcanaddbutnotsubtract.

A. ThepassagedoesnotdiscussthecomplexitiesofcalculatingtheGDP.

B. ThepassagemakesnojudgmentabouttherelativesuccessesoftheGDPinrecordingdifferenttypesofmonetarytransactions.

C. ThepassagemakesnomentionofothereconomicindicatorsasidefromtheGDP.

D. Correct.BycharacterizingtheGDPasacalculatingmachinethatcannotsubtract,thepassagehelpsillustratewhysomethinglikeanoilspillismisrepresentedbytheGDP.

E. WhilethepassagedoesmentionthattheGDPmeasurescommercial

activitygeneratedbyanoilspill,itdoesnotsuggestthattheGDPexaggeratestheamountofthatactivity.

9. ThepassageimpliesthatnationalpoliciesthatrelyheavilyoneconomicindicatorssuchastheGDP

tendto

A. becomeincreasinglycapitalisticinnature

B. disregardtheeconomicimportanceofenvironmentalandsocialfactorsthatdonotinvolvemonetarytransactions

C. overestimatetheamountofcommercialactivitygeneratedbyenvironmentaldisasters

D. overestimatetheeconomicsignificanceofcohesivefamiliesandcommunities

E. assumethattheeconomicsignificanceofgoodsandservicesdoesnotliesolelyinthepriceofthosegoodsandservices

Inference

Thisquestionrequiresunderstandingwhatthepassageimpliesaboutthemainissueitdiscusses.Inlines13–14,thepassagestatesthattheGDPignorestheeconomicutilityofthingssuchasacleanenvironmentandsocialcohesiveness.ItthenindicatesthatincountriesthataredependentoneconomicindicatorssuchastheGDP,theenvironmentandthesocialstructurehavebeenerodedinrecentdecades(lines19–20).

A. ThepassagedoesnotmentionhoworiftheGDPaffectsthecapitalistnatureofnationalpolicies.

B. Correct.InindicatingthattheGDPignoresenvironmentalandsocialfactors,thepassageimpliesthatpoliciesdependentontheGDPwillalsoignoretheseissues.

C. ThepassageindicatesthattheGDPtakesintoaccountthecommercialactivitygeneratedbyenvironmentaldisastersbutdoesnotsuggestthattheamountofthatactivityisoverestimated.

D. ThepassageindicatesthattheGDPignoresthevalueofsocialcohesion.

E. ThepassageindicatesthattheGDPassumesthattheeconomic

significanceofgoodsandservicesliessolelyintheirprice(lines5–7).

10. ItcanbeinferredthattheauthorofthepassagewouldagreewithwhichofthefollowingassessmentsoftheGDPasanindicatoroftheeconomicwell-beingoftheUnitedStates?

A. Itmaskssocialandenvironmentalerosionmorefullythanthechiefeconomicindicatorsofothernations.

B. Itisbasedoninaccurateestimationsofthepricesofmanygoodsandservices.

C. ItoverestimatestheamountofcommercialactivitythatisgeneratedintheUnitedStates.

D. Itisconducivetoerrorbecauseitconflatesdistincttypesofeconomicactivity.

E. Itdoesnottakeintoaccounttheeconomicutilityofcertainenvironmentalandsocialconditions.

Inference

Thisquestionrequiresunderstandingwhattheauthorimpliesaboutinformationinthepassage.ThepassagestatesthattheGDPisthechiefindicatoroftheeconomicwell-beingoftheUnitedStates(lines4–5).ItalsostatesthattheGDPignorestheeconomicutility(lines13–16)ofthingssuchasacleanenvironmentandsocialcohesiveness.Therefore,theGDPdoesnottakeintoaccounttheeconomicutilityofcertainenvironmentalandsocialconditions.

A. Thepassagemakesnocomparisonsamongdifferentnations’economicindicators.

B. ThepassagedoesnotdescribetheGDPasbeinginaccurateinitsestimatesofthepricesofgoodsandservices.

C. ThepassagedoesnotdescribetheGDPasoverestimatingamountsofcommercialactivity.

D. ThepassagedoesnotdescribetheGDPasconfusingdifferenttypesofeconomicactivity.

E. Correct.ThepassagestatesthattheGDPignorestheeconomicutilityofacleanenvironmentandsocialcohesiveness.

A. explainingwhyonemethodofearthquakepredictionhasprovenmorepracticablethananalternativemethod

B. suggestingthataccurateearthquakeforecastingmustcombineelementsoflong-termandshort-termprediction

C. challengingtheusefulnessofdilatancytheoryforexplainingtheoccurrenceofprecursoryphenomena

D. discussingthedeficiencyoftwomethodsbywhichresearchershaveattemptedtopredicttheoccurrenceofearthquakes

E. describingthedevelopmentofmethodsforestablishingpatternsintheoccurrenceofpastearthquakes

Mainidea

Toanswerthisquestion,focusonwhatthepassageasawholeistryingtodo.Thefirstparagraphdescribesamethodforpredictingtheoccurrenceofearthquakes,andthesecondparagraphexplainsproblemswiththatmethod.Thethirdparagraphdescribesasecondmethodforpredictingtheoccurrenceofearthquakes,andthefourthparagraphexplainsproblemswiththatmethod.Thus,thepassageasawholeisprimarilyconcernedwithexplainingthedeficienciesoftwomethodsforpredictingtheoccurrenceofearthquakes.

A. Thepassagedoesnotcomparethepracticabilityofthetwomethods.

B. Thepassagedoesnotdiscusscombininglong-termandshort-termmethods.

C. Onlythefirsthalfofthepassagediscussesdilatancytheory;thesecondhalfdiscussesadifferentmethodforpredictingtheoccurrenceofearthquakes.

D. Correct.Thepassagedescribestwomethodsforpredictingtheoccurrenceofearthquakesandexplainstheshortcomingsofeachmethod.

E. Onlythesecondhalfofthepassagediscussespatternsintheoccurrenceofpastearthquakes;thefirsthalfdiscussesadifferentmethodforpredictingtheoccurrenceofearthquakes.

12. Accordingtothepassage,laboratoryevidenceconcerningtheeffectsofstressonrocksmighthelpaccountfor

A. differencesinmagnitudeamongearthquakes

B. certainphenomenathatoccurpriortoearthquakes

C. variationsintheintervalsbetweenearthquakesinaparticulararea

D. differencesinthefrequencywithwhichearthquakesoccurinvariousareas

E. theunreliabilityofshort-termearthquakepredictions

Supportingideas

Thisquestionasksforinformationexplicitlystatedinthepassage.Thefirstparagraphexplainsthatrockssubjectedtostressinthelaboratoryundergomultiplechanges.Accordingtodilatancytheory,suchchangeshappeningtorocksinthefieldcouldleadtoearthquakeprecursors—phenomenathatoccurbeforelargeearthquakes.

A. Thepassageexplainshowlaboratoryevidencemightbeusedtopredicttheoccurrenceoflargeearthquakes,nottodifferentiatebetweenearthquakes’magnitudes.

B. Correct.Accordingtodilatancytheory,thesortofchangesthathavebeenobservedinlaboratoriestooccurinrocksmightleadtoearthquakeprecursorsinthefield.

C. Althoughthepassagediscussesvariationinearthquakeintervals,thatevidenceisbasedonhistoricalrecords,notlaboratoryevidence.

D. Thepassagedoesnotreferinanywaytodifferencesinthefrequencyofearthquakesinvariousregions.

E. Theunreliabilityofonemethodformakingshort-termearthquakepredictionsisimpliedbyinformationgatheredinthefield,notbylaboratoryevidence.

13. Itcanbeinferredfromthepassagethatoneproblemwithusingprecursoryphenomenatopredictearthquakesisthatminortremors

A. typicallyoccursomedistancefromthesitesofthelargeearthquakesthatfollowthem

B. aredirectlylinkedtothemechanismsthatcauseearthquakes

C. aredifficulttodistinguishfrommajortremors

D. haveprovendifficulttomeasureaccurately

E. arenotalwaysfollowedbylargeearthquakes

Inference

Thisquestionaskswhatcanbeinferredfromcertaininformationinthepassage.Thesecondparagraphexplainstwoproblemswithusingminortremorstopredictearthquakes.First,minortremorsprovidenoinformationabouthowlargeanimpendingearthquakewillbe.Second,theminortremorsthatoccurpriortoalargeearthquakeareindistinguishablefromotherminortremors.Thus,itcanbeinferredthatminortremorssometimesoccurwhennolargeearthquakefollows.

A. Thepassagedoesnotmentionthedistancebetweenminortremorsandensuingearthquakes.

B. Thepassageimpliesthatminortremorssometimesoccurwithoutanensuingearthquake,sothephenomenaaremostlikelynotdirectlylinked.

C. Thepassagesuggestsnodifficultyindistinguishingbetweenminortremorsandmajortremors.

D. Thepassagedoesnotmentionanydifficultiesinthemeasurementofminortremors.

E. Correct.Thepassageindicatesthatminortremorsoccurringpriortoalargeearthquakeareindistinguishablefromminortremorsthatarenotfollowedbylargeearthquakes.Sothefactthatminortremorsarenotalwaysfollowedbylargeearthquakes,togetherwiththeinabilitytodistinguishbetweenthosethatareandthosethatarenot,posesaproblemforanyattempttopredictlargeearthquakesonthebasisofthistypeofprecursoryphenomena.

14. Accordingtothepassage,someresearchersbasedtheirresearchaboutlong-termearthquakepredictiononwhichofthefollowingfacts?

A. Thehistoricalrecordconfirmsthatmostearthquakeshavebeenprecededbyminortremors.

B. TheaverageintervalbetweenearthquakesinoneregionoftheSan

AndreasFaultis132years.

C. Someregionstendtobethesiteofnumerousearthquakesoverthecourseofmanyyears.

D. Changesinthevolumeofrockcanoccurasaresultofbuildingstressandcanleadtotheweakeningofrock.

E. Paleoseismologistshavebeenabletounearthanddategeologicalfeaturescausedbypastearthquakes.

Supportingidea

Thisquestionasksforinformationexplicitlyprovidedinthepassage.Thequestionaskswhatthebasisisfortheresearchintolong-termearthquakepredictiondescribedinthethirdparagraph.Basedonthefactthatnumerousearthquakesoccurinsomeregionsoverthecourseofmanyyears,theresearcherstriedtoidentifyregularearthquakeintervalsthatwouldassistinmakinglong-termpredictions.Thus,thebasisoftheirresearchistheoccurrenceofnumerousearthquakesatparticularsites.

A. Thepassageindicatesthatminortremorsareusedbysomescientiststomakeshort-termearthquakepredictions,notthattheywerethebasisforresearchaboutlong-termpredictions.

B. ThisfactabouttheSanAndreasFaultwasusedbypaleoseismologiststoshowtheinadequacyofthelong-termpredictionresearch,sinceactualearthquakeintervalsvariedgreatlyfromtheaverage.

C. Correct.Sinceearthquakesoccurrepeatedlyincertainregions,researcherstriedtoidentifyregularcyclesinearthquakeintervals.

D. Thepassageindicatesthatchangesinrockvolumehavebeenusedbysomescientiststomakeshort-termearthquakepredictions,notthattheywerethebasisforresearchaboutlong-termpredictions.

E. Paleoseismologists’researchprovidedevidenceagainsttheexistenceofregularearthquakecyclesusedinmakinglong-termpredictions.

15. Thepassagesuggestswhichofthefollowingaboutthepaleoseismologists’findingsdescribedinlines42–50?

A. Theysuggestthatthefrequencywithwhichearthquakesoccurredat

aparticularsitedecreasedsignificantlyoverthepasttwomillennia.

B. Theysuggestthatpaleoseismologistsmaysomedaybeabletomakereasonablyaccuratelong-termearthquakepredictions.

C. Theysuggestthatresearchersmaysomedaybeabletodeterminewhichpastoccurrencesofminortremorswereactuallyfollowedbylargeearthquakes.

D. Theysuggestthattherecurrenceofearthquakesinearthquake-pronesitesistooirregulartoserveasabasisforearthquakeprediction.

E. Theyindicatethatresearchersattemptingtodeveloplong-termmethodsofearthquakepredictionhaveoverlookedimportantevidenceconcerningthecausesofearthquakes.

Inference

Thisquestionasksaboutwhatcanbeinferredfromaparticularportionofthepassage(lines42–50).Thethirdparagraphdescribesresearchthatattemptedtoidentifyregularpatternsofrecurrenceinearthquake-proneregions,toaidinlong-termearthquakeprediction.Thefourthparagraphdescribesevidencediscoveredbypaleoseismologiststhatunderminesthisideathatregularearthquakecyclesexist.TheparagraphindicatesthatinoneregionalongtheSanAndreasFault,theaverageintervalbetweenearthquakeswas132years,butindividualintervalsvariedwidely—from44to332years.Thisinformationimpliesthatearthquakeintervalsaretooirregulartobeusedforaccuratelong-termearthquakeprediction.

A. Theevidencesuggeststhattheearthquakeintervalsareirregular,notthattheyhavebecomeshorterovertime.

B. Thefindingsprovideevidenceagainsttheuseofregularearthquakecyclesinlong-termearthquakeprediction.

C. Thefindingsdonotclearlypertaintominortremors.

D. Correct.Thegreatvariationinintervalsbetweenearthquakessuggeststhatrecurrenceistooirregulartoserveasthebasisforlong-termearthquakeprediction.

E. Thepaleoseismologistsstudiedevidenceshowingwhenearthquakesoccurred.Thepassagedoesnotsuggestthattheevidencehasanyimplicationsregardingthecausesofearthquakes.

16. Theauthorimplieswhichofthefollowingabouttheabilityoftheresearchersmentionedinline18topredictearthquakes?

A. Theycanidentifywhenanearthquakeislikelytooccurbutnothowlargeitwillbe.

B. Theycanidentifytheregionswhereearthquakesarelikelytooccurbutnotwhentheywilloccur.

C. Theyareunabletodetermineeitherthetimeortheplacethatearthquakesarelikelytooccur.

D. Theyarelikelytobemoreaccurateatshort-termearthquakepredictionthanatlong-termearthquakeprediction.

E. Theycandeterminetheregionswhereearthquakeshaveoccurredinthepastbutnottheregionswheretheyarelikelytooccurinthefuture.

Supportingidea

Thequestionasksforinformationexplicitlyprovidedinthepassage.Thesecondparagraphindicatesthatresearchersatfirstreportedsuccessinidentifyingearthquakeprecursors,butfurtheranalysisofthedataunderminedtheirtheory.Thepassagethenexplainsthatatypicalseismicwaveswererecordedbeforesomeearthquakes;thisevidenceatfirstseemedtosupporttheresearchers’theory,beforefurtheranalysisprovedtheevidenceinadequate.

A. Althoughearthquakesarecausedbystressonrock,thepassagedoesnotindicatethatthisfactencouragedresearcherstobelievethatprecursorscouldbeusedtopredictearthquakes.

B. Thisfactwouldunderminethetheorythatchangesinseismicwavesareprecursoryphenomenathatcanbeusedtopredictearthquakes.

C. Correct.Seismicwaveswithunusualvelocitiesoccurringbeforeearthquakesatfirstseemedtoprovidesupportforresearchers’theorythatearthquakescouldbepredictedbyprecursoryphenomena.

D. Thoughearthquakes’recurrenceincertainregionsismentionedasbeingimportanttoresearchersseekingtomakelong-termearthquakepredictions,itisnotmentionedasbeingrelevanttoresearchers’theorythatearthquakescanbepredictedbyprecursory

phenomena.

E. Thisisnotmentionedasbeingrelevanttoscientists’beliefthatearthquakescouldbepredictedonthebasisofprecursoryphenomena.

17. Itcanbeinferredfromthepassagethatonereasonanadvertisermightpreferahard-sellapproachtoasoft-sellapproachisthat

A. therisksofboomerangeffectsareminimizedwhentheconclusionsanadvertiserwantstheconsumertodrawarethemselvesleftunstated

B. counterargumentationislikelyfromconsumerswhofailtodrawtheirownconclusionsregardinganadvertisingclaim

C. inferentialactivityislikelytooccurevenifconsumersperceivethemselvestobemoreknowledgeablethantheindividualspresentingproductclaims

D. researchonconsumermemorysuggeststhattheexplicitconclusionsprovidedbyanadvertiserusingthehard-sellapproachhaveasignificantimpactondecisionmaking

E. theinformationpresentedbyanadvertiserusingthesoft-sellapproachmayimplydifferentconclusionstodifferentconsumers

Inference

Thisquestionreliesonwhatthepassagesuggestsaboutthedifferencebetweenthehard-sellandsoft-sellapproaches—andwhythehard-sellapproachmightbepreferred.Thehard-sellapproach,accordingtothesecondparagraph,presentsexplicitconclusions.Thesoft-sellapproach,ontheotherhand,doesnotexplicitlystateconclusionsaboutproducts;instead,consumersmakeuptheirownminds.

A. Whilethepassagemakesclearthatboomerangeffectsareminimizedwhenconclusionsareleftunstated,thisisanadvantageofthesoft-sellapproachoverthehard-sellapproach.

B. Accordingtothesecondparagraph,counterargumentationisadisadvantage,notanadvantage,ofthehard-sellapproach.Thisisareasonnottopreferthehardsell.

C. Thethirdparagraphsuggeststhatincasesinwhichconsumersmayperceivethemselvesasmoreknowledgeablethanindividualspresentingproductclaims,thesoft-sellapproachoffersanadvantageoverthehard-sellapproach.

D. Accordingtothethirdparagraph,self-generatedconclusionsthatareassociatedwiththesoft-sellapproachhaveagreaterimpactondecisionmakingthanexplicitconclusions.Thepassagedoesnotalludetoanyresearchonmemorythatwouldfavorthehard-sellapproach.

E. Correct.Thefourthparagraphsuggeststhatoneproblemwiththesoft-sellapproachisthatconsumerscouldmissthepoint;theymaynotcometotheconclusionsthattheadvertiserwouldprefer.Thusanadvertisermightpreferahard-sellapproach.

18. Eachofthefollowingismentionedinthepassageasacharacteristicofthehard-sellapproachEXCEPT:

A. Itsoverallmessageisreadilygrasped.

B. Itappealstoconsumers’knowledgeabouttheproduct.

C. Itmakesexplicitclaimsthattheadvertisedbrandissuperiortootherbrands.

D. Itusesstatementsthatareexpressedveryclearly.

E. Itmakesclaimsintheformofdirectconclusions.

Supportingidea

Thisquestionasksaboutwhatisdirectlystatedinthepassageaboutthehard-sellapproach.Thefirstandsecondparagraphsprovidethedetailsaboutthisapproach,includingthatitusesdirect,forcefulclaimsaboutbenefitsofabrandovercompetitors’brands;itsclaimsaresimpleandstraightforward,intheformofexplicitconclusions;andconsumersaregenerallyleftwithlittleroomforconfusionaboutthemessage.

A. Thesecondparagraphstatesthatthereislittleroomforconfusionaboutthemessage.

B. Correct.Theextentofconsumers’knowledgeabouttheproductisnotmentionedinthepassage.

C. Thefirstparagraphindicatesthatinthehard-sellapproach

advertisersmakedirectclaimsregardingthebenefitsoftheadvertisedbrandoverotherofferings.

D. Thefirstandsecondparagraphssaythathard-sellclaimsaredirect,simple,andstraightforward.

E. Thesecondparagraphemphasizesthatthehard-sellapproachpresentsitclaimsintheformofexplicitconclusions.

19. Itcanbeinferredfromthepassagethatadvertiserscouldreduceoneoftherisksdiscussedinthelastparagraphiftheywereabletoprovide

A. motivationforconsumerstothinkabouttheadvertisement’smessage

B. informationthatimpliestheadvertiser’sintendedconclusionbutleavesthatconclusionunstated

C. subtleevidencethattheadvertisedproductissuperiortothatofcompetitors

D. informationcomparingtheadvertisedproductwithitscompetitors

E. opportunityforconsumerstogeneratetheirownbeliefsorconclusions

Inference

Thisquestionrequiresunderstandingtherisksdiscussedinthelastparagraphofthepassage.Thoserisksare,first,thatconsumerswouldnotbemotivatedtothinkabouttheadvertisementandthuswouldmissthemessage’spoint;second,thatconsumersmaydrawconclusionsthattheadvertiserdidnotintend;andfinally,thatconsumerscouldquestionthevalidityoftheconclusionstheyreach,evenifthoseconclusionsarewhatadvertisersintend.

A. Correct.Providingmotivationforconsumerstothinkaboutanadvertisement’smessagewouldreducethefirstriskdiscussedinthelastparagraph:thatconsumerswouldfailtodrawanyconclusionsbecausetheywouldlackmotivationtoengagewithadvertisements.

B. Providinginformationthatimpliesaconclusionbutleavesitunstatedistheverydefinitionofthesoft-sellapproach,anditisthisapproachthatgivesrisetotherisksdiscussedinthelastparagraph.

C. Providingsubtleevidencethataproductissuperiorismostlikelyto

giverisetoallthreeoftherisksidentifiedinthelastparagraph,inthatitssubtletywouldleaveconsumersfreetodrawtheirownconclusions,tofailtodrawthoseconclusions,ortoquestionthevalidityoftheirownconclusions.

D. Adirectcomparisonoftheadvertisedproductwithitscompetitorswouldrunalltherisksidentifiedinthelastparagraph:consumersmightnotfindthecomparisonmotivating;theycoulddrawconclusionsthattheadvertiserdidnotintend(e.g.,thatthecompetingproductsaresuperior);ortheycouldquestionwhateverconclusionstheydodraw.

E. Givingconsumerstheopportunitytogeneratetheirownbeliefsorconclusionsisanintrinsicpartofthesoft-sellapproach,whichproducestherisksdiscussedinthelastparagraph.

ThecorrectanswerisA.

A. pointouttherisksinvolvedintheuseofaparticularadvertisingstrategy

B. makeacaseforthesuperiorityofoneadvertisingstrategyoveranother

C. illustratethewaysinwhichtwoadvertisingstrategiesmaybeimplemented

D. presenttheadvantagesanddisadvantagesoftwoadvertisingstrategies

E. contrastthetypesoftargetmarketsforwhichtwoadvertisingstrategiesareappropriate

Inference

Overall,thepassageisconcernedwithtwoadvertisingstrategies.Thefirstparagraphintroducesthestrategies.Thesecondparagraphexplainshowaparticularaspectofoneapproachmaybebothpositiveandnegativeandhowthesecondapproachmitigatestheseproblems.Thethirdparagraphcontinuesthisdiscussionofmitigation,whilethefourthparagraphpointsoutthattherearedrawbackstothisapproach,too.Thus,accordingtothepassage,bothstrategieshavepositiveandnegativeaspects.

A. Thepassageisconcernednotwithoneparticularadvertising

strategybutwithtwo,anditdiscussesbenefits,aswellasrisks,involvedwithbothstrategies.

B. Thepassagedoesnotsuggestthatonestrategyissuperiortotheotherbutratherthateachhaspositiveandnegativeaspects.

C. Thepassagedoesnotdiscusshowtoimplementeitherofthestrategiesitisconcernedwith;instead,itdealswithhowconsumersarelikelytorespondoncetheimplementationhasalreadytakenplace.

D. Correct.Thepassageisprimarilyconcernedwithshowingthatbothofthestrategiesdescribedhaveadvantagesanddisadvantages.

E. Thepassageprovidessomeindirectgroundsforinferringthetargetmarketsforwhicheachadvertisingstrategymightbeappropriate,butitisnotprimarilyconcernedwithcontrastingthosemarkets.

21. Whichofthefollowingbestdescribesthefunctionofthesentenceinlines25–28inthecontextofthepassageasawhole?

A. Itreiteratesadistinctionbetweentwoadvertisingstrategiesthatismadeinthefirstparagraph.

B. Itexplainshowaparticularstrategyavoidsadrawbackdescribedearlierintheparagraph.

C. Itsuggeststhatariskdescribedearlierintheparagraphislessseriousthansomeresearchersbelieveittobe.

D. Itoutlineswhythestrategydescribedintheprevioussentenceinvolvescertainrisksforanadvertiser.

E. Itintroducesanargumentthatwillberefutedinthefollowingparagraph.

Evaluation

Thesentenceinlines25–28explainshowthekindsofconclusionsconsumersareinvitedtodrawbasedonthesoft-sellapproachreducetheriskthatconsumerswillrespondwithresentment,distrust,andcounterargumentation—thatis,thepossibleboomerangeffectidentifiedearlierintheparagraphasadrawbackofthehard-sellapproach.

A. Thesentencedoesnotreiteratethedistinctionbetweenthehard-andsoft-sellapproaches;rather,itexplainsanadvantageofthesoft-

sellapproach.

B. Correct.Thesentenceexplainshowthesoft-sellapproachavoidstheproblemsthatcanarisefromthehard-sellapproach’sexplicitlystatedconclusions.

C. Thesentencesuggeststhattheriskofboomerangeffectsdescribedearlierintheparagraphisseriousbutthatadifferentapproachcanmitigateit.

D. Thesentenceoutlineswhythestrategydescribedintheprevioussentencereducesadvertisers’risks,notwhyitinvolvesrisks.

E. Atnopointdoesthepassagerefutetheideathatimplicitconclusionsreducetheriskofboomerangeffects.Itdoessaythattherecouldbedrawbackstothesoft-sellapproach,butthosedrawbacksarerelatedtotheproblemwithimplicitconclusionsthemselvesandhowpeoplereachthem.Inaddition,thefollowingparagraphdoesnotmentionthedrawbacks,onlytheadvantagesofimplicitconclusions.

22. Itcanbeinferredfromthepassagethatonesituationinwhichtheboomerangeffectoftenoccursiswhenconsumers

A. havebeenexposedtoforcefulclaimsthatarediametricallyopposedtothoseinanadvertiser’smessage

B. havepreviousself-generatedbeliefsorconclusionsthatarereadilyaccessiblefrommemory

C. aresubjectedtoadvertisingmessagesthataretargetedatspecificmarketstowhichthoseconsumersdonotbelong

D. areconfusedregardingthepointoftheadvertiser’smessage

E. cometoviewtheadvertiser’smessagewithsuspicion

Inference

Thepassagediscussestheboomerangeffectinthesecondparagraph.Thiseffectisdefinedasconsumersderivingconclusionsfromadvertisingthataretheoppositeofthosethatadvertisersintendedtopresent,anditoccurswhenconsumersresentand/ordistrustwhattheyarebeingtold.

A. Thepassageprovidesnogroundsforinferringthatconsumersneed

tobeexposedtoopposingclaimsinordertobelievesuchclaims;theymayreachopposingclaimsontheirown.

B. Thepassageindicatesthattheboomerangeffectcanbereducedbyusingasoft-sellapproach,whichcanresultinself-generatedconclusions,butitprovidesnoevidenceaboutanypossibleeffectsofpreexistingself-generatedbeliefsorconclusionsontheboomerangeffect.

C. Thepassagedoesnotaddresshowconsumerswhoaresubjectedtoadvertisingmessagesnotintendedforthemmightrespond.

D. Confusionregardingthepointoftheadvertiser’smessageismorelikelytooccur,thepassagesuggests,whenadvertisersuseasoft-sellapproach—butitisthehard-sellapproach,notthesoft-sell,thatislikelytoresultintheboomerangeffect.

E. Correct.Thesecondparagraphindicatesthatconsumerswhoresentbeingtoldwhattobelieveandcometodistrusttheadvertiser’smessage—thatis,thosewhoviewthemessagewithsuspicion—mayexperienceaboomerangeffect,believingtheoppositeoftheconclusionsoffered.

23. Itcanbeinferredfromthepassagethattheresearchmentionedinline29supportswhichofthefollowingstatements?

A. Implicitconclusionsaremorelikelytocaptureaccuratelythepointoftheadvertiser’smessagethanareexplicitconclusions.

B. Counterargumentationislesslikelytooccurifanindividual’sbeliefsorconclusionsarereadilyaccessiblefrommemory.

C. Thehard-sellapproachresultsinconclusionsthataremoredifficultfortheconsumertorecallthanareconclusionsresultingfromthesoft-sellapproach.

D. Whenthebeliefsofothersarepresentedasdefiniteandforcefulclaims,theyareperceivedtobeasaccurateasself-generatedbeliefs.

E. Despitetheadvantagesofimplicitconclusions,thehard-sellapproachinvolvesfewerrisksfortheadvertiserthandoesthesoft-sellapproach.

Inference

Theresearchthisitemrefersto—researchonconsumermemoryand

judgment—indicatesthatbeliefsaremorememorablewhentheyareself-generatedandsomatterwhenmakingjudgmentsanddecisions.Further,self-generatedbeliefsseemmorebelievabletothosewhohavethemthanbeliefsthatcomefromelsewhere.

A. Thefourthparagraphindicatesthatimplicitconclusionsaremorelikelytofailtoreplicatetheadvertiser’smessagethanexplicitconclusionsare.

B. Theresearchdiscussedinthepassagedoesnotaddresswhencounterargumentationismoreorlesslikelytooccur.Eventhoughcounterargumentationisariskwhenconsumersdistrusttheadvertiser’smessage—astheymaydowhenharder-to-recallexplicitconclusionsaregiven—itmaybeasmuchofariskwhenconsumersreachanimplicitconclusionthatisreadilyaccessiblefrommemory.

C. Correct.Theresearchindicatesthatitiseasierforconsumerstorecallconclusionstheyhavereachedontheirown—thatis,thesortsofconclusionsthatareencouragedbythesoft-sellapproach—thanconclusionsthathavebeenprovidedexplicitly,ashappensinthehard-sellapproach.

D. Theresearchdoesnotshowthattheforcefulnesswithwhichclaimsarepresentedincreasesperceptionsoftheaccuracyofthoseclaims.Indeed,itismostlikelytheopposite,astheforcefulnessofothers’claimsmaymakethemseemevenlessrelatedtoanyconclusionstheconsumermightgenerateforhim-orherself.

E. Theresearchsuggeststhatitisthesoft-sell,notthehard-sell,approachthathasfewerrisks.Thefourthparagraphindicatesthattherecouldbesomeriskstotheimplicitconclusionsthatconsumersdraw,butthisisnotpartoftheresearchinquestion.

A. describingtheeffectsofhumanactivitiesonalgaeincoralreefs

B. explaininghowhumanactivitiesareposingathreattocoralreefcommunities

C. discussingtheprocessbywhichcoralreefsdeteriorateinnutrient-poorwaters

D. explaininghowcoralreefsproducefoodforthemselves

E. describingtheabundanceofalgaeandfilter-feedinganimalsincoralreefareas

Mainidea

Thisquestionconcernstheauthor’smainpoint,thefocusofthepassageasawhole.Thefirstparagraphdescribesthesymbioticprocessofcoralreefssothatreaderswillunderstandhowhumanactivitiesaredegradingthisfragileecosystem,asexplainedinthesecondparagraph.Theauthorfocusesonhowharmfulthesehumanactivitiesaretocoralreefs.

A. Theincreasedabundanceofalgae(line23)isadetailsupportingthemainpoint.

B. Correct.Humanactivitiesarethreateningcomplexcoralreefcommunities.

C. Thefirstparagraphexplainshowcoralreefsthriveinnutrient-poorwaters.

D. Thezooxanthellaecellsofalgaefeedthecoralreefs(lines7–12);thispointisadetailthatsupportsthemainidea.

E. Thisabundanceisadetailsupportingthemainidea,notthemainideaitself.

25. Thepassagesuggestswhichofthefollowingaboutcoralreefcommunities?

A. Coralreefcommunitiesmayactuallybemorelikelytothriveinwatersthatarerelativelylowinnutrients.

B. Thenutrientsonwhichcoralreefcommunitiesthriveareonlyfoundinshallowwaters.

C. Humanpopulationgrowthhasledtochangingoceantemperatures,whichthreatenscoralreefcommunities.

D. Thegrowthofcoralreefcommunitiestendstodestabilizeunderwaterherbivorepopulations.

E. Coralreefcommunitiesaremorecomplexanddiversethanmostecosystemslocatedondryland.

Inference

Thewordsuggestsinthequestionindicatesthattheanswerwillbeaninferencebasedonwhatthepassagesaysaboutcoralreefcommunities.Thebeginningofthepassagestatesthatnutrient-poorwaters(lines4–5)sustainthethrivinglifeofacoralreef.Lines25–27showthatnutrientinputisincreasingbecauseofhumanactivities,withconsequentdeclinesinreefcommunities(line24).Giventhisinformation,itisreasonabletoconcludethatcoralreefsthriveinnutrient-poor,ratherthannutrient-rich,waters.

A. Correct.Coralreefsflourishinclear,nutrient-poorwaters.

B. Shallowwatersarementionedonlyinthecontextofdeterioratingmarinehabitats(line17),notasasourceofnutrients;thepassagedoesnotindicatethatthenutrientsareuniquetoshallowwaters.

C. Oceantemperaturesarenotmentionedinthepassage.

D. Reefdecline,notreefgrowth,leadstodestabilizedherbivorepopulations(lines21–22).

E. Nocomparisonsaremadebetweenecosystemsinwaterandonland.

26. Theauthorrefersto“filter-feedinganimals”(lines23–24)inorderto

A. provideanexampleofacharacteristicsignofreefdeterioration

B. explainhowreefcommunitiesacquiresustenanceforsurvival

C. identifyafactorthathelpsherbivorepopulationsthrive

D. indicateacauseofdecreasingnutrientinputinwatersthatreefsinhabit

E. identifymembersofcoralreefcommunitiesthatrelyoncoralreefsfornutrients

Logicalstructure

Thisquestionconcernswhytheauthorhasincludedaparticulardetail.Lookatthecontextforthephrasefilter-feedinganimals.Thecompletesentence(lines21–24)showsthatahigherpopulationoffilter-feedinganimalsisasymptomofreefdecline.

A. Correct.Anincreasingabundanceoftheseanimalsisatypicalsignofreefdecline.

B. Zooxanthellaecellsofalgae,notfilter-feedinganimals,providesustenanceforreefcommunities(lines7–12).

C. Anincreaseinfilter-feedinganimalsisassociatedwithdestabilized,notthriving,herbivorepopulations.

D. Anincreaseinnutrients,ratherthanadecrease,causesreefdecline,whenthepopulationoffilter-feedinganimalsthengrows.

E. Theauthorincludesfilter-feedinganimalsinthecontextofthedeclineofcoralreefs,notthesymbioticprocessofcoralreefs.

27. Accordingtothepassage,whichofthefollowingisafactorthatisthreateningthesurvivalofcoralreefcommunities?

A. Thewaterstheyinhabitcontainfewnutrientresources.

B. Adeclineinnutrientinputisdisruptingtheirsymbioticrelationshipwithzooxanthellae.

C. Thedegradedwatersoftheirmarinehabitatshavereducedtheirabilitytocarryoutphotosynthesis.

D. Theyaretoobiologicallycomplextosurviveinhabitatswithminimalnutrientinput.

E. Wasteby-productsresultinanincreaseinnutrientinputtoreefcommunities.

Supportingideas

Thephraseaccordingtothepassageindicatesthatthenecessaryinformationisexplicitlystatedinthepassage.Lookatthethreatstocoralreefslistedinlines18–21andmatchthemagainstthepossibleanswers.Wasteby-productsincreasenutrientsinthewater,andreefsdeclineasnutrientsgrowmoreplentiful(lines21–24).

A. Coralreefsthriveinnutrient-poorwaters,asthefirstparagraphexplains.

B. Nutrientinputisincreasing,notdecreasing(lines20–21).

C. Thepassagedoesnotsaythatthedegradedwatersinhibitphotosynthesis.

D. Thecomplexecosystemofcoralreefsthrivesinnutrient-poorwaters.

E. Correct.Wasteby-productscontributetoincreasednutrientinput,whichcausesreefdecline.

28. Itcanbeinferredfromthepassagethattheauthordescribescoralreefcommunitiesasparadoxicalmostlikelyforwhichofthefollowingreasons?

A. Theyarethrivingeventhoughhumanactivitieshavedepletedthenutrientsintheirenvironment.

B. Theyareabletosurviveinspiteofanoverabundanceofalgaeinhabitingtheirwaters.

C. Theyareabletosurviveinanenvironmentwithlimitedfoodresources.

D. Theirmetabolicwastescontributetothedegradationofthewatersthattheyinhabit.

E. Theyaredecliningevenwhenthewatersurroundingthemremainsclear.

Inference

Aparadoxisapuzzlingstatementthatseemstocontradictitself.Toanswerthisquestion,lookforinformationthatappearspuzzling.Theauthorcallscoralreefsoneofthefascinatingparadoxesofthebiospherebecausethereefsareprolificandproductivedespiteinhabitingclearwaterswithfewnutrients.Theparadoxisthatthereefsseemtoflourishwithlittlefood.

A. Humanactivitieshaveharmedcoralreefsbyincreasingnutrientinput(lines24–29).

B. Anincreaseinalgaeisasignofreefdecline,notreefsurvival(lines21–23).

C. Correct.Coralreefsthriveinwatersthatprovidelittlefood.

D. Algaecellsusethemetabolicwastesofthecoralstocarryoutphotosynthesis;theresultissustenanceforthereefcommunity,notadegradationofwaters(lines9–12).

E. Coralreefsthriveinclear,nutrient-poorwateranddeclineinnutrient-richwater.

29. Itcanbeinferredfromthepassagethatthetwoproceduresdescribedin

thepassagehavewhichofthefollowingincommon?

A. Theyhavebeenappliedinpractice.

B. Theyrelyontheuseofadevicethatmeasurestension.

C. Theirpurposeistodetermineanunknownmass.

D. Theycanonlybeappliedtosmallsolidobjects.

E. Theyinvolveattractionbetweenobjectsofsimilarmass.

Inference

Theproceduresdescribedinthepassageareintroducedbythesuggestioninthefirstparagraphthatsomeoneinaspaceshipwhowantedtodetermineasolidobject’smasscoulddosoinaparticularway.Thesecondparagraphusesthewordweighinquotestorefertoasimilarprocedurefordeterminingthemassofadouble-starsystem.

A. Thelanguageofthefirstparagraphishypothetical:wecoulddoparticularthings.Thus,thereisnowaytodeterminefromthepassagewhetherthatprocedurehasbeenappliedinpractice.

B. Thefirstprocedurereliesonaspringscale,whichmeasurestension,butthesecondproceduremeasurestimeanddistancetodeterminerestrainingforce.

C. Correct.Bothproceduresdeterminemass:thefirstprocedurecandeterminethemassofasmallsolidobjectonaspaceshipinfreefall,andthesecondcandeterminethemassofadouble-starsystem.

D. Thefirstprocedurewould,accordingtothepassage,beappliedtoasmallsolidobject,butthesecondweighsdouble-starsystems,whichareclearlynotsmallobjects.

E. Thesecondprocedureinvolvesattractionbetweentwostars,whichcouldbeofsimilarmass,inthesamesystem,butthefirstprocedureinvolvesmeasuringtensioninastringandspeedofwhirling,notattractionbetweenobjects.

30. Accordingtothepassage,thetensioninthestringmentionedinlines8–9isanalogoustowhichofthefollowingaspectsofadouble-starsystem?

A. Thespeedwithwhichonestarorbitstheother

B. Thegravitationalattractionbetweenthestars

C. Theamountoftimeittakesforthestarstocircleoneanother

D. Thedistancebetweenthetwostars

E. Thecombinedmassofthetwostars

Supportingidea

Thesecondparagraphstatesthatanattractiveforceisanalogoustothetensioninthestring.Thisattractiveforceisidentifiedintheprevioussentenceasthegravitationalforcebetweenthetwostarsinadouble-starsystem.

A. Thesecondparagraphstatesthatthespeedwithwhichthestarscircleeachotherdependsonthegravitationalforcebetweenthem,butitisthatforcethatisanalogoustothetensioninthestring.

B. Correct.Thesecondparagraphclearlyidentifiesthegravitationalforcebetweenthetwostarsastheattractiveforcethatisanalogoustothetensioninthespringscale’sstring.

C. Theamountoftimeittakesforthestarstocircleoneanotherisnecessaryforcalculatingtheforcethatholdsthemtogether,butitistheforceitselfthatisanalogoustothestring’stension.

D. Thedistancebetweenthestarsmustbemeasurediftheattractionbetweenthemistobedetermined,buttheattraction,notthedistance,isanalogoustothestring’stension.

E. Thecombinedmassofthetwostarsiswhattheprocedureisdesignedtodetermine;itisanalogoustothemassofthesmallsolidobject,asdescribedinthefirstparagraph.

31. Whichofthefollowingbestdescribestherelationshipbetweenthefirstandthesecondparagraphofthepassage?

A. Thefirstparagraphprovidesanillustrationusefulforunderstandingaproceduredescribedinthesecondparagraph.

B. Thefirstparagraphdescribesahypotheticalsituationwhoseplausibilityistestedinthesecondparagraph.

C. Thefirstparagraphevaluatestheusefulnessofaprocedurewhoseapplicationisdescribedfurtherinthesecondparagraph.

D. Thesecondparagraphprovidesevidencetosupportaclaimmadeinthefirstparagraph.

E. Thesecondparagraphanalyzesthepracticalimplicationsofamethodologyproposedinthefirstparagraph.

Evaluation

Thisquestionrequiresunderstandingthatthesecondparagraphdescribesasomewhatdifficult-to-understandprocedurethatthefirstparagraphillustratesinsmaller,andsimpler,terms.

A. Correct.Thefirstparagraphillustrates,hypothetically,asimpleprocedurefordeterminingmass,andthisillustrationprovidesthegroundsonwhichthepassageexplainstheprocedureofthesecondparagraph.

B. Thefirstparagraphdescribesasituationinhypotheticalterms,butthesecondparagraphdoesnottestthatsituation’splausibility.Instead,thesecondparagraphdrawsananalogybetweentheinitialsituationandanotherprocedure.

C. Thefirstparagraphdoesnotevaluatetheusefulnessoftheprocedurefordeterminingasmallsolidobject’smasswhileinaspaceshipinfreefall;itsimplydescribeshowthatprocedurewouldwork.

D. Thesecondparagraphprovidesnoevidence;itdescribesaprocedureanalogoustowhatisdescribedinthefirstparagraph.

E. Thesecondparagraphdoesnotdiscussthepracticalimplicationsofthefirstparagraph’smethodologybutratheraprocedurethatisanalogoustothehypotheticalsituationofthefirstparagraph.

32. Theauthorofthepassagementionsobservationsregardingtheperiodofadouble-starsystemasbeingusefulfordetermining

A. thedistancebetweenthetwostarsinthesystem

B. thetimeittakesforeachstartorotateonitsaxis

C. thesizeoftheorbitthesystem’stwostarsoccupy

D. thedegreeofgravitationalattractionbetweenthesystem’sstars

E. thespeedatwhichthestarsystemmovesthroughspace

Supportingidea

Theauthormentionstheperiodofadouble-starsysteminthefinalsentenceofthesecondparagraph,definingitasthetimerequiredfor

starstocircleeachother.Knowingthistime,incombinationwiththedistancebetweenthestars,enablesthedeterminationoftherestrainingforcebetweenthestars.

A. Thefinalsentenceofthesecondparagraphindicatesthattheperiodofadouble-starsystemismeasuredindependentlyofthedistancebetweenthetwostarsinthesystem.

B. Thepassageisnotconcernedwithhowlongittakeseachstartorotateonitsaxis.

C. Thepassagedoesnotmentionanyone’stryingtodeterminethesizeoftheorbitofasystem’stwostars.Itdoesmentiontherelatedtopicofdistancebetweenthestarsbutindicatesthatknowingsuchdistanceisrequiredformeasuringthestars’mass,notthatitcanbeinferredfromtheperiodofthesystem.

D. Correct.Accordingtothepassage,therestrainingforce,orgravitationalattraction,betweenthetwostarscanbededucedbasedontheperiodandthedistancebetweenthem.

E. Thepassagedoesnotmentionthespeedatwhichthestarsystemmovesthroughspace.

33. Whichofthefollowingmostaccuratelystatesthepurposeofthepassage?

A. Tocomparetwodifferentapproachestothestudyofhomeostasis

B. Tosummarizethefindingsofseveralstudiesregardingorganisms’maintenanceofinternalvariablesinextremeenvironments

C. Toargueforaparticularhypothesisregardingvariousorganisms’conservationofwaterindesertenvironments

D. Tociteexamplesofhowhomeostasisisachievedbyvariousorganisms

E. Todefendanewtheoryregardingthemaintenanceofadequatefluidbalance

Mainidea

Toanswerthisquestion,lookatthepassageasawhole.Thefirstparagraphdefineshomeostasisandnamesthreeanimalsthatmust

maintaininternalfluidbalanceindifficultcircumstances.Thetopicofthesecondparagraphishowdesertratsmaintainfluidbalance.Thethirdparagraphdiscusseshowcamelsmaintainfluidbalance,whilethefinalparagraphdescribesmaintenanceofwaterbalanceinmarinevertebrates.Thus,theoverallpurposeistogivethreeexamplesofhowhomeostasisisachieved.

A. Examplesofhomeostasisaregiven,butdifferentapproachestostudyingitarenotdiscussed.

B. Thepassagedescribesexamples,butitdoesnotsummarizestudies.

C. Whilethepassagedoesdiscusstwodesertanimals,itdoesnotpresentanyargumentforaparticularhypothesis.

D. Correct.Thepassagediscussestheexamplesofdesertrats,camels,andmarinevertebratestoshowhowtheseorganismsareabletoachievehomeostasis.

E. Thepassagedescribeshowthreeorganismsmaintainwaterbalance,butitpresentsnotheoryaboutit.

34. Itcanbeinferredfromthepassagethatsomemechanismsthatregulateinternalbodytemperature,likesweatingandpanting,canleadtowhichofthefollowing?

A. Ariseintheexternalbodytemperature

B. Adropinthebody’sinternalfluidlevel

C. Adecreaseintheosmoticpressureoftheblood

D. Adecreaseintheamountofrenalwaterloss

E. Adecreaseintheurine’ssaltcontent

Inference

Aninferenceisdrawnfromstatedinformation.Toanswerthisquestion,lookattheinformationaboutsweatingandpantinginlines18–21and33–35.Thepassagestatesthatdesertratsavoidlossoffluidthroughpantingorsweating,whichareregulatorymechanismsformaintaininginternalbodytemperaturebyevaporativecooling.Thesemechanismsreduceinternalbodytemperatures.Additionally,camelsconserveinternalwater(line35)whentheyavoidsweatingandpanting,exceptatveryhighbodytemperatures.Therefore,theymustloseinternalwater

whentheydosweatandpant.

A. Thepassagedoesnotdiscussexternalbodytemperature;sweatingandpantinglowerinternalbodytemperature,andthereisnoreasontoinferexternalbodytemperaturesmightrise.

B. Correct.Sweatingandpantingleadtolossoffluid.Desertratsavoidsweatingandpantingbystayinginburrows,andcamelsdonotemploythesemechanismsexceptatveryhighbodytemperatures(lines33–35)andthusconserveinternalwater.

C. Thepassagestatesthatdesertratsareabletomaintaintheosmoticpressureoftheirblood,aswellastheirtotalbody-watercontent(lines13–15)anddoesnotconnectchangesinosmoticpressuretotemperature-regulatingmechanismssuchassweatingandpanting.

D. Whilethepassagedoesdiscussrenalwaterloss,itdoesnotrelatethistotemperature-regulatingmechanismslikesweatingandpanting.

E. Thepassagedoesnotrelatebodytemperatureregulatorslikesweatingandpantingtochangesintheurine’ssaltcontent.

35. Itcanbeinferredfromthepassagethattheauthorcharacterizesthecamel’skidneyas“entirelyunexceptional”(line26)primarilytoemphasizethatit

A. functionsmuchasthekidneyofaratfunctions

B. doesnotaidthecamelincopingwiththeexceptionalwaterlossresultingfromtheextremeconditionsofitsenvironment

C. doesnotenablethecameltoexcreteasmuchsaltasdothekidneysofmarinevertebrates

D. issimilarinstructuretothekidneysofmostmammalslivinginwater-deprivedenvironments

E. requiresthehelpofotherorgansineliminatingexcesssalt

Inference

Toanswerthisquestion,lookatthephraseentirelyunexceptionalinthecontextofthepassage.Desertratsandcamelssharetheproblemofconservingwaterinanenvironmentwherewaterislacking,temperatureishigh,andhumidityislow(lines10–12).Desertratshaveaspartof

theircopingmechanismsexceptionalkidneysthatproduceurinewithahighsaltcontent.Theauthorcomparescamels’kidneystothoseofdesertratsandshowsthatthecamelshaveordinarykidneysthatdonothelpthecamelsconservewater.

A. Sinceacontrastisdrawnbetweenthekidneysofcamelsandthoseofdesertrats,thetwomustfunctiondifferently;thepassagemakesnoreferencetothekidneysofotherrats.

B. Correct.Thecamel’skidneydoesnothingspecialtohelpthecamelcopewithitsdifficultenvironment.

C. Nocomparisonbetweenthekidneysofcamelsandthekidneysofmarinevertebratesismade.

D. Thereisnoinformationgivenaboutthekidneystructureofmostmammalsindesertenvironmentssothisconclusionisnotjustified.

E. Marinevertebrateshaveotherorgansthathelpeliminateextrasalt;camelsdonot.

A. describenewwaysofstudyingthepossibilitythatlifeonceexistedonMars

B. reviseatheoryregardingtheexistenceoflifeonMarsinlightofnewevidence

C. reconcileconflictingviewpointsregardingthepossibilitythatlifeonceexistedonMars

D. evaluatearecentlyproposedargumentconcerningtheoriginofALH84001

E. describeacontroversyconcerningthesignificanceofevidencefromALH84001

Mainidea

Answeringthisquestionrequiresdeterminingthepurposeofthepassageasawhole.Inthefirstparagraph,thepassageindicatesthataresearchteamfoundthataMartianmeteoriteinAntarcticacontainscompellingevidencethatlifeexistedonMars.Therestofthepassagethendescribesargumentsbyskepticsagainsttheresearchteam’s

conclusiontogetherwiththeresearchteam’srebuttalstotheskeptics’arguments.

A. WhilethepassagediscussesonetypeofevidencethatlifemighthaveexistedonMars,itdoesnotdescribemultiplewaysofstudyingthepossibilityofMartianlife,norcharacterizeanymethodofstudyasnew.

B. Thepassagemerelyreportsanddoesnotmakeanyattemptatrevisingexistingtheories.

C. ThepassagedescribesbutdoesnottrytoreconcileconflictingviewpointsconcerninglifeonMars.

D. TheoriginofALH84001isgenerallyagreedupon(line5),notarecentlyproposedhypothesisevaluatedbythepassage.

E. Correct.ThepassagedescribesopposingargumentsaboutwhetherALH84001suggestslifeeverexistedonMars.

37. ThepassageassertswhichofthefollowingabouttheclaimthatALH84001originatedonMars?

A. ItwasinitiallyproposedbytheMcKayteamofscientists.

B. Itisnotamatterofwidespreadscientificdispute.

C. IthasbeenquestionedbysomeskepticsoftheMcKayteam’swork.

D. IthasbeenunderminedbyrecentworkonPAHs.

E. ItisincompatiblewiththefactthatALH84001hasbeenonEarthfor13,000years.

Supportingideas

Thisquestionrequiresrecognizingwhatthepassageindicatesaboutapieceofinformationitoffers.Thepassagestatesthatscientistsgenerallyagree(line5)thatALH84001originatedonMars,whichstronglysuggeststhatthereisnotmuchdisputeaboutit.

A. WhileitispossiblethatMcKay’steaminitiallymadetheproposal,thepassagedoesnotsayso.

B. Correct.InstatingthatscientistsgenerallyagreeALH84001originatedonMars,thepassageindicatesthereisnorealcontroversyonthismatter.

C. TheskepticsmentionedinthepassagearenotdescribedascallingintoquestionthatALH84001originatedonMars.

D. ThepassagedoesnottietheexistenceofPAHsinALH84001toquestionsaboutitsMartianorigins.

E. ThepassagemakesnoconnectionbetweenthetimeALH84001hasbeenontheEarthandquestionsastoitsMartianorigins.

38. ThepassagesuggeststhatthefactthatALH84001hasbeenonEarthfor13,000yearshasbeenusedbysomescientiststosupportwhichofthefollowingclaimsaboutALH84001?

A. ALH84001maynothaveoriginatedonMars.

B. ALH84001containsPAHsthataretheresultofnonbiologicalprocesses.

C. ALH84001maynothavecontainedPAHswhenitlandedonEarth.

D. TheorganicmoleculesfoundinALH84001arenotPAHs.

E. TheorganicmoleculesfoundinALH84001couldnotbetheresultofterrestrialcontamination.

Supportingideas

Thisquestionrequiresrecognizinghowaparticularfactisusedtosupportaparticularpointofviewreportedinthepassage.Inthesecondparagraph,thepassagepresentsvariousskeptics’argumentsaboutwhetherthePAHsinALH84001originatedonMars.Inlines15–19,thepassageindicatesthatsomescientistsseethefactthatALH84001hasbeenonEarthfor13,000yearsasraisingthepossibilitythatthePAHsinALH84001resultedfromterrestrialcontaminationorinotherwordsthatitdidnotcontainPAHswhenitlandedonEarth.

A. ThepassageindicatesonlythatmostscientistsbelievethatALH84001originatedonMars.

B. AlthoughthepassageindicatesthatskepticshavepointedoutthatPAHscanbeformedbynonbiologicalprocesses,theirpointisnotrelatedtothelengthoftimeALH84001hasbeenonEarth.

C. Correct.ThepassageindicatesthatsomescientistsbelievethatthePAHsinALH84001mayhavebeentransferredtoitduringits13,000yearsonEarth.

D. ThepassagedoesnotindicatethatanyscientistsdoubtthepresenceofPAHsinALH84001.

E. ThepassageindicatesthatthefactthatALH84001hasbeenonEarthfor13,000yearsisusedbysomescientiststosupporttheideaofterrestrialcontamination.

39. ThepassagesuggeststhatifameteoritecontainedPAHsthatweretheresultofterrestrialcontamination,thenonewouldexpectwhichofthefollowingtobetrue?

A. ThemeteoritewouldhavebeenonEarthformorethan13,000years.

B. ThemeteoritewouldhaveoriginatedfromasourceotherthanMars.

C. ThePAHscontainedinthemeteoritewouldhaveoriginatedfromnonbiologicalprocesses.

D. ThemeteoritewouldcontainfewerPAHsthanmostothermeteoritescontain.

E. ThePAHscontainedinthemeteoritewouldbeconcentratedtowardthemeteorite’ssurface.

Application

Answeringthisquestioninvolvesapplyinginformationcontainedinthepassagetoasituationthatisnotdescribedinthepassage.Accordingtothepassage,somescientistsbelievethatbecauseALH84001hasbeenonEarthforaslongas13,000years,anyPAHscontainedinitmayhavebeentransferredfromtheEarth,aprocessthepassagedescribesasterrestrialcontamination(line19).ThepassagealsoindicatesthatifterrestrialcontaminationoccurredwithALH84001,then,contrarytothefindingsofMcKay’steamthatshowedPAHconcentrationsincreasingasonelooksdeeperintoALH84001(lines21–22),thePAHswouldbeexpectedtobeconcentratedmoretowardtheouterparts,orsurface,ofALH84001.

A. Thepassageindicatesthatscientistsbelievethat13,000yearsissufficienttimeforterrestrialcontaminationtohappen.

B. ThepassagedoesnotsuggestthattheoriginofameteoriteaffectsitsabilitytobecomecontaminatedwithterrestrialPAHs.

C. ThepassagedoesnotindicatewhetherPAHsresultingfrom

terrestrialcontaminationwouldbenonbiologicalornot.

D. ThepassagedoesnotmentionthatdifferentmeteoritesmaycontaindifferentamountsofPAHs.

E. Correct.ThepassagesuggeststhatifALH84001experiencedterrestrialcontamination,thenthePAHswouldbemoreconcentratedtowardtheoutersurfaceofthemeteorite.

40. Whichofthefollowingbestdescribesthefunctionofthelastsentenceofthefirstparagraph?

A. ItidentifiesapossibleorganicsourceforthePAHsfoundinALH84001.

B. ItdescribesafeatureofPAHsthatisnotsharedbyothertypesoforganicmolecules.

C. Itexplainshowacharacteristiccommontomostmeteoritesoriginates.

D. ItsuggestshowtheterrestrialcontaminationofALH84001mighthavetakenplace.

E. ItpresentsevidencethatunderminestheclaimthatlifeonceexistedonMars.

Evaluation

Thisquestionrequiresunderstandinghowapartofthepassagefunctionswithinthepassageasawhole.ThefirstparagraphbeginsbyestablishingthatMcKay’steambelievesthatthePAHsfoundinALH84001providecompellingevidencethatlifeexistedonMars.Toexplainthis,thepassageindicatesthatPAHsareatypeoforganicmolecules,whichformthebasisforlife.Furthermore,toconnectPAHstopossiblelifeonMars,thefinalsentenceofthefirstparagraphindicatesthatonesourceofPAHsisthedecayofdeadmicrobes.

A. Correct.WithoutevidenceofanorganicsourceforthePAHsinALH84001,theteam’sargumentwouldnotmakesense.

B. ThepassageindicatesthatPAHscanbeformedbythedecayoforganicmaterialfrommicrobesbutdoesnotimplythatotherorganicmoleculescannotbeformedthisway.

C. Thesentencereferredtoexplainsonepossibleoriginofamolecule

foundinALH84001butdoesnotimplythatmostmeteoritescontainthatmolecule.

D. Thesentencereferredtodoesnotinvolvetheprocessofterrestrialcontamination.

E. Thesentencereferredtoprovidesinformationnecessarytotheteam’sargumentthatlifemayhaveexistedonMars.

41. ThepassagesuggeststhatMcKay’steamwouldagreewithwhichofthefollowingregardingthePAHsproducedbynonorganicprocesses?

A. ThesePAHsarenotlikelytobefoundinanymeteoritethathasbeenonEarthfor13,000yearsormore.

B. ThesePAHsarenotlikelytobefoundinanymeteoritethatoriginatedfromMars.

C. ThesePAHsarenotlikelytobeproducedbystarformation.

D. ThesePAHsarelikelytobefoundincombinationsthatdistinguishthemfromthePAHsproducedbyorganicprocesses.

E. ThesePAHsarelikelytobefoundinfewermeteoritesthanthePAHsproducedbyorganicprocesses.

Inference

Thisquestioninvolvesunderstandingaparticularpointofviewpresentedinthepassage.Thepassageindicatesinlines11–13thattheorganicmoleculesfoundinALH84001arePAHs.Inlines23–27,skepticsofMcKay’steam’sfindingspointoutthatprocessesunrelatedtoorganiclife,includingstarformation,canproducePAHs.Inthefinalsentenceofthepassage,McKay’steamnotesthatthetypeofPAHsfoundinALH84001aremoresimilartothoseproducedbyorganicprocessesthantothoseproducedbynonorganicprocesses.

A. McKay’steamdoesnottiethepresenceofnonorganicPAHsinmeteoritestothelengthoftimethemeteoriteshavebeenonEarth.

B. McKay’steamdoesnotdenythepossibilitythatatleastsomeofthePAHsfoundinMartianmeteoritesarenonorganicinorigin.

C. McKay’steamdoesnotdenythatPAHscanbeproducedbytheformationofstars.

D. Correct.McKay’steamnotesinlines29–34thatthePAH

combinationsproducedbyorganicprocessescanbedistinguishedfromthoseproducedbynonorganicprocesses.

E. McKay’steamdoesnotaddresstheprobabilityofnonorganicPAHsbeingfoundinmeteorites.

A. presentrecentlydiscoveredevidencethatsupportsaconventionalinterpretationofahistoricalperiod

B. describehowreinterpretationsofavailableevidencehavereinvigoratedaonce-discreditedscholarlyposition

C. explainwhysomehistorianshavetendedtoemphasizechangeratherthancontinuityindiscussingaparticularperiod

D. explorehowchangesinaparticularoccupationservetocountertheprevailingviewofahistoricalperiod

E. examineaparticularareaofhistoricalresearchinordertoexemplifyageneralscholarlytrend

Mainidea

Thisquestionasksaboutthepassage’smainpurpose.Thefirstparagraphinitiallydescribesawayinwhichhistoriographyischanging:theideaofaconsistent,monolithicdeclineinwomen’sstatusisbeingcomplicatedbyrecentresearch.TherestofthepassageusestheexampleofPinchbeck’sinterpretationofwomen’sworkinEnglishcheesemakingtoshowthelimitsofearlierideasaboutwomen’sstatus:Pinchbeck’sworkillustratestheideaofconsistentdecline,butrecentscholarshiphascalledthatworkintoquestion.

A. ThefirstparagraphsuggeststhatPinchbeck’sworkrepresentstheconventionalpositionthatwomen’sstatusdeclinedconsistentlywiththeadventofcapitalism;accordingtothepassage,recentevidenceundermines,ratherthansupports,thatposition.

B. Accordingtothepassage,reinterpretationsofevidencehaveinspirednewinterpretations;theyhavenotreinvigoratedadiscreditedposition.

C. Thepassageisconcernedwithnotingbothchangeandcontinuity,as

statedinthefirstsentence.

D. Inthepassage,continuity,notchange,inaparticularoccupation—Englishfarmhousecheesemaking—helpstocountertheprevailingview.

E. Correct.Thepassage’smainpurposeistoexaminewomen’sworkinEnglishfarmhousecheesemakingsoastoillustrateatrendinhistoriographyofwomen’sstatusundercapitalismandindustrialization.

43. RegardingEnglishlocalmarketsandfairs,whichofthefollowingcanbeinferredfromthepassage?

A. Bothbeforeandaftertheagriculturalrevolution,thesellersofagriculturalproductsatthesevenuesweremen.

B. Knowingwhotheactivesellerswereatthesevenuesmaynotgiveareliableindicationofwhocontrolledtherevenuefromthesales.

C. TherewerenoparallelinstitutionsatwhichAmericancheesemakerscouldselltheirownproducts.

D. Priortotheagriculturalrevolution,thesellersofagriculturalproductsatthesevenuesweregenerallytheproducersthemselves.

E. Priortotheagriculturalrevolution,womensoldnotonlycheesebutalsoproductsofarableagricultureatthesevenues.

Inference

ThepassagediscussesEnglishlocalmarketsandfairsinthefirstandsecondparagraphs:thefirstparagraphstatesthatbeforetheagriculturalrevolution,womenhadsoldcheeseinsuchvenuesbutthatafterthat,factors,whoweremen,soldthecheese.ThesecondparagrapharguesthateventhoughEnglishwomeninprecapitalist,preindustrialtimesmayhaveatonepointsoldcheeseatfairs,evidenceindicatesthatinatleastonecase,amanappropriatedmostofthemoneyhiswifemadefromhersales.

A. Thefirstparagraphstatesthatpriortotheagriculturalrevolution,womensoldcheeseatlocalmarketsandfairs.

B. Correct.Asthesecondparagraphindicates,womenmayhavesoldthecheese,butthereisevidencetosuggestthattheydidnotnecessarilycontroltherevenuefromitssale.

C. ThepassagedoesnotprovideevidenceregardinganyinstitutionsatwhichAmericancheesemakerssoldtheirproducts.

D. WhilethepassageindicatesthattheproducersofEnglishfarmhousecheesemayhavebeentheoneswhosoldthatcheeseatlocalmarketsandfairs,thereisnoevidencetosuggestthatthiswasnecessarilythecaseforotheragriculturalproducts.

E. Thepassageprovidesnoinformationregardingwhetherwomensoldproductsofarableagricultureinanyvenue.

44. ThepassagedescribestheworkofPinchbeckprimarilyinorderto

A. demonstratethatsomeoftheconclusionsreachedbyrecenthistorianswereanticipatedinearlierscholarship

B. provideaninstanceoftheviewpointthat,accordingtothepassage’sauthor,isbeingsuperseded

C. illustratethewaysinwhichrecenthistorianshavebuiltontheworkoftheirpredecessors

D. provideapointofreferenceforsubsequentscholarshiponwomen’sworkduringtheagriculturalrevolution

E. showtheeffectthatthespecializationintroducedintheagriculturalandindustrialrevolutionshadonwomen’swork

Evaluation

ThisquestionfocusesonthefunctionofPinchbeck’sworkinthepassage.Pinchbeck’sstudyofwomen’sworkincheeseproductionis,accordingtothepassage,anillustrationoftheviewthatwomen’sstatusdeclinedconsistentlywiththeadventofindustrialization.Thatview,theauthorclaims,isbeingchallengedbycurrenthistoriography.

A. ThepassageindicatesthattheconclusionsofPinchbeck,whorepresentsearlierscholarship,didnotanticipaterecentwork,butratherthatrecentworkarguesagainstthoseconclusions.

B. Correct.Pinchbeck’sworkillustratesearliertrendsinhistoriography,trendsthattheauthorsuggestsarenowgivingwaytonewerideas.

C. ThepassagedoesnotfocusonanywaysinwhichrecenthistorianshavebuiltonPinchbeck’swork;instead,itdiscusseshowtheyhave

arguedagainstitsconclusions.

D. Pinchbeck’sworkprovidesapointofreferenceonlyinsofarassubsequentscholarshipisarguingagainstit.

E. Pinchbeckmakestheargumentthatspecializationcausedwomen’sstatustodecline,butthepassageisconcernedwithunderminingthisargument.

45. Itcanbeinferredfromthepassagethatwomendidworkin

A. Americancheesemakingatsomepointpriortoindustrialization

B. arableagricultureinnorthernEnglandbothbeforeandaftertheagriculturalrevolution

C. arableagricultureinsoutheastEnglandaftertheagriculturalrevolution,inthoselocalesinwhichculturalvaluessupportedtheirparticipation

D. thesaleofcheeseatlocalmarketsinEnglandevenaftertheagriculturalrevolution

E. someareasofAmericancheesedairyingafterindustrialization

Inference

Thisquestionfocusesmainlyonthefinalparagraphofthepassage,inwhichwomen’scontinuedworkinEnglishcheesedairyingiscontrastedwithwhatthepassagecallstheirdisappearancefromarableagricultureinsoutheastEnglandandfromAmericancheesedairying,presumablyduringtheperiodofindustrialization.Thecorrectanswerwillbeaconclusionthatcanbedrawnfromthisinformation.

A. Correct.Thatwomen“disappeared”fromAmericancheesedairyingduringindustrializationprovidesgroundsforinferringthattheydidsuchdairyingworkatsomepointpriortoindustrialization.

B. ThepassagesaysthatwomendisappearedfromarableagricultureinsoutheastEngland,butitgivesnoinformationabouttheirparticipationinarableagricultureinnorthernEngland.

C. Thepassagemakesablanketstatementaboutwomen’sdisappearancefromarableagricultureinsoutheastEngland,sothereisnoreasontoinferthatanylocalessupportedwomen’sparticipationinagriculture.

D. Thefirstparagraphstatesthatfactors,whoweremen,soldcheeseaftertheagriculturalrevolution.

E. ThefinalparagraphexplicitlystatesthatwomendisappearedfromAmericancheesedairying;thus,thereisnobasisforinferringthatwomenworkedinanyareasofthatfieldafterindustrialization.

46. TheauthorofthepassagedrawsconclusionsaboutthefurtradeinNorthAmericafromallofthefollowingsourcesEXCEPT

A. Cartier’saccountsoftradingwithNativeAmericans

B. aseventeenth-centuryaccountofEuropeansettlements

C. asixteenth-centuryaccountwrittenbyasailingvesselcaptain

D. archaeologicalobservationsofsixteenth-centuryNativeAmericansites

E. asixteenth-centuryaccountofNativeAmericansinwhatisnowNewEngland

Supportingidea

Thisquestionasksaboutthesourcesmentionedbytheauthorofthepassage.AnsweringthequestioncorrectlyrequiresdeterminingwhichansweroptionisNOTreferredtointhepassageasasourceofevidenceregardingtheNorthAmericanfurtrade.

A. Correct.ThepassagementionsCartier’svoyagebutdoesnotrefertoCartier’saccountsofhistrading.

B. Inthefirstparagraph,NicolasDenys’s1672accountofEuropeansettlementsprovidesevidenceoffurtradingbysixteenth-centuryEuropeanfishingcrews.

C. Inthesecondparagraph,aPortuguesecaptain’srecordsprovideevidencethatthefurtradewasgoingonforsometimepriortohis1501account.

D. Inthefirstparagraph,archaeologists’observationsofsixteenth-centuryNativeAmericansitesprovideevidenceoffurtradingatthattime.

E. Inthesecondparagraph,a1524accountprovidesevidencethatNativeAmericanslivinginwhatisnowNewEnglandhadbecome

selectiveaboutwhichEuropeangoodstheywouldacceptintradeforfurs.

47. ThepassagesuggeststhatwhichofthefollowingispartiallyresponsibleforthedifficultyinestablishingtheprecisedatewhenthefurtradeinNorthAmericabegan?

A. AlackofwrittenaccountsbeforethatofNicolasDenysin1672

B. Alackofwrittendocumentationbefore1501

C. AmbiguitiesintheevidencefromNativeAmericansources

D. UncertaintyaboutNativeAmericantradenetworks

E. UncertaintyabouttheoriginofartifactssupposedlytradedbyEuropeanfishingcrewsforfurs

Inference

Thequestionasksaboutinformationimpliedbythepassage.ThefirstparagraphpointsoutthedifficultyofestablishingexactlywhenthefurtradebetweenNativeAmericansandEuropeansbegan.Thesecondparagraphexplainsthatthefirstwrittenrecordofthefurtrade(atleasttheearliestknowntoscholarswhostudythehistoryofthetrade)datesto1501,butthattradingwasalreadywellestablishedbythattime.Thus,itcanbeinferredthatlackofwrittenrecordspriorto1501contributestothedifficultyinestablishinganexactdateforthebeginningofthefurtrade.

A. TwowrittenrecordsofthefurtradepriortotheaccountbyNicolasDenysarementionedinthepassage.Thepassagedoesnotsuggestthatalackofwrittenrecordsfrombefore1672isasourceofthedifficultyinestablishingthedate.

B. Correct.Thepassageindicatesthatthefurtradewaswellestablishedbythetimeofthedocumentationdatingfrom1501butstronglysuggeststhatthereisnoknownearlierdocumentationregardingthattrade,soalackofrecordsbeforethattimecontributestothedifficultyinestablishinganexactdate.

C. TheonlyNativeAmericansourcesmentionedinthepassagearearchaeologicalsites,andthereisnoindicationofambiguitiesatthosesites.

D. NativeAmericantradenetworksarenotmentionedinthepassage.

E. Thepassagementionsthatfishingcrewsexchangedpartsoftheirshipsforfursanddoesnotsuggestanyuncertaintyabouttheoriginofthoseartifacts.

48. Whichofthefollowing,iftrue,moststrengthenstheauthor’sassertioninthefirstsentenceofthesecondparagraph?

A. WhenEuropeansretracedCartier’svoyageinthefirstyearsoftheseventeenthcentury,theyfrequentlytradedwithNativeAmericans.

B. Fursfrombeavers,whichwereplentifulinNorthAmericabutnearlyextinctinEurope,becameextremelyfashionableinEuropeinthefinaldecadesofthesixteenthcentury.

C. Firingarmswererarelyfoundonsixteenth-centuryNativeAmericansitesoronEuropeanlistsoftradinggoodssincesucharmsrequiredfrequentmaintenanceandrepair.

D. EuropeansandNativeAmericanshadestablishedtradeprotocols,suchasbodylanguageassuringoneanotheroftheirpeacefulintentions,thatantedatetheearliestrecordsoftrade.

E. Duringthefirstquarterofthesixteenthcentury,anItalianexplorerrecordedseeingmanyNativeAmericanswithwhatappearedtobecopperbeads,thoughtheymayhavebeenmadeofindigenouscopper.

Evaluation

Thequestiondependsonevaluatinganassertionmadeinthepassageanddeterminingwhichadditionalevidencewouldmoststrengthenit.ThefirstsentenceofthesecondparagraphclaimsthatthefurtradewaswellestablishedbythetimeEuropeanssailingtheAtlanticcoastofAmericafirstdocumentedit.Thepassagethenindicatesthatthefirstwrittendocumentationofthetradedatesto1501.Thus,evidenceshowingthattradehadbeengoingonforsometimebefore1501wouldstrengthen(support)theassertion.

A. Thisevidenceshowstradeoccurringinthefirstyearsoftheseventeenthcentury,notpriortothefirstrecordsfrom1501.

B. Thisevidenceshowstradeoccurringinthefinaldecadesofthesixteenthcentury,notpriortothefirstrecordsfrom1501.

C. Thisevidencedoesnotindicatethattradetookplacepriortothe

firstrecordsfrom1501.

D. Correct.Evidencethattradeprotocolshaddevelopedbeforethetradewasfirstrecorded(in1501)wouldstrengthensupportfortheassertionthattradewastakingplacepriortotheearliestdocumentation.

E. BecausethecopperbeadsmayhavebeenmadebyNativeAmericansratherthanacquiredthroughtradewithothersocieties,thisobservationwouldnotprovideevidencethattradewithEuropeanstookplacepriorto1501.

49. Whichofthefollowingbestdescribestheprimaryfunctionoflines11–16?

A. Itoffersareconsiderationofaclaimmadeintheprecedingsentence.

B. Itrevealshowarchaeologistsarrivedataninterpretationoftheevidencementionedintheprecedingsentence.

C. Itshowshowscholarsmisinterpretedthesignificanceofcertainevidencementionedintheprecedingsentence.

D. Itidentifiesoneofthefirstsignificantaccountsofseventeenth-centuryEuropeansettlementsinNorthAmerica.

E. ItexplainswhyDenys’saccountofseventeenth-centuryEuropeansettlementsisthoughttobesignificant.

Evaluation

Thisquestiondependsonunderstandinghowthelastsentenceofthefirstparagraphfunctionsinrelationtothelargerpassage.ThefirstparagraphexplainsthattheearliestEuropeanstotradewithNativeAmericanswerefishingcrewsnearNewfoundland.Thesecond-to-lastsentenceoftheparagraphdescribesarchaeologicalartifactsfromNativeAmericansites.ThelastsentencethenexplainsthatNicolasDenys’s1672accounthelpedarchaeologistsrealizethattheartifactswereevidenceoftradewithfishingcrews.Thus,thelastsentenceofthepassageshowshowarchaeologistslearnedtointerprettheevidencementionedintheprevioussentence.

A. Theonlyclaimmadeintheprevioussentenceisthatarchaeologistsfoundaparticulartypeofevidence.Thefinalsentenceofthe

paragraphdoesnotsuggestthatthisclaimshouldbereconsidered.

B. Correct.AfterreadingDenys’saccount,archaeologistswereabletointerpretthearchaeologicalevidencementionedintheprevioussentence.

C. Thepassagesuggeststhatarchaeologistscorrectlyinterpretedtheevidence,notmisinterpretedit.

D. Denys’saccountismentionedprimarilytoexplainhowarchaeologistslearnedtointerpretthearchaeologicalevidence,notprimarilytoidentifyanimportantearlyaccountofsettlements.

E. ThepassagedoesnotdiscusswhyDenys’saccountissignificant,onlythatarchaeologistsusedittohelpunderstandtheevidencementionedintheprevioussentence.

50. ItcanbeinferredfromthepassagethattheauthorwouldagreewithwhichofthefollowingstatementsaboutthefurtradebetweenNativeAmericansandEuropeansintheearlymodernera?

A. Thistrademayhavebegunasearlyasthe1480s.

B. Thistradeprobablydidnotcontinuemuchbeyondthe1530s.

C. Thistradewasmostlikelyatitspeakinthemid-1520s.

D. Thistradeprobablydidnotbeginpriorto1500.

E. Thereisnowrittenevidenceofthistradepriortotheseventeenthcentury.

Inference

Thequestionrequiresdeterminingwhichstatementcanmostreasonablybeinferredfromtheinformationinthepassage.ThepassagearguesthatitisdifficulttodeterminewhenthefurtradebetweenNativeAmericansandEuropeansbegan,sincetheearliestpeopletoparticipateinthattradeapparentlyleftnowrittenrecords.Thesecondparagraphnotesthatatthetimeoftheearliestknownrecordin1501,tradewasalreadywellunderway.Inthefinaltwosentencesofthepassage,theauthormentionsaneventthatoccurredin1534andthensaysthatbythattimethetrademayhavebeengoingonforperhapshalfacentury.

A. Correct.Thenext-to-lastsentenceofthepassagecitesevidenceoffurtradebetweenNativeAmericansandEuropeansin1524.Inthe

finalsentenceofthepassage,theauthormentionsaneventthathappenedadecadeafterthatdate—thusin1534—andexpressestheopinionthatthetradestartedperhapshalfacentury(fiftyyears)beforethatlaterdate.Fiftyyearsbefore1534wouldbe1484.Thisimpliesthattheauthoracceptsthatthetrademayhavebegunbythe1480s.

B. Thepassagegivesnoindicationthattheauthorbelievestradeendedshortlyafterthe1530s.

C. Thepassagedoesnotdiscusswhenthefurtradewasatitspeak.

D. Tothecontrary,thepassagearguesthattradebeganwellbefore1501.

E. Thepassagementionswrittenevidenceofthetradefrom1501and1524.

51. WhichofthefollowingcanbeinferredfromthepassageabouttheNativeAmericansmentionedinline25?

A. Theyhadlittleusefordecorativeobjectssuchasearrings.

B. Theybecameincreasinglydependentonfishingbetween1501and1524.

C. By1524,onlycertaingroupsofEuropeanswerewillingtotradewiththem.

D. TheselectivityoftheirtradingchoicesmadeitdifficultforthemtoengageinwidespreadtradewithEuropeans.

E. TheselectivityoftheirtradingchoicesindicatesthattheyhadbeentradingwithEuropeansforasignificantperiodoftimepriorto1524.

Inference

Thequestionasksaboutinformationthatcanbeinferredfromthepassage.TheNativeAmericansmentionedinthe1524chroniclesacceptedonlycertainkindsofEuropeangoodsintrade.ThepassageindicatesthattheseNativeAmericanshadbecomeselectiveaboutwhichgoodstheywouldaccept,whichimpliesthatby1524theyhadbeentradinglongenoughtodeterminewhichEuropeangoodsweremostvaluabletothem.

A. ThepassagedoesnotimplythattheseNativeAmericanshadnouse

fordecorativeobjects,onlythattheydidnotdesiretoobtainsuchitemsthroughtradewithEuropeans.

B. ThepassagedoesnotsuggestthattheNativeAmericans’dependencyonfishingchangedovertime.

C. ThereisnoindicationthatanygroupsofEuropeanswereunwillingtotradewiththeseNativeAmericans.

D. ThepassagenotesthattheNativeAmericanswereselectiveintheirtradechoicesbutdoesnotsuggestthatsuchselectivitymadewidespreadtradedifficult.

E. Correct.Thepassagenotesthatby1524,theNativeAmericanshadbecomeselectiveaboutwhichEuropeangoodstheywouldaccept,andthepassagetakesthistoindicatethatthetradewithEuropeanssignificantlypredated1524.

52. Thepassagesupportswhichofthefollowingstatementsaboutsixteenth-centuryEuropeanfishingcrewsworkingthewatersoffNewfoundland?

A. Theywrotenoaccountsoftheirfishingvoyages.

B. TheyprimarilysailedundertheflagofPortugal.

C. TheyexchangedshippartswithNativeAmericansforfurs.

D. TheycommonlytradedjewelrywithNativeAmericansforfurs.

E. TheycarriedsurplusmetalimplementstotradewithNativeAmericansforfurs.

Inference

Thequestionaskswhichstatementissupportedbyinformationprovidedinthepassage.ThefirstparagraphstatesthatEuropeanfishingcrewsaroundNewfoundlandwerethefirstEuropeanstotradegoodsforfurswithNativeAmericansinthemodernperiod.Thelastsentenceoftheparagraphstatesthatarchaeologicalevidenceindicatesthecrewshaddismantledtheirshipstotradeshippartsforfurs.

A. ThesecondsentencestatesthatthecrewsleftnowrittenaccountsoftheirtradewithNativeAmericans,butitdoesnotsuggestthattheyleftnowrittenaccountsoftheirvoyages.

B. ThepassagementionsonePortuguesevesselbutdoesnotsuggestthattheEuropeancrewswhofishedoffNewfoundlandweremostly

onPortuguesevessels.

C. Correct.Thelastsentenceofthefirstparagraphsupportstheconclusionthatthecrewstradedshippartsforfurs.

D. ThepassagementionsoneinstanceofaNativeAmericanacquiringearringsfromEuropeansbutdoesnotsuggestthattradesforsuchgoodswerecommon.

E. ThepassageindicatesthatfishingcrewstradedmetalimplementswithNativeAmericansbutdoesnotsuggestthattheybroughtsurplusimplementsforthatpurpose—andinfactmentionsthatsometimestradedmetalarticleshadbeenpartsoftheirownships.

53. WhichofthefollowingcanbeinferredfromthepassageaboutevidencepertainingtothefurtradebetweenNativeAmericansandEuropeansintheearlymodernera?

A. AlackofwrittenevidencehasmadeitdifficulttoestablishwhichEuropeansfirstparticipatedinthistrade.

B. Ingeneral,thephysicalevidencepertainingtothistradehasbeenmoreusefulthanthewrittenevidencehasbeen.

C. Thereismorewrittenevidencepertainingtothistradefromtheearlypartofthesixteenthcenturythanfromlaterinthatcentury.

D. Theearliestwrittenevidencepertainingtothistradedatesfromatimewhenthetradewasalreadywellestablished.

E. Someimportantpiecesofevidencepertainingtothistrade,suchasDenys’s1672account,werelongoverlookedbyarchaeologists.

Inference

Thisquestionasksaboutinformationthatcanbeinferredfromthepassage.AnysuggestionthatNativeAmericansmayhaveproducedwrittenevidenceoftheearly-moderntradewithEuropeansisabsentfromthepassage.ThesecondparagraphstatesthatbythetimeEuropeansfirstdocumentedthefurtrade,itwasalreadywellunderway.Thisstatement,inthecontextofthepassage,impliesthattheearliestwrittenrecordsofthetradedatetoatimeafteritwaswellestablished.

A. ThefirstparagraphindicatesthatthefirstEuropeanstoparticipateinthetradewerequitecertainlyfishingcrewsnearNewfoundland.

B. Thepassagegivesnoindicationthatphysicalevidenceofthetradehasbeenmoreusefulthanwrittenevidence.

C. Althoughthepassagedoesnotcitewrittenevidencefromthelatesixteenthcentury,thepassagegivesnoreasontobelievethatlesswrittenevidenceexistsfromthattime.

D. Correct.Accordingtothepassage,thefurtradewaswellunderwaywhenwrittenevidenceofthetradewasfirstdocumentedbyEuropeans.ThepassagecontainsnosuggestionthattheremighthavebeenearlierdocumentationofthattradebyanybodyotherthanEuropeans.

E. Thepassagedoesnotimplythatarchaeologistsoverlookedevidenceforlongperiodsoftime.

54. Thepassagesuggestswhichofthefollowingaboutthesixteenth-centuryNativeAmericanswhotradedwithEuropeansonthecoastofwhatisnowcalledNewEngland?

A. By1524theyhadbecomeaccustomedtoexchanginggoodswithEuropeans.

B. TheywereunfamiliarwithmetalsbeforeencounteringEuropeans.

C. TheyhadnopracticalusesforEuropeangoodsotherthanmetalsandmetalimplements.

D. By1524theyhadbecomedisdainfulofEuropeantradersbecausesuchtradershadtreatedthemunfairlyinthepast.

E. By1524theydemandedonlythemostprizedEuropeangoodsbecausetheyhadcometorealizehowvaluablefurswereonEuropeanmarkets.

Inference

Thequestionasksaboutwhatisimpliedinthepassage.TheNativeAmericanstradingwithEuropeansonthecoastofwhatisnowcalledNewEnglandarediscussedinthe1524chroniclesmentionedinthesecondparagraph.ThepassageindicatesthattheseNativeAmericanshadbecomeselectiveaboutwhichEuropeangoodstheywouldacceptintrade,whichsuggeststheyhadbecomeaccustomedtotradingwithEuropeans.

A. Correct.Bythetimethechroniclewaswritten,theNative

AmericanswerefamiliarenoughwithtradetobeabletospecifywhichEuropeangoodstheywouldaccept.

B. AlthoughtheNativeAmericanschosetotradefursforEuropeanmetalgoods,thepassagedoesnotimplytheywereunfamiliarwithanymetalspriortoencounteringEuropeans.

C. ThepassagedoesnotsuggestwhyNativeAmericanspreferredcertaingoodsoverothers.

D. ThepassagedoesnotattributedisdainforEuropeantraderstoNativeAmericans.

E. ThereisnoindicationinthepassagethatNativeAmericanswereawareoffurs’valueinEuropeanmarkets.

55. Accordingtothepassage,allofthefollowingwerebenefitsofprivatizingstate-ownedindustriesintheUnitedKingdomEXCEPT:

A. Privatizedindustriespaidtaxestothegovernment.

B. Thegovernmentgainedrevenuefromsellingstate-ownedindustries.

C. Thegovernmentrepaidsomeofitsnationaldebt.

D. Profitsfromindustriesthatwerestillstate-owned

increased.

E. Totalborrowingsandlossesofstate-ownedindustriesdecreased.

Supportingideas

Thisquestionbeginswiththephraseaccordingtothepassage,indicatingthatitcanbeansweredusingfactsstatedinthepassage.Thefirstparagraphliststhebenefitsofprivatization.Usetheprocessofeliminationandcheckthefivepossibleanswerchoicesagainstthebenefitsdescribedinlines8–15.ThepointthatisNOTdiscussedinthepassageisthecorrectanswer.

A. Lines11–12discusstaxrevenues.

B. Lines10–11discussrevenuefromthesales.

C. Lines13–15discussdebtrepayment.

D. Correct.Profitsfromstate-ownedindustriesarenotdiscussed.

E. Lines9–10discussdecreasedborrowingsandlosses.

56. Accordingtothepassage,whichofthefollowingresultedinincreasedproductivityincompaniesthathavebeenprivatized?

A. Alargenumberofemployeeschosetopurchasesharesintheircompanies.

B. Freeshareswerewidelydistributedtoindividualshareholders.

C. Thegovernmentceasedtoregulatemajorindustries.

D. Unionsconductedwagenegotiationsforemployees.

E. Employee-ownersagreedtohavetheirwageslowered.

Supportingideas

Thisquestionisbasedoninformationexplicitlystatedinthepassage.Thesecondparagraphdescribestheincreasedproductivity,andthethirdparagraphbeginsbystatingonereasonforit:employeesofprivatizedindustriesweregiventheopportunitytobuysharesintheirowncompanies(lines28–30).Theparagraphalsocitesthehighpercentageofemployeesbuyingsharesinthreeprivatizedcompanies,supportingtheideathatmanyemployeesboughtshares.

A. Correct.Productivityincreasedafteremployeesbecameshareholdersintheircompanies.

B. Thetheoreticaladvantagesanddisadvantagesoffreesharesarediscussed(lines42–51),butthepassagedoesnotsaythatanyweregivenaway.

C. Thepassagedoesnotexaminegovernmentalregulation.

D. Althoughwagesarediscussedinlines38–41,thepassagedoesnotanalyzetherelationbetweenwagesandproductivity.

E. Lines38–41citeoneexampleofemployee-ownerwillingnesstoacceptlowerwages,butthisisnotsaidtohaveresultedinincreasedproductivity.

57. Itcanbeinferredfromthepassagethattheauthorconsiderslabordisruptionstobe

A. aninevitableprobleminaweaknationaleconomy

B. apositivesignofemployeeconcernaboutacompany

C. apredictorofemployeereactionstoacompany’soffertosellsharestothem

D. aphenomenonfoundmoreofteninstate-ownedindustriesthaninprivatecompanies

E. adeterrencetohighperformancelevelsinanindustry

Inference

Thisquestionstatesthataninferenceisrequired;thisinferenceisbasedonmaterialpresentedinthesecondparagraph.Todemonstratethatprivatizationhasraisedthelevelofperformanceineveryarea,theauthorgivesthreeexamples(lines19–26).Oneexampleisthedisappearanceoflabordisruptions,oncecommon.Iftheabsenceoflabordisruptionsraisesthelevelofperformance,thentheauthormustbelievethatthepresenceoflabordisruptionsimpedesanincreaseinperformancelevels.

A. Theauthordoesnotlinklabordisruptionswithaweaknationaleconomy.

B. Theauthordoesnotpresentlabordisruptionsinapositivelight.

C. Theauthordoesnotidentifylabordisruptionsasapredictorofemployees’responsestoopportunitiestobuyacompany’sshares.

D. Labordisruptionsinstate-ownedandprivateindustriesarenotcompared.

E. Correct.Theauthorimpliesthatlabordisruptionsinterferewithhighlevelsofperformanceinindustry.

58. Thepassagesupportswhichofthefollowingstatementsaboutemployeesbuyingsharesintheirowncompanies?

A. Atthreedifferentcompanies,approximatelynineoutoftenoftheworkerswereeligibletobuysharesintheircompanies.

B. Approximately90percentoftheeligibleworkersatthreedifferentcompanieschosetobuysharesintheircompanies.

C. Theopportunitytobuyshareswasdiscouragedbyatleastsomelaborunions.

D. Companiesthatdemonstratedthehighestproductivitywerethefirsttoallowtheiremployeestheopportunitytobuyshares.

E. Eligibilitytobuyshareswascontingentonemployees’agreeingtoincreasedworkloads.

Supportingideas

Checkeachstatementbycomparingittotheinformationpresentedinthepassage.Onlyonestatementissupported.Thethirdparagraphpresentsthepercentagesoftheeligibleemployeeswhopurchasedsharesintheircompanies:89percentatonecompany,90percentatasecond,and92percentatathird(lines31–34).Thus,itistruethatroughly90percentoftheeligibleworkforceatthreedifferentcompaniesboughtsharesintheircompaniesoncetheyweregiventheopportunitytodoso.

A. Thepassagecitesthepercentagesoftheeligibleemployeeswhoboughtshares,notthepercentagesofthetotalworkforcethatwereeligible.

B. Correct.Thepassageshowsthatroughly90percentoftheeligibleemployeesatthreedifferentcompaniesboughtsharesintheircompanies.

C. Thepassagedoesnotaddresstheattitudeoflaborunionstowardemployeesharebuying.

D. Thepassageoffersnoevidencethatcompanieswithhighproductivitywerethefirsttooffersharestotheiremployees.

E. Thepassagedoesnotshoweligibilitytobedependentonincreasedworkload.

59. Whichofthefollowingstatementsismostconsistentwiththeprincipledescribedinlines35–37?

A. Ademocraticgovernmentthatdecidesitisinappropriatetoownaparticularindustryhasinnowayabdicateditsresponsibilitiesasguardianofthepublicinterest.

B. Theidealwayforagovernmenttoprotectemployeeinterestsistoforcecompaniestomaintaintheirshareofacompetitivemarketwithoutgovernmentsubsidies.

C. Thefailuretoharnessthepowerofself-interestisanimportant

reasonthatstate-ownedindustriesperformpoorly.

D. Governmentsthatwanttoimplementprivatizationprogramsmusttrytoeliminateallresistancetothefree-marketsystem.

E. Theindividualshareholderwillreaponlyaminuteshareofthegainsfromwhateversacrificesheorshemakestoachievethesegains.

Application

Toanswerthisquestion,firstidentifytheprincipleinvolved,andthenfindthestatementthatismostcompatiblewiththatprinciple.Lines35–37arguethathavingapersonalstakeinabusinessmakesemployeesworktomakeitprosper.Whenthereisnopersonalstake,orself-interest,involved,employeesdonothavethesameincentivetoworkhardtomaketheirindustryprosper.Thus,thepoorperformanceofstate-ownedindustriescanbeascribedinparttoemployees’lackofmotivationwhentheyhavenopersonalstakeinthebusiness.

A. Theprincipleinvolvesapersonal,ratherthangovernmental,relationship.

B. Accordingtotheprinciple,self-interestmayinspirepeopletodomore;governmentcoercionisnotconsistentwiththisprinciple.

C. Correct.State-ownedindustriesperformpoorlyinpartbecauseemployeesdonothavethepowerfulmotivationofself-interest.

D. Theprinciplehastodowiththemotivationofindividuals,notgovernments;eliminatingallresistancetothefree-marketsystemisnotdiscussed.

E. Lines35–37describetheprincipleofself-interest,notself-sacrifice.

60. WhichofthefollowingcanbeinferredfromthepassageabouttheprivatizationprocessintheUnitedKingdom?

A. Itdependstoapotentiallydangerousdegreeonindividualownershipofshares.

B. ItconformsinitsmostgeneraloutlinestoThomasPaine’sprescriptionforbusinessownership.

C. Itwasoriginallyconceivedtoincludesomegivingawayoffreeshares.

D. Ithasbeensuccessful,eventhoughprivatizationhasfailedinothercountries.

E. Itistakingplacemoreslowlythansomeeconomistssuggestisnecessary.

Inference

Answeringthisquestionrequireslookingateachpossibleinferencetoseeifitissupportedsomewhereinthepassage.Supportfortheinferenceaboutthepaceofprivatizationisprovidedbythesuggestionofsomeeconomiststhatgivingawayfreeshareswouldprovideaneededaccelerationoftheprivatizationprocess(lines42–44).Ifsomeeconomiststhinkprivatizationneedstobeaccelerated,thenitmustbegoingtooslowly,atleastaccordingtotheseeconomists.

A. Thepassagedoesnotalludetoanydangerinindividualownershipofshares.

B. Paineisquotedonlyinreferencetoemployees’receivingfreesharesasopposedtobuyingshares;also,theprocessofprivatizationhadoccurredbeforeemployeesboughtsharesinthenewlyprivatizedcompanies.

C. NoevidencesupportsthedistributionoffreesharesaspartoftheUnitedKingdom’splantoprivatize.

D. Aphraseinline4,oneapproachthatworks,suggeststhatperhapstherewereotherapproachesthatdidnotwork;however,nowheredoesthepassageindicatethatprivatizationhasnotworkedinothercountries.

E. Correct.Theeconomists’suggestioncomesfromwhattheyseeastheneedtospeedupaprocessthatiscurrentlytakingtoolong.

61. Thequotationinlines45–46ismostprobablyusedto

A. counterapositionthattheauthorofthepassagebelievesisincorrect

B. stateasolutiontoaproblemdescribedintheprevioussentence

C. showhowopponentsoftheviewpointoftheauthorofthepassagehavesupportedtheirarguments

D. pointoutaparadoxcontainedinacontroversialviewpoint

E. presentahistoricalmaximtochallengetheprincipleintroducedinthethirdparagraph

Logicalstructure

Lookingatthequotation’scontextleadstoanunderstandingofwhythequotationwasused.Paine’squotationoffersaconciseandtime-honoredcounterargumenttotheviewvoicedintheprecedingsentence.Theeconomistssuggestgivingawayfreeshares,buttheauthornotesthattheseeconomistsareforgettingthat,accordingtoPaine,peopledonotvaluewhattheygettoocheaply.Theauthorusesthequotationtoshowthebasicerrorintheeconomists’thinking.

A. Correct.TheauthorusesPaine’squotationasanaptcountertotheeconomists’suggestion.

B. Thequotationchallengesthesolutionposedintheprevioussentence.

C. TheauthoragreeswithPaine,asisevidentinthefinallinesofthepassage.

D. Theauthorimpliesthataviewpointisilladvisedbutdoesnotsayitiscontroversial.

E. Paine’smaximdoesnotchallengetheprincipleofself-interest.

A. enumeratereasonswhybothtraditionalscholarlymethodsandnewerscholarlymethodshavelimitations

B. identifyashortcominginascholarlyapproachanddescribeanalternativeapproach

C. provideempiricaldatatosupportalong-heldscholarlyassumption

D. comparetwoscholarlypublicationsonthebasisoftheirauthors’backgrounds

E. attempttoprovideapartialanswertoalong-standingscholarlydilemma

Mainidea

Tofindtheprimarypurpose,lookatwhattheauthorisdoinginthe

entirepassage.Inthefirstparagraph,theauthorexaminestwoapproachestopoliticalhistory,bothofwhichsufferfromthesameflaw,theexclusionofwomen.Inthesecondparagraph,theauthorreviewsanalternative,moreinclusivewaytounderstandpoliticalhistory.

A. Thefirstparagraphidentifiesonlyonereasonthatthetwoapproachesareflawed;analternativeapproachisdiscussedinthesecondparagraph.

B. Correct.Theauthorpointstotheflawinearlierapproachestohistoryandshowsanalternativewayofthinkingaboutpoliticalhistory.

C. Nodataareofferedtosupportanassumption.

D. Onlyonehistorianismentionedbyname;herbackgroundisnotmentioned.

E. Nolong-standingdilemmaisdiscussed.

63. Thepassagesuggestswhichofthefollowingconcerningthetechniquesusedbythenewpoliticalhistoriansdescribedinthefirstparagraphofthepassage?

A. Theyinvolvedtheextensiveuseofthebiographiesofpoliticalpartyleadersandpoliticaltheoreticians.

B. Theywereconceivedbypoliticalhistorianswhowerereactingagainstthepoliticalclimatesofthe1960’sand1970’s.

C. TheywereofmoreuseinanalyzingthepositionsofUnitedStatespoliticalpartiesinthenineteenthcenturythaninanalyzingthepositionsofthoseinthetwentiethcentury.

D. Theywereofmoreuseinanalyzingthepoliticalbehaviorofnineteenth-centuryvotersthaninanalyzingthepoliticalactivitiesofthosewhocouldnotvoteduringthatperiod.

E. Theyweredevisedasameansoftracingtheinfluenceofnineteenth-centurypoliticaltrendsontwentieth-centurypoliticaltrends.

Inference

Thequestion’suseoftheverbsuggestsisanindicationthataninferencemustbemade.Examinethefirstparagraph,wherethenewschoolof

politicalhistoryisdiscussed.Thesehistoriansusedtechniquessuchasquantitativeanalysesofelectionreturnsthattheauthordescribesasuselessinanalyzingthepoliticalactivitiesofwomen,whoweredeniedthevoteuntil1920(lines9–12).Itcan,however,beassumedthatthesametechniquesdidproveusefulinunderstandingthemasspoliticalbehaviorofvoters.

A. Thefirstsentenceexplainsthatthesehistorianssoughttogobeyondthetraditionalfocus...onleadersandgovernmentinstitutions.

B. Thepassagedoesnotindicatethatthenewhistorianswerereactingagainstthepoliticalclimateoftheirowntime.

C. Thenewhistoriansexaminedthepoliticalpracticesofordinarycitizens(line5),notthepositionsofpoliticalparties.

D. Correct.Lines7–12explicitlystatethatthenewhistorians’techniqueswereuselessinanalyzingthepoliticalactivitiesofthosenotallowedtovote;thesamelinesimplythatthetechniqueswereusefulinanalyzingthepoliticalbehaviorofvoters.

E. Noinformationinthepassagesupportsthisexplanation.

64. ItcanbeinferredthattheauthorofthepassagequotesBakerdirectlyinthesecondparagraphprimarilyinorderto

A. clarifyapositionbeforeprovidinganalternativetothatposition

B. differentiatebetweenanoveldefinitionandtraditionaldefinitions

C. provideanexampleofapointagreedonbydifferentgenerationsofscholars

D. provideanexampleoftheprosestyleofanimportanthistorian

E. amplifyadefinitiongiveninthefirstparagraph

Logicalstructure

Toanalyzewhytheauthorusesadirectquotation,lookatthelogicalstructureofthepassageinrelationtothequotation.Thehistoriansdiscussedinthefirstparagraphdefinepoliticalactivityasvoting.PaulaBaker,however,hasanewdefinitionofpoliticalactivity,onethatincludestheactivitiesofthosewhowerenotallowedtovote.ItisreasonabletoinferthattheauthorquotesBakertodrawattentiontothis

newdefinition,whichprovidesaninnovative,alternativewayofthinkingaboutpoliticalhistory.

A. PaulaBaker’sisthealternativepositionoffered;noalternativetohersisdiscussed.

B. Correct.Bakerisquotedtoemphasizethatherdefinitionisnewandthatitdifferssignificantlyfromthetraditionaldefinitionusedbyotherhistorians.

C. Thecontrastingviewsexpressedinthefirstandsecondparagraphsshowthatdifferentgenerationsofscholarshavenotagreed.

D. TheauthordoesnotcommentonBaker’sprosestyle.

E. Baker’sdefinitioncontrastswith,ratherthanamplifies,theoneofferedinthefirstparagraph.

65. Accordingtothepassage,PaulaBakerandthenewpoliticalhistoriansofthe1960’sand1970’ssharedwhichofthefollowing?

A. Acommitmenttointerestgrouppolitics

B. Adisregardforpoliticaltheoryandideology

C. Aninterestinthewaysinwhichnineteenthcenturypoliticsprefiguredcontemporarypolitics

D. Arelianceonsuchquantitativetechniquesastheanalysisofelectionreturns

E. Anemphasisonthepoliticalinvolvementofordinarycitizens

Supportingideas

Sincethequestionusesthephraseaccordingtothepassage,theanswerisexplicitlystatedinthepassage.LookforapointonwhichthenewpoliticalhistoriansandBakeragree.Thefirstsentenceofthepassagesaysthatthesenewhistorianswereinterestedinthepoliticalactivitiesofordinarycitizens(line5).PaulaBakerissimilarlyinterestedinthepoliticalactivitiesofordinarycitizens(lines15–16),especiallyoffemalecitizens,whowerenotallowedtovote.

A. Nomentionatallismadeofinterestgrouppolitics,neitherinrelationtoBakernorinrelationtothenewhistorians.

B. Thepassagedoesnotshowthattheydisregardedpoliticaltheoryandideology.

C. ThepassageonlydiscussesBaker’sinterestinthewaywomen’spoliticalactivitiesinthenineteenthcenturyprefiguredtwentieth-centurytrends(lines16–18).

D. ThepassageexplainsthatnewhistoriansreliedonsuchtechniquesbutthatBakerdidnot.

E. Correct.BoththenewhistoriansandBakeraresaidtohavestudiedthepoliticalactivitiesofordinarycitizens.

66. Whichofthefollowingbestdescribesthestructureofthefirstparagraphofthepassage?

A. Twoscholarlyapproachesarecompared,andashortcomingcommontobothisidentified.

B. Tworivalschoolsofthoughtarecontrasted,andathirdisalludedto.

C. Anoutmodedscholarlyapproachisdescribed,andacorrectiveapproachiscalledfor.

D. Anargumentisoutlined,andcounterargumentsarementioned.

E. Ahistoricaleraisdescribedintermsofitspoliticaltrends.

Logicalstructure

Toanswerthisquestion,analyzethestructureofthefirstparagraph.Itcomparestheoldapproachofstudyingpoliticalhistorythroughemphasisonleadersandgovernmentinstitutionswiththenewschoolofpoliticalhistory,whichturnedinsteadtothepoliticalpracticesofordinarycitizens.Bothapproachessufferedfromthesamedrawback:thefailuretoincludewomenintheiranalyses.

A. Correct.Twoapproachestohistoryarediscussed,andaflawsharedbyboth,theexclusionofwomen,isidentified.

B. Thefirstparagraphdoesnotalludetoathirdschoolofthought.

C. Acorrectiveapproachisnotdiscussedinthefirstparagraph.

D. Thefirstparagraphdoespresentanargument,butnocounterargumentsaremade.

E. Thepoliticaltrendsofanhistoricaleraarenotdetailedinthefirstparagraph.

67. Theinformationinthepassagesuggeststhatapre-1960’spoliticalhistorianwouldhavebeenmostlikelytoundertakewhichofthefollowingstudies?

A. Ananalysisofvotingtrendsamongwomenvotersofthe1920’s

B. Astudyofmalevoters’gradualideologicalshiftfrompartypoliticstoissue-orientedpolitics

C. Abiographyofaninfluentialnineteenth-centuryministerofforeignaffairs

D. Ananalysisofnarrativeswrittenbypreviouslyunrecognizedwomenactivists

E. Astudyofvotingtrendsamongnaturalizedimmigrantlaborersinanineteenth-centuryloggingcamp

Inference

Inusingsuggests,thisquestionasksthereadertoapplyinformationstatedinthepassagetomakeaninferenceaboutthemethodsofhistoriansbeforethe1960’s.Thesemethodsarediscussedinthefirstparagraph.Lines3–4saythatthetraditionalfocusofpoliticalhistorians(beforetheadventofthenewschoolofhistoriansinthe1960’sand1970’s)wasonleadersandgovernmentinstitutions.Itisreasonabletoinferthatthepre-1960’shistorianwaslikelytofocusonaleaderorgovernmentinstitution.

A. Traditionalhistoriansdidnotfocusonordinarycitizens,butontheirleaders.

B. Bakerisinterestedinthisgroupshift,buttraditionalhistorianswerenot.

C. Correct.Traditionalhistoriansemphasizedtheworkofleadersandgovernmentinstitutions;abiographyofaforeignaffairsministerfitsthisfocusperfectly.

D. SuchananalysiswouldbeofinteresttoBakerbutnottotraditionalhistoriansfocusingonleadersandgovernment.

E. Thenewhistorianswouldbeinterestedinsuchastudy,butnottraditionalhistorians,whodidnotlookattheactivitiesofordinarycitizens.

68. Theprimaryfunctionofthepassageasawholeisto

A. accountforthepopularityofapractice

B. evaluatetheutilityofapractice

C. demonstratehowtoinstituteapractice

D. weightheethicsofusingastrategy

E. explainthereasonsforpursuingastrategy

Mainidea

Thisquestionexplicitlyrequireslookingatthepassageasawholeinordertodeterminetheauthor’spurpose.Thefirstparagraphexplainsthepracticeofofferingguaranteesandlistscircumstancesinwhichanunconditionalguaranteemaybeanappropriatemarketingtool.ThesecondparagraphbeginswithHowever,implyingthatacontradictionisabouttofollow.Theseriousdrawbackstoguaranteesareexamined,andthepassagecloseswithawarning.

A. Thepassagedoesnotdiscussthepopularityofguarantees.

B. Correct.Thepassageexaminesandjudgestheadvantagesanddisadvantagesofabusinesspractice.

C. Thepassagedoesnotshowhowtoputguaranteesintoplace.

D. Thepassagedoesnotdiscussethics.

E. Thefirstparagraphdoesexplainthereasonsforofferingguarantees,butthatisonlyaportionofthepassage,notthepassageasawhole.

69. AllofthefollowingarementionedinthepassageascircumstancesinwhichprofessionalservicefirmscanbenefitfromofferinganunconditionalguaranteeEXCEPT:

A. Thefirmishavingdifficultyretainingitsclientsoflongstanding.

B. Thefirmishavingdifficultygettingbusinessthroughclientrecommendations.

C. Thefirmchargessubstantialfeesforitsservices.

D. Theadverseeffectsofpoorperformancebythefirmaresignificantfortheclient.

E. Theclientisreluctanttoincurrisk.

Supportingideas

Thephrasementionedinthepassageindicatesthatthenecessaryinformationisexplicitlystated.Toanswerthisquestion,usetheprocessofeliminationtofindtheoneexamplethatisNOTmentionedinthepassage.Thequestionreferstolines8–13,wherethecircumstancesinwhichanunconditionalguaranteemightbebeneficialtoafirmarelisted.Checkeachoftheresponsestothequestionagainstthelist;theonethatdoesnotappearinthelististhecorrectanswer.

A. Correct.Thesentencebeginsbynotingthatunconditionalguaranteesareparticularlyimportantwithnewclients;clientsoflongstandingarenotdiscussed.

B. Lines12–13includethedifficultyofgettingbusinessthroughreferralsandword-of-mouth.

C. Line10citeshighfeesassuchacircumstance.

D. Lines10–11includethesevererepercussionsofbadservice.

E. Lines9–10citethecautiousnessoftheclient.

70. Whichofthefollowingiscitedinthepassageasagoalofsomeprofessionalservicefirmsinofferingunconditionalguaranteesofsatisfaction?

A. Alimitonthefirm’sliability

B. Successfulcompetitionagainstotherfirms

C. Abilitytojustifyfeeincreases

D. Attainmentofanoutstandingreputationinafield

E. Improvementinthequalityofthefirm’sservice

Supportingideas

Whenthequestionsaystofindananswercitedinthepassage,theanswerwillbeexplicitlystatedinformation.Thepassageopenswithanexplanationofwhysomefirmswanttoofferunconditionalguarantees:Seekingacompetitiveadvantageexplainstheirrationale.Firmsoffertheguaranteestocompetemoreeffectivelyagainstfirmsthatdonotofferguarantees.

A. Thepassagedoesnotmentionliabilitylimits.

B. Correct.Somefirmsofferunconditionalguaranteesasawaytocompetesuccessfullyagainstfirmsthatdonotofferthem.

C. Line10mentionsthathighfeeswouldbeareasontoofferguarantees,butfeeincreasesarenotdiscussed.

D. Thesecondparagraphsuggeststhereverse:offeringaguaranteemayhurtafirm’sreputation.

E. Improvingthequalityofserviceisnotmentionedasareasontoofferguarantees.

71. Thepassage’sdescriptionoftheissueraisedbyunconditionalguaranteesforhealthcareorlegalservicesmostclearlyimpliesthatwhichofthefollowingistrue?

A. Thelegalandmedicalprofessionshavestandardsofpracticethatwouldbeviolatedbyattemptstofulfillsuchunconditionalguarantees.

B. Theresultofalawsuitormedicalprocedurecannotnecessarilybedeterminedinadvancebytheprofessionalshandlingaclient’scase.

C. Thedignityofthelegalandmedicalprofessionsisunderminedbyanyattemptsatmarketingofprofessionalservices,includingunconditionalguarantees.

D. Clientswhoselawsuitsormedicalprocedureshaveunsatisfactoryoutcomescannotbeadequatelycompensatedbyfinancialsettlementsalone.

E. Predictingthemonetarycostoflegalorhealthcareservicesismoredifficultthanpredictingthemonetarycostofothertypesofprofessionalservices.

Inference

Thequestion’suseofthewordimpliesmeansthattheanswerdependsonmakinganinference.Thisquestionreferstoonesentenceinthepassage(lines21–24),soitisessentialtoreviewwhatthatsentencesaysinordertounderstandwhatitimplies.Anunconditionalguaranteeofsatisfactionmayhaveaparticulardisadvantageinthecaseofhealthcareandlegalservicesbecauseclientsmaybemisledintobelievingthatlawsuitsormedicalprocedureshaveguaranteedoutcomeswhentheydo

not.Sinceaninferencemaybedrawnonlyfromexplicitlystatedinformation,thecorrectresponsemustbeabouttheproblemofguaranteesandoutcomes.

A. Althoughthisstatementmaybetrue,itcannotbederivedfromthecitedreference.

B. Correct.Legalandmedicalprofessionalscannotguaranteetheoutcomesoftheirwork.

C. Thisstatementcannotbedrawnfromthedescriptionoftheissue.

D. Compensationisnotdiscussedinthereference.

E. Predictingcostsisnotdiscussedinthereference.

72. Whichofthefollowinghypotheticalsituationsbestexemplifiesthepotentialproblemnotedinthesecondsentenceofthesecondparagraph(lines15–19)?

A. Aphysician’sunconditionalguaranteeofsatisfactionencouragespatientstosueformalpracticeiftheyareunhappywiththetreatmenttheyreceive.

B. Alawyer’sunconditionalguaranteeofsatisfactionmakesclientssuspectthatthelawyerneedstofindnewclientsquicklytoincreasethefirm’sincome.

C. Abusinessconsultant’sunconditionalguaranteeofsatisfactionisunderminedwhentheconsultantfailstoprovidealloftheservicesthatarepromised.

D. Anarchitect’sunconditionalguaranteeofsatisfactionmakesclientswonderhowoftenthearchitect’sbuildingsfailtopleaseclients.

E. Anaccountant’sunconditionalguaranteeofsatisfactionleadsclientstobelievethattaxreturnspreparedbytheaccountantarecertaintobeaccurate.

Application

Thisquestioninvolvestakingtheproblemidentifiedinlines15–19andapplyingittothehypotheticalsituationthatbestfitsit.Offeringanunconditionalguaranteemaynotworkasamarketingstrategybecausepotentialclientsmaydoubtthefirm’sabilitytodeliverthepromisedlevelofservice.Thisstrategymayactuallyintroducedoubtsor

reservationsonthepartofpotentialclientsandinfactdiscouragethemfromeverhiringthefirmortheindividualprovidingtheservice.

A. Inthiscase,theproblemoccursafter,notbefore,theserviceisrendered.

B. Thissituationexemplifiesanotherproblemofunconditionalguarantees,thesuggestionthatafirmisbeggingforbusiness(line21).

C. Theproblemoccursafter,notbefore,theserviceisrendered.

D. Correct.Thearchitect’sapparentneedtoofferanunconditionalguaranteemakespotentialclientsquestiontheoutcomeofthearchitect’sworkbysuggestingthelikelihoodoftheirdissatisfactionwiththearchitecturalservices.

E. Thissituationcontradictstheproblem.

73. Thepassagemostclearlyimplieswhichofthefollowingabouttheprofessionalservicefirmsmentionedinlines24–27?

A. Theyareunlikelytohaveofferedunconditionalguaranteesofsatisfactioninthepast.

B. Theyareusuallyprofitableenoughtobeabletocompensateclientsaccordingtothetermsofanunconditionalguarantee.

C. Theyusuallypracticeinfieldsinwhichtheoutcomesarepredictable.

D. Theirfeesareusuallymoreaffordablethanthosechargedbyotherprofessionalservicefirms.

E. Theirclientsareusuallyalreadysatisfiedwiththequalityofservicethatisdelivered.

Inference

Thequestionasksfortheimplicationsofthestatementinlines24–27:professionalservicefirmswithoutstandingreputationsandperformancetomatchhavelittletogainfromofferingunconditionalguarantees.Whyisitlogicaltoinferthatthesefirmshavelittletogainfromthisstrategy?Iftheirperformanceandreputationarebothoutstanding,itislikelythattheirclientsarealreadysatisfiedwiththequalityoftheworktheyprovideandthatofferingsuchguaranteeswould

providenocompetitiveadvantage.

A. Thestatementinthepassageconcernsthepresent;nothingisimpliedaboutwhatmayhavebeentrueinthepast.

B. Thestatementincludesnoinformationaboutprofitability,sonoinferencemaybedrawn.

C. Noinformationisprovidedaboutspecificfieldsorlikelyoutcomes.

D. Feesarenotdiscussedinthisstatement.

E. Correct.Noguaranteeisneededwhenclientsarealreadysatisfiedwiththequalityofworkprovided.

A. identifyinghistoricalcircumstancesthatledDuBoistoalterhislong-termgoals

B. defining“accommodationism”andshowinghowDuBoisusedthisstrategytoachievecertaingoals

C. accountingforaparticularpositionadoptedbyDuBoisduringtheFirstWorldWar

D. contestingtheviewthatDuBoiswassignificantlyinfluencedbyeitherWashingtonorTrotter

E. assessingtheeffectivenessofastrategythatDuBoisurgedAfricanAmericanstoadopt

Mainidea

Thisquestionaskswhatthepassageasawholeisattemptingtodo.ThepassageopensbyindicatingthatmanyAfricanAmericansweresurprisedbyapoliticalpositiontakenbyDuBoisin1918,whichseemedmoreaccommodationistthanexpected.ThepassagethengoesontodemonstratethatDuBoisoftenshiftedpositions(line9)andstatesthatDuBois’s1918positionwaspragmaticinthatitrespondedtorealsocialpressure.ThepassagethenindicatesthatDuBois’saccommodationiststancedidnotlast(line31),andthathereturnedtoamoreconfrontationiststanceuponlearningofthetreatmentofAfricanAmericansinthemilitary.

A. ThepassageindicatesthatDuBoisdidnotchangehislong-term

goals(lines22–24).

B. Accomodationismisnotdefinedinthepassagebutisassociatedwithcertainactions(communityimprovement),ideologies(solidarity),andleaders(Washington);thepassagedoesnotindicateifDuBoiswassuccessfulinachievingtheaccommodationistgoalsof1895(lines11–15).

C. Correct.ThepassageexplainswhyDuBoistookhisaccommodationistpositionandwhyheeventuallyrejectedit.

D. ThepassageoffersnojudgmentastohowmuchDuBoiswasinfluencedbyWashingtonorTrotter.

E. ThepassagedoesnotindicatethattherewaswidespreadadoptionofanyofthestrategiesDuBoisrecommended.

75. ThepassageindicateswhichofthefollowingaboutDuBois’sattitudetowardWashington?

A. ItunderwentashiftduringtheFirstWorldWarasDuBoisbecamemoresympatheticwithTrotter’sviews.

B. Itunderwentashiftin1903forreasonsotherthanDuBois’sdisagreementwithWashington’saccommodationistviews.

C. ItunderwentashiftasDuBoismadealong-termcommitmenttothestrategyofaccommodation.

D. ItremainedconsistentlypositiveeventhoughDuBoisdisagreedwithWashington’seffortstocontroltheAfricanAmericanpress.

E. ItwasshapedprimarilybyDuBois’sappreciationofWashington’spragmaticapproachtotheadvancementoftheinterestsofAfricanAmericans.

Supportingideas

Answeringthisquestioninvolvesrecognizingwhatthepassageindicatesaboutaparticularpointofviewitdescribes.Inline15,thepassageindicatesthatDuBoispraisedWashington’sideas,butthatin1903DuBoisalignedhimselfwithWashington’smilitantopponent(lines16–17),ashiftthepassagedescribesasbeingduelesstoideologicalreasons(lines17–21)thantopoliticalreasons.

A. Thepassageindicatesthattheshiftdescribedoccurredin1903,not

duringtheFirstWorldWar.

B. Correct.ThepassageindicatesDuBois’sshiftwasnotduetodifferenceshehadwithWashington’sideasorviews.

C. ThepassageindicatesthatDuBois’saccommodationiststancedidnotlast(lines30–31)andthereforewasnotalong-termcommitment.

D. Thepassageindicatesinlines16–17thatDuBoisatonepointalignedhimselfwithWashington’smilitantopponent.

E. ThepassageindicatesthatDuBoiseventuallyrejectedtheaccommodationistviewsofWashington.

76. ThepassagesuggestswhichofthefollowingaboutthecontributionsofAfricanAmericanstotheUnitedStateswareffortduringtheFirstWorldWar?

A. ThecontributionsweremadelargelyinresponsetoDuBois’s1918editorial.

B. ThecontributionshadmuchthesameeffectasAfricanAmericans’contributionstopreviouswars.

C. ThecontributionsdidnotenddiscriminationagainstAfricanAmericansinthemilitary.

D. ThecontributionsweremadeinprotestagainstTrotter’sconfrontationisttactics.

E. Thecontributionsweremadeprimarilybycivilrightsactivistswhoreturnedtoactivismafterthewar.

Inference

Thisquestionrequiresmakinganinferencefrominformationgiveninthepassage.ThepassagebeginsbyindicatingthatDuBoiscalledonAfricanAmericanstosuspendtheirfightforequalityandtohelpwiththewareffortduringtheFirstWorldWar.Thefinalsentenceofthepassage,however,indicatesthatDuBoislearnedthatAfricanAmericanswereexperiencingsystematicdiscriminationinthemilitaryduringthistime.

A. ThepassagedoesnotindicatehowAfricanAmericansrespondedtoDuBois’seditorialotherthanthatmanyAfricanAmericanswere

surprisedbyit.

B. ThepassageindicatesthatAfricanAmericans’participationinpreviouswarsbroughtlegalandpoliticaladvancesbutthatAfricanAmericansexperienceddiscriminationintheFirstWorldWar.

C. Correct.ThepassageindicatesthatAfricanAmericansexperiencedsystematicdiscriminationinthemilitaryduringtheFirstWorldWar.

D. ThepassagedoesnotdescribehowAfricanAmericansrespondedtoTrotter’stacticsduringtheFirstWorldWar.

E. ThepassagedoesnotindicatewhetherAfricanAmericansinvolvedinthewareffortwereprimarilycivilrightsactivists.

77. TheauthorofthepassagereferstoWashington’scalltoAfricanAmericansin1895primarilyinorderto

A. identifyDuBois’scharacteristicpositiononthecontinuumbetweenaccommodationismandconfrontationism

B. explainwhyDuBoiswassympatheticwithWashington’sviewsin1895

C. clarifyhowTrotter’sviewsdifferedfromthoseofWashingtonin1895

D. supportanassertionaboutDuBois’stendencytoshifthispoliticalpositions

E. dismisstheclaimthatDuBois’spositioninhis1918editorialwasconsistentwithhispreviousviews

Evaluation

Thisquestionrequiresunderstandinghowapartofthepassagefunctionswithinthepassageasawhole.ThepassagebeginsbyindicatingthatmanyAfricanAmericansweresurprisedbyDuBois’sviewsinhis1918editorial.ThepassagethenexplainsthatDuBoisoftenshiftedpositionsalongthecontinuum(lines9–10).Todemonstratethis,thepassageindicatesthatDuBoispraisedWashington’s1895speechdirectedtoAfricanAmericans,butthatby1903,DuBoishadalignedhimselfwithWashington’smilitantopponent(lines16–17).

A. ThepassageindicatesthatDuBoisshiftedpositions(line9)along

theaccommodationist-confrontationistcontinuum.

B. ThepassagedoesnotindicatewhyDuBoispraisedWashington’s1895speech.

C. ThepassagedoesnotindicatewhatTrotter’sviewsofWashington’s1895speechwere.

D. Correct.ThepassageusesDuBois’spraiseforWashington’s1895speechandsubsequentsupportofTrottertoillustrateDuBois’stendencytoshiftpositions.

E. ThepassagedoesnotincludeanyclaimsthatDuBois’s1918editorialwasconsistentwithhispreviousviews.

78. Accordingtothepassage,whichofthefollowingistrueofthestrategythatDuBois’s1918editorialurgedAfricanAmericanstoadoptduringtheFirstWorldWar?

A. ItwasastrategythatDuBoishadconsistentlyrejectedinthepast.

B. ItrepresentedacompromisebetweenDuBois’sownviewsandthoseofTrotter.

C. Itrepresentedasignificantredefinitionofthelong-termgoalsDuBoisheldpriortothewar.

D. ItwasadvocatedbyDuBoisinresponsetohisrecognitionofthediscriminationfacedbyAfricanAmericansduringthewar.

E. ItwasadvocatedbyDuBoisinpartbecauseofhishistoricalknowledgeofgainsAfricanAmericanshadmadeduringpastwars.

Supportingideas

Thisquestionrequiresrecognizinghowapartofthepassagefunctionswithinthepassageasawhole.ThepassagebeginsbyindicatingthatDuBois’s1918editorialcalledonAfricanAmericanstoabandonpoliticalandsocialactivismandhelpwiththewareffortintheFirstWorldWar.Inthesecondparagraph,thepassageindicatesthatDuBois’swartimeposition,expressedinhis1918speech,wasatleastpartlymotivatedbyhisbeliefthatAfricanAmericans’contributionstopastwareffortshadbroughtthemsomelegalandpoliticaladvances(lines28–30).

A. ThepassagedoesnotdiscusswhetherDuBoisrecommendedthisstrategypriorto1918.

B. ThepassagedoesnotindicatethatDuBoisconsciouslycompromisedwithTrotter’sviews.

C. Thepassageindicatesthathis1918wartimeviewswerenotachangeinhislong-termgoals(lines22–23).

D. ThepassageindicatesthatDuBois’srecognitionofdiscriminationinthemilitarycausedhimtorejecthisown1918wartimeviews.

E. Correct.ThepassageindicatesthatDuBois’s1918viewswereinfluencedpartlybyabeliefthatpastwareffortshelpedAfricanAmericansbothlegallyandpolitically.

A. contrastpossibleoutcomesofatypeofbusinessinvestment

B. suggestmorecarefulevaluationofatypeofbusinessinvestment

C. illustratevariouswaysinwhichatypeofbusinessinvestmentcouldfailtoenhancerevenues

D. tracethegeneralproblemsofacompanytoacertaintypeofbusinessinvestment

E. criticizethewayinwhichmanagerstendtoanalyzethecostsandbenefitsofbusinessinvestments

Mainidea

Lookatthepassageasawholetofindtheprimarypurpose.Thispassageusesanexample,describedinthesecondparagraph,toillustratetheprincipleofbusinesspracticeexplainedinthefirstparagraph.Theauthorbeginsbysayingthateffortstoimproveservicedonotalwaysresultinacompetitiveadvantageforacompany.Thus,aninvestmentinservicemustbecarefullyevaluatedtodetermineifitwillreducecostsorincreaserevenues(lines4–8).

A. Onlyoneoutcome,failuretogainacompetitiveadvantage,isexamined.

B. Correct.Investmentsinservicemustbecarefullyevaluatedforthereturnstheywillbring.

C. Onlyoneway,anunnecessaryinvestmentinimprovedservice,isdiscussed.

D. Theexampleofthebankisusedonlytoillustrateageneralbusinessprinciple;thebankitselfisnotthefocusofthepassage.

E. Thepassagecriticizestheabsenceofsuchananalysis,notthewayitisconducted.

80. Accordingtothepassage,investmentsinservicearecomparabletoinvestmentsinproductionanddistributionintermsofthe

A. tangibilityofthebenefitsthattheytendtoconfer

B. increasedrevenuesthattheyultimatelyproduce

C. basisonwhichtheyneedtobeweighed

D. insufficientanalysisthatmanagersdevotetothem

E. degreeofcompetitiveadvantagethattheyarelikelytoprovide

Supportingideas

Thephraseaccordingtothepassageindicatesthatthequestioncoversmaterialthatisexplicitlystatedinthepassage.Theanswertothisquestiondemandsacarefulreadingofthesecondsentence(lines4–8).Investmentsinservicearelikeinvestmentsinproductionanddistributionbecausetheymustbebalancedagainstothertypesofinvestmentsonthebasisofdirect,tangiblebenefits.Thus,theseinvestmentsshouldbeweighedonthesamebasis.

A. Theauthorisnotequatingthetangiblebenefitsthedifferentkindsofinvestmentsreapbutratherthebasisonwhichdecisionstomakeinvestmentsaremade.

B. Revenuesgeneratedfrominvestinginservicearenotsaidtobecomparabletorevenuesgeneratedfrominvestinginproductionanddistribution.

C. Correct.Anevaluationofwhetherornottomaketheseinvestmentsmustbemadeonthesamebasis.

D. Howmanagersanalyzeinvestmentsinproductionanddistributionisnotdiscussed.

E. Thecompetitiveadvantageofsuperiorserviceisacknowledged,butnotthedegreeofit;itisnotmentionedatallinthecontextofproductionanddistribution.

81. Thepassagesuggestswhichofthefollowingaboutserviceprovidedbytheregionalbankpriortoitsinvestmentinenhancingthatservice?

A. Itenabledthebanktoretaincustomersatanacceptablerate.

B. Itthreatenedtoweakenthebank’scompetitivepositionwithrespecttootherregionalbanks.

C. Ithadalreadybeenimprovedafterhavingcauseddamagetothebank’sreputationinthepast.

D. Itwasslightlysuperiortothatofthebank’sregionalcompetitors.

E. Itneededtobeimprovedtoattainparitywiththeserviceprovidedbycompetingbanks.

Inference

Becausethequestionusesthewordsuggests,findingtheanswerdependsonmakinganinferenceaboutserviceatthebank.Theparagraphthatdiscussesthebankbeginswiththetransitionalexpression,thistruth,whichreferstotheprevioussentence(lines8–15).Thetruthisthatinvestinginimprovedserviceisawasteifacompanyisalreadyeffectivelyonaparwithitscompetitorsbecauseitprovidesservicethatavoidsadamagingreputationandkeepscustomersfromleavingatanunacceptablerate.Becauseofthewaytheauthorhaslinkedthisgeneralizationtothedescriptionofthebankafterinvestment,itisreasonabletoinferthatthehypotheticalcompany’ssituationdescribesthebankpriortoitsinvestmentinimprovedservice.

A. Correct.Thebank’sservicewouldhavebeengoodenoughtoavoidadamagingreputationandtoretaincustomersatanacceptablerate.

B. Thepassagedoesnotsuggestthatthebank’sservicewaseitherpoorordeficienttothatofitscompetitors.

C. Thepassageimpliesthatthebank’sserviceavoidedadamagingreputation.

D. Thebankwouldhavebeenonaparwithitscompetitors,notsuperiortothem.

E. Thebankwouldhavebeenonaparwithitscompetitors,notinferiortothem.

82. Thepassagesuggeststhatbankmanagersfailedtoconsiderwhetherornottheserviceimprovementmentionedinlines18–20

A. wastoocomplicatedtobeeasilydescribedtoprospectivecustomers

B. madeameasurablechangeintheexperiencesofcustomersinthebank’soffices

C. couldbesustainedifthenumberofcustomersincreasedsignificantly

D. wasaninnovationthatcompetingbankscouldhaveimitated

E. wasadequatetobringthebank’sgenerallevelofservicetoalevelthatwascomparablewiththatofitscompetitors

Inference

Thequestion’suseofthewordsuggestsmeansthattheanswerdependsonmakinganinference.Toanswerthisquestion,lookattheentiresecondparagraph.Managersfailedtothinkahead.Wouldtheserviceimprovementattractnewcustomersbecauseotherbankswouldfinditdifficulttocopy?Orwouldtheserviceimprovementbeeasilyimitatedbycompetitors?Themanagersshouldhaveinvestigatedthisareabeforeinvestinginimprovedservice.

A. Thepassagestatestheimprovementcouldeasilybedescribedtocustomers(lines28–29).

B. Noevidenceinthepassageshowsthatthemanagersfailedtothinkabouttheircustomers’experienceinthebank.

C. Thepassagedoesnotimplythatmanagersfailedtoconsideranincreaseinclients.

D. Correct.Themanagersdidnotwonderifotherbankswouldcopytheirserviceimprovement.

E. Lines8–12implythatthebankenjoyedacomparablelevelofservicebeforeinvestinginserviceimprovement.

83. Thediscussionoftheregionalbankinthesecondparagraphserveswhichofthefollowingfunctionswithinthepassageasawhole?

A. Itdescribesanexceptionalcaseinwhichinvestmentinserviceactuallyfailedtoproduceacompetitiveadvantage.

B. Itillustratesthepitfallsofchoosingtoinvestinserviceatatime

wheninvestmentisneededmoreurgentlyinanotherarea.

C. Itdemonstratesthekindofanalysisthatmanagersapplywhentheychooseonekindofserviceinvestmentoveranother.

D. Itsupportstheargumentthatinvestmentsincertainaspectsofservicearemoreadvantageousthaninvestmentsinotheraspectsofservice.

E. Itprovidesanexampleofthepointaboutinvestmentinservicemadeinthefirstparagraph.

Logicalstructure

Thisquestionrequiresthinkingaboutwhatthesecondparagraphcontributestothewholepassage.Thefirstparagraphmakesageneralizationaboutinvestinginimprovementsinservice;incertainconditions,suchimprovementsdonotresultinthecompetitiveadvantageacompanyhopesfor.Thesecondparagraphoffersthebankasanexampleofthisgeneralization.

A. Thefirstsentenceofthepassageexplainsthatimprovingservicedoesnotnecessarilybringacompetitiveadvantage,sothebankisnotexceptional.

B. Thebankillustratesthepitfallofnotevaluatingaserviceimprovementonthebasisoftangiblebenefits;otherareasofthebankarenotmentioned.

C. Thepassagedoesnotdiscusshowmanagersanalyzeandchoosedifferentserviceinvestments.

D. Investmentsindifferentaspectsofservicearenotevaluatedinthepassage.

E. Correct.Thebankisanexampleofthepositionstatedinthefirstparagraphthatinvestinginimprovedservicecanbeawasteiftheinvestmentisnotevaluatedcarefully.

84. Theauthorusestheword“only”inline27mostlikelyinorderto

A. highlighttheoddityoftheserviceimprovement

B. emphasizetherelativelylowvalueoftheinvestmentinserviceimprovement

C. distinguishtheprimaryattributeoftheserviceimprovementfrom

secondaryattributes

D. singleoutacertainmeritoftheserviceimprovementfromothermerits

E. pointoutthelimiteddurationoftheactualserviceimprovement

Logicalstructure

Thequestionasksyoutoconsiderthelogicoftheauthor’swordchoice.Theprevioustwosentencesdiscusswhytheserviceimprovementwasawastedinvestment.Incontrast,thefinalsentenceturnstothesoleadvantageoftheserviceimprovement,whichistrivialbycomparison.Theauthorusesonlytomodifymeritinordertoemphasizetheminimalnatureofthisadvantage.

A. Thepassagedoesnotindicatethattheserviceimprovementissomehowstrangeorpeculiar.

B. Correct.Onlyemphasizesthelowvalueattachedtothesinglebenefit.

C. Noattributesoftheserviceimprovementarementioned.

D. Onlysignifiesthattherewasonesolemeritoftheserviceimprovement.

E. Thedurationofthebenefitisnotdiscussedinthepassage.

A. reviewresearchdemonstratingthebenefitsofcorporatemergersandacquisitionsandexaminesomeofthedrawbacksthatacquisitionbehaviorentails

B. contrasttheeffectsofcorporatemergersandacquisitionsonacquiringfirmsandonfirmsthatareacquired

C. reportfindingsthatraisequestionsaboutareasonforcorporatemergersandacquisitionsandsuggestpossiblealternativereasons

D. explainchangesinattitudeonthepartofacquiringfirmstowardcorporatemergersandacquisitions

E. accountforarecentdeclineintherateofcorporatemergersandacquisitions

Mainidea

Thisquestionrequiresunderstandingwhatthepassageasawholeistryingtodo.Thepassagebeginsbycitingthreestudiesthatdemonstratethatwhenfirmsacquireotherfirms,thereisnotnecessarilyaworthwhileeconomicgain.Thepassagethenciteseconomicinterestsasthereasongivenbyfirmswhentheyacquireotherfirmsbutcallsintoquestiontheveracityofthisreasoning.Thepassagethengoesontospeculateastowhymergersandacquisitionsoccur.

A. Theresearchcitedinthepassagecallsintoquestionwhethermergersandacquisitionsarebeneficialtofirms.

B. Thepassageisnotconcernedwithcomparingtherelativeeffectsofmergersandacquisitionsontheacquiredandacquiringfirms.

C. Correct.Thepassagesurveysreportsthatquestionthereasonsgivenbyfirmswhentheyacquireotherfirmsandsuggestsotherreasonsfortheseacquisitions.

D. Thepassagedoesnotindicatethattherehasbeenachangeintheattitudeofacquiringfirmstowardmergersandacquisitions.

E. Thepassagedoesnotindicatethattherehasbeenadeclineintherateofmergersandacquisitions.

86. Thefindingscitedinthepassagesuggestwhichofthefollowingabouttheoutcomesofcorporatemergersandacquisitionswithrespecttoacquiringfirms?

A. Theyincludeadecreaseinvalueofmanyacquiringfirms’stocks.

B. Theytendtobemorebeneficialforsmallfirmsthanforlargefirms.

C. Theydonotfulfilltheprofessedgoalsofmostacquiringfirms.

D. Theytendtobebeneficialtosuchfirmsinthelongtermeventhoughapparentlydetrimentalintheshortterm.

E. Theydiscouragemanysuchfirmsfromattemptingtomakesubsequentbidsandacquisitions.

Inference

Answeringthisquestionrequiresrecognizingwhatisinferablefrominformationgiveninthepassage.Thepassagebeginsbycitingthreestudiesthatshowthatmergersandacquisitionsoftenharmthe

economicgoalsofacquiringfirms.Thepassagealsoindicatesthat,nonetheless,acquiringfirmscontinuetoassertthattheirobjectivesareeconomicones(lines15–16),suggestingthatthegoalsofthesefirmsarenotmetbyacquiringotherfirms.

A. Thepassagesuggeststhatthestockofacquiringfirmstendstoincreaseinvalue(lines12–13),albeitlessthanthefirmitacquires.

B. Thethreestudiescitedinthepassagedocontrasttheeffectsofcorporatemergersonacquiringfirmsandonacquiredfirms,buttheeffectsinquestionaresignificantonlyinsofarastheycontributetothewiderinvestigationintowhymergerstakeplaceatall.

C. Correct.Thepassageindicatesthatevenwhileacquiringfirmsciteeconomicgoals,theresultsofthestudiesindicatethatthesegoalsarenotbeingmet.

D. Thepassagemakesnocomparisonbetweenthelong-termandshort-termgainsofacquiringfirms.

E. Thepassagedoesnotindicatethatfirmshavebeenaffectedbytheresultsofthestudiescited.

87. Itcanbeinferredfromthepassagethattheauthorwouldbemostlikelytoagreewithwhichofthefollowingstatementsaboutcorporateacquisitions?

A. Theirknownbenefitstonationaleconomiesexplaintheirappealtoindividualfirmsduringthe1970’sand1980’s.

B. Despitetheiradverseimpactonsomefirms,theyarethebestwaytochannelresourcesfromlesstomoreproductivesectorsofanation’seconomy.

C. Theyareaslikelytooccurbecauseofpoormonitoringbyboardsofdirectorsastobecausedbyincentivecompensationformanagers.

D. Theywillbelessprevalentinthefuture,sincetheiractualeffectswillgainwiderrecognition.

E. Factorsotherthaneconomicbenefittotheacquiringfirmhelptoexplainthefrequencywithwhichtheyoccur.

Inference

Thisquestionrequiresunderstandingwhatviewtheauthorhasabouta

particularissue.Thethreestudiescitedbythepassageallsuggestthatmergersandacquisitionsdonotnecessarilybringeconomicbenefittotheacquiringfirms.Theauthorconcludesthereforethatfactorshavinglittletodowithcorporateeconomicinterestsexplainacquisitions(lines23–24)andthengoesontospeculateastowhatthereasonsmayactuallybe.

A. Thepassageindicatesthatwhilemergersandacquisitionsmaybenefitthenationaleconomy,theappealofmergersandacquisitionsmustbetiedtocompanies’privateeconomicinterests(lines19–22).

B. Thepassagemakesnojudgmentastothebestwayforfirmstohelpchannelresourcesfromlesstomoreefficienteconomicsectors.

C. Thepassagemakesnocomparisonbetweentheinfluenceofpoormonitoringbyboardsandthatofexecutiveincentives.

D. Thepassagemakesnopredictionastofuturetrendsinthemarketformergersandacquisitions.

E. Correct.Thepassagestatesthatfactorsotherthaneconomicinterestsdrivemergersandacquisitions.

88. Theauthorofthepassagementionstheeffectofacquisitionsonnationaleconomiesmostprobablyinorderto

A. provideanexplanationforthemergersandacquisitionsofthe1970’sand1980’soverlookedbythefindingsdiscussedinthepassage

B. suggestthatnationaleconomicinterestsplayedanimportantroleinthemergersandacquisitionsofthe1970’sand1980’s

C. supportanoneconomicexplanationforthemergersandacquisitionsofthe1970’sand1980’sthatwascitedearlierinthepassage

D. citeandpointouttheinadequacyofonepossibleexplanationfortheprevalenceofmergersandacquisitionsduringthe1970’sand1980’s

E. explainhowmodelingaffectedthedecisionsmadebymanagersinvolvedinmergersandacquisitionsduringthe1970’sand1980’s

Evaluation

Thisquestionrequiresunderstandingwhyapieceofinformationisincludedinthepassage.Afterthepassagecitestheresultsofthethreestudiesonmergersandacquisitions,whichcallintoquestiontheeconomicbenefitsofacquisitions,itindicatesthatfirmsnonethelessclaimthattheirobjectivesareeconomic.Thepassagethenstatesthatwhileacquisitionsmaywellhaveadesirableeffectonnationaleconomies(lines17–19),theresultsofthestudiessuggestthatfactorsotherthaneconomicinterestmustdriveexecutivestoarrangemergersandacquisitions.

A. Thepassagedoesnotmentionnationaleconomiesaspartofanexplanationfortheoccurrenceofmergersandacquisitions.

B. Thepassagesuggeststhattheeffectofacquisitionsonnationaleconomiesisnottiedtoanyexplanationsforwhyacquisitionsoccur.

C. Theeffectofacquisitionsonnationaleconomiesisnotmentionedinthepassageasanexplanationforwhyacquisitionsoccur.

D. Correct.Thepassageusesthementionofnationaleconomiesaspartofalargerpointquestioningthestatedmotivationsbehindfirms’effortstoacquireotherfirms.

E. Inthepassage,modelingisunrelatedtotheideathatacquisitionsmayhaveadesirableeffectonnationaleconomies.

89. Accordingtothepassage,duringthe1970’sand1980’s,biddingfirmsdifferedfromthefirmsforwhichtheybidinthatbiddingfirms

A. tendedtobemoreprofitablebeforeamergerthanafteramerger

B. weremoreoftenconcernedabouttheimpactofacquisitionsonnationaleconomies

C. wererunbymanagerswhoseactionsweremodeledonthoseofothermanagers

D. anticipatedgreatereconomicadvantagesfromprospectivemergers

E. experiencedlessofanincreaseinstockvaluewhenaprospectivemergerwasannounced

Supportingideas

Thisquestionrequiresrecognizinginformationcontainedinthepassage.

Inlines10–14,thepassagedescribesthefindingsofthethirdstudyofmergersandacquisitionsinthe1970’sand1980’s.Thisstudyfoundthat,aftertheannouncementofapossiblemerger,thestockvalueofanacquiring,orbidding,firmincreasesmuchlessthanthestockvalueofthefirmforwhichitisintheprocessofbidding.

A. Thepassagedoesnotindicatewhethertheprofitabilityofacquiringfirmstendedtobegreaterorlessafteramerger.

B. Thepassagedoesnotindicatethatacquiringfirmswereconcernedabouttheimpactoftheiractionsonnationaleconomies.

C. Thepassagedoesnotmentiontheactionsofmanagersatfirmsthatarebeingacquired.

D. Thepassagedoesnotdiscusswhetheracquiringfirmstendedtoexpectgreateroveralleconomicgainsthanactuallyoccurred.

E. Correct.Thepassageindicatesthatthestockvalueofacquiringfirmsgrewlessthanthatofthefirmstheywereattemptingtoacquire.

90. Accordingtothepassage,whichofthefollowingwastrueofcorporateacquisitionsthatoccurredduringthe1970’sand1980’s?

A. Fewoftheacquisitionsthatfirmsmadeweresubsequentlydivested.

B. Mostsuchacquisitionsproducedonlysmallincreasesinacquiredfirms’levelsofprofitability.

C. Mostsuchacquisitionswerebasedonanoverestimationofthevalueoftargetfirms.

D. Thegainsrealizedbymostacquiringfirmsdidnotequaltheamountsexpendedinacquiringtargetfirms.

E. Abouthalfofsuchacquisitionsledtolong-termincreasesinthevalueofacquiringfirms’stocks.

Supportingideas

Thisquestionrequiresrecognizinginformationcontainedinthepassage.Thepassagereportsonthreestudiesofmergersandacquisitionsinthe1970’sand1980’s.Inlines7–10,thepassageindicatesthatthesecondstudyfoundthatthepostacquisitiongainstomostoftheacquiringfirmsdidnotoffset,oratleastequal,thepricepaidtoacquirethefirms.

A. Thepassagedoesnotdiscusspost-acquisitiondivesting.

B. Thepassageindicatesthatonaverage,theprofitabilityofacquiredfirmsfellafterbeingacquired(lines5–7).

C. Thepassagedoesnotindicatewhethermostacquiringfirmsoverestimatedthevalueofthefirmstheyacquired.

D. Correct.Thepassagestatesthatformostacquiringfirmsthecostsofbuyingtheacquiredfirmweregreaterthanthegainsderivedfromacquiringit.

E. Thepassagedoesnotindicatewhatpercentageofacquiringfirms,ifany,experiencedlong-termgainsintheirstockvalue.

91. Theauthorofthepassageimpliesthatwhichofthefollowingisapossiblepartialexplanationforacquisitionbehaviorduringthe1970’sand1980’s?

A. Managerswishedtoimitateothermanagersprimarilybecausetheysawhowfinanciallybeneficialotherfirms’acquisitionswere.

B. Managersmiscalculatedthevalueoffirmsthatweretobeacquired.

C. Lackofconsensuswithinboardsofdirectorsresultedintheirimposingconflictinggoalsonmanagers.

D. Totalcompensationpackagesformanagersincreasedduringthatperiod.

E. Thevalueofbiddingfirms’stockincreasedsignificantlywhenprospectivemergerswereannounced.

Inference

Thisquestionrequiresrecognizingwhatcanbeinferredfromtheinformationinthepassage.Afterprovidingtheresultsofthestudiesofmergersandacquisitions,theauthorconcludesthateventhoughacquiringfirmsstatethattheirobjectivesareeconomic,factorshavinglittletodowithcorporateeconomicinterestsexplainacquisitions(lines22–24).Amongalternativeexplanations,theauthorpointstomanagerialerrorinestimatingthevalueoffirmstargetedforacquisition(lines27–28)aspossiblycontributingtoacquisitionbehaviorinthe1970’sand1980’s.

A. Whilethepassageindicatesthatmanagersmayhavemodeledtheir

behavioronothermanagers,itdoesnotprovideareasonforwhythiswouldbeso.

B. Correct.Theauthorstatesthatoneexplanationforacquisitionbehaviormaybethatmanagerserredwhentheyestimatedthevalueoffirmsbeingacquired.

C. Theauthordiscussesalackofmonitoringbyboardsofdirectorsbutmakesnomentionofconsensuswithintheseboards.

D. Theauthordoesnotdiscusscompensationpackagesformanagers.

E. Thepassagedoesnotstatehowsignificantlythevalueofthebiddingfirm’sstockincreaseduponannouncingamergerbutonlythatitincreasedlessinvaluethandidthestockoftheprospectivefirmbeingacquired.

92. Accordingtothepassage,conventionalspiralgalaxiesdifferfromlow-surface-brightnessgalaxiesinwhichofthefollowingways?

A. Theyhavefewerstarsthandolow-surface-brightnessgalaxies.

B. Theyevolvemorequicklythanlow-surface-brightnessgalaxies.

C. Theyaremorediffusethanlow-surface-brightnessgalaxies.

D. Theycontainlessheliumthandolow-surface-brightnessgalaxies.

E. Theyarelargerthanlow-surface-brightnessgalaxies.

Supportingideas

Thisquestionrequiresrecognizinginformationthatisprovidedinthepassage.Thefirstparagraphdescribesandcomparestwotypesofgalaxies:conventionalgalaxiesanddim,orlow-surface-brightness,galaxies.Itstatesthatdimgalaxieshavethesameapproximatenumberofstarsasacommontypeofconventionalgalaxybuttendtobelargerandmorediffusebecausetheirmassisspreadoverwiderareas(lines4–10).Thepassagealsoindicatesthatdimgalaxiestakelongerthanconventionalgalaxiestoconverttheirprimordialgasesintostars,meaningthatdimgalaxiesevolvemuchmoreslowlythanconventionalgalaxies(lines10–14),whichentailsthatconventionalgalaxiesevolvemorequicklythandimgalaxies.

A. Thepassagestatesthatdimgalaxieshaveapproximatelythesame

numbersofstarsasacommontypeofconventionalgalaxy.

B. Correct.Thepassageindicatesthatdimgalaxiesevolvemuchmoreslowlythanconventionalgalaxies,whichentailsthatconventionalgalaxiesevolvemorequickly.

C. Thepassagestatesthatdimgalaxiesaremorespreadout,andthereforemorediffuse,thanconventionalgalaxies.

D. Thepassagedoesnotmentiontherelativeamountsofheliuminthetwotypesofgalaxiesunderdiscussion.

E. Thepassagestatesthatdimgalaxiestendtobemuchlargerthanconventionalgalaxies.

93. Itcanbeinferredfromthepassagethatwhichofthefollowingisanaccuratephysicaldescriptionoftypicallow-surface-brightnessgalaxies?

A. Theyarelargespiralgalaxiescontainingfewerstarsthanconventionalgalaxies.

B. Theyarecompactbutverydimspiralgalaxies.

C. Theyarediffusespiralgalaxiesthatoccupyalargevolumeofspace.

D. Theyaresmall,youngspiralgalaxiesthatcontainahighproportionofprimordialgas.

E. Theyarelarge,densespiralswithlowluminosity.

Inference

Thisquestionrequiresdrawinganinferencefrominformationgiveninthepassage.Thefirstparagraphcomparesdimgalaxiesandconventionalgalaxies.Dimgalaxiesaredescribedashavingthesamegeneralshape(lines4–5)asacommontypeofconventionalgalaxy,thespiralgalaxy,suggestingthatdimgalaxiesare,themselves,spiralshaped.Thepassagealsoindicatesthat,althoughbothtypesofgalaxiestendtohaveapproximatelythesamenumberofstars,dimgalaxiestendtobemuchlargerandspreadoutoverlargerareasofspace(lines4–10)thanconventionalgalaxies.

A. Thepassagestatesthatthetwotypesofgalaxieshaveapproximatelythesamenumberofstars.

B. Thepassageindicatesthatdimgalaxiesarerelativelylargeandspreadout.

C. Correct.Thepassageindicatesthatdimgalaxieshavethesamegeneralshapeasspiralgalaxiesandthattheirmassisspreadoutoverlargeareasofspace.

D. Thepassageindicatesthatdimgalaxiesarerelativelylargeandspreadout.

E. Thepassagestatesthatdimgalaxieshavefewstarsperunitofvolume,suggestingthattheyarenotdensebutdiffuse.

94. Itcanbeinferredfromthepassagethatthe“long-standingpuzzle”referstowhichofthefollowing?

A. Thedifferencebetweentherateatwhichconventionalgalaxiesevolveandtherateatwhichlow-surface-brightnessgalaxiesevolve

B. Thediscrepancybetweenestimatesoftotalbaryonicmassderivedfrommeasuringheliumandestimatesbasedonmeasuringgalacticluminosity

C. Theinconsistencybetweentheobservedamountofheliumintheuniverseandthenumberofstarsintypicallow-surface-brightnessgalaxies

D. Uncertaintiesregardingwhatproportionofbaryonicmassiscontainedinintergalacticspaceandwhatproportioninconventionalgalaxies

E. Difficultiesinvolvedindetectingverydistantgalaxiesandininvestigatingtheirluminosity

Inference

Thisquestionrequiresdrawinganinferencefrominformationgiveninthepassage.Thesecondparagraphdescribesthelong-standingpuzzleofthemissingbaryonicmassintheuniverse.Thepassagestatesthatbaryonsarethesourceofgalacticluminosity,andsoscientistscanestimatetheamountofbaryonicmassintheuniversebymeasuringtheluminosityofgalaxies(lines17–21).Thepuzzleisthatspectroscopicmeasuresofheliumintheuniversesuggestthatthebaryonicmassintheuniverseismuchhigherthanmeasuresofluminositywouldindicate(21–25).

A. Thedifferencesbetweentheratesofevolutionofthetwotypesofgalaxiesisnottreatedasbeingcontroversialinthepassage.

B. Correct.Thepassageindicatesthatmeasurementsusingspectroscopyandmeasurementsusingluminosityresultinpuzzlingdifferencesinestimatesoftheuniverse’sbaryonicmass.

C. Thepassagedoesnotsuggesthowheliummightrelatetothenumbersofstarsindimgalaxies.

D. Thepassageindicatesthatastronomershavespeculatedthatthemissingbaryonicmassmightbediscoveredinintergalacticspaceorhard-to-detectgalaxiesbutdoesnotsuggestthatthesespeculationsareconstituentsofthelong-standingpuzzle.

E. Thepassagedoesnotmentionhowthedistancetogalaxiesaffectsscientists’abilitytodetectthesegalaxies.

95. Theauthorimpliesthatlow-surface-brightnessgalaxiescouldconstituteananswertothepuzzlediscussedinthesecondparagraphprimarilybecause

A. theycontainbaryonicmassthatwasnottakenintoaccountbyresearchersusinggalacticluminositytoestimatethenumberofbaryonsintheuniverse

B. they,likeconventionalgalaxiesthatcontainmanybaryons,haveevolvedfrommassive,primordialgasclouds

C. theymaycontainrelativelymorehelium,andhencemorebaryons,thandogalaxieswhoseheliumcontenthasbeenstudiedusingspectroscopy

D. theyhaverecentlybeendiscoveredtocontainmorebaryonicmassthanscientistshadthoughtwhenlow-surface-brightnessgalaxieswerefirstobserved

E. theycontainstarsthataresignificantlymoreluminousthanwouldhavebeenpredictedonthebasisofinitialstudiesofluminosityinlow-surface-brightnessgalaxies

Inference

Thisquestionrequiresdrawinganinferencefrominformationgiveninthepassage.Thepuzzleisthatestimatesofthebaryonicmassoftheuniversebasedonluminosityarelowerthanthosebasedonspectroscopy(lines21–25).Thepassagestatesthatastronomersdidnotnoticedimgalaxiesuntilrecently(lines2–3)andthatthesegalaxiesmay

helpaccountforthemissingbaryonicmassintheuniverse(lines15–17).Thepassagealsosuggeststhatastronomersmeasuretheluminosityofspecificgalaxies(lines19–21).Thusitcanbeinferredthat,priortotheirbeingnoticedbyastronomers,theluminosityofthesedimgalaxieswasnotmeasured,andtheirbaryonicmasswasnottakenintoaccountintheestimatesofluminositythatledtothelong-standingpuzzle.

A. Correct.Thepassagestatesthatthemissingbaryonicmassintheuniversemaybediscoveredinthedimgalaxiesthathaveonlyrecentlybeennoticedbyastronomers.

B. Thepassagedoesnotsuggestthatdimandconventionalgalaxiesbothoriginatingfromprimordialgascloudshelpsolvethelong-standingpuzzleofthemissingbaryonicmassintheuniverse.

C. Thepassagedoesnotsuggestthatdimgalaxiesmightcontainmoreheliumthandoconventionalgalaxiesorthatmeasuresofbaryonicmassusingspectroscopydonottakesomedimgalaxiesintoaccount.

D. Thepassagedoesnotsuggestthatdimgalaxiescontainmorebaryonicmassthanscientistsoriginallybelievedupondiscoveringthesegalaxies.

E. Thepassagesuggeststhatscientistsmeasuredtheluminosityofgalaxies,notofindividualstars.

96. Theauthormentionsthefactthatbaryonsarethesourceofstars’luminosityprimarilyinordertoexplain

A. howastronomersdeterminethatsomegalaxiescontainfewerstarsperunitvolumethandoothers

B. howastronomersareabletocalculatethetotalluminosityofagalaxy

C. whyastronomerscanusegalacticluminositytoestimatebaryonicmass

D. whyastronomers’estimatesofbaryonicmassbasedongalacticluminosityaremorereliablethanthosebasedonspectroscopicstudiesofhelium

E. howastronomersknowbrightgalaxiescontainmorebaryonsthandodimgalaxies

Evaluation

Thisquestionrequiresunderstandinghowoneaspectofthepassagerelatestothereasoninginalargerportionofthepassage.Thesecondparagraphexplainsthatscientistshavebeenpuzzledovermissingbaryonicmassintheuniverseasmeasuredbyluminosity(lines21–25).Giventhatbaryonsarethesourceofluminosityinthegalaxy(lines17–19),astronomerscanestimatethebaryonicmassofagalaxybymeasuringitsluminosity.

A. Thepassagediscussionofbaryonsdoesnotaddressthenumberofstarsinindividualgalaxies.

B. Thepassagediscusseshowtheluminosityofgalaxiescanbeusedtoestimatebaryonicmassbutdoesnotaddresshowtotalluminosityismeasured.

C. Correct.Thepassageindicatesthatbecausebaryonsarethesourceofgalacticluminosity,measuringluminositycanbeusedtoestimatebaryonicmassofgalaxies.

D. Thepassagesuggeststhatestimatesbasedonluminositymayhavebeenlessaccurate,notmoreaccurate,thanthosebasedonspectroscopy.

E. Thepassagedoesnotindicatethatbrightgalaxiescontainmorebaryonsthandodimgalaxies.

97. Theauthorofthepassagewouldbemostlikelytodisagreewithwhichofthefollowingstatements?

A. Low-surface-brightnessgalaxiesaremoredifficulttodetectthanareconventionalgalaxies.

B. Low-surface-brightnessgalaxiesareoftenspiralinshape.

C. Astronomershaveadvancedplausibleideasaboutwheremissingbaryonicmassmightbefound.

D. Astronomershavedevisedausefulwayofestimatingthetotalbaryonicmassintheuniverse.

E. Astronomershavediscoveredasubstantialamountofbaryonicmassinintergalacticspace.

Inference

Thisquestioninvolvesidentifyingwhichansweroptionpotentiallyconflictswiththeinformationtheauthorhasprovidedinthepassage.Thesecondparagraphindicatesthatastronomers’estimatesofthebaryonicmassoftheuniverseislowerwhenmeasuredusingluminositythanitiswhenmeasuredusingspectroscopy(lines21–25).Thefinalsentencestatesthatastronomershavespeculatedthatthemissingbaryonicmassmightbediscoveredinintergalacticspaceorinhard-to-detectgalaxies(lines25–29).Althoughthepassagedoesindicatethatthediscoveryofdim,low-surface-brightnessgalaxiesmighthelpaccountforthemissingbaryonicmass(lines15–17),thepassageprovidesnosupportforthepossibilitythatbaryonicmasshasbeendiscoveredinintergalacticspace.

A. Thepassageindicatesthatlow-surface-brightnessgalaxieswentunnoticeduntilrecently,unlikeconventionalgalaxies.

B. Thepassageindicatesthatlow-surface-brightnessgalaxieshavethesamegeneralshapeasspiralgalaxies.

C. Thepassagedescribestwopossibleexplanationsastronomershavegivenforthemissingbaryonicmass,oneofwhichwasmademoreplausiblebythediscoveryoflow-surface-brightnessgalaxies.

D. Thepassageindicatesthatastronomershaveusedspectroscopytoestimatebaryonicmassandgivesnoreasontosuspectthatthismethodisnotuseful.

E. Correct.Thepassagedoesnotindicatethatastronomershavefoundanybaryonicmassinintergalacticspace.

A. describeaphenomenonandconsideritsscientificsignificance

B. contrasttwophenomenaanddiscussapuzzlingdifferencebetweenthem

C. identifyanewlydiscoveredphenomenonandexplainitsorigins

D. comparetwoclassesofobjectsanddiscussthephysicalpropertiesofeach

E. discussadiscoveryandpointoutitsinconsistencywithexistingtheory

Mainidea

Thisquestionrequiresunderstanding,inbroadterms,thepurposeofthepassageasawhole.Thefirstparagraphdescribesaphenomenon:thediscoveryofdimgalaxiesandsomeoftheirgeneralattributes.Thesecondparagraphdescribeshowthisdiscoverymayhelpastronomerstosolvealong-standingpuzzleaboutthebaryonicmassoftheuniverse.

A. Correct.Thepassagedescribesthephenomenonofdimgalaxiesanddescribestheirsignificanceinsolvingthelong-standingpuzzleofthemissingbaryonicmassintheuniverse.

B. Althoughthepassagediscussesthepuzzlingdifferencebetweenthetwoestimatesofbaryonicmass,thisoptiondoesnotaccountforthebroadertopicofdimgalaxies.

C. Whilethepassageidentifiesthenewlydiscoveredphenomenonofdimgalaxies,itdoesnotofferasignificantexplanationforthesegalaxies’origins.

D. Althoughthepassagecomparesdimandconventionalgalaxiesinthefirstparagraph,thisoptiondoesnotaccountfortheimportantdetailthatdimgalaxiesmayhelpsolvealong-standingpuzzle.

E. Thediscoveryofdimgalaxiesdiscussedinthepassageisnotsaidtobeinconsistentwithanyexistingscientifictheory.

99. Accordingtothepassage,WalkerandSzalaydisagreeonwhichofthefollowingpoints?

A. Thestructureandcompositionofaustralopithecineteeth

B. Thekindsofconclusionsthatcanbedrawnfromthemicro-wearpatternsonaustralopithecineteeth

C. Theideathatfruitwasapartoftheaustralopithecinediet

D. Theextenttowhichseedcrackingandbonecrunchingproducesimilarmicro-wearpatternsonteeth

E. Thefunctionoftheheavyenamelonaustralopithecineteeth

Supportingidea

Thisquestionreferstothefirstparagraph,whichstatesthatWalkerdoesnotagreewithSzalay’sideathattheheavyenamelofaustralopithecineteethisanadaptationtobonecrunching.

A. Accordingtothepassage,WalkerandSzalaydisagreeaboutthefunctionofheavyenamelontheteeth,notthestructureandcompositionoftheteeth.

B. ThepassagedoesnotindicatethatSzalayhasanythingtosayaboutthemicro-wearpatternsontheteeth.

C. Walkerdoes,accordingtothepassage,believethataustralopithecinesatefruit,butitgivesnoevidenceaboutwhetherSzalaybelievesthattheyateatleastsomefruit.

D. Accordingtothepassage,Walkerbelievesthatseedcrackingandbonecrunchingproducedistinctivemicro-wearpatternsonteeth,buthedoesnotnecessarilybelievethattheyaresimilar.ThepassagedoesnotindicateSzalay’spositiononthedifferencebetweenmicro-wearpatterns.

E. Correct.ThefunctionoftheheavyenamelontheteethistheonlyideaaboutwhichthepassageclearlyindicatesthatWalkerandSzalaydisagree.

100. ThepassagesuggeststhatWalker’sresearchindicatedwhichofthefollowingaboutaustralopithecineteeth?

A. Theyhadmicro-wearcharacteristicsindicatingthatfruitconstitutedonlyasmallpartoftheirdiet.

B. Theylackedmicro-wearcharacteristicsassociatedwithseedeatingandbonecrunching.

C. Theyhadmicro-wearcharacteristicsthatdifferedincertainwaysfromthemicro-wearpatternsofchimpanzeesandorangutans.

D. Theyhadmicro-wearcharacteristicssuggestingthatthedietofaustralopithecinesvariedfromoneregiontoanother.

E. Theylackedthemicro-wearcharacteristicsdistinctiveofmodernfrugivores.

Inference

Accordingtothepassage,Walker’sresearchfocusesonmicro-wearpatternsontheteethofaustralopithecines.Hedrawsseveralconclusionsonthebasisofthesepatterns:first,thataustralopithecinesdidnoteathardseeds;next,thattheydidnotcrunchbones;andfinally,thattheyatefruit.

A. ThepassageindicatesthatWalker’sobservationofmicro-wearpatternsledhimtoconcludethataustralopithecinesatemostlyfruit,notthatfruitconstitutedonlyasmallpartoftheirdiet.

B. Correct.ThefirstparagraphexplainsthatWalkerconcludedfrommicro-wearpatternsthataustralopithecinesdidnoteathardseedsanddidnotcrunchbones;thus,hisresearchmusthaveindicatedthattheylackedmicro-wearcharacteristicsassociatedwithsuchactivities.

C. Accordingtothepassage,theoppositeistrue:basedontheobservationthattheirmicro-wearpatternswereindistinguishablefromthoseofchimpanzeesandorangutans,Walkerconcludedthataustralopithecinesatefruit.

D. ThesecondparagraphofthepassagecomplicatesWalker’sviewbysuggestingthataustralopithecines’dietmighthavevariedfromoneregiontoanother,butthepassagesaysnothingaboutWalker’sresearchfromwhichtoinferthatitindicatedsuchvariation.

E. Chimpanzeesandorangutansareassumedtobefrugivores,accordingtothepassage,andWalker’sresearchindicatedthataustralopithecineteethhadmicro-wearcharacteristicsidenticaltotheirs.

101. Thepassagesuggeststhatwhichofthefollowingwouldbetrueofstudiesoftoothmicro-wearpatternsconductedonmodernbaboons?

A. Theywouldinaccuratelysuggestthatsomebaboonseatmoresoft-bodiedthanhard-bodiedinsects.

B. Theywouldsuggestthatinsectsconstitutethelargestpartofsomebaboons’diets.

C. Theywouldrevealthattherearenosignificantdifferencesintoothmicro-wearpatternsamongbaboonpopulations.

D. Theywouldinadequatelyreflecttheextenttowhichsomebaboonsconsumecertaintypesofinsects.

E. Theywouldindicatethatbaboonsincertainregionseatonlysoft-bodiedinsects,whereasbaboonsinotherregionseathard-bodiedinsects.

Inference

Thesecondparagraphstatesthatmodernbaboonseatonlysoft-bodiedinsectsandsowouldnotexhibittoothabrasiontoindicatethattheywereinsectivores.Thus,itwouldbedifficulttodetermineexactlywhichsoft-bodiedinsectstheyate.

A. Thepassagestatesthatbaboonseatonlysoft-bodiedinsects—soitisinfactaccuratetosuggestthatallbaboonseatmoresoft-bodiedthanhard-bodiedinsects.

B. Thepassagesaysthatbaboonseatonlysoft-bodiedinsects.Italsosuggeststhatsoft-bodiedinsectsdonotleavesignificantenoughabrasionsonbaboons’teethtoprovideevidenceofthisaspectoftheirdiet.Therefore,thetooth-wearpatternswouldgivelittleornoinformationregardingwhatproportionofthebaboons’overalldietconsistsofinsects.

C. Thepassagedoesnotprovidegroundsforinferringanythingaboutthedifferences,orlackthereof,amongbaboonpopulationsintermsoftoothmicro-wearpatterns.

D. Correct.Becausesoft-bodiedinsectscauselittletoothabrasion,micro-wearpatternswouldmostlikelynotreflecttheextenttowhichbaboonsconsumesoft-bodiedinsects.

E. Thepassagestatesthatbaboonseatonlysoft-bodiedinsects.Nothinginthepassagesuggeststhatbaboonsincertainregionseathard-bodiedinsects.

102. Thepassagesuggestswhichofthefollowingaboutthemicro-wearpatternsfoundontheteethofomnivorousprimates?

A. Thepatternsprovideinformationaboutwhatkindsoffoodsarenoteatenbytheparticularspeciesofprimate,butnotaboutthefoodsactuallyeaten.

B. Thepatternsofvariousprimatespecieslivinginthesameenvironmentresembleoneanother.

C. Thepatternsmaynotprovideinformationabouttheextenttowhichaparticularspecies’dietincludesseeds.

D. Thepatternsprovidemoreinformationabouttheseprimates’dietthandothetoothmicro-wearpatternsofprimateswhoarefrugivores.

E. Thepatternsmaydifferamonggroupswithinaspeciesdependingontheenvironmentwithinwhichaparticulargrouplives.

Inference

Thisquestionfocusesmainlyontheendofthesecondparagraph,whichstatesthatthedietsofcurrentomnivorousprimatesvaryconsiderablydependingontheenvironmentsinwhichtheylive.Itgoesontoconcludethataustralopithecines,iftheywereomnivores,wouldsimilarlyconsumevarieddiets,dependingonenvironment,andexhibitvariedtoothmicro-wearpatternsaswell.Thus,itisreasonabletoconcludethatanyomnivorousprimateslivingindifferentenvironmentsandconsumingdifferentdietswouldexhibitvariedmicro-wearpatterns.

A. Thepassageindicatesthattheabsenceofcertaintypesofmicro-wearpatternscanprovideevidenceaboutwhatfoodsaspeciesdoesnoteat.Italsosaysthatamongomnivorousprimates,onemightexpecttofindconsiderablepopulationvariationintheirtoothmicro-wearpatterns.Wherevermicro-wearpatternsarepresent,theyprovideevidenceaboutwhatkindsoffoodsareeaten.

B. Thepassagesuggeststhatvariousprimatespecieslivinginthesameenvironmentmightconsumeavarietyofdifferentdiets,sothereisnoreasontoconcludethattheirmicro-wearpatternswouldresembleoneanother.

C. Thepassageindicatesthatseed-eatingproducesdistinctivemicro-wearpatterns,sothepatterns,orlackthereof,ontheteethofanyspecieswouldmostlikelyprovideinformationabouttheextenttowhichthespecies’dietincludesseeds.

D. Theendofthefirstparagraphsuggeststhatfrugivores’micro-wearpatternsaredistinctive;thepassageprovidesnoreasontobelievethatomnivores’dietsprovidemoreinformation.

E. Correct.Accordingtothepassage,omnivorousprimatesofaparticularspeciesmayconsumedifferentdietsdependingonwheretheylive.Thus,theirmicro-wearpatternsmaydifferonthisbasis.

103. Itcanbeinferredfromthepassagethatifstudiesoftoothmicro-wearpatternswereconductedonmodernbaboons,whichofthefollowingwouldmostlikelybetrueoftheresultsobtained?

A. Therewouldbeenoughabrasiontoallowadeterminationof

whetherbaboonsarefrugivorousorinsectivorous.

B. Theresultswouldsuggestthatinsectsconstitutethelargestpartofthebaboons’diet.

C. Theresultswouldrevealthattherearenosignificantdifferencesintoothmicro-wearpatternsfromoneregionalbaboonpopulationtoanother.

D. Theresultswouldprovideanaccurateindicationoftheabsenceofsomekindsofinsectsfromthebaboons’diet.

E. Theresultswouldbeunlikelytoprovideanyindicationofwhatinferencesabouttheaustralopithecinedietcanorcannotbedrawnfrommicro-wearstudies.

Inference

Thesecondparagraphstatesthatmodernbaboonseatsoft-bodiedinsectsbutnothard-bodiedones—anditishard-bodiedinsects,thepassagesuggests,thatwouldcauseparticularmicro-wearpatternsonteeth.Sothepatternsonmodernbaboons’teethmostlikelydonotexhibitthepatternsindicatinghard-bodiedinsectconsumption.

A. Thepassagestatesthatbaboons’consumptionofsoft-bodiedinsectswouldnotshowupinthepatternsontheirteeth—sotheabrasionwouldmostlikelynotprovideenoughinformationforadeterminationofwhetherbaboonsarefrugivorousorinsectivorous.

B. Sincesoft-bodiedinsectsdonotabradetheteethsignificantly,itwouldbedifficulttodetermine,basedonmicro-wearpatterns,thepartsuchinsectsplayinthebaboons’diet.Furthermore,thepassagedoesnotsuggestthatmicro-wearpatternscanindicatethequantityoffoodananimalmighthaveeaten.

C. Therecouldbedifferencesintoothmicro-wearpatternsfromoneregionalbaboonpopulationtoanotheriftheyconsumedanythinginadditiontosoft-bodiedinsects.

D. Correct.Studyingtoothmicro-wearpatternsonbaboons’teethwouldmostlikelyshowthattheirteethdonotexhibitpatternstypicalofcreaturesthatconsumehard-bodiedinsects.

E. Thepassagesuggeststhatbasedonresultsfrommicro-wearpatternsonmodernbaboons’teeth,onecannotinferfrommicro-wearstudieswhetheraustralopithecinesatesoft-bodiedinsects.

104. ItcanbeinferredfromthepassagethatWalker’sconclusionabouttheaustralopithecinedietwouldbecalledintoquestionunderwhichofthefollowingcircumstances?

A. Thetoothenamelofaustralopithecinesisfoundtobemuchheavierthanthatofmodernfrugivorousprimates.

B. Themicro-wearpatternsofaustralopithecineteethfromregionsotherthaneastAfricaareanalyzed.

C. Orangutansarefoundtohaveamuchbroaderdietthaniscurrentlyrecognized.

D. TheenvironmentofeastAfricaatthetimeaustralopithecineslivedthereisfoundtohavebeenfarmorevariedthaniscurrentlythought.

E. Theareainwhichtheaustralopithecinespecimenswerefoundisdiscoveredtohavebeenveryrichinsoft-bodiedinsectsduringtheperiodwhenaustralopithecineslivedthere.

Inference

ThepassageexplainsthatWalkerbaseshisconclusionaboutthefrugivorousnatureoftheaustralopithecinedietonthefactthatthemicro-wearpatternsonaustralopithecineteethareindistinguishablefromthoseofchimpanzeesandorangutans,bothofwhicharepresumedtohavefrugivorousdiets.

A. ThepassageindicatesthatWalkertookintoaccountthefactthataustralopithecineshadrelativelyheavytoothenamelandthatherejectedtheviewthatthisheavinesswasevidenceagainstthehypothesisthattheywerefrugivorous.Forallwecantellfromtheinformationinthepassage,theaustralopithecines’toothenamelwasalreadyknowntobemuchheavierthanthatofmodernfrugivorousprimates.

B. Itcouldbethecasethatanalyzingthemicro-wearpatternsofaustralopithecineteethfromotherregionswouldyieldthesamedataasthosefromeastAfrica.

C. Correct.Accordingtothepassage,Walkerbasestheconclusionthataustralopithecineswerefrugivorousonthesimilaritybetweentheirmicro-wearpatternsandthoseofmodernchimpanzeesandorangutans.Iforangutanswerefoundtohaveadietthatincludeda

greaterrangeofnon-fruitfoodsthaniscurrentlyrecognized,thenthecorrespondencebetweentheirmicro-wearpatternsandaustralopithecines’micro-wearpatternswouldbeconsistentwiththehypothesisthataustralopithecines’dietwasbroaderaswell.

D. EveniftheenvironmentofeastAfricaweremorevaried,thatwouldnotmeantheaustralopithecinesnecessarilyateamorevarieddiet.Manyspeciesthatliveinveryvariedenvironmentsspecializenarrowlyonparticularfoodsinthoseenvironments.

E. Justbecausemanysoft-bodiedinsectsmighthavebeenavailabletoaustralopithecinesdoesnotmeanthataustralopithecinesatethem.

105. Theauthorofthepassagementionsthedietsofbaboonsandotherlivingprimatesmostlikelyinorderto

A. provideevidencethatrefutesWalker’sconclusionsaboutthefoodsmakingupthedietsofaustralopithecines

B. suggestthatstudiesoftoothmicro-wearpatternsareprimarilyusefulfordeterminingthedietsoflivingprimates

C. suggestthataustralopithecineswereprobablyomnivoresratherthanfrugivores

D. illustratesomeofthelimitationsofusingtoothmicro-wearpatternstodrawdefinitiveconclusionsaboutagroup’sdiet

E. suggestthattoothmicro-wearpatternsarecausedbypersistent,asopposedtooccasional,consumptionofparticularfoods

Evaluation

Thepassagediscussesthedietsofbaboonsandotherlivingprimatesmainlyinthesecondparagraph,whichisconcernedwithexplainingthelimitedutilityofmicro-wearstudies.

A. TheauthorraisessomedoubtsaboutWalker’sconclusionsbutdoesnotgoasfarastotrytorefutethemoutright.Theauthorarguesonlythat,asthefinalsentenceofthepassagestates,theymayneedtobeexpanded.

B. Theauthordiscussesthedietsofbaboonsandotherlivingprimatesinrelationtomicro-wearresearchonextinctprimates.Nothinginthediscussionsuggeststhatmicro-wearstudieswouldbemoreusefulfordeterminingthedietsoflivingprimatesthanfor

providingevidenceregardingthedietsofearlierprimatesorofothertypesofanimals.Furthermore,thementionofbaboondietssuggeststhatmicro-wearstudiesmaynotbeveryusefulfordeterminingthedietsofsomelivingprimates.

C. Theauthorleavesopenthequestionofwhetheraustralopithecineswereomnivoresorfrugivores.Thepassagesuggeststhatsomeaustralopithecinesmighthavebeenomnivores,ifaustralopithecines’dietsvariedaccordingtotheenvironmentstheyinhabited.Walker’sconclusionregardingeastAfricanaustralopithecines’beingfrugivoresmightstillhold,however.

D. Correct.Theauthorreferstobaboons’dietsandthoseofcurrentomnivorousprimatesinordertosuggestthattheremightbelimitationstoWalker’suseoftoothmicro-wearpatternstodetermineaustralopithecines’diet.

E. Thepassagedoesnotmakeadistinctionbetweenpersistentandoccasionalconsumptionofparticularfoods.

4.0CriticalReasoning

4.0CriticalReasoningCriticalreasoningquestionsappearintheVerbalsectionoftheGMAT®

exam.TheVerbalsectionusesmultiple-choicequestionstomeasureyourabilitytoreadandcomprehendwrittenmaterial,toreasonandtoevaluatearguments,andtocorrectwrittenmaterialtoconformtostandardwrittenEnglish.BecausetheVerbalsectionincludescontentfromavarietyoftopics,youmaybegenerallyfamiliarwithsomeofthematerial;however,neitherthepassagesnorthequestionsassumeknowledgeofthetopicsdiscussed.CriticalreasoningquestionsareintermingledwithreadingcomprehensionandsentencecorrectionquestionsthroughouttheVerbalsectionofthetest.

Youwillhave75minutestocompletetheVerbalsection,orabout1¾minutestoanswereachquestion.Althoughcriticalreasoningquestionsarebasedonwrittenpassages,thesepassagesareshorterthanreadingcomprehensionpassages.Theytendtobelessthan100wordsinlengthandgenerallyarefollowedbyoneortwoquestions.Forthesequestions,youwillseeasplitcomputerscreen.Thewrittenpassagewillremainvisibleaseachquestionassociatedwiththatpassageappearsinturnonthescreen.Youwillseeonlyonequestionatatime.

Criticalreasoningquestionsaredesignedtotestthereasoningskillsinvolvedin(1)makingarguments,(2)evaluatingarguments,and(3)formulatingorevaluatingaplanofaction.Thematerialsonwhichquestionsarebasedaredrawnfromavarietyofsources.TheGMATexamdoesnotsupposeanyfamiliaritywiththesubjectmatterofthosematerials.

Inthesequestions,youaretoanalyzethesituationonwhicheachquestionisbased,andthenselecttheanswerchoicethatmostappropriatelyanswersthequestion.Beginbyreadingthepassagescarefully,thenreadingthefiveanswerchoices.Ifthecorrectanswerisnotimmediatelyobvioustoyou,seewhetheryoucaneliminatesomeofthewronganswers.Readingthepassageasecondtimemaybehelpfulinilluminatingsubtletiesthatwerenotimmediatelyevident.

Answeringcriticalreasoningquestionsrequiresnospecializedknowledgeofanyparticularfield;youdon’thavetohaveknowledgeoftheterminologyandconventionsofformallogic.Thesamplecriticalreasoningquestionsinthischapterillustratethevarietyoftopicsthetestmaycover,thekindsofquestionsitmayask,andthelevelofanalysisitrequires.

Thefollowingpagesdescribewhatcriticalreasoningquestionsaredesignedtomeasureandpresentthedirectionsthatwillprecedequestionsofthis

type.Samplequestionsandexplanationsofthecorrectanswersfollow.

4.1WhatIsMeasuredCriticalreasoningquestionsaredesignedtoprovideonemeasureofyourabilitytoreasoneffectivelyinthefollowingareas:

Argumentconstruction

Questionsinthiscategorymayaskyoutorecognizesuchthingsasthebasicstructureofanargument,properlydrawnconclusions,underlyingassumptions,well-supportedexplanatoryhypotheses,andparallelsbetweenstructurallysimilararguments.

Argumentevaluation

Thesequestionsmayaskyoutoanalyzeagivenargumentandtorecognizesuchthingsasfactorsthatwouldstrengthenorweakenthegivenargument;reasoningerrorscommittedinmakingthatargument;andaspectsofthemethodbywhichtheargumentproceeds.

Formulatingandevaluatingaplanofaction

Thistypeofquestionmayaskyoutorecognizesuchthingsastherelativeappropriateness,effectiveness,orefficiencyofdifferentplansofaction;factorsthatwouldstrengthenorweakentheprospectsofsuccessofaproposedplanofaction;andassumptionsunderlyingaproposedplanofaction.

4.2Test-TakingStrategies1. Readverycarefullythesetofstatementsonwhichaquestionisbased.

Paycloseattentionto

whatisputforwardasfactualinformation

whatisnotsaidbutnecessarilyfollowsfromwhatissaid

whatisclaimedtofollowfromfactsthathavebeenputforward

howwellsubstantiatedareanyclaimsthataparticularconclusionfollowsfromthefactsthathavebeenputforward

Inreadingthearguments,itisimportanttopayattentiontothelogicalreasoningused;theactualtruthofstatementsportrayedasfactisnotimportant.

2. Identifytheconclusion.

Theconclusiondoesnotnecessarilycomeattheendofthetext;itmaycomesomewhereinthemiddleorevenatthebeginning.Bealerttocluesinthetextthatanargumentfollowslogicallyfromanotherstatementorstatementsinthetext.

3. Determineexactlywhateachquestionasks.

Youmightfindithelpfultoreadthequestionfirst,beforereadingthematerialonwhichitisbased;don’tassumethatyouknowwhatyouwillbeaskedaboutanargument.Anargumentmayhaveobviousflaws,andonequestionmayaskyoutodetectthem.ButanotherquestionmaydirectyoutoselecttheoneanswerchoicethatdoesNOTdescribeaflawintheargument.

4. Readalltheanswerchoicescarefully.

Donotassumethatagivenansweristhebestwithoutfirstreadingallthechoices.

4.3TheDirectionsThesearethedirectionsyouwillseeforcriticalreasoningquestionswhenyoutaketheGMATexam.Ifyoureadthemcarefullyandunderstandthemclearlybeforegoingtositforthetest,youwillnotneedtospendtoomuchtimereviewingthemwhenyouareatthetestcenterandthetestisunderway.

Forthesequestions,selectthebestoftheanswerchoicesgiven.

4.4SampleQuestionsEachofthecriticalreasoningquestionsisbasedonashortargument,asetofstatements,oraplanofaction.Foreachquestion,selectthebestanswerofthechoicesgiven.

106. PhishCorunsanumberoffarmsinthearidprovinceofNufa,dependinglargelyonirrigation.Now,aspartofaplantoefficientlyincreasethefarms’totalproduction,itplanstodrilldowntoanaquifercontainingwarm,slightlysaltywaterthatwillbeusedtoraisefishinponds.Thewaterfromthepondswilllaterbeusedtosupplementpiped-inirrigationwaterforPhishCo’svegetablefields,andthepondsandaccompanyingvegetationshouldhelpreducetheheatintheareaofthefarms.

Whichofthefollowingwould,iftrue,moststronglysuggestthattheplan,ifimplemented,wouldincreasetheoverallefficiencyofPhishCo’sfarms?

A. MostofthevegetationtobeplacedaroundthepondsisnativetoNufa.

B. FishraisedonPhishCo’sfarmsarelikelytobesaleableinthenearesturbanareas.

C. Organicwastefromfishinthepondwaterwillhelptofertilizefieldswhereitisusedforirrigation.

D. ThegovernmentofNufawillhelptoarrangeloanfinancingtopartiallycoverthecostsofdrilling.

E. Pondswillbelocatedonlow-lyinglandnowpartiallyoccupiedbygraincrops.

107. Thesustainedmassiveuseofpesticidesinfarminghastwoeffectsthatareespeciallypernicious.First,itoftenkillsoffthepests’naturalenemiesinthearea.Second,itoftenunintentionallygivesrisetoinsecticide-resistantpests,sincethoseinsectsthatsurviveaparticularinsecticidewillbetheonesmostresistanttoit,andtheyaretheoneslefttobreed.

Fromthepassageabove,itcanbeproperlyinferredthattheeffectivenessofthesustainedmassiveuseofpesticidescanbeextendedbydoingwhichofthefollowing,assumingthateachisarealisticpossibility?

A. Usingonlychemicallystableinsecticides

B. Periodicallyswitchingthetypeofinsecticideused

C. Graduallyincreasingthequantitiesofpesticidesused

D. Leavingafewfieldsfalloweveryyear

E. Breedinghigher-yieldingvarietiesofcropplants

108. Whichofthefollowing,iftrue,mostlogicallycompletestheargumentbelow?

Manufacturersarenowrequiredtomakeallcigarettelighterschild-resistantbyequippingthemwithsafetylevers.Butthischangeisunlikelytoresultinasignificantreductioninthenumberoffirescausedbychildrenplayingwithlighters,becausechildrengiventheopportunitycanfigureouthowtoworkthesafetyleversand________.

A. theadditionofthesafetylevershasmadelightersmoreexpensivethantheywerebeforetherequirementwasinstituted

B. adultsaremorelikelytoleavechild-resistantlightersthannon-child-resistantlightersinplacesthatareaccessibletochildren

C. manyofthefiresstartedbyyoungchildrenarequicklydetectedandextinguishedbytheirparents

D. unlikechild-resistantlighters,lightersthatarenotchild-resistantcanbeoperatedbychildrenasyoungastwoyearsold

E. approximately5,000firesperyearhavebeenattributedtochildrenplayingwithlightersbeforethesafetyleverswererequired

109. Whichofthefollowingmostlogicallycompletesthepassage?

AbusinessanalysisoftheAppenianrailroadsystemdivideditslong-distancepassengerroutesintotwocategories:ruralroutesandinterurbanroutes.Theanalysisfoundthat,unliketheinterurbanroutes,fewruralroutescarriedahighenoughpassengervolumetobeprofitable.Closingunprofitableruralroutes,however,willnotnecessarilyenhancetheprofitabilityofthewholesystem,since________.

A. alargepartofthepassengervolumeoninterurbanroutesisaccountedforbypassengerswhobeginorendtheirjourneysonruralroutes

B. withinthelasttwodecadesseveraloftheleastusedruralrouteshavebeenclosedandtheirpassengerserviceshavebeenreplacedbybuses

C. theruralrouteswerealloriginallyconstructedatleastonehundredyearsago,whereassomeoftheinterurbanrouteswereconstructedrecentlyfornewhigh-speedexpresstrains

D. notallofAppenia’slargecitiesareequallywellservedbyinterurban

railroadservices

E. thegreatestpassengervolume,relativetotheroutes’capacity,isnotoneithercategoryoflong-distanceroutesbutisonsuburbancommuterroutes

110. Therateatwhicharoadwearsdependsonvariousfactors,includingclimate,amountoftraffic,andthesizeandweightofthevehiclesusingit.TheonlylandtransportationtoRittland’sseaportisviaadividedhighway,onesidecarryingtraffictotheseaportandonecarryingtrafficawayfromit.Thesideleadingtotheseaporthaswornfaster,eventhougheachsidehascarriedvirtuallythesameamountoftraffic,consistingmainlyoflargetrucks.

Whichofthefollowing,iftrue,mosthelpstoexplainthedifferenceintherateofwear?

A. ThevolumeoftraffictoandfromRittland’sseaporthasincreasedbeyondtheintendedcapacityofthehighwaythatservesit.

B. WearonthehighwaythatservesRittland’sseaportisconsiderablygreaterduringthecoldwintermonths.

C. WearonthesideofthehighwaythatleadstoRittland’sseaporthasencouragedpeopletotakebusestotheseaportratherthandrivingthereintheirownautomobiles.

D. AgreatertonnageofgoodsisexportedfromRittland’sseaportthanisimportedthroughit.

E. AllofRittland’sautomobilesareimportedbyship.

111. Sincethemayor’spublicitycampaignforGreenville’sbusservicebegansixmonthsago,morningautomobiletrafficintothemidtownareaofthecityhasdecreased7percent.Duringthesameperiod,therehasbeenanequivalentriseinthenumberofpersonsridingbusesintothemidtownarea.Obviously,themayor’spublicitycampaignhasconvincedmanypeopletoleavetheircarsathomeandridethebustowork.

Whichofthefollowing,iftrue,caststhemostseriousdoubtontheconclusiondrawnabove?

A. FaresforallbusroutesinGreenvillehaverisenanaverageof5percentduringthepastsixmonths.

B. ThemayorofGreenvilleridesthebustoCityHallinthecity’smidtownarea.

C. Roadreconstructionhasgreatlyreducedthenumberoflanesavailabletocommutersinmajorstreetsleadingtothemidtownareaduringthepastsixmonths.

D. ThenumberofbusesenteringthemidtownareaofGreenvilleduringthemorninghoursisexactlythesamenowasitwasoneyearago.

E. SurveysshowthatlongtimebusridersarenomoresatisfiedwiththeGreenvillebusservicethantheywerebeforethemayor’spublicitycampaignbegan.

112. AlthoughAckerburg’ssubwaysystemiscurrentlyoperatingatadeficit,thetransitauthoritywilllowersubwayfaresnextyear.Theauthorityprojectsthatthelowerfareswillresultinatenpercentincreaseinthenumberofsubwayriders.Sincetheadditionalincomefromthelargerridershipwillmorethanoffsetthedecreaseduetolowerfares,thetransitauthorityactuallyexpectsthefarereductiontoreduceoreliminatethesubwaysystem’soperatingdeficitfornextyear.

Whichofthefollowing,iftrue,providesthemostsupportforthetransitauthority’sexpectationofreducingthesubwaysystem’soperatingdeficit?

A. Throughouttheyearsthatthesubwaysystemhasoperated,fareshaveneverbeforebeenreduced.

B. Theplannedfarereductionwillnotapplytostudents,whocanalreadyridethesubwayforareducedfare.

C. Nextyear,thetransitauthoritywillhavetoundertakeseverallarge-scaletrackmaintenanceprojects.

D. Thesubwaysystemcanaccommodateatenpercentincreaseinridershipwithoutincreasingthenumberoftrainsitrunseachday.

E. ThecurrentsubwayfaresinAckerburgarehigherthansubwayfaresinothercitiesintheregion.

113. Patrickusuallyprovideschildcareforsixchildren.ParentsleavetheirchildrenatPatrick’shouseinthemorningandpickthemupafterwork.Attheendofeachworkweek,theparentspayPatrickatanhourlyrateforthechildcareprovidedthatweek.TheweeklyincomePatrickreceivesisusuallyadequatebutnotalwaysuniform,particularlyinthewinter,whenchildrenarelikelytogetsickandbeunpredictablyabsent.

Whichofthefollowingplans,ifputintoeffect,hasthebestprospectof

makingPatrick’sweeklyincomebothuniformandadequate?

A. Poolresourceswithaneighborwhoprovideschildcareundersimilararrangements,sothatthetwoofthemcooperateincaringfortwiceasmanychildrenasPatrickcurrentlydoes.

B. ReplacepaymentbyactualhoursofchildcareprovidedwithafixedweeklyfeebaseduponthenumberofhoursofchildcarethatPatrickwouldtypicallybeexpectedtoprovide.

C. Hireafull-timehelperandinvestinfacilitiesforprovidingchildcaretosickchildren.

D. IncreasethehourlyratetoalevelthatwouldprovideadequateincomeeveninaweekwhenhalfofthechildrenPatrickusuallycaresforareabsent.

E. Increasethenumberofhoursmadeavailableforchildcareeachday,sothatparentscanleavetheirchildreninPatrick’scareforalongerperiodeachdayatthecurrenthourlyrate.

114. Acomputerequippedwithsignature-recognitionsoftware,whichrestrictsaccesstoacomputertothosepeoplewhosesignaturesareonfile,identifiesaperson’ssignaturebyanalyzingnotonlytheformofthesignaturebutalsosuchcharacteristicsaspenpressureandsigningspeed.Eventhemostadeptforgerscannotduplicateallofthecharacteristicstheprogramanalyzes.

Whichofthefollowingcanbelogicallyconcludedfromthepassageabove?

A. Thetimeittakestorecordandanalyzeasignaturemakesthesoftwareimpracticalforeverydayuse.

B. Computersequippedwiththesoftwarewillsoonbeinstalledinmostbanks.

C. Nobodycangainaccesstoacomputerequippedwiththesoftwaresolelybyvirtueofskillatforgingsignatures.

D. Signature-recognitionsoftwarehastakenmanyyearstodevelopandperfect.

E. Inmanycasesevenauthorizedusersaredeniedlegitimateaccesstocomputersequippedwiththesoftware.

115. Extinctionisaprocessthatcandependonavarietyofecological,geographical,andphysiologicalvariables.Thesevariablesaffectdifferent

speciesoforganismsindifferentways,andshould,therefore,yieldarandompatternofextinctions.However,thefossilrecordshowsthatextinctionoccursinasurprisinglydefinitepattern,withmanyspeciesvanishingatthesametime.

Whichofthefollowing,iftrue,formsthebestbasisforatleastapartialexplanationofthepatternedextinctionsrevealedbythefossilrecord?

A. Majorepisodesofextinctioncanresultfromwidespreadenvironmentaldisturbancesthataffectnumerousdifferentspecies.

B. Certainextinctionepisodesselectivelyaffectorganismswithparticularsetsofcharacteristicsuniquetotheirspecies.

C. Somespeciesbecomeextinctbecauseofaccumulatedgradualchangesintheirlocalenvironments.

D. Ingeologicallyrecenttimes,forwhichthereisnofossilrecord,humaninterventionhaschangedthepatternofextinctions.

E. Speciesthatarewidelydispersedaretheleastlikelytobecomeextinct.

116. InpartsofSouthAmerica,vitamin-Adeficiencyisaserioushealthproblem,especiallyamongchildren.Inoneregion,agriculturistsareattemptingtoimprovenutritionbyencouragingfarmerstoplantanewvarietyofsweetpotatocalledSPK004thatisrichinbeta-carotene,whichthebodyconvertsintovitaminA.Theplanhasgoodchancesofsuccess,sincesweetpotatoisastapleoftheregion’sdietandagriculture,andthevarietiescurrentlygrowncontainlittlebeta-carotene.

Whichofthefollowing,iftrue,moststronglysupportsthepredictionthattheplanwillsucceed?

A. ThegrowingconditionsrequiredbythevarietiesofsweetpotatocurrentlycultivatedintheregionareconditionsinwhichSPK004canflourish.

B. ThefleshofSPK004differsfromthatofthecurrentlycultivatedsweetpotatoesincolorandtexture,sotraditionalfoodswouldlooksomewhatdifferentwhenpreparedfromSPK004.

C. Therearenoothervarietiesofsweetpotatothataresignificantlyricherinbeta-carotenethanSPK004is.

D. ThevarietiesofsweetpotatocurrentlycultivatedintheregioncontainsomeimportantnutrientsthatarelackinginSPK004.

E. Thereareothervegetablescurrentlygrownintheregionthatcontainmorebeta-carotenethanthecurrentlycultivatedvarietiesofsweetpotatodo.

117. Manyleadershiptheorieshaveprovidedevidencethatleadersaffectgroupsuccessratherthanthesuccessofparticularindividuals.Soitisirrelevanttoanalyzetheeffectsofsupervisortraitsontheattitudesofindividualswhomtheysupervise.Instead,assessmentofleadershipeffectivenessshouldoccuronlyatthegrouplevel.

Whichofthefollowingwoulditbemostusefultoestablishinordertoevaluatetheargument?

A. Whethersupervisors’documentationofindividualsupervisees’attitudestowardthemisusuallyaccurate

B. Whetheritispossibletoassessindividualsupervisees’attitudestowardtheirsupervisorswithouttherebychangingthoseattitudes

C. Whetheranyoftheleadershiptheoriesinquestionholdthatleadersshouldassessotherleaders’attitudes

D. Whethersometypesofgroupsdonotneedsupervisioninordertobesuccessfulintheirendeavors

E. Whetherindividuals’attitudestowardsupervisorsaffectgroupsuccess

118. Whichofthefollowingmostlogicallycompletestheargument?

Thelastmembersofanow-extinctspeciesofaEuropeanwilddeercalledthegiantdeerlivedinIrelandabout16,000yearsago.PrehistoriccavepaintingsinFrancedepictthisanimalashavingalargehumponitsback.Fossilsofthisanimal,however,donotshowanyhump.Nevertheless,thereisnoreasontoconcludethatthecavepaintingsarethereforeinaccurateinthisregard,since__________.

A. someprehistoriccavepaintingsinFrancealsodepictotheranimalsashavingahump

B. fossilsofthegiantdeeraremuchmorecommoninIrelandthaninFrance

C. animalhumpsarecomposedoffattytissue,whichdoesnotfossilize

D. thecavepaintingsofthegiantdeerwerepaintedwellbefore16,000yearsago

E. onlyonecurrentlyexistingspeciesofdeerhasanyanatomicalfeaturethatevenremotelyresembles

119. Highlevelsoffertilizerandpesticides,neededwhenfarmerstrytoproducehighyieldsofthesamecropyearafteryear,pollutewatersupplies.Expertsthereforeurgefarmerstodiversifytheircropsandtorotatetheirplantingsyearly.

Toreceivegovernmentalprice-supportbenefitsforacrop,farmersmusthaveproducedthatsamecropforthepastseveralyears.

Thestatementsabove,iftrue,bestsupportwhichofthefollowingconclusions?

A. Therulesforgovernmentalsupportoffarmpricesworkagainsteffortstoreducewaterpollution.

B. Theonlysolutiontotheproblemofwaterpollutionfromfertilizersandpesticidesistotakefarmlandoutofproduction.

C. Farmerscancontinuetomakeaprofitbyrotatingdiversecrops,thusreducingcostsforchemicals,butnotbyplantingthesamecropeachyear.

D. Newfarmingtechniqueswillbedevelopedtomakeitpossibleforfarmerstoreducetheapplicationoffertilizersandpesticides.

E. Governmentalpricesupportsforfarmproductsaresetatlevelsthatarenothighenoughtoallowfarmerstogetoutofdebt.

120. TenyearsagothenumberoftaxpayersinGreenspaceCountywasslightlygreaterthanthenumberofregisteredvoters.Thenumberoftaxpayershasdoubledoverthelasttenyears,whilethenumberofregisteredvotershasincreased,butatalowerratethanhasthenumberoftaxpayers.

WhichofthefollowingmustbetrueinGreenspaceCountyifthestatementsabovearetrue?

A. Thenumberoftaxpayersisnowsmallerthanthenumberofregisteredvoters.

B. Everyonewhoisaregisteredvoterisalsoataxpayer.

C. Theproportionofregisteredvoterstotaxpayershasincreasedoverthelasttenyears.

D. Theproportionofregisteredvoterstotaxpayershasdecreasedoverthelasttenyears.

E. Theproportionofregisteredvoterstotaxpayershasremainedunchangedoverthelasttenyears.

121. Theinterviewisanessentialpartofasuccessfulhiringprogrambecause,withit,jobapplicantswhohavepersonalitiesthatareunsuitedtotherequirementsofthejobwillbeeliminatedfromconsideration.

Theargumentabovelogicallydependsonwhichofthefollowingassumptions?

A. Ahiringprogramwillbesuccessfulifitincludesinterviews.

B. Theinterviewisamoreimportantpartofasuccessfulhiringprogramthanisthedevelopmentofajobdescription.

C. Interviewerscanaccuratelyidentifyapplicantswhosepersonalitiesareunsuitedtotherequirements

ofthejob.

D. Theonlypurposeofaninterviewistoevaluatewhetherjobapplicants’personalitiesaresuitedtotherequirementsofthejob.

E. Thefitofjobapplicants’personalitiestotherequirementsofthejobwasoncethemostimportantfactorinmakinghiringdecisions.

122. AmajorhealthinsurancecompanyinLagoliapaysforspecialproceduresprescribedbyphysiciansonlyiftheprocedureisfirstapprovedas“medicallynecessary”byacompany-appointedreviewpanel.Theruleisintendedtosavethecompanythemoneyitmightotherwisespendonmedicallyunnecessaryprocedures.Thecompanyhasrecentlyannouncedthatinordertoreduceitscosts,itwillabandonthisrule.

Whichofthefollowing,iftrue,providesthestrongestjustificationforthecompany’sdecision?

A. Patientsoftenregisterdissatisfactionwithphysicianswhoprescribenothingfortheirailments.

B. Physiciansoftenprescribespecialproceduresthatarehelpfulbutnotaltogethernecessaryforthehealthofthepatient.

C. Thereviewprocessisexpensiveandpracticallyalwaysresultsinapprovaloftheprescribedprocedure.

D. Thecompany’sreviewprocessdoesnotinterferewiththe

prerogativeofphysicians,incaseswheremorethanoneeffectiveprocedureisavailable,toselecttheonetheypersonallyprefer.

E. Thenumberofmembersofthecompany-appointedreviewpanelwhoreviewagivenproceduredependsonthecostoftheprocedure.

123. Toevaluateaplantosavemoneyonoffice-spaceexpendituresbyhavingitsemployeesworkathome,XYZCompanyaskedvolunteersfromitsstafftotrythearrangementforsixmonths.Duringthisperiod,theproductivityoftheseemployeeswasashighasorhigherthanbefore.

Whichofthefollowing,iftrue,wouldarguemoststronglyagainstdeciding,onthebasisofthetrialresults,toimplementthecompany’splan?

A. Theemployeeswhoagreedtoparticipateinthetestoftheplanwereamongthecompany’smostself-motivatedandindependentworkers.

B. Thesavingsthatwouldaccruefromreducedoffice-spaceexpendituresalonewouldbesufficienttojustifythearrangementforthecompany,apartfromanyproductivityincreases.

C. Othercompaniesthathaveachievedsuccessfulresultsfromwork-at-homeplanshaveworkforcesthataresubstantiallylargerthanthatofXYZ.

D. Thevolunteerswhoworkedathomewereabletocommunicatewithotheremployeesasnecessaryforperformingthework.

E. MinorchangesinthewayofficeworkisorganizedatXYZwouldyieldincreasesinemployeeproductivitysimilartothoseachievedinthetrial.

124. Newsletter:Acondominiumgenerallyoffersmorevalueforitscostthananindividualhousebecauseofeconomiesofscale.Thehomeownersinacondominiumassociationcancollectivelybuyproductsandservicesthattheycouldnotaffordontheirown.Andsinceaprofessionalmanagementcompanyhandlesmaintenanceofcommonareas,condominiumownersspendlesstimeandmoneyonmaintenancethanindividualhomeownersdo.

Thetwoportionsinboldfaceplaywhichofthefollowingrolesinthenewsletter’sargument?

A. Thefirstistheargument’smainconclusion;thesecondisanotherconclusionsupportingthefirst.

B. Thefirstisapremise,forwhichnoevidenceisprovided;thesecondistheargument’sonlyconclusion.

C. Thefirstisaconclusionsupportingthesecond;thesecondistheargument’smainconclusion.

D. Thefirstistheargument’sonlyconclusion;thesecondisapremise,forwhichnoevidenceisprovided.

E. Botharepremises,forwhichnoevidenceisprovided,andbothsupporttheargument’sonlyconclusion.

125. Consumerhealthadvocate:Yourcandycompanyaddscaffeinetoyourchocolatecandybarssothateachonedeliversaspecifiedamountofcaffeine.Sincecaffeineishighlyaddictive,thisindicatesthatyouintendtokeepyourcustomersaddicted.

Candymanufacturer:Ourmanufacturingprocessresultsintherebeinglesscaffeineineachchocolatecandybarthanintheunprocessedcacaobeansfromwhichthechocolateismade.

Thecandymanufacturer’sresponseisflawedasarefutationoftheconsumerhealthadvocate’sargumentbecauseit

A. failstoaddresstheissueofwhetherthelevelofcaffeineinthecandybarssoldbythemanufacturerisenoughtokeeppeopleaddicted

B. assumeswithoutwarrantthatallunprocessedcacaobeanscontainauniformamountofcaffeine

C. doesnotspecifyexactlyhowcaffeineislostinthemanufacturingprocess

D. treatstheconsumerhealthadvocate’sargumentasthoughitwereabouteachcandybarratherthanaboutthemanufacturer’scandyingeneral

E. merelycontradictstheconsumerhealthadvocate’sconclusionwithoutgivinganyreasontobelievethattheadvocate’sreasoningisunsound

126. Nutritionistsareadvisingpeopletoeatmorefish,sincetheomega-3fattyacidsinfishhelpcombatmanydiseases.Ifeveryonetookthisadvice,however,therewouldnotbeenoughfishinoceans,rivers,andlakestosupplythedemand;theoceansarealreadybeingoverfished.Theobviousmethodtoeasethepressureonwildfishpopulationsisfor

peopletoincreasetheirconsumptionoffarmedfish.

Whichofthefollowing,iftrue,raisesthemostseriousdoubtconcerningtheprospectsforsuccessofthesolutionproposedabove?

A. Aquaculture,orfishfarming,raisesmorefishinagivenvolumeofwaterthanaregenerallypresentinthewild.

B. Somefishfarming,particularlyofshrimpandothershellfish,takesplaceinenclosuresintheocean.

C. Therearelargeexpansesofoceanwatersthatdonotcontainenoughnutrientstosupportsubstantialfishpopulations.

D. Thefeedforfarmedoceanfishislargelymadefromsmallwild-caughtfish,includingtheyoungofmanypopularfoodspecies.

E. Someofthespeciesthatarenowfarmedextensivelywerenotcommonlyeatenwhentheywereonlyavailableinthewild.

127. Cropscanbetradedonthefuturesmarketbeforetheyareharvested.Ifapoorcornharvestispredicted,pricesofcornfuturesrise;ifabountifulcornharvestispredicted,pricesofcornfuturesfall.Thismorningmeteorologistsarepredictingmuch-neededrainforthecorn-growingregionstartingtomorrow.Therefore,sinceadequatemoistureisessentialforthecurrentcrop’ssurvival,pricesofcornfutureswillfallsharplytoday.

Whichofthefollowing,iftrue,mostweakenstheargumentabove?

A. Cornthatdoesnotreceiveadequatemoistureduringitscriticalpollinationstagewillnotproduceabountifulharvest.

B. Futurespricesforcornhavebeenfluctuatingmoredramaticallythisseasonthanlastseason.

C. Therainthatmeteorologistspredictedfortomorrowisexpectedtoextendwellbeyondthecorn-growingregion.

D. Agricultureexpertsannouncedtodaythatadiseasethathasdevastatedsomeofthecorncropwillspreadwidelybeforetheendofthegrowingseason.

E. Mostpeoplewhotradeincornfuturesrarelytakephysicalpossessionofthecorntheytrade.

128. Largenationalbudgetdeficitsdonotcauselargetradedeficits.Iftheydid,countrieswiththelargestbudgetdeficitswouldalsohavethelargest

tradedeficits.Infact,whendeficitfiguresareadjustedsothatdifferentcountriesarereliablycomparabletoeachother,thereisnosuchcorrelation.

Ifthestatementsabovearealltrue,whichofthefollowingcanproperlybeinferredonthebasisofthem?

A. Countrieswithlargenationalbudgetdeficitstendtorestrictforeigntrade.

B. Reliablecomparisonsofthedeficitfiguresofonecountrywiththoseofanotherareimpossible.

C. Reducingacountry’snationalbudgetdeficitwillnotnecessarilyresultinaloweringofanytradedeficitthatcountrymayhave.

D. Whencountriesareorderedfromlargesttosmallestintermsofpopulation,thesmallestcountriesgenerallyhavethesmallestbudgetandtradedeficits.

E. Countrieswiththelargesttradedeficitsneverhavesimilarlylargenationalbudgetdeficits.

129. Whichofthefollowingbestcompletesthepassagebelow?

Themoreworriedinvestorsareaboutlosingtheirmoney,themoretheywilldemandahighpotentialreturnontheirinvestment;greatrisksmustbeoffsetbythechanceofgreatrewards.Thisprincipleisthefundamentaloneindetermininginterestrates,anditisillustratedbythefactthat

A. successfulinvestorsaredistinguishedbyanabilitytomakeveryriskyinvestmentswithoutworryingabouttheirmoney

B. lendersreceivehigherinterestratesonunsecuredloansthanonloansbackedbycollateral

C. intimesofhighinflation,theinterestpaidtodepositorsbybankscanactuallybebelowtherateofinflation

D. atanyonetime,acommercialbankwillhaveasinglerateofinterestthatitwillexpectallofitsindividualborrowerstopay

E. thepotentialreturnoninvestmentinanewcompanyistypicallylowerthanthepotentialreturnoninvestmentinawell-establishedcompany

130. Itisoftensaidthathighratesofinflationtendtodiminishpeople’s

incentivetosaveandinvest.Thisviewmustbeincorrect,however,becausepeoplegenerallysavedandinvestedmoreoftheirincomeinthe1970’swheninflationrateswerehighthantheydidinthe1980’swheninflationrateswerelow.

Ofthefollowing,thebestcriticismoftheargumentaboveisthatitoverlooksthepossibilitythat

A. allpeopledonotrespondinthesamewaytoagiveneconomicstimulus

B. certainfactorsoperatinginthe1980’sbutnotinthe1970’sdiminishedpeople’sincentivetosaveandinvest

C. thepopulationwaslargerinthe1980’sthanitwasinthe1970’s

D. theproponentsoftheviewcitedwouldstandtogainifinflationratesbecomelower

E. afactorthataffectspeople’ssavingsbehaviorinacertainwaycouldaffectpeople’sinvestmentbehaviorquitedifferently

131. Aproposedordinancerequirestheinstallationinnewhomesofsprinklersautomaticallytriggeredbythepresenceofafire.However,ahomebuilderarguedthatbecausemorethan90percentofresidentialfiresareextinguishedbyahouseholdmember,residentialsprinklerswouldonlymarginallydecreasepropertydamagecausedbyresidentialfires.

Whichofthefollowing,iftrue,wouldmostseriouslyweakenthehomebuilder’sargument?

A. Mostindividualshavenoformaltraininginhowtoextinguishfires.

B. Sincenewhomesareonlyatinypercentageofavailablehousinginthecity,thenewordinancewouldbeextremelynarrowinscope.

C. Theinstallationofsmokedetectorsinnewresidencescostssignificantlylessthantheinstallationofsprinklers.

D. Inthecitywheretheordinancewasproposed,theaveragetimerequiredbythefiredepartmenttorespondtoafirewaslessthanthenationalaverage.

E. Thelargestproportionofpropertydamagethatresultsfromresidentialfiresiscausedbyfiresthatstartwhennohouseholdmemberispresent.

132. Whichofthefollowingmostlogicallycompletestheargumentbelow?

Withintheearth’score,whichisiron,pressureincreaseswithdepth.Becausethetemperatureatwhichironmeltsincreaseswithpressure,theinnercoreissolidandtheoutercoreismolten.Physicistscandeterminethemeltingtemperatureofironatanygivenpressureandthepressureforanygivendepthintheearth.Therefore,theactualtemperatureattheboundaryoftheearth’souterandinnercores—themeltingtemperatureofironthere—canbedetermined,since__________.

A. thedepthbeneaththeearth’ssurfaceoftheboundarybetweentheouterandinnercoresisknown

B. someoftheheatfromtheearth’scoreflowstothesurfaceoftheearth

C. pressureswithintheearth’soutercorearemuchgreaterthanpressuresabovetheoutercore

D. nowhereintheearth’scorecanthetemperaturebemeasureddirectly

E. thetemperatureswithintheearth’sinnercorearehigherthanintheoutercore

WhenofficialsinTannersburgreleasedtheirplantowidenthecity’smainroads,environmentalistsprotestedthatwidenedroadswouldattractmoretrafficandleadtoincreasedairpollution.Inresponse,cityofficialspointedoutthattoday’spollution-controldevicesareattheirmosteffectiveinvehiclestravelingathigherspeedsandthatwideningroadswouldincreasetheaveragespeedoftraffic.However,thiseffectcanhardlybeexpectedtooffsettheeffectpointedoutbyenvironmentalists,since__________.

A. increasesintrafficvolumegenerallyproducedecreasesintheaveragespeedoftrafficunlessroadsarewidened

B. severaloftheroadsthatareslatedforwideningwillhavetobeclosedtemporarilywhileconstructionisunderway

C. mostoftheairpollutiongeneratedbyurbantrafficcomesfromvehiclesthatdonothavefunctioningpollution-controldevices

D. thenewlywidenedroadswillnothaveincreasedtrafficvolumeif

theroadsthatmustbeusedtoreachthemareinadequate

E. avehicletravelingonaroutethatgoesthroughTannersburgwillspendlesstimeonTannersburg’sroadsoncetheroadsarewidened

134. Whichofthefollowingmostlogicallycompletesthereasoning?

Eitherfoodscarcityorexcessivehuntingcanthreatenapopulationofanimals.Ifthegroupfacesfoodscarcity,individualsinthegroupwillreachreproductivematuritylaterthanotherwise.Ifthegroupfacesexcessivehunting,individualsthatreachreproductivematurityearlierwillcometopredominate.Therefore,itshouldbepossibletodeterminewhetherprehistoricmastodonsbecameextinctbecauseoffoodscarcityorhumanhunting,sincetherearefossilizedmastodonremainsfrombothbeforeandaftermastodonpopulationsdeclined,and__________.

A. therearemorefossilizedmastodonremainsfromtheperiodbeforemastodonpopulationsbegantodeclinethanfromafterthatperiod

B. theaverageageatwhichmastodonsfromagivenperiodreachedreproductivematuritycanbeestablishedfromtheirfossilizedremains

C. itcanbeaccuratelyestimatedfromfossilizedremainswhenmastodonsbecameextinct

D. itisnotknownwhenhumansfirstbeganhuntingmastodons

E. climatechangesmayhavegraduallyreducedthefoodavailabletomastodons

135. Unlikethewholesalepriceofrawwool,thewholesalepriceofrawcottonhasfallenconsiderablyinthelastyear.Thus,althoughtheretailpriceofcottonclothingatretailclothingstoreshasnotyetfallen,itwillinevitablyfall.

Whichofthefollowing,iftrue,mostseriouslyweakenstheargumentabove?

A. Thecostofprocessingrawcottonforclothhasincreasedduringthelastyear.

B. Thewholesalepriceofrawwoolistypicallyhigherthanthatofthesamevolumeofrawcotton.

C. Theoperatingcostsoftheaverageretailclothingstorehaveremainedconstantduringthelastyear.

D. Changesinretailpricesalwayslagbehindchangesinwholesaleprices.

E. Thecostofharvestingrawcottonhasincreasedinthelastyear.

136. Manyofficebuildingsdesignedtopreventoutsideairfromenteringhavebeenshowntohaveelevatedlevelsofvarioustoxicsubstancescirculatingthroughtheairinside,aphenomenonknownassickbuildingsyndrome.Yettheairinotherofficebuildingsdoesnothaveelevatedlevelsofthesesubstances,eventhoughthosebuildingsarethesameageasthe“sick”buildingsandhavesimilardesignsandventilationsystems.

Whichofthefollowing,iftrue,mosthelpstoexplainwhynotallofficebuildingsdesignedtopreventoutsideairfromenteringhaveairthatcontainselevatedlevelsoftoxicsubstances?

A. Certainadhesivesanddryingagentsusedinparticulartypesoffurniture,carpets,andpaintcontributethebulkofthetoxicsubstancesthatcirculateintheairofofficebuildings.

B. Mostofficebuildingswithsickbuildingsyndromewerebuiltbetween1950and1990.

C. Amongbuildingsdesignedtopreventoutsideairfromentering,housesarenolesslikelythanofficebuildingstohaveairthatcontainselevatedlevelsoftoxicsubstances.

D. Thetoxicsubstancesthatarefoundintheairof“sick”officebuildingsaresubstancesthatarefoundinatleastsmallquantitiesinnearlyeverybuilding.

E. Officebuildingswithwindowsthatcanreadilybeopenedareunlikelytosufferfromsickbuildingsyndrome.

137. Adiscountretailerofbasichouseholdnecessitiesemploysthousandsofpeopleandpaysmostofthemattheminimumwagerate.Yetfollowingafederallymandatedincreaseoftheminimumwageratethatincreasedtheretailer’soperatingcostsconsiderably,theretailer’sprofitsincreasedmarkedly.

Whichofthefollowing,iftrue,mosthelpstoresolvetheapparentparadox?

A. Overhalfoftheretailer’soperatingcostsconsistofpayrollexpenditures;yetonlyasmallpercentageofthoseexpendituresgotopaymanagementsalaries.

B. Theretailer’scustomerbaseismadeupprimarilyofpeoplewhoearn,orwhodependontheearningsofotherswhoearn,theminimumwage.

C. Theretailer’soperatingcosts,otherthanwages,increasedsubstantiallyaftertheincreaseintheminimumwageratewentintoeffect.

D. Whentheincreaseintheminimumwageratewentintoeffect,theretaileralsoraisedthewagerateforemployeeswhohadbeenearningjustaboveminimumwage.

E. Themajorityoftheretailer’semployeesworkascashiers,andmostcashiersarepaidtheminimumwage.

138. Prematurebabieswhoreceiveregularmassagesaremoreactivethanprematurebabieswhodonot.Evenwhenallthebabiesdrinkthesameamountofmilk,themassagedbabiesgainmoreweightthandotheunmassagedbabies.Thisispuzzlingbecauseamoreactivepersongenerallyrequiresagreaterfoodintaketomaintainorgainweight.

Whichofthefollowing,iftrue,bestreconcilestheapparentdiscrepancydescribedabove?

A. Increasedactivityleadstoincreasedlevelsofhunger,especiallywhenfoodintakeisnotalsoincreased.

B. Massageincreasesprematurebabies’curiosityabouttheirenvironment,andcuriosityleadstoincreasedactivity.

C. Increasedactivitycausestheintestinesofprematurebabiestomaturemorequickly,enablingthebabiestodigestandabsorbmoreofthenutrientsinthemilktheydrink.

D. Massagedoesnotincreasethegrowthrateofbabiesoveroneyearold,ifthebabieshadnotbeenpreviouslymassaged.

E. Prematurebabiesrequireadailyintakeofnutrientsthatissignificantlyhigherthanthatrequiredbybabieswhowerenotbornprematurely.

139. Conventionalwisdomsuggestsvaccinatingelderlypeoplefirstinfluseason,becausetheyareatgreatestriskofdyingiftheycontractthevirus.Thisyear’sfluvirusposesparticularrisktoelderlypeopleandalmostnoneatalltoyoungerpeople,particularlychildren.Nevertheless,healthprofessionalsarerecommendingvaccinatingchildrenfirstagainstthevirusratherthanelderlypeople.

Whichofthefollowing,iftrue,providesthestrongestreasonforthehealthprofessionals’recommendation?

A. Childrenarevulnerabletodangerousinfectionswhentheirimmunesystemsareseverelyweakenedbyotherdiseases.

B. Childrenareparticularlyunconcernedwithhygieneandthereforearethegroupmostresponsibleforspreadingthefluvirustoothers.

C. Thevaccinationsreceivedlastyearwillconfernoimmunitytothisyear’sfluvirus.

D. Childrenwhocatchonestrainofthefluvirusandthenrecoverarelikelytodevelopimmunitytoatleastsomestrainswithwhichtheyhavenotyetcomeincontact.

E. Childrenarenomorelikelythanadultstohaveimmunitytoaparticularfluvirusiftheyhaveneverlivedthroughapreviousepidemicofthesamevirus.

140. Aneyeglassmanufacturertriedtoboostsalesforthesummerquarterbyofferingitsdistributorsaspecialdiscountiftheirordersforthatquarterexceededthoseforlastyear’ssummerquarterbyatleast20percent.Manydistributorsqualifiedforthisdiscount.Evenwithmuchmerchandisediscounted,salesincreasedenoughtoproduceahealthygaininnetprofits.Themanufacturerplanstorepeatthissuccessbyofferingthesamesortofdiscountforthefallquarter.

Whichofthefollowing,iftrue,mostclearlypointstoaflawinthemanufacturer’splantorepeatthesuccessfulperformanceofthesummerquarter?

A. Ingeneral,adistributor’sordersforthesummerquarterarenohigherthanthoseforthespringquarter.

B. Alongwithofferingspecialdiscountstoqualifyingdistributors,themanufacturerincreasednewspaperandradioadvertisinginthosedistributors’salesareas.

C. Thedistributorsmostlikelytoqualifyforthemanufacturer’sspecialdiscountarethosewhoseorderswereunusuallylowayearearlier.

D. Thedistributorswhoqualifiedforthemanufacturer’sspecialdiscountwerefreetodecidehowmuchofthatdiscounttopassontotheirowncustomers.

E. Thedistributors’orderingmoregoodsinthesummerquarterleft

themoverstockedforthefallquarter.

141. Vitacorp,amanufacturer,wishestomakeitsinformationboothatanindustryconventionmoreproductiveintermsofboostingsales.Theboothoffersinformationintroducingthecompany’snewproductsandservices.Toachievethedesiredresult,Vitacorp’smarketingdepartmentwillattempttoattractmorepeopletothebooth.Themarketingdirector’sfirstmeasurewastoinstructeachsalespersontocallhisorherfivebestcustomersandpersonallyinvitethemtovisitthebooth.

Whichofthefollowing,iftrue,moststronglysupportsthepredictionthatthemarketingdirector’sfirstmeasurewillcontributetomeetingthegoalofboostingsales?

A. Vitacorp’ssalespeopleroutinelyinformeachimportantcustomeraboutnewproductsandservicesassoonasthedecisiontolaunchthemhasbeenmade.

B. ManyofVitacorp’scompetitorshavemadeplansformakingtheirowninformationboothsmoreproductiveinincreasingsales.

C. Aninformationbooththatiswellattendedtendstoattractvisitorswhowouldnototherwisehaveattendedthebooth.

D. MostofVitacorp’sbestcustomersalsohavebusinessdealingswithVitacorp’scompetitors.

E. Vitacorphasfewernewproductsandservicesavailablethisyearthanithadinpreviousyears.

142. Budgetconstraintshavemadepoliceofficialsconsiderreassigningaconsiderablenumberofofficersfromtrafficenforcementtoworkonhigher-priority,seriouscrimes.Reducingtrafficenforcementforthisreasonwouldbecounterproductive,however,inlightofthetendencyofcriminalstousecarswhenengagedinthecommissionofseriouscrimes.Anofficerstoppingacarforatrafficviolationcanmakeasearchthatturnsupevidenceofseriouscrime.

Whichofthefollowing,iftrue,moststrengthenstheargumentgiven?

A. Anofficerwhostopsacarcontainingevidenceofthecommissionofaseriouscrimerisksaviolentconfrontation,evenifthevehiclewasstoppedonlyforatrafficviolation.

B. Whenthepublicbecomesawarethattrafficenforcementhaslessened,ittypicallybecomeslaxinobeyingtrafficrules.

C. Thosewillingtobreakthelawtocommitseriouscrimesareoftenincommittingsuchcrimesunwillingtoobservewhattheyregardasthelesserconstraintsoftrafficlaw.

D. Theoffenderscommittingseriouscrimeswhowouldbecaughtbecauseoftrafficviolationsarenotthesamegroupofindividualsasthosewhowouldbecaughtifthearrestingofficerswerereassignedfromtrafficenforcement.

E. Thegreatmajorityofpersonswhoarestoppedbyofficersfortrafficviolationsarenotguiltyofanyseriouscrimes.

143. Pro-TectInsuranceCompanyhasrecentlybeenpayingoutmoreoncar-theftclaimsthanitexpected.Carswithspecialantitheftdevicesoralarmsystemsaremuchlesslikelytobestolenthanareothercars.ConsequentlyPro-Tect,aspartofanefforttoreduceitsannualpayouts,willofferadiscounttoholdersofcar-theftpoliciesiftheircarshaveantitheftdevicesoralarmsystems.

Whichofthefollowing,iftrue,providesthestrongestindicationthattheplanislikelytoachieveitsgoal?

A. Thedecreaseintheriskofcartheftconferredbyhavingacaralarmisgreatestwhenonlyafewcarshavesuchalarms.

B. ThenumberofpolicyholderswhohavefiledaclaiminthepastyearishigherforPro-Tectthanforotherinsurancecompanies.

C. Inoneortwoyears,thediscountthatPro-Tectisofferingwillamounttomorethanthecostofbuyingcertainhighlyeffectiveantitheftdevices.

D. Currently,Pro-Tectcannotlegallyraisethepremiumsitchargesforagivenamountofinsuranceagainstcartheft.

E. TheamountPro-Tecthasbeenpayingoutoncar-theftclaimshasbeengreaterforsomemodelsofcarthanforothers.

144. Start-upcompaniesfinancedbyventurecapitalistshaveamuchlowerfailureratethancompaniesfinancedbyothermeans.Sourceoffinancing,therefore,mustbeamoreimportantcausativefactorinthesuccessofastart-upcompanythanaresuchfactorsasthepersonalcharacteristicsoftheentrepreneur,thequalityofstrategicplanning,orthemanagementstructureofthecompany.

A. Venturecapitaliststendtobemoreresponsivethanothersourcesoffinancingtochangesinastart-upcompany’sfinancialneeds.

B. Thestrategicplanningofastart-upcompanyisalessimportantfactorinthelong-termsuccessofthecompanythanarethepersonalcharacteristicsoftheentrepreneur.

C. Morethanhalfofallnewcompaniesfailwithinfiveyears.

D. Themanagementstructuresofstart-upcompaniesaregenerallylessformalthanthemanagementstructuresofongoingbusinesses.

E. Venturecapitalistsbasetheirdecisionstofundstart-upcompaniesonsuchfactorsasthecharacteristicsoftheentrepreneurandqualityofstrategicplanningofthecompany.

145. ArtrestorerswhohavebeenstudyingthefactorsthatcauseRenaissanceoilpaintingstodeterioratephysicallywhensubjecttoclimaticchangeshavefoundthattheoilpaintusedinthesepaintingsactuallyadjuststothesechangeswell.Therestorersthereforehypothesizethatitisalayerofmaterialcalledgesso,whichisunderthepaint,thatcausesthedeterioration.

Whichofthefollowing,iftrue,moststronglysupportstherestorers’hypothesis?

A. Renaissanceoilpaintingswithathinlayerofgessoarelesslikelytoshowdeteriorationinresponsetoclimaticchangesthanthosewithathickerlayer.

B. Renaissanceoilpaintingsareoftenpaintedonwoodenpanels,whichswellwhenhumidityincreasesandcontractwhenitdeclines.

C. Oilpaintexpandsandcontractsreadilyinresponsetochangesintemperature,butitabsorbslittlewaterandsoislittleaffectedbychangesinhumidity.

D. AnespeciallyhardandnonabsorbenttypeofgessowastherawmaterialformoldingsontheframesofRenaissanceoilpaintings.

E. GessolayersappliedbyRenaissancepainterstypicallyconsistedofacoarsebaselayerontowhichseveralincreasinglyfine-grainedlayerswereapplied.

Leafbeetlesdamagewillowtreesbystrippingawaytheirleaves,butacombinationofparasitesandpredatorsgenerallykeepspopulationsof

thesebeetlesincheck.Researchershavefoundthatsevereairpollutionresultsinreducedpredatorpopulations.Theparasites,bycontrast,arenotadverselyaffectedbypollution;nevertheless,theresearchers’discoveryprobablydoesexplainwhyleafbeetlescauseparticularlyseveredamagetowillowsinareaswithsevereairpollution,since__________.

A. neitherthepredatorsnortheparasitesofleafbeetlesthemselvesattackwillowtrees

B. theparasitesthatattackleafbeetlesactuallytendtobemoreprevalentinareaswithsevereairpollutionthantheyareelsewhere

C. thedamagecausedbyleafbeetlesisusuallynotenoughtokillawillowtreeoutright

D. whereairpollutionisnotespeciallysevere,predatorshavemuchmoreimpactonleaf-beetlepopulationsthanparasitesdo

E. willowsoftengrowinareaswhereairpollutionisespeciallysevere

147. AutomobileDealer’sAdvertisement:TheHighwayTrafficSafetyInstitutereportsthatthePZ1000hasthefewestinjuriesperaccidentofanycarinitsclass.ThisshowsthatthePZ1000isoneofthesafestcarsavailabletoday.

Whichofthefollowing,iftrue,mostseriouslyweakenstheargumentintheadvertisement?

A. TheHighwayTrafficSafetyInstitutereportlistedmanycarsinotherclassesthathadmoreinjuriesperaccidentthandidthePZ1000.

B. InrecentyearsmanymorePZ1000shavebeensoldthanhaveanyotherkindofcarinitsclass.

C. CarsintheclasstowhichthePZ1000belongsaremorelikelytobeinvolvedinaccidentsthanareothertypesofcars.

D. ThedifferencebetweenthenumberofinjuriesperaccidentforthePZ1000andthatforothercarsinitsclassisquitepronounced.

E. TheHighwayTrafficSafetyInstituteissuesreportsonlyonceayear.

Itisgenerallybelievedthatpeoplereceivingfrequentmedicalcheckupsarelikelytoneedhospitalizationlessfrequentlythantheywouldotherwise;afterall,manythingscanbedonefollowingacheckupto

preventproblemsthat,ifignored,mightbecomeacuteandthenrequirehospitalization.Butforpeoplewithchronicillnesses,frequentmedicalcheckupsarelikelytoleadtomorefrequenthospitalizationsince__________.

A. therecommendedtreatmentsforcomplicationsofmanychronicillnessesinvolvehospitalizationevenifthosecomplicationsaredetectedwhilebarelynoticeable

B. medicalcheckupssometimesdonotrevealearlysymptomsofthosechronicillnessesthatarebesttreatedinahospital

C. theaveragelengthofahospitalstayisthesameforthosewhoreceivefrequentcheckupsasforthosewhodonot

D. peoplewithchronicillnessesgenerallyreceivemedicalcheckupsmorefrequentlythanpeoplewhoarenotchronicallyill

E. theaveragelengthofahospitalstayforpeoplewithachronicillnesstendstoincreaseastheillnessprogresses

149. TwodecadesaftertheEmeraldRiverDamwasbuilt,noneoftheeightfishspeciesnativetotheEmeraldRiverwasstillreproducingadequatelyintheriverbelowthedam.Sincethedamreducedtheannualrangeofwatertemperatureintheriverbelowthedamfrom50degreesto6degrees,scientistshavehypothesizedthatsharplyrisingwatertemperaturesmustbeinvolvedinsignalingthenativespeciestobeginthereproductivecycle.

Whichofthefollowingstatements,iftrue,wouldmoststrengthenthescientists’hypothesis?

A. Thenativefishspecieswerestillabletoreproduceonlyinsidestreamsoftheriverbelowthedamwheretheannualtemperaturerangeremainsapproximately50degrees.

B. Beforethedamwasbuilt,theEmeraldRiverannuallyoverfloweditsbanks,creatingbackwatersthatwerecriticalbreedingareasforthenativespeciesoffish.

C. ThelowestrecordedtemperatureoftheEmeraldRiverbeforethedamwasbuiltwas34degrees,whereasthelowestrecordedtemperatureoftheriverafterthedamwasbuilthasbeen43degrees.

D. Nonnativespeciesoffish,introducedintotheEmeraldRiverafterthedamwasbuilt,havebeguncompetingwiththedecliningnative

fishspeciesforfoodandspace.

E. FiveofthefishspeciesnativetotheEmeraldRiverarenotnativetoanyotherriverinNorthAmerica.

150. Meatfromchickenscontaminatedwithsalmonellabacteriacancauseseriousfoodpoisoning.Capsaicin,thechemicalthatgiveschilipepperstheirhotflavor,hasantibacterialproperties.Chickensdonothavetastereceptorsforcapsaicinandwillreadilyeatfeedlacedwithcapsaicin.Whenchickenswerefedsuchfeedandthenexposedtosalmonellabacteria,relativelyfewofthembecamecontaminatedwithsalmonella.

Indecidingwhetherthefeedwouldbeusefulinraisingsalmonella-freechickenforretailsale,itwouldbemosthelpfultodeterminewhichofthefollowing?

A. Whetherfeedingcapsaicintochickensaffectsthetasteoftheirmeat

B. Whethereatingcapsaicinreducestheriskofsalmonellapoisoningforhumans

C. Whetherchickenismorepronetosalmonellacontaminationthanotherkindsofmeat

D. Whetherappropriatecookingofchickencontaminatedwithsalmonellacanalwayspreventfoodpoisoning

E. Whethercapsaicincanbeobtainedonlyfromchilipeppers

151. Lawsrequiringtheuseofheadlightsduringdaylighthourscanpreventautomobilecollisions.However,sincedaylightvisibilityisworseincountriesfartherfromtheequator,anysuchlawswouldobviouslybemoreeffectiveinpreventingcollisionsinthosecountries.Infact,theonlycountriesthatactuallyhavesuchlawsarefartherfromtheequatorthanisthecontinentalUnitedStates.

Whichofthefollowingconclusionscouldbemostproperlydrawnfromtheinformationgivenabove?

A. DriversinthecontinentalUnitedStateswhousedtheirheadlightsduringthedaywouldbejustaslikelytobecomeinvolvedinacollisionaswoulddriverswhodidnotusetheirheadlights.

B. InmanycountriesthatarefartherfromtheequatorthanisthecontinentalUnitedStates,poordaylightvisibilityisthesinglemostimportantfactorinautomobilecollisions.

C. Theproportionofautomobilecollisionsthatoccurinthedaytimeis

greaterinthecontinentalUnitedStatesthaninthecountriesthathavedaytimeheadlightlaws.

D. FewerautomobilecollisionsprobablyoccureachyearincountriesthathavedaytimeheadlightlawsthanoccurwithinthecontinentalUnitedStates.

E. DaytimeheadlightlawswouldprobablydolesstopreventautomobilecollisionsinthecontinentalUnitedStatesthantheydointhecountriesthathavethelaws.

152. Inthepastmostairlinecompaniesminimizedaircraftweighttominimizefuelcosts.Thesafestairlineseatswereheavy,andairlinesequippedtheirplaneswithfewoftheseseats.Thisyeartheseatthathassoldbesttoairlineshasbeenthesafestone—aclearindicationthatairlinesareassigningahigherprioritytosafeseatingthantominimizingfuelcosts.

A. Lastyear’sbest-sellingairlineseatwasnotthesafestairlineseatonthemarket.

B. Noairlinecompanyhasannouncedthatitwouldbemakingsafeseatingahigherprioritythisyear.

C. Thepriceoffuelwashigherthisyearthanithadbeeninmostoftheyearswhenthesafestairlineseatssoldpoorly.

D. Becauseofincreasesinthecostofmaterials,allairlineseatsweremoreexpensivetomanufacturethisyearthaninanypreviousyear.

E. Becauseoftechnologicalinnovations,thesafestairlineseatonthemarketthisyearweighedlessthanmostotherairlineseatsonthemarket.

153. Insettingenvironmentalstandardsforindustryandotherstomeet,itisinadvisabletorequirethebestresultsthatstate-of-the-arttechnologycanachieve.Currenttechnologyisabletodetectandeliminateevenextremelyminuteamountsofcontaminants,butatacostthatisexorbitantrelativetotheimprovementachieved.Soitwouldbereasonableinsteadtosetstandardsbytakingintoaccountallofthecurrentandfuturerisksinvolved.

Theargumentgivenconcerningthereasonablewaytosetstandardspresupposesthat

A. industrycurrentlymeetsthestandardsthathavebeensetbyenvironmentalauthorities

B. thereareeffectivewaystotakeintoaccountalloftherelevantrisksposedbyallowingdifferentlevelsofcontaminants

C. theonlycontaminantsworthmeasuringaregeneratedbyindustry

D. itisnotcostlytopreventlargeamountsofcontaminantsfromenteringtheenvironment

E. minuteamountsofsomecontaminantscanbepoisonous

Whenmercury-vaporstreetlightsareusedinareasinhabitedbyinsect-eatingbats,thebatsfeedalmostexclusivelyaroundthelights,becausethelightsattractflyinginsects.InGreenville,themercury-vaporstreetlightsareabouttobereplacedwithenergy-savingsodiumstreetlights,whichdonotattractinsects.Thischangeislikelytoresultinadropinthepopulationofinsect-eatingbatsinGreenville,since__________.

A. thebatsdonotbegintohuntuntilaftersundown

B. thebatsareunlikelytofeedoninsectsthatdonotfly

C. thehighwaydepartmentwillbeabletoreplacemercury-vaporstreetlightswithsodiumstreetlightswithinarelativelyshorttimeandwithoutdisruptingthecontinuityoflightingatthelocationsofthestreetlights

D. intheabsenceoflocalconcentrationsoftheflyinginsectsonwhichbatsfeed,thebatsexpendmuchmoreenergyonhuntingforfood,requiringmuchlargerquantitiesofinsectstosustaineachbat

E. batsuseecholocationtocatchinsectsandthereforegainnoadvantagefromthefactthatinsectsflyinginthevicinityofstreetlightsarevisibleatnight

155. Ratsinjectedwithmorphineexhibitdecreasedactivityoftheimmunesystem,thebodilysystemthatfightsoffinfections.Thesesameratsexhibitedheightenedbloodlevelsofcorticosteroids,chemicalssecretedbytheadrenalglands.Sincecorticosteroidscaninterferewithimmune-systemactivity,scientistshypothesizedthatthewaymorphinereducesimmuneresponsesinratsisbystimulatingtheadrenalglandstosecreteadditionalcorticosteroidsintothebloodstream.

Whichofthefollowingexperimentswouldyieldthemostusefulresultsforevaluatingthescientists’hypothesis?

A. Injectingmorphineintoratsthatalreadyhaveheightenedbloodlevelsofcorticosteroidsandthenobservingtheirnewbloodlevelsofcorticosteroids

B. Testingthelevelofimmune-systemactivityofrats,removingtheiradrenalglands,andthentestingtherats’immune-systemactivitylevelsagain

C. Injectingratswithcorticosteroidsandthenobservinghowmanyoftheratscontractedinfections

D. Removingtheadrenalglandsofrats,injectingtheratswithmorphine,andthentestingtheleveloftherats’immune-systemresponses

E. Injectingratswithadrugthatstimulatesimmune-systemactivityandthenobservingthelevelofcorticosteroidsintheirbloodstreams

156. Curator:IfourmuseumlendsVenustotheHartInstitutefortheirshowthisspring,theywilllendustheirRembrandtetchingsforourprintexhibitionnextfall.Havingthoseetchingswillincreaseattendancetotheexhibitionandhenceincreaserevenuefromourgeneraladmissionfee.

MuseumAdministrator:ButVenusisourbiggestattraction.MoreovertheHart’sshowwillrunfortwiceaslongasourexhibition.Soonbalancethenumberofpatronsmaydecrease.

Thepointoftheadministrator’sresponsetothecuratoristoquestion

A. whethergettingtheRembrandtetchingsfromtheHartInstituteislikelytoincreaseattendanceattheprintexhibition

B. whethertheHartInstitute’sRembrandtetchingswillbeappreciatedbythosepatronsofthecurator’smuseumforwhomthemuseum’sbiggestattractionisVenus

C. whetherthenumberofpatronsattractedbytheHartInstitute’sRembrandtetchingswillbelargerthanthenumberofpatronswhodonotcomeinthespringbecauseVenusisonloan

D. whether,ifVenusislent,themuseum’srevenuefromgeneraladmissionfeesduringtheprintexhibitionwillexceeditsrevenuefromgeneraladmissionfeesduringtheHartInstitute’sexhibition

E. whethertheHartInstituteorthecurator’smuseumwillhavethegreaterfinancialgainfromtheproposedexchangeofartworks

AtarecentconferenceonenvironmentalthreatstotheNorthSea,mostparticipatingcountriesfavoreduniformcontrolsonthequalityofeffluents,whetherornotspecificenvironmentaldamagecouldbeattributedtoaparticularsourceofeffluent.Whatmust,ofcourse,beshown,inordertoavoidexcessivelyrestrictivecontrols,isthat__________.

A. anyuniformcontrolsthatareadoptedarelikelytobeimplementedwithoutdelay

B. anysubstancetobemadesubjecttocontrolscanactuallycauseenvironmentaldamage

C. thecountriesfavoringuniformcontrolsarethosegeneratingthelargestquantitiesofeffluents

D. allofanygivenpollutantthatistobecontrolledactuallyreachestheNorthSeaatpresent

E. environmentaldamagealreadyinflictedontheNorthSeaisreversible

158. MostscholarsagreethatKingAlfred(A.D.849–899)personallytranslatedanumberofLatintextsintoOldEnglish.OnehistoriancontendsthatAlfredalsopersonallypennedhisownlawcode,arguingthatthenumerousdifferencesbetweenthelanguageofthelawcodeandAlfred’stranslationsofLatintextsareoutweighedbytheevenmorenumeroussimilarities.Linguisticsimilarities,however,arewhatoneexpectsintextsfromthesamelanguage,thesametime,andthesameregion.ApartfromAlfred’ssurvivingtranslationsandlawcode,thereareonlytwootherextantworksfromthesamedialectandmilieu,soitisriskytoassumeherethatlinguisticsimilaritiespointtocommonauthorship.

Thepassageaboveproceedsby

A. providingexamplesthatunderscoreanotherargument’sconclusion

B. questioningtheplausibilityofanassumptiononwhichanotherargumentdepends

C. showingthataprincipleifgenerallyappliedwouldhaveanomalous

consequences

D. showingthatthepremisesofanotherargumentaremutuallyinconsistent

E. usingargumentbyanalogytoundermineaprincipleimplicitinanotherargument

159. OnMayfirst,inordertoreducethenumberofoverduebooks,achildren’slibraryinstitutedapolicyofforgivingfinesandgivingbookmarkstochildrenreturningalloftheiroverduebooks.OnJulyfirstthereweretwiceasmanyoverduebooksastherehadbeenonMayfirst,althougharecordnumberofbookshadbeenreturnedduringtheinterim.

Whichofthefollowing,iftrue,mosthelpstoexplaintheapparentinconsistencyintheresultsofthelibrary’spolicy?

A. Thelibrariansdidnotkeepaccuraterecordsofhowmanychildrentookadvantageofthegraceperiod,andsomeofthechildrenreturningoverduebooksdidnotreturnalloftheiroverduebooks.

B. Althoughthegraceperiodenticedsomechildrentoreturnalloftheiroverduebooks,itdidnotconvinceallofthechildrenwithoverduebookstoreturnalloftheirbooks.

C. Thebookmarksbecamepopularamongthechildren,soinordertocollectthebookmarks,manychildrenborrowedmanymorebooksthantheyusuallydidandkeptthempasttheirduedate.

D. Thechildrenwereallowedtoborrowamaximumoffivebooksforatwo-weekperiod,andhenceeachchildcouldkeepamaximumoffifteenbooksbeyondtheirduedatewithinatwo-monthperiod.

E. Althoughthelibraryforgaveoverduefinesduringthegraceperiod,theamountpreviouslychargedthechildrenwasminimal;hence,theforgivenessofthefinesdidnotprovideenoughincentiveforthemtoreturntheiroverduebooks.

160. Oftenpatientswithanklefracturesthatarestable,andthusdonotrequiresurgery,aregivenfollow-upx-raysbecausetheirorthopedistsareconcernedaboutpossiblyhavingmisjudgedthestabilityofthefracture.Whenanumberoffollow-upx-rayswerereviewed,however,allthefracturesthathadinitiallybeenjudgedstablewerefoundtohavehealedcorrectly.Therefore,itisawasteofmoneytoorderfollow-upx-raysofanklefracturesinitiallyjudgedstable.

Whichofthefollowing,iftrue,moststrengthenstheargument?

A. Doctorswhoaregeneralpractitionersratherthanorthopedistsarelesslikelythanorthopediststojudgethestabilityofananklefracturecorrectly.

B. Manyankleinjuriesforwhichaninitialx-rayisorderedarerevealedbythex-raynottoinvolveanyfractureoftheankle.

C. X-raysofpatientsofmanydifferentorthopedistsworkinginseveralhospitalswerereviewed.

D. Thehealingofanklefracturesthathavebeensurgicallyrepairedisalwayscheckedbymeansofafollow-upx-ray.

E. Orthopedistsroutinelyorderfollow-upx-raysforfracturesofbonesotherthananklebones.

161. Traditionally,decisionmakingbymanagersthatisreasonedstep-by-stephasbeenconsideredpreferabletointuitivedecisionmaking.However,arecentstudyfoundthattopmanagersusedintuitionsignificantlymorethandidmostmiddle-orlower-levelmanagers.Thisconfirmsthealternativeviewthatintuitionisactuallymoreeffectivethancareful,methodicalreasoning.

Theconclusionaboveisbasedonwhichofthefollowingassumptions?

A. Methodical,step-by-stepreasoningisinappropriateformakingmanyreal-lifemanagementdecisions.

B. Topmanagershavetheabilitytouseeitherintuitivereasoningormethodical,step-by-stepreasoninginmakingdecisions.

C. Thedecisionsmadebymiddle-andlower-levelmanagerscanbemadeaseasilybyusingmethodicalreasoningasbyusingintuitivereasoning.

D. Topmanagersuseintuitivereasoninginmakingthemajorityoftheirdecisions.

E. Topmanagersaremoreeffectiveatdecisionmakingthanmiddle-orlower-levelmanagers.

162. Acompanyplanstodevelopaprototypeweedingmachinethatusescuttingbladeswithopticalsensorsandmicroprocessorsthatdistinguishweedsfromcropplantsbydifferencesinshadeofcolor.Theinventorofthemachineclaimsthatitwillreducelaborcostsbyvirtuallyeliminatingtheneedformanualweeding.

Whichofthefollowingisaconsiderationinfavorofthecompany’simplementingitsplantodeveloptheprototype?

A. Thereisaconsiderabledegreeofvariationinshadeofcolorbetweenweedsofdifferentspecies.

B. Theshadeofcolorofsomeplantstendstochangeappreciablyoverthecourseoftheirgrowingseason.

C. Whencropsareweededmanually,overallsizeandleafshapearetakenintoaccountindistinguishingcropplantsfromweeds.

D. Selectionandgeneticmanipulationallowplantsofvirtuallyanyspeciestobeeconomicallybredtohaveadistinctiveshadeofcolorwithoutalteringtheirothercharacteristics.

E. Farmlaborerswhoareresponsibleforthemanualweedingofcropscarryoutotheragriculturaldutiesattimesinthegrowingseasonwhenextensiveweedingisnotnecessary.

163. Acertainmayorhasproposedafeeoffivedollarsperdayonprivatevehiclesenteringthecity,claimingthatthefeewillalleviatethecity’strafficcongestion.Themayorreasonsthat,sincethefeewillexceedthecostofround-tripbusfarefrommanynearbypoints,manypeoplewillswitchfromusingtheircarstousingthebus.

Whichofthefollowingstatements,iftrue,providesthebestevidencethatthemayor’sreasoningisflawed?

A. Projectedincreasesinthepriceofgasolinewillincreasethecostoftakingaprivatevehicleintothecity.

B. Thecostofparkingfeesalreadymakesitconsiderablymoreexpensiveformostpeopletotakeaprivatevehicleintothecitythantotakeabus.

C. Mostofthepeoplecurrentlyridingthebusdonotownprivatevehicles.

D. Manycommutersopposingthemayor’splanhaveindicatedthattheywouldratherenduretrafficcongestionthanpayafive-dollar-per-dayfee.

E. Duringtheaverageworkday,privatevehiclesownedandoperatedbypeoplelivingwithinthecityaccountfor20percentofthecity’strafficcongestion.

164. ArocaCitycurrentlyfundsitspublicschoolsthroughtaxesonproperty.

Inplaceofthissystem,thecityplanstointroduceasalestaxofthreepercentonallretailsalesinthecity.Criticsprotestthat3percentofcurrentretailsalesfallsshortoftheamountraisedforschoolsbypropertytaxes.Thecriticsarecorrectonthispoint.Nevertheless,implementingtheplanwillprobablynotreducethemoneygoingtoAroca’sschools.SeverallargeretailershaveselectedArocaCityasthesiteforhugenewstores,andthesearecertaintodrawlargenumbersofshoppersfromneighboringmunicipalities,wheresalesaretaxedatratesofsixpercentandmore.Inconsequence,retailsalesinArocaCityareboundtoincreasesubstantially.

Intheargumentgiven,thetwoportionsinboldfaceplaywhichofthefollowingroles?

A. Thefirstpresentsaplanthattheargumentconcludesisunlikelytoachieveitsgoal;thesecondexpressesthatconclusion.

B. Thefirstpresentsaplanthattheargumentconcludesisunlikelytoachieveitsgoal;thesecondpresentsevidenceinsupportofthatconclusion.

C. Thefirstpresentsaplanthattheargumentcontendsisthebestavailable;thesecondisaconclusiondrawnbytheargumenttojustifythatcontention.

D. Thefirstpresentsaplanoneofwhoseconsequencesisatissueintheargument;thesecondistheargument’sconclusionaboutthatconsequence.

E. Thefirstpresentsaplanthattheargumentseekstodefendagainstacertaincriticism;thesecondisthatcriticism.

165. Tanco,aleathermanufacturer,useslargequantitiesofcommonsalttopreserveanimalhides.Newenvironmentalregulationshavesignificantlyincreasedthecostofdisposingofsaltwaterthatresultsfromthisuse,and,inconsequence,Tancoisconsideringaplantousepotassiumchlorideinplaceofcommonsalt.ResearchhasshownthatTancocouldreprocesstheby-productofpotassiumchlorideusetoyieldacropfertilizer,leavingarelativelysmallvolumeofwastefordisposal.

Indeterminingtheimpactoncompanyprofitsofusingpotassiumchlorideinplaceofcommonsalt,itwouldbeimportantforTancotoresearchallofthefollowingEXCEPT:

A. Whatdifference,ifany,istherebetweenthecostofthecommonsaltneededtopreserveagivenquantityofanimalhidesandthecost

ofthepotassiumchlorideneededtopreservethesamequantityofhides?

B. Towhatextentistheequipmentinvolvedinpreservinganimalhidesusingcommonsaltsuitableforpreservinganimalhidesusingpotassiumchloride?

C. Whatenvironmentalregulations,ifany,constrainthedisposalofthewastegeneratedinreprocessingtheby-productofpotassiumchloride?

D. Howcloselydoesleatherthatresultswhencommonsaltisusedtopreservehidesresemblethatwhichresultswhenpotassiumchlorideisused?

E. Arethechemicalpropertiesthatmakepotassiumchlorideaneffectivemeansforpreservinganimalhidesthesameasthosethatmakecommonsaltaneffectivemeansfordoingso?

166. TheSumptontowncouncilrecentlyvotedtopayaprominentartisttocreateanabstractsculptureforthetownsquare.Criticsofthisdecisionprotestedthattownresidentstendtodislikemostabstractart,andanyartinthetownsquareshouldreflecttheirtastes.Butatowncouncilspokespersondismissedthiscriticism,pointingoutthatotherpublicabstractsculpturesthatthesamesculptorhasinstalledinothercitieshavebeenextremelypopularwiththosecities’localresidents.

Thestatementsabovemoststronglysuggestthatthemainpointofdisagreementbetweenthecriticsandthespokespersoniswhether

A. itwouldhavebeenreasonabletoconsulttownresidentsonthedecision

B. mostSumptonresidentswillfindthenewsculpturetotheirtaste

C. abstractsculpturesbythesamesculptorhavetrulybeenpopularinothercities

D. amoretraditionalsculptureinthetownsquarewouldbepopularamonglocalresidents

E. publicartthattheresidentsofSumptonwouldfinddesirablewouldprobablybefounddesirablebytheresidentsofothercities

167. Colorlessdiamondscancommandhighpricesasgemstones.Atypeoflessvaluablediamondscanbetreatedtoremoveallcolor.Onlysophisticatedtestscandistinguishsuchtreateddiamondsfromnaturally

colorlessones.However,only2percentofdiamondsminedareofthecoloredtypethatcanbesuccessfullytreated,andmanyofthoseareofinsufficientqualitytomakethetreatmentworthwhile.Surely,therefore,thevastmajorityofcolorlessdiamondssoldbyjewelersarenaturallycolorless.

Aseriousflawinthereasoningoftheargumentisthat

A. comparisonsbetweenthepricediamondscommandasgemstonesandtheirvalueforotherusesareomitted

B. informationabouttherarityoftreateddiamondsisnotcombinedwithinformationabouttherarityofnaturallycolorless,gemstonediamonds

C. thepossibilitythatcoloreddiamondsmightbeusedasgemstones,evenwithouthavingbeentreated,isignored

D. thecurrentlyavailablemethodformakingcolorlessdiamondsfromcoloredonesistreatedasthoughitweretheonlypossiblemethodfordoingso

E. thedifficultythatacustomerofajewelerwouldhaveindistinguishinganaturallycolorlessdiamondfromatreatedoneisnottakenintoaccount

168. Borealowlsrangeoveramuchlargerareathandootherowlsofsimilarsize.Thereasonforthisbehaviorisprobablythatthesmallmammalsonwhichowlsfeedareespeciallyscarceintheforestswhereborealowlslive,andtherelativescarcityofpreyrequirestheowlstorangemoreextensivelytofindsufficientfood.

Whichofthefollowing,iftrue,mosthelpstoconfirmtheexplanationabove?

A. Someborealowlsrangeoveranareaeighttimeslargerthantheareaoverwhichanyotherowlofsimilarsizeranges.

B. Borealowlsrangeoverlargerareasinregionswherefoodofthesorteatenbysmallmammalsissparsethantheydoinregionswheresuchfoodisabundant.

C. Aftertheiryounghatch,borealowlsmusthuntmoreoftenthanbeforeinordertofeedboththemselvesandtheirnewlyhatchedyoung.

D. Sometimesindividualborealowlshuntnearasinglelocationfor

manyweeksatatimeanddonotrangefartherthanafewhundredyards.

E. Theborealowlrequireslessfood,relativetoitsweight,thanisrequiredbymembersofotherowlspecies.

169. Historian:Newtondevelopedmathematicalconceptsandtechniquesthatarefundamentaltomoderncalculus.Leibnizdevelopedcloselyanalogousconceptsandtechniques.Ithastraditionallybeenthoughtthatthesediscoverieswereindependent.Researchershave,however,recentlydiscoverednotesofLeibniz’sthatdiscussoneofNewton’sbooksonmathematics.SeveralscholarshavearguedthatsincethebookincludesapresentationofNewton’scalculusconceptsandtechniques,andsincethenoteswerewrittenbeforeLeibniz’sowndevelopmentofcalculusconceptsandtechniques,itisvirtuallycertainthatthetraditionalviewisfalse.Amorecautiousconclusionthanthisiscalledfor,however.Leibniz’snotesarelimitedtoearlysectionsofNewton’sbook,sectionsthatprecedetheonesinwhichNewton’scalculusconceptsandtechniquesarepresented.

Inthehistorian’sreasoning,thetwoportionsinboldfaceplaywhichofthefollowingroles?

A. Thefirstisaclaimthatthehistorianrejects;thesecondisapositionthatthatclaimhasbeenusedtosupport.

B. Thefirstisevidencethathasbeenusedtosupportaconclusionaboutwhichthehistorianexpressesreservations;thesecondisthatconclusion.

C. Thefirstprovidesevidenceinsupportofapositionthatthehistoriandefends;thesecondisthatposition.

D. Thefirstandthesecondeachprovideevidenceinsupportofapositionthatthehistoriandefends.

E. Thefirsthasbeenusedinsupportofapositionthatthehistorianrejects;thesecondisaconclusionthatthehistoriandrawsfromthatposition.

170. Amilepostonthetowpathread“21”onthesidefacingthehikerassheapproacheditand“23”onitsback.Shereasonedthatthenextmilepostforwardonthepathwouldindicatethatshewashalfwaybetweenoneendofthepathandtheother.However,themilepostonemilefurtheronread“20”facingherand“24”behind.

Whichofthefollowing,iftrue,wouldexplainthediscrepancydescribedabove?

A. Thenumbersonthenextmileposthadbeenreversed.

B. Thenumbersonthemilepostsindicatekilometers,notmiles.

C. Thefacingnumbersindicatemilestotheendofthepath,notmilesfromthebeginning.

D. Amilepostwasmissingbetweenthetwothehikerencountered.

E. Themilepostshadoriginallybeenputinplacefortheuseofmountainbikers,notforhikers.

171. Forovertwocenturies,noonehadbeenabletomakeDamascusblades—bladeswithadistinctiveserpentinesurfacepattern—butacontemporaryswordmakermayjusthaverediscoveredhow.UsingironwithtraceimpuritiesthatpreciselymatchedthosepresentintheironusedinhistoricDamascusblades,thiscontemporaryswordmakerseemstohavefinallyhitonanintricateprocessbywhichhecanproduceabladeindistinguishablefromatrueDamascusblade.

Whichofthefollowing,iftrue,providesthestrongestsupportforthehypothesisthattraceimpuritiesintheironareessentialfortheproductionofDamascusblades?

A. TherearesurfacefeaturesofeveryDamascusblade—includingthebladesproducedbythecontemporaryswordmaker—thatareuniquetothatblade.

B. TheironwithwhichthecontemporaryswordmakermadeDamascusbladescamefromasourceofironthatwasunknowntwocenturiesago.

C. Almostallthetoolsusedbythecontemporaryswordmakerwereupdatedversionsoftoolsthatwereusedbyswordmakersovertwocenturiesago.

D. ProductionofDamascusbladesbyswordmakersofthepastceasedabruptlyafterthoseswordmakers’originalsourceofironbecameexhausted.

E. AlthoughDamascusbladeswererenownedformaintainingasharpedge,theblademadebythecontemporaryswordmakersuggeststhattheymayhavemaintainedtheiredgelesswellthanbladesmadeusingwhatisnowthestandardprocessformakingblades.

172. Microbiologist:AlethalstrainofsalmonellarecentlyshowedupinaEuropeancountry,causinganoutbreakofillnessthatkilledtwopeopleandinfectedtwenty-sevenothers.Investigatorsblametheseverityoftheoutbreakontheoveruseofantibiotics,sincethesalmonellabacteriatestedwereshowntobedrug-resistant.Butthisisunlikelybecausepatientsinthecountrywheretheoutbreakoccurredcannotobtainantibioticstotreatillnesswithoutaprescription,andthecountry’sdoctorsprescribeantibioticslessreadilythandodoctorsinanyotherEuropeancountry.

Whichofthefollowing,iftrue,wouldmostweakenthemicrobiologist’sreasoning?

A. Physiciansinthecountrywheretheoutbreakoccurredhavebecomehesitanttoprescribeantibioticssincetheyarefrequentlyinshortsupply.

B. Peopleinthecountrywheretheoutbreakoccurredoftenconsumefoodsproducedfromanimalsthateatantibiotics-ladenlivestockfeed.

C. Useofantibioticsintwocountriesthatneighborthecountrywheretheoutbreakoccurredhasrisenoverthepastdecade.

D. Drug-resistantstrainsofsalmonellahavenotbeenfoundincountriesinwhichantibioticsarenotgenerallyavailable.

E. Salmonellahasbeenshowntospreadeasilyalongthedistributionchainsofcertainvegetables,suchasrawtomatoes.

173. Imagesfromground-basedtelescopesareinvariablydistortedbytheEarth’satmosphere.Orbitingspacetelescopes,however,operatingaboveEarth’satmosphere,shouldprovidesuperblydetailedimages.Therefore,ground-basedtelescopeswillsoonbecomeobsoleteforadvancedastronomicalresearchpurposes.

Whichofthefollowingstatements,iftrue,wouldcastthemostdoubtontheconclusiondrawnabove?

A. Anorbitingspacetelescopeduetobelaunchedthisyearisfarbehindscheduleandoverbudget,whereasthelargestground-basedtelescopewasbothwithinbudgetandonschedule.

B. Ground-basedtelescopeslocatedonmountainsummitsarenotsubjecttothekindsofatmosphericdistortionwhich,atlowaltitudes,makestarsappeartotwinkle.

C. Bycarefulchoiceofobservatorylocation,itispossibleforlarge-aperturetelescopestoavoidmostofthekindofwindturbulencethatcandistortimagequality.

D. Whenlarge-aperturetelescopesarelocatedathighaltitudesneartheequator,theypermitthebestEarth-basedobservationsofthecenteroftheMilkyWayGalaxy,aprimetargetofastronomicalresearch.

E. Detailedspectralanalyses,uponwhichastronomersrelyfordeterminingthechemicalcompositionandevolutionaryhistoryofstars,requiretelescopeswithmorelight-gatheringcapacitythanspacetelescopescanprovide.

174. Generallyscientistsentertheirfieldwiththegoalofdoingimportantnewresearchandacceptastheircolleaguesthosewithsimilarmotivation.Therefore,whenanyscientistwinsrenownasanexpounderofsciencetogeneralaudiences,mostotherscientistsconcludethatthispopularizershouldnolongerberegardedasatruecolleague.

Theexplanationofferedaboveforthelowesteeminwhichscientificpopularizersareheldbyresearchscientistsassumesthat

A. seriousscientificresearchisnotasolitaryactivity,butreliesonactivecooperationamongagroupofcolleagues

B. researchscientiststendnottoregardascolleaguesthosescientistswhoserenowntheyenvy

C. ascientistcanbecomeafamouspopularizerwithouthavingcompletedanyimportantresearch

D. researchscientistsbelievethatthosewhoarewellknownaspopularizersofsciencearenotmotivatedtodoimportantnewresearch

E. noimportantnewresearchcanbeaccessibletooraccuratelyassessedbythosewhoarenotthemselvesscientists

Utraniawasformerlyamajorpetroleumexporter,butinrecentdecadeseconomicstagnationandrestrictiveregulationsinhibitedinvestmentinnewoilfields.Inconsequence,Utranianoilexportsdroppedsteadilyasoldfieldsbecamedepleted.Utrania’scurrentlyimprovingeconomicsituation,togetherwithless-restrictiveregulations,willundoubtedlyresultintherapiddevelopmentofnewfields.However,itwouldbe

prematuretoconcludethattherapiddevelopmentofnewfieldswillresultinhigheroilexports,because__________.

A. thepriceofoilisexpectedtoremainrelativelystableoverthenextseveralyears

B. theimprovementintheeconomicsituationinUtraniaisexpectedtoresultinadramaticincreaseintheproportionofUtranianswhoownautomobiles

C. mostoftheinvestmentinnewoilfieldsinUtraniaisexpectedtocomefromforeignsources

D. newtechnologyisavailabletorecoveroilfromoldoilfieldsformerlyregardedasdepleted

E. manyofthenewoilfieldsinUtraniaarelikelytobeasproductiveasthosethatweredevelopedduringtheperiodwhenUtraniawasamajoroilexporter

176. Whichofthefollowing,iftrue,mostlogicallycompletestheargument?

SomedairyfarmersintheprovinceofTakandiawanttogivetheircowsasynthetichormonethatincreasesmilkproduction.ManyTakandians,however,donotwanttobuymilkfromcowsgiventhesynthetichormone.ForthisreasonTakandia’slegislatureisconsideringameasurerequiringmilkfromcowsgiventhehormonetobelabeledassuch.Evenifthemeasureisdefeated,dairyfarmerswhousethehormonewillprobablylosecustomers,since__________.

A. ithasnotbeenproventhatanytraceofthesynthetichormoneexistsinthemilkofcowsgiventhehormone

B. somefarmersinTakandiawhoplantousethesynthetichormonewillprobablynotdosoifthemeasurewerepassed

C. milkfromcowsthathavenotbeengiventhesynthetichormonecanbelabeledassuchwithoutanylegislativeaction

D. thelegislature’sconsiderationofthebillhasbeenwidelypublicized

E. milkthatcomesfromcowsgiventhesynthetichormonelooksandtastesthesameasmilkfromcowsthathavenotreceivedthehormone

177. Inordertoreducedependenceonimportedoil,thegovernmentofJalicahasimposedminimumfuel-efficiencyrequirementsonallnewcars,beginningthisyear.Themorefuel-efficientacar,thelesspollutionit

producespermiledriven.AsJalicansreplacetheiroldcarswithcarsthatmeetthenewrequirements,annualpollutionfromcartrafficislikelytodecreaseinJalica.

Whichofthefollowing,iftrue,mostseriouslyweakenstheargument?

A. InJalica,domesticallyproducedoilismoreexpensivethanimportedoil.

B. TheJalicangovernmentdidnotintendthenewfuel-efficiencyrequirementtobeapollution-reductionmeasure.

C. Somepollution-controldevicesmandatedinJalicamakecarslessfuel-efficientthantheywouldbewithoutthosedevices.

D. ThenewregulationrequiresnochangeinthechemicalformulationoffuelforcarsinJalica.

E. Jalicanswhogetcarsthataremorefuel-efficienttendtodomoredrivingthanbefore.

178. Plantingsofcottonbioengineeredtoproduceitsowninsecticideagainstbollworms,amajorcauseofcropfailure,sustainedlittlebollwormdamageuntilthisyear.Thisyeartheplantingsarebeingseriouslydamagedbybollworms.Bollworms,however,arenotnecessarilydevelopingresistancetothecotton’sinsecticide.Bollwormsbreedoncorn,andlastyearmorecornthanusualwasplantedthroughoutcotton-growingregions.Soitislikelythatthecottonissimplybeingoverwhelmedbycorn-bredbollworms.

Inevaluatingtheargument,whichofthefollowingwoulditbemostusefultoestablish?

A. Whethercorncouldbebioengineeredtoproducetheinsecticide

B. Whetherplantingsofcottonthatdoesnotproducetheinsecticidearesufferingunusuallyextensivedamagefrombollwormsthisyear

C. Whetherothercropsthathavebeenbioengineeredtoproducetheirowninsecticidesuccessfullyresistthepestsagainstwhichtheinsecticidewastoprotectthem

D. Whetherplantingsofbioengineeredcottonarefrequentlydamagedbyinsectpestsotherthanbollworms

E. Whetherthereareinsecticidesthatcanbeusedagainstbollwormsthathavedevelopedresistancetotheinsecticideproducedbythebioengineeredcotton

179. Manufacturerssometimesdiscountthepriceofaproducttoretailersforapromotionperiodwhentheproductisadvertisedtoconsumers.Suchpromotionsoftenresultinadramaticincreaseinamountofproductsoldbythemanufacturerstoretailers.Nevertheless,themanufacturerscouldoftenmakemoreprofitbynotholdingthepromotions.

Whichofthefollowing,iftrue,moststronglysupportstheclaimaboveaboutthemanufacturers’profit?

A. Theamountofdiscountgenerallyofferedbymanufacturerstoretailersiscarefullycalculatedtorepresenttheminimumneededtodrawconsumers’attentiontotheproduct.

B. Formanyconsumerproductstheperiodofadvertisingdiscountedpricestoconsumersisaboutaweek,notsufficientlylongforconsumerstobecomeusedtothesaleprice.

C. Forproductsthatarenotnewlyintroduced,thepurposeofsuchpromotionsistokeeptheproductsinthemindsofconsumersandtoattractconsumerswhoarecurrentlyusingcompetingproducts.

D. Duringsuchapromotionretailerstendtoaccumulateintheirwarehousesinventoryboughtatdiscount;theythensellmuchofitlaterattheirregularprice.

E. Ifamanufacturerfailstooffersuchpromotionsbutitscompetitoroffersthem,thatcompetitorwilltendtoattractconsumersawayfromthemanufacturer’sproduct.

180. Inanexperiment,volunteerswalkedindividuallythroughadark,abandonedtheater.Halfofthevolunteershadbeentoldthatthetheaterwashauntedandtheotherhalfthatitwasunderrenovation.Thefirsthalfreportedsignificantlymoreunusualexperiencesthantheseconddid.Theresearchersconcludedthatreportsofencounterswithghostsandothersupernaturalentitiesgenerallyresultfrompriorexpectationsofsuchexperiences.

Whichofthefollowing,iftrue,wouldmostseriouslyweakentheresearchers’reasoning?

A. Noneofthevolunteersinthesecondhalfbelievedthattheunusualexperiencestheyreportedweresupernatural.

B. Allofthevolunteersinthefirsthalfbelievedthattheresearchers’statementthatthetheaterwashauntedwasalie.

C. Beforebeingtoldaboutthetheater,thevolunteerswithineach

groupvariedconsiderablyintheirpriorbeliefsaboutsupernaturalexperiences.

D. Eachunusualexperiencereportedbythevolunteershadacausethatdidnotinvolvethesupernatural.

E. Theresearchersdidnotbelievethatthetheaterwashaunted.

181. ManygardenersbelievethatthevarietyofclematisvinethatismostpopularamonggardenersinNorthAmericaisjackmanii.Thisbeliefisapparentlycorrectsince,oftheonemillionclematisplantssoldperyearbythelargestclematisnurseryinNorthAmerica,tenpercentarejackmanii.

Whichofthefollowingisanassumptiononwhichtheargumentdepends?

A. Thenurserysellsmorethantendifferentvarietiesofclematis.

B. ThelargestclematisnurseryinNorthAmericasellsnothingbutclematisplants.

C. SomeofthejackmaniisoldbythenurseryaresoldtogardenersoutsideNorthAmerica.

D. MostNorthAmericangardenersgrowclematisintheirgardens.

E. ForallnurseriesinNorthAmericathatspecializeinclematis,atleasttenpercentoftheclematisplantstheysellarejackmanii.

182. Since1990thepercentageofbacterialsinusinfectionsinAqadestanthatareresistanttotheantibioticperxicillinhasincreasedsubstantially.Bacteriacanquicklydevelopresistancetoanantibioticwhenitisprescribedindiscriminatelyorwhenpatientsfailtotakeitasprescribed.Sinceperxicillinhasnotbeenindiscriminatelyprescribed,healthofficialshypothesizethattheincreaseinperxicillin-resistantsinusinfectionsislargelyduetopatients’failuretotakethismedicationasprescribed.

Whichofthefollowing,iftrueofAqadestan,providesmostsupportforthehealthofficials’hypothesis?

A. Resistancetoseveralothercommonlyprescribedantibioticshasnotincreasedsince1990inAqadestan.

B. AlargenumberofAqadestanisneverseekmedicalhelpwhentheyhaveasinusinfection.

C. Whenitfirstbecameavailable,perxicillinwasmuchmoreeffectiveintreatingbacterialsinusinfectionsthananyotherantibioticusedforsuchinfectionsatthetime.

D. Manypatientswhotakeperxicillinexperienceseveresideeffectswithinthefirstfewdaysoftheirprescribedregimen.

E. Aqadestanihealthclinicsprovideantibioticstotheirpatientsatcost.

183. Aproductthatrepresentsacleartechnologicaladvanceovercompetingproductscangenerallycommandahighprice.Becausetechnologicaladvancestendtobequicklysurpassedandcompanieswanttomakelargeprofitswhiletheystillcan,manycompanieschargethemaximumpossiblepriceforsuchaproduct.Butlargeprofitsonthenewproductwillgivecompetitorsastrongincentivetoquicklymatchthenewproduct’scapabilities.Consequently,thestrategytomaximizeoverallprofitfromanewproductistochargelessthanthegreatestpossibleprice.

Intheargumentabove,thetwoportionsinboldfaceplaywhichofthefollowingroles?

A. Thefirstisaconsiderationraisedtoarguethatacertainstrategyiscounterproductive;thesecondpresentsthatstrategy.

B. Thefirstisaconsiderationraisedtosupportthestrategythattheargumentrecommends;thesecondpresentsthatstrategy.

C. Thefirstisaconsiderationraisedtohelpexplainthepopularityofacertainstrategy;thesecondpresentsthatstrategy.

D. Thefirstisanassumption,rejectedbytheargument,thathasbeenusedtojustifyacourseofaction;thesecondpresentsthatcourseofaction.

E. Thefirstisaconsiderationthathasbeenusedtojustifyadoptingacertainstrategy;thesecondpresentstheintendedoutcomeofthatstrategy.

184. Gortlandhaslongbeennarrowlyself-sufficientinbothgrainandmeat.However,aspercapitaincomeinGortlandhasrisentowardtheworldaverage,percapitaconsumptionofmeathasalsorisentowardtheworldaverage,andittakesseveralpoundsofgraintoproduceonepoundofmeat.Therefore,sincepercapitaincomecontinuestorise,whereasdomesticgrainproductionwillnotincrease,Gortlandwillsoonhavetoimporteithergrainormeatorboth.

A. ThetotalacreagedevotedtograinproductioninGortlandwillnotdecreasesubstantially.

B. ThepopulationofGortlandhasremainedrelativelyconstantduringthecountry’syearsofgrowingprosperity.

C. ThepercapitaconsumptionofmeatinGortlandisroughlythesameacrossallincomelevels.

D. InGortland,neithermeatnorgrainissubjecttogovernmentpricecontrols.

E. PeopleinGortlandwhoincreasetheirconsumptionofmeatwillnotradicallydecreasetheirconsumptionofgrain.

ThefiguresinportraitsbytheSpanishpainterElGreco(1541–1614)aresystematicallyelongated.InElGreco’stime,theintentionaldistortionofhumanfigureswasunprecedentedinEuropeanpainting.Consequently,somecriticshavesuggestedthatElGrecohadanastigmatism,atypeofvisualimpairment,thatresultedinpeopleappearingtohiminthedistortedwaythatischaracteristicofhispaintings.However,thissuggestioncannotbetheexplanation,because__________.

A. severaltwentieth-centuryartistshaveconsciouslyadoptedfromElGreco’spaintingsthesystematicelongationofthehumanform

B. somepeopledohaveelongatedbodiessomewhatlikethosedepictedinElGreco’sportraits

C. ifElGrecohadanastigmatism,then,relativetohowpeoplelookedtohim,theelongatedfiguresinhispaintingswouldhaveappearedtohimtobedistorted

D. evenifElGrecohadanastigmatism,therewouldhavebeennocorrectionforitavailableintheperiodinwhichhelived

E. therewerenon-Europeanartists,eveninElGreco’stime,whoincludedintheirworkshumanfiguresthatwereintentionallydistorted

186. PoliticalAdvertisement:

MayorDelmont’scriticscomplainaboutthejobsthatwerelostinthe

cityunderDelmont’sleadership.Yetthefactisthatnotonlyweremorejobscreatedthanwereeliminated,buteachyearsinceDelmonttookofficetheaveragepayforthenewjobscreatedhasbeenhigherthanthatyear’saveragepayforjobscitywide.SoitstandstoreasonthatthroughoutDelmont’stenuretheaveragepaycheckinthiscityhasbeengettingsteadilybigger.

A. TheunemploymentrateinthecityishighertodaythanitwaswhenMayorDelmonttookoffice.

B. Theaveragepayforjobsinthecitywasataten-yearlowwhenMayorDelmonttookoffice.

C. EachyearduringMayorDelmont’stenure,theaveragepayforjobsthatwereeliminatedhasbeenhigherthantheaveragepayforjobscitywide.

D. MostofthejobseliminatedduringMayorDelmont’stenurewereindecliningindustries.

E. Theaveragepayforjobsinthecityiscurrentlylowerthanitisforjobsinthesuburbssurroundingthecity.

187. TopreventanewlybuiltdamontheChiffRiverfromblockingtherouteoffishmigratingtobreedinggroundsupstream,thedamincludesafishpass,amechanismdesignedtoallowfishthroughthedam.Beforetheconstructionofthedamandfishpass,severalthousandfishadayswamupriverduringspawningseason.Butinthefirstseasonaftertheproject’scompletion,only300perdaymadethejourney.Clearly,thefishpassisdefective.

A. FishthathavemigratedtotheupstreambreedinggroundsdonotreturndowntheChiffRiveragain.

B. Onotherriversintheregion,theconstructionofdamswithfishpasseshasledtoonlysmalldecreasesinthenumberoffishmigratingupstream.

C. Theconstructionofthedamstirreduppotentiallytoxicriversedimentsthatwerecarrieddownstream.

D. PopulationsofmigratoryfishintheChiffRiverhavebeendeclining

slightlyoverthelast20years.

E. Duringspawningseason,thedamreleasessufficientwaterformigratoryfishbelowthedamtoswimupstream.

188. CommemorativeplaquescastfrombrassareacharacteristicartformoftheBenincultureofWestAfrica.Somescholars,notingthattheoldestsurvivingplaquesdatetothe1400s,hypothesizethatbrass-castingtechniqueswereintroducedbythePortuguese,whocametoBeninin1485A.D.ButPortugueserecordsofthatexpeditionmentioncast-brassjewelrysenttoBenin’skingfromneighboringIfe.SoitisunlikelythatBenin’sknowledgeofbrasscastingderivedfromthePortuguese.

A. ThePortugueserecordsdonotindicatewhethertheirexpeditionof1485includedmetalworkers.

B. ThePortuguesehadnocontactwithIfeuntilthe1500s.

C. Inthe1400sthePortuguesedidnotusecastbrassforcommemorativeplaques.

D. Asearlyas1500A.D.,BeninartistsweremakingbrassplaquesincorporatingdepictionsofEuropeans.

E. Copper,whichisrequiredformakingbrass,canbefoundthroughoutBeninterritory.

4.5AnswerKey106. C

107. B

108. B

109. A

110. D

111. C

112. D

113. B

114. C

115. A

116. A

117. E

118. C

119. A

120. D

121. C

122. C

123. A

124. A

125. A

126. D

127. D

128. C

129. B

130. B

131. E

132. A

133. C

134. B

135. A

136. A

137. B

138. C

139. B

140. E

141. C

142. C

143. C

144. E

145. A

146. D

147. C

148. A

149. A

150. A

151. E

152. E

153. B

154. D

155. D

156. C

157. B

158. B

159. C

160. C

161. E

162. D

163. B

164. D

165. E

166. B

167. B

168. B

169. B

170. C

171. D

172. B

173. E

174. D

175. B

176. C

177. E

178. B

179. D

180. B

181. A

182. D

183. C

184. E

185. C

186. C

187. C

188. B

4.6AnswerExplanationsThefollowingdiscussionisintendedtofamiliarizeyouwiththemostefficientandeffectiveapproachestocriticalreasoningquestions.TheparticularquestionsinthischapteraregenerallyrepresentativeofthekindsofcriticalreasoningquestionsyouwillencounterontheGMAT.Rememberthatitistheproblemsolvingstrategythatisimportant,notthespecificdetailsofaparticularquestion.

106. PhishCorunsanumberoffarmsinthearidprovinceofNufa,dependinglargelyonirrigation.Now,aspartofaplantoefficientlyincreasethefarms’totalproduction,itplanstodrilldowntoanaquifercontainingwarm,slightlysaltywaterthatwillbeusedtoraisefishinponds.Thewaterfromthepondswilllaterbeusedtosupplementpiped-inirrigationwaterforPhishCo’svegetablefields,andthepondsandaccompanyingvegetationshouldhelpreducetheheatintheareaofthefarms.

Whichofthefollowingwould,iftrue,moststronglysuggestthattheplan,ifimplemented,wouldincreasetheoverallefficiencyofPhishCo’sfarms?

A. MostofthevegetationtobeplacedaroundthepondsisnativetoNufa.

B. FishraisedonPhishCo’sfarmsarelikelytobesaleableinthenearesturbanareas.

C. Organicwastefromfishinthepondwaterwillhelptofertilizefieldswhereitisusedforirrigation.

D. ThegovernmentofNufawillhelptoarrangeloanfinancingtopartiallycoverthecostsofdrilling.

E. Pondswillbelocatedonlow-lyinglandnowpartiallyoccupiedbygraincrops.

EvaluationofaPlanSituationAcompanyplanstoincreasethetotalefficiencyofitsfarmsinanaridregionbydrillingdowntoanaquiferwhosewaterwillbeusedtoraisefishinpondsandtohelpirrigatethefarms’vegetablefields.Thepondsandaccompanyingvegetationshouldhelpreducetheheataroundthefarms.

ReasoningWhatwouldmakeitmostlikelythatimplementingtheplanwouldincreasethefarms’overallefficiency?Thefarmswillbecomemoreefficientiftheplansignificantlyincreasestheirproductionforlittleornoaddedcost.

A. Vegetationnativetoanaridregionmaybenomorelikelytothrivearoundpondsthannon-nativevegetationwouldbe,andinanycasewouldnotclearlyincreasethefarms’totalcropproductionorefficiency.

B. Thismakesitslightlymorelikelythattheplanwouldincreasethe

farms’profitability,nottheirefficiencyorproductivity.

C. Correct.Fertilizingthefieldswiththewastewhileirrigatingthecropsmightsignificantlyimprovecropproduction.Butitwouldcostlittleornothingextra,sincethewastewouldalreadybeintheirrigationwater.Thus,thisfeatureoftheplanwouldlikelyenhancethefarms’efficiencybyincreasingtheirproductivityfornosignificantextracost.

D. Thisgovernmentassistancemightslightlyreducetheworkthecompanyhastodotoprocurealoan.Butprobablyitwouldneitherincreasethefarms’productionnorreducetheoverallexpenseofimplementingtheplan(includingtheexpenseincurredbythegovernment).

E. Ifanything,thissuggeststhattheplanmightreducethefarms’efficiencybyeliminatingproductivecropland.

107. Thesustainedmassiveuseofpesticidesinfarminghastwoeffectsthatareespeciallypernicious.First,itoftenkillsoffthepests’naturalenemiesinthearea.Second,itoftenunintentionallygivesrisetoinsecticide-resistantpests,sincethoseinsectsthatsurviveaparticularinsecticidewillbetheonesmostresistanttoit,andtheyaretheoneslefttobreed.

Fromthepassageabove,itcanbeproperlyinferredthattheeffectivenessofthesustainedmassiveuseofpesticidescanbeextendedbydoingwhichofthefollowing,assumingthateachisarealisticpossibility?

A. Usingonlychemicallystableinsecticides

B. Periodicallyswitchingthetypeofinsecticideused

C. Graduallyincreasingthequantitiesofpesticidesused

D. Leavingafewfieldsfalloweveryyear

E. Breedinghigher-yieldingvarietiesofcropplants

EvaluationofaPlanSituationContinuedhigh-levelpesticideuseoftenkillsoffthetargetedpests’naturalenemies.Inaddition,thepeststhatsurvivetheapplicationofthepesticidemaybecomeresistanttoit,andthesepesticide-resistantpestswillcontinuebreeding.

ReasoningWhatcanbedonetoprolongtheeffectivenessofpesticideuse?Itcanbeinferredthattheongoinguseofaparticularpesticidewillnotcontinuetobeeffectiveagainstthefuturegenerationsofpestswithaninherentresistancetothatpesticide.Whatwouldbeeffectiveagainstthesefuturegenerations?Iffarmersperiodicallychangetheparticularpesticidetheyuse,thenpestsresistanttoonekindofpesticidemightbekilledbyanother.Thiswouldcontinue,withpestsbeingkilledoffincyclesasthepesticidesarechanged.Itisalsopossiblethatthisrotationmightallowsomeofthepests’naturalenemiestosurvive,atleastuntilthenextcycle.

A. Notenoughinformationaboutchemicallystableinsecticidesisgiventomakeasoundinference.

B. Correct.Thisstatementproperlyidentifiesanactionthatcouldextendtheeffectivenessofpesticideuse.

C. Graduallyincreasingtheamountofthepesticidesbeingusedwillnothelpthesituationsincethepestsarealreadyresistanttoit.

D. Continueduseofpesticidesisassumedaspartoftheargument.Sincepesticideswouldbeunnecessaryforfallowfields,thissuggestionisirrelevant.

E. Breedinghigher-yieldingvarietiesofcropsdoesnothingtoextendtheeffectivenessoftheuseofpesticides.

108. Whichofthefollowing,iftrue,mostlogicallycompletestheargumentbelow?

Manufacturersarenowrequiredtomakeallcigarettelighterschild-resistantbyequippingthemwithsafetylevers.Butthischangeisunlikelytoresultinasignificantreductioninthenumberoffirescausedbychildrenplayingwithlighters,becausechildrengiventheopportunitycanfigureouthowtoworkthesafetyleversand________.

A. theadditionofthesafetylevershasmadelightersmoreexpensivethantheywerebeforetherequirementwasinstituted

B. adultsaremorelikelytoleavechild-resistantlightersthannon-child-resistantlightersinplacesthatareaccessibletochildren

C. manyofthefiresstartedbyyoungchildrenarequicklydetectedandextinguishedbytheirparents

D. unlikechild-resistantlighters,lightersthatarenotchild-resistantcanbeoperatedbychildrenasyoungastwoyearsold

E. approximately5,000firesperyearhavebeenattributedtochildrenplayingwithlightersbeforethesafetyleverswererequired.

ArgumentConstructionSituationManufacturersmustequipallcigarettelighterswithchild-resistantsafetylevers,butchildrencanfigureouthowtocircumventthesafetyleversandtherebyoftenstartfires.

ReasoningWhatpointwouldmostlogicallycompletetheargument?Whatwouldmakeitlikelythatthenumberoffirescausedbychildrenplayingwithlighterswouldremainthesame?Inorderforchildrentostartfiresusinglightersequippedwithsafetylevers,theymustbegiventheopportunitytofigureouthowthesafetyleversworkandthentousethem.Theymust,thatis,haveaccesstothelighters.

A. Ifsafety-lever-equippedlightersaremoreexpensivethanlightersthatarenotsoequipped,fewerlightersmightbesold.Thiswouldmostlikelyaffordchildrenlessaccesstolighters,thusgivingthemlessopportunitytostartfireswiththem.

B. Correct.Thisstatementproperlyidentifiesapointthatlogicallycompletestheargument:itexplainswhychildrenarelikelytohaveaccesstolightersequippedwithsafetylevers.

C. Thespeedwithwhichfiresareextinguisheddoesnothaveanybearingonthenumberoffiresthatarestarted.

D. Thisprovidesareasontobelievethatthenumberoffiresstartedbychildrenwillmostlikelydecrease,ratherthanstaythesame:fewerchildrenwillbeabletooperatethelighters,andthusfewerfiresarelikelytobestarted.

E. Thisinformationabouthowmanyfireswerestartedbychildrenbeforesafetyleverswererequireddoesnothaveanybearingonthequestionofhowmanyfiresarelikelytobestartedbychildrennowthatthesafetyleversarerequired.

AbusinessanalysisoftheAppenianrailroadsystemdivideditslong-

distancepassengerroutesintotwocategories:ruralroutesandinterurbanroutes.Theanalysisfoundthat,unliketheinterurbanroutes,fewruralroutescarriedahighenoughpassengervolumetobeprofitable.Closingunprofitableruralroutes,however,willnotnecessarilyenhancetheprofitabilityofthewholesystem,since________.

A. alargepartofthepassengervolumeoninterurbanroutesisaccountedforbypassengerswhobeginorendtheirjourneysonruralroutes

B. withinthelasttwodecadesseveraloftheleastusedruralrouteshavebeenclosedandtheirpassengerserviceshavebeenreplacedbybuses

C. theruralrouteswerealloriginallyconstructedatleastonehundredyearsago,whereassomeoftheinterurbanrouteswereconstructedrecentlyfornewhigh-speedexpresstrains

D. notallofAppenia’slargecitiesareequallywellservedbyinterurbanrailroadservices

E. thegreatestpassengervolume,relativetotheroutes’capacity,isnotoneithercategoryoflong-distanceroutesbutisonsuburbancommuterroutes

ArgumentConstructionSituationIntheAppenianrailroadsystem,interurbanroutesgenerallycarryenoughpassengerstobeprofitable,butfewruralroutesdo.

ReasoningWhatwouldsuggestthatclosingunprofitableruralrouteswouldnotenhancetherailroadsystem’sprofitability?Anyevidencethatclosingtheunprofitableruralrouteswouldindirectlyreducetheprofitabilityofothercomponentsoftherailroadsystemwouldsupporttheconclusionthatclosingthoseruralrouteswillnotenhancethesystem’sprofitability.Thus,astatementprovidingsuchevidencewouldlogicallycompletethepassage.

A. Correct.Thissuggeststhatclosingtheruralroutescoulddiscouragemanypassengersfromtravelingontheprofitableinterurbanroutesaswell,thusreducingtheprofitabilityoftherailroadsystemasawhole.

B. Evenifsomeoftheleastusedruralrouteshavealreadybeenclosed,

itremainstruethatmostoftheremainingruralroutesaretoolittleusedtobeprofitable.

C. Closingveryoldrouteswouldbeatleastaslikelytoenhancetherailroadsystem’sprofitabilityasclosingnewerrouteswouldbe.

D. Evenifthereisbetterrailroadservicetosomelargecitiesthanothers,closingunprofitableruralroutescouldstillenhancethesystem’sprofitability.

E. Evenifsuburbanroutesarethemostheavilyusedandprofitable,closingunderused,unprofitableruralroutescouldstillenhancethesystem’sprofitability.

110. Therateatwhicharoadwearsdependsonvariousfactors,includingclimate,amountoftraffic,andthesizeandweightofthevehiclesusingit.TheonlylandtransportationtoRittland’sseaportisviaadividedhighway,onesidecarryingtraffictotheseaportandonecarryingtrafficawayfromit.Thesideleadingtotheseaporthaswornfaster,eventhougheachsidehascarriedvirtuallythesameamountoftraffic,consistingmainlyoflargetrucks.

Whichofthefollowing,iftrue,mosthelpstoexplainthedifferenceintherateofwear?

A. ThevolumeoftraffictoandfromRittland’sseaporthasincreasedbeyondtheintendedcapacityofthehighwaythatservesit.

B. WearonthehighwaythatservesRittland’sseaportisconsiderablygreaterduringthecoldwintermonths.

C. WearonthesideofthehighwaythatleadstoRittland’sseaporthasencouragedpeopletotakebusestotheseaportratherthandrivingthereintheirownautomobiles.

D. AgreatertonnageofgoodsisexportedfromRittland’sseaportthanisimportedthroughit.

E. AllofRittland’sautomobilesareimportedbyship.

ArgumentConstructionSituationThesideofadividedhighwayleadingtoaseaporthaswornfasterthanthesideleadingawayfromtheseaport.Bothsidescarryroughlythesameamountoftraffic,mainlyconsistingoflarge

trucks.

ReasoningWhatcouldexplainwhythesideofthehighwayleadingtotheseaporthaswornfasterthantheotherside?Wearetoldthatclimate,amountoftraffic,andthesizeandweightofvehiclesonaroadaffecthowquicklytheroadwears.Wearealsotoldthattheamountsoftrafficonthetwosidesofthehighwayarealmostidentical.Probablytheclimateonthetwosidesisalsoalmostidentical.Thus,themostlikelyexplanationforthedifferentratesofwearisthatthesizeorweightofthevehiclesdrivingonthetwosidesdifferssignificantly.Soanyfactorthatwouldmakethevehicles’sizeorweightgreateronthesideleadingtotheseaportthanontheothersidecouldhelpexplainthedifferenceinwearing.

A. Theincreasedtrafficvolumeaffectsbothsidesofthehighway,soitdoesnothelpexplainwhyonesideiswearingfasterthantheother.

B. Thewinterweatheraffectsbothsidesofthehighway,soitdoesnothelpexplainwhyonesideiswearingfasterthantheother.

C. Thebusesmaycontributetowearonthesideofthehighwayleadingtotheseaport,butnotnecessarilymorethanthecartraffictheyarereplacingwould(thoughtheincreaseduseofbusesinsteadofcarsmaydecreasetheamountoftraffic,buseswouldbeheavierthancarsandthusmayresultinanequalorgreateramountofwear).Furthermore,thebuseshavetocomebackontheotherside,probablycarryingthereturningtravelerswhohavenotlefttheircarsattheairport.

D. Correct.Thissuggeststhatthemanytrucksvisitingtheseaporttendtobemoreheavilyladenwithgoodswhentravelingonthesideofthehighwayleadingtotheseaportthanwhenreturningontheotherside.Theresultingdifferenceinthetrucks’weightwhentravelingonthetwosidescouldexplainthedifferentratesofwear.

E. Theseautomobileswouldbetransportedalongthesideofthehighwayleadingfromtheseaport,butnotalongthesideleadingtoit.Thiswouldlikelycreateapatternofwearoppositetotheoneobserved.

111. Sincethemayor’spublicitycampaignforGreenville’sbusservicebegansixmonthsago,morningautomobiletrafficintothemidtownareaofthecityhasdecreased7percent.Duringthesameperiod,therehasbeenan

equivalentriseinthenumberofpersonsridingbusesintothemidtownarea.Obviously,themayor’spublicitycampaignhasconvincedmanypeopletoleavetheircarsathomeandridethebustowork.

Whichofthefollowing,iftrue,caststhemostseriousdoubtontheconclusiondrawnabove?

A. FaresforallbusroutesinGreenvillehaverisenanaverageof5percentduringthepastsixmonths.

B. ThemayorofGreenvilleridesthebustoCityHallinthecity’smidtownarea.

C. Roadreconstructionhasgreatlyreducedthenumberoflanesavailabletocommutersinmajorstreetsleadingtothemidtownareaduringthepastsixmonths.

D. ThenumberofbusesenteringthemidtownareaofGreenvilleduringthemorninghoursisexactlythesamenowasitwasoneyearago.

E. SurveysshowthatlongtimebusridersarenomoresatisfiedwiththeGreenvillebusservicethantheywerebeforethemayor’spublicitycampaignbegan.

ArgumentEvaluationSituationTrafficintomidtownhasdecreasedby7percent,andbusridershiphasincreasedbyanequivalentamount.Themayor’spublicitycampaignisresponsibleforthischange.

ReasoningWhatcastsdoubtonthisconclusion?Anotherreasonableexplanationofwhatcausedthedecreaseinautomobiletrafficandtheincreaseinbusridershipwouldmakethisconclusionsuspect.Roadconstructionimpedingaccesstomidtownoverthesameperiodoftimeisareasonablealternativeexplanation.Theroadconstructionprojectswouldlikelyhavediscouragedpeoplefromdrivingtomidtown;manyofthesepeoplehaveprobablytakenthebus.

A. Anincreaseinfaresmightbeareasonableexplanationforadecreaseinridership,butnotforanincrease.

B. Themayor’sdecisiontoridethebussetsagoodexampleforcitizens,sothiswouldtendtostrengthenratherthanweakensupportfortheconclusion.

C. Correct.Thisstatementproperlyidentifiesanexplanationthatweakenssupportfortheconclusion.

D. Ifmorebuseswererunning,thenmoreseatswouldbeavailableforpeopletravelingintomidtown.Rulingoutthisscenariohelpsstrengthen,notweaken,supportfortheconclusion.

E. Passengersperceivebusservicetobethesame,sobetterservicecanbeeliminatedasapossiblecauseoftheincreasedridership.

112. AlthoughAckerburg’ssubwaysystemiscurrentlyoperatingatadeficit,thetransitauthoritywilllowersubwayfaresnextyear.Theauthorityprojectsthatthelowerfareswillresultinatenpercentincreaseinthenumberofsubwayriders.Sincetheadditionalincomefromthelargerridershipwillmorethanoffsetthedecreaseduetolowerfares,thetransitauthorityactuallyexpectsthefarereductiontoreduceoreliminatethesubwaysystem’soperatingdeficitfornextyear.

Whichofthefollowing,iftrue,providesthemostsupportforthetransitauthority’sexpectationofreducingthesubwaysystem’soperatingdeficit?

A. Throughouttheyearsthatthesubwaysystemhasoperated,fareshaveneverbeforebeenreduced.

B. Theplannedfarereductionwillnotapplytostudents,whocanalreadyridethesubwayforareducedfare.

C. Nextyear,thetransitauthoritywillhavetoundertakeseverallarge-scaletrackmaintenanceprojects.

D. Thesubwaysystemcanaccommodateatenpercentincreaseinridershipwithoutincreasingthenumberoftrainsitrunseachday.

E. ThecurrentsubwayfaresinAckerburgarehigherthansubwayfaresinothercitiesintheregion.

ArgumentEvaluationSituationAckerburg’stransitauthorityplanstolowersubwayfares,projectingthatthiswillincreaseridershipby10percentandtherebyreduceoreliminatethesubwaysystem’soperatingdeficit.

ReasoningWhatevidencewouldsupporttheexpectationthatloweringsubwayfareswillreducetheoperatingdeficit?Thepassage

saystheadditionalincomefromtheprojectedincreaseinridershipwillmorethanoffsetthedecreaseduetotheloweredfares.Theclaimthatloweringfareswillreducetheoperatingdeficitcouldbesupportedeitherbyadditionalevidencethatloweringthefareswillincreaseridershipatleastasmuchasprojectedorbyevidencethattheplanwillnotincreaseoveralloperatingexpenses.

A. Thefactthatfareshaveneverbeenreducedprovidesnoevidenceaboutwhatwouldhappeniftheywerereduced.

B. Thissuggeststhattheplannedfarereductionwouldnotaffectrevenuefromstudentriders,butitdoesnotsuggesthowitwouldaffectrevenuefromallotherriders.

C. Thesemaintenanceprojectswillprobablyincreasetheoperatingdeficit,makingitlesslikelythatthefarereductionwillreduceoreliminatethatdeficit.

D. Correct.Thisindicatesthattheplanwillnotinvolveextraoperatingexpensesforrunningtrainsandthusincreasesthelikelihoodthattheplanwillreducetheoperatingdeficit.

E. AckerburgmaydifferfromothercitiesintheregioninwaysthatmakethehigherfaresoptimalforAckerburg’ssubwaysystem.

113. Patrickusuallyprovideschildcareforsixchildren.ParentsleavetheirchildrenatPatrick’shouseinthemorningandpickthemupafterwork.Attheendofeachworkweek,theparentspayPatrickatanhourlyrateforthechildcareprovidedthatweek.TheweeklyincomePatrickreceivesisusuallyadequatebutnotalwaysuniform,particularlyinthewinter,whenchildrenarelikelytogetsickandbeunpredictablyabsent.

Whichofthefollowingplans,ifputintoeffect,hasthebestprospectofmakingPatrick’sweeklyincomebothuniformandadequate?

A. Poolresourceswithaneighborwhoprovideschildcareundersimilararrangements,sothatthetwoofthemcooperateincaringfortwiceasmanychildrenasPatrickcurrentlydoes.

B. ReplacepaymentbyactualhoursofchildcareprovidedwithafixedweeklyfeebaseduponthenumberofhoursofchildcarethatPatrickwouldtypicallybeexpectedtoprovide.

C. Hireafull-timehelperandinvestinfacilitiesforprovidingchildcaretosickchildren.

D. IncreasethehourlyratetoalevelthatwouldprovideadequateincomeeveninaweekwhenhalfofthechildrenPatrickusuallycaresforareabsent.

E. Increasethenumberofhoursmadeavailableforchildcareeachday,sothatparentscanleavetheirchildreninPatrick’scareforalongerperiodeachdayatthecurrenthourlyrate.

EvaluationofaPlanSituationAttheendoftheworkweek,Patrickispaidacertainamountforeachhourofchildcarehehasprovided.Patrickusuallyreceivesadequateweeklyincomeunderthisarrangement,butinthewinterPatrick’sincomefluctuates,becausechildrenareunpredictablyabsentduetoillness.

ReasoningWhichplanwouldbemostlikelytomeetthetwogoalsofuniformweeklyincomeandadequateweeklyincome?Patrickmustfindawaytoensurethathisweeklyincomeisbothadequate—thatis,notreducedsignificantlyfromcurrentlevels—anduniform—thatis,notsubjecttoseasonalorotherfluctuations.AsuccessfulplanwouldthusmostlikelybeonethatdoesnotincreasePatrick’scosts.Further,theplanneednotincreasePatrick’sweeklyincome;itmustmerelyensurethatthatincomeismorereliable.Itshouldthereforealsoprovidesomewaytomitigatetheunexpectedlossofincomefromchildren’sabsences.

A. ThisplanmightraisePatrick’sincomeslightly,becauseheandtheneighbormightpayoutlessincostsiftheypooltheirresources.ButthisplanwouldhavenoeffectontheproblemthatunpredictableabsencesposeforPatrick’sweeklyincome.

B. Correct.ThisstatementproperlyidentifiesaplanthatwouldmostlikelykeepPatrick’sincomeadequate(hewouldprobablyreceiveapproximatelythesameamountofmoneyperchildashedoesnow)anduniform(hewouldreceivethemoneyregardlessofwhetherachildwaspresentorabsent).

C. WhilethisplanmightsomewhatmitigatetheunpredictabilityinPatrick’sincomethatresultsfromsickchildren’sabsences—becauseparentswouldbelesslikelytokeepsickchildrenathome—itwouldincreasePatrick’scosts.PayingahelperandinvestingindifferentfacilitieswouldreducePatrick’sincomeandmightthusresultinthatincomebeinginadequate.

D. Underthisplan,ifweassumethatparentsdidnotbalkattheincreaseinPatrick’shourlyrateandfindalternativechildcare,Patrick’sincomewouldmostlikelybeadequate.ButthisplanwouldnothelpmakePatrick’sweeklyincomeuniform.Hisincomewouldcontinuetofluctuatewhenchildrenareabsent.Remember,therearetwogoalswithregardtoPatrick’sincome:adequacyanduniformity.

E. ThisplanmightincreasePatrick’sincome,inthathemightbepaidformorehoursofchildcareeachweek.Thegoalshere,however,aretomakePatrick’sweeklyincomebothadequateanduniform,andthisplandoesnotaddresstheissueofuniformity.

114. Acomputerequippedwithsignature-recognitionsoftware,whichrestrictsaccesstoacomputertothosepeoplewhosesignaturesareonfile,identifiesaperson’ssignaturebyanalyzingnotonlytheformofthesignaturebutalsosuchcharacteristicsaspenpressureandsigningspeed.Eventhemostadeptforgerscannotduplicateallofthecharacteristicstheprogramanalyzes.

Whichofthefollowingcanbelogicallyconcludedfromthepassageabove?

A. Thetimeittakestorecordandanalyzeasignaturemakesthesoftwareimpracticalforeverydayuse.

B. Computersequippedwiththesoftwarewillsoonbeinstalledinmostbanks.

C. Nobodycangainaccesstoacomputerequippedwiththesoftwaresolelybyvirtueofskillatforgingsignatures.

D. Signature-recognitionsoftwarehastakenmanyyearstodevelopandperfect.

E. Inmanycasesevenauthorizedusersaredeniedlegitimateaccesstocomputersequippedwiththesoftware.

ArgumentConstructionSituationForgerscannotduplicateallthecharacteristicsthatsignature-recognitionsoftwareanalyzes,includingtheformofasignature,penpressure,andsigningspeed.Computersequippedwiththissoftwarerestrictaccesstothosewhosesignaturesareonfile.

ReasoningWhatconclusioncanbereachedaboutcomputersequippedwiththissoftware?Thepassagestatesthatthesoftwaredetectsmorecharacteristicsinasignaturethanthemostaccomplishedforgercanpossiblyreproduce.Thus,skillatforgingsignaturesisnotenoughtoallowsomeonetogainaccesstoacomputerequippedwiththesoftware.

A. Noinformationaboutthespeedoftheanalysisisgiven,sonosuchconclusioncanbedrawn.

B. Althoughthesoftwarewouldlikelybeofbenefittobanks,wecannotconcludethatitwillbeinstalledinmostbanksbecausethepassagedoesn’truleout,e.g.,thatthesoftwaremaybetoocostlyorthattheremaybeproprietaryconstraints.

C. Correct.Thisstatementproperlyidentifiesaconclusionthatcanbedrawnfromthepassage.

D. Althoughitseemsreasonabletothinkthatthesoftwaretookalongtimetodevelop,nothinginthepassagejustifiestheclaimthatittookyears.

E. Nothinginthepassagerulesoutthepossibilitythatthesoftwarefunctionssowellthatauthorizeduserswillneverbedeniedlegitimateaccesstocomputersequippedwiththesoftware.

115. Extinctionisaprocessthatcandependonavarietyofecological,geographical,andphysiologicalvariables.Thesevariablesaffectdifferentspeciesoforganismsindifferentways,andshould,therefore,yieldarandompatternofextinctions.However,thefossilrecordshowsthatextinctionoccursinasurprisinglydefinitepattern,withmanyspeciesvanishingatthesametime.

Whichofthefollowing,iftrue,formsthebestbasisforatleastapartialexplanationofthepatternedextinctionsrevealedbythefossilrecord?

A. Majorepisodesofextinctioncanresultfromwidespreadenvironmentaldisturbancesthataffectnumerousdifferentspecies.

B. Certainextinctionepisodesselectivelyaffectorganismswithparticularsetsofcharacteristicsuniquetotheirspecies.

C. Somespeciesbecomeextinctbecauseofaccumulatedgradualchangesintheirlocalenvironments.

D. Ingeologicallyrecenttimes,forwhichthereisnofossilrecord,humaninterventionhaschangedthepatternofextinctions.

E. Speciesthatarewidelydispersedaretheleastlikelytobecomeextinct.

ArgumentConstructionSituationThefossilrecordrevealsthatspeciesbecomeextinctinasurprisinglydefinitepattern,withmultiplespeciesvanishingsimultaneously.

ReasoningWhichpointprovidesabasisforexplainingthepattern?Thepassagestatesthattheprocessofextinctiondependsonsomanyvariables—intheecologyandgeographyoftheenvironmentandinthephysiologyofthespecies—thattheexpectedoutcomewouldbearandompatternofextinctions.Yetadefinitepatternisfoundinstead.Whatcouldexplainthedisappearanceofmultiplespeciesatthesametime?Ifthereweresignificantwidespreadchangesintheenvironment,multiplespeciescouldbeaffectedsimultaneously,causingtheirextinction.

A. Correct.Thisstatementproperlyidentifiesabasisforexplainingthepatternofmanyspeciesbecomingextinctsimultaneously.

B. Thisexplanationofselectiveextinctiondoesnotexplainhowmanyspeciesbecomeextinctatthesametime.

C. Thisexplanationaddressesonlysomespecies,notmanyspecies.

D. Thepassageisbasedonwhatthefossilrecordsuggests;morerecenttimes,havingnofossilrecord,areoutsidetheconsiderationofthepassage.

E. Indicatingwhichspeciesareleastlikelytobecomeextinctdoesnotexplainapatternofsimultaneousextinctionofmanyspecies.

116. InpartsofSouthAmerica,vitamin-Adeficiencyisaserioushealthproblem,especiallyamongchildren.Inoneregion,agriculturistsareattemptingtoimprovenutritionbyencouragingfarmerstoplantanewvarietyofsweetpotatocalledSPK004thatisrichinbeta-carotene,whichthebodyconvertsintovitaminA.Theplanhasgoodchancesofsuccess,sincesweetpotatoisastapleoftheregion’sdietandagriculture,andthevarietiescurrentlygrowncontainlittlebeta-carotene.

Whichofthefollowing,iftrue,moststronglysupportsthepredictionthattheplanwillsucceed?

A. ThegrowingconditionsrequiredbythevarietiesofsweetpotatocurrentlycultivatedintheregionareconditionsinwhichSPK004canflourish.

B. ThefleshofSPK004differsfromthatofthecurrentlycultivatedsweetpotatoesincolorandtexture,sotraditionalfoodswouldlooksomewhatdifferentwhenpreparedfromSPK004.

C. Therearenoothervarietiesofsweetpotatothataresignificantlyricherinbeta-carotenethanSPK004is.

D. ThevarietiesofsweetpotatocurrentlycultivatedintheregioncontainsomeimportantnutrientsthatarelackinginSPK004.

E. Thereareothervegetablescurrentlygrownintheregionthatcontainmorebeta-carotenethanthecurrentlycultivatedvarietiesofsweetpotatodo.

EvaluationofaPlanSituationAgriculturistsbelievethatiffarmersinaparticularSouthAmericanregionplantanewbeta-carotene-richvarietyofsweetpotato,SPK004,thevitamin-Adeficiencysufferedinthatregioncanbealleviated.Eventhoughsweetpotatoesareastapleoftheregionandthebodycanconvertasweetpotato’sbeta-caroteneintovitaminA,thevarietiescurrentlygrowntherecontainlittlebeta-carotene.

ReasoningWhatwouldmostsupportthesuccessoftheplantoimprovenutritionbyencouragingfarmerstoplantSPK004?What,thatis,wouldmakefarmersrespondpositivelytoencouragementtoplantSPK004?FarmersintheregionwouldprobablybeinclinedtosubstituteSPK004forthevarietiesofsweetpotatotheycurrentlygrowiftheycouldbeassuredthatSPK004wouldgrowaswellasthoseothervarietiesdo.ThiswouldinturnmostlikelyleadtoSPK004beingsubstitutedforcurrentvarietiesofsweetpotatoinstapledishes,andthustoanimprovementinnutritionintheregion.

A. Correct.Thisstatementproperlyidentifiesafactorthatwouldsupportapredictionoftheplan’ssuccess.

B. IfdishesmadewithSPK004lookdifferentthantraditionalsweetpotatodishesintheregiondo,peoplemightbelesslikelytoeat

thosedishes;insuchasituation,theplan’ssuccesswouldbelesslikely,ratherthanmorelikely.

C. ItisSPK004’sbeta-carotenecontentrelativetothebeta-carotenecontentofthesweetpotatoescurrentlygrownintheregionthatisrelevanthere,soitdoesnotmatterifthereareothervarietiesofsweetpotatothatarericherinbeta-carotenethanSPK004is.

D. ThissuggeststhatswitchingfromcurrentlygrownsweetpotatoestoSPK004couldnegativelyaffectnutritionintheregion;thisundermines,ratherthansupports,thepredictionthattheplantoimprovenutritionwillsucceed.

E. Theseothervegetables,despitetheirbeta-carotenecontentbeinghigherthanthatofthecurrentlycultivatedvarietiesofsweetpotato,areclearlynotsufficienttopreventavitamin-Adeficiencyintheregion.ThisinformationdoesnothingtosupportthepredictionthatencouragingfarmerstoplantSPK004willhelptomeetthosebeta-caroteneneeds.

117. Manyleadershiptheorieshaveprovidedevidencethatleadersaffectgroupsuccessratherthanthesuccessofparticularindividuals.Soitisirrelevanttoanalyzetheeffectsofsupervisortraitsontheattitudesofindividualswhomtheysupervise.Instead,assessmentofleadershipeffectivenessshouldoccuronlyatthegrouplevel.

Whichofthefollowingwoulditbemostusefultoestablishinordertoevaluatetheargument?

A. Whethersupervisors’documentationofindividualsupervisees’attitudestowardthemisusuallyaccurate

B. Whetheritispossibletoassessindividualsupervisees’attitudestowardtheirsupervisorswithouttherebychangingthoseattitudes

C. Whetheranyoftheleadershiptheoriesinquestionholdthatleadersshouldassessotherleaders’attitudes

D. Whethersometypesofgroupsdonotneedsupervisioninordertobesuccessfulintheirendeavors

E. Whetherindividuals’attitudestowardsupervisorsaffectgroupsuccess

ArgumentEvaluation

SituationManyleadershiptheorieshaveprovidedevidencethatleadersaffectthesuccessofgroupsbutnotofindividuals.

ReasoningWhatwouldbemosthelpfultoknowinordertoevaluatehowwellthestatedfactsupportstheconclusionthatleadershipeffectivenessshouldbeassessedonlyatthegrouplevelwithoutconsideringsupervisors’influenceontheattitudesoftheindividualstheysupervise?Evenifleadersdonotaffectthesuccessoftheindividualstheylead,theymightstillaffectthoseindividuals’attitudes.Andthoseattitudesinturnmightaffectgroupsuccess.Ifso,theargumentwouldbeweak.Soanyevidenceabouttheexistenceorstrengthofthesepossibleeffectsintherelationshipbetweensupervisorsandtheirsuperviseeswouldbehelpfulinevaluatingtheargument.

A. Howaccuratelysupervisorsdocumenttheirsupervisees’attitudesisnotclearlyrelevanttohowmuchthesupervisorsaffectthoseattitudes,nortohowmuchtheattitudesaffectgroupsuccess.

B. Evenifassessingsupervisees’attitudeswouldinitselfchangethoseattitudes,thepersondoingtheassessmentmightbeabletopredictthischangeandtakeitintoaccount.Thus,consideringindividualsupervisees’attitudesmightstillbeworthwhile.

C. Theargumentisnotaboutinteractionsamongleaders,butratheraboutinteractionsbetweensupervisorsandsupervisees.

D. Theargumentisnotaboutgroupswithoutsupervisors,orwhethercertaingroupsmightbeeffectivewithoutasupervisor,butratherabouthowtoassesstheeffectivenessofsupervisorsingroupsthatdohavethem.

E. Correct.Asexplainedabove,ifindividualsupervisees’attitudesaffectgroupsuccess,theargumentwouldbeweak.Andprobablyindividualsupervisees’attitudestowardtheirsupervisorsareinfluencedbythosesupervisors.Soknowingwhetherindividualattitudestowardsupervisorsaffectgroupsuccesswouldbehelpfulinevaluatingtheargument

Thelastmembersofanow-extinctspeciesofaEuropeanwilddeercalledthegiantdeerlivedinIrelandabout16,000yearsago.PrehistoriccavepaintingsinFrancedepictthisanimalashavingalargehumponits

back.Fossilsofthisanimal,however,donotshowanyhump.Nevertheless,thereisnoreasontoconcludethatthecavepaintingsarethereforeinaccurateinthisregard,since__________.

A. someprehistoriccavepaintingsinFrancealsodepictotheranimalsashavingahump

B. fossilsofthegiantdeeraremuchmorecommoninIrelandthaninFrance

C. animalhumpsarecomposedoffattytissue,whichdoesnotfossilize

D. thecavepaintingsofthegiantdeerwerepaintedwellbefore16,000yearsago

E. onlyonecurrentlyexistingspeciesofdeerhasanyanatomicalfeaturethatevenremotelyresembles

ArgumentConstructionSituationRepresentationsfoundinprehistoriccavepaintingsinFranceofthenow-extinctgiantdeerspecies—thelastmembersofwhichlivedinIrelandabout16,000yearsago—depictthedeerashavingahumponitsback.Fossilsofthedeer,however,donotfeatureahump.

ReasoningWhatpointwouldmostlogicallycompletetheargument?Thatis,whatwouldshowthatthecavepaintingsarenotinaccurateeventhoughfossilsofthegiantdeershownohump?Howcoulditbethecasethatthepaintingsshowahumpwhilethefossilsdonot?Onewayinwhichthiscouldbesoisifthehumpsarenotpartofthefossils—thatis,ifthereissomereasonwhyahumpwouldnotbepreservedwiththerestofananimal’sremains.

A. Wedonotknowwhethertheseothercavepaintingsaccuratelydepicttheanimalsashavinghumps,sothisprovidesnoreasontothinkthatthedepictionsofgiantdeerareaccurate.

B. Wheregiantdeerfossilsarefoundhasnobearingonwhethercavepaintingsofgiantdeerthatshowahumpontheanimal’sbackareinaccurate.Itcouldbethatthissuggeststhatthepaintersresponsiblefortherepresentationswouldnotbeveryfamiliarwiththespecies;ifthiswereso,itwouldgivesomereasontoconcludethattherepresentationswereinaccurate.

C. Correct.Thisstatementproperlyidentifiesapointthatlogicallycompletestheargument.Ahumpwouldnotbefoundaspartofagiantdeer’sfossilizedremainsifthehumpswerefattytissuethatwouldnotbefossilized.

D. Thatthecavepaintingswerepaintedwellbefore16,000yearsagoshowsthattheywereexecutedbeforethegiantdeerbecameextinct,butthisdoesnothelptoexplainthediscrepancybetweenthepaintings’depictionofahumponthedeer’sbackandthefossilrecord’slackofsuchahump.Itcouldbethateventhoughthecavepainterscoexistedwiththegiantdeer,theywerenotsufficientlyfamiliarwiththemtodepictthemaccurately.

E. Thatcurrentlyexistingspeciesofdeerlackhumps,oreventhatonespeciesdoeshaveafeatureresemblingahump,haslittlebearingonwhethercavepaintingsinFranceaccuratelydepictthegiantdeerashavingahump.