THE OFFICIAL GUIDE FOR GMAT® VERBAL REVIEW 2017 VERBAL REVIEW.pdfThe Graduate Management Admission...

THEOFFICIALGUIDEFORGMAT®VERBALREVIEW2017

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Contents1.0WhatIstheGMAT®Exam?

1.0WhatIstheGMAT®Exam?

1.1WhyTaketheGMAT®Exam?

1.2GMAT®ExamFormat

1.3WhatIstheContentoftheExamLike?

1.4QuantitativeSection

1.5VerbalSection

1.6WhatComputerSkillsWillINeed?

1.7WhatAretheTestCentersLike?

1.8HowAreScoresCalculated?

1.9AnalyticalWritingAssessmentScores

1.10TestDevelopmentProcess

2.0HowtoPrepare

2.0HowtoPrepare

2.1HowCanIBestPreparetoTaketheTest?

2.2WhatAboutPracticeTests?

2.3WhereCanIGetAdditionalPractice?

2.4GeneralTest-TakingSuggestions

3.0ReadingComprehension


3.1WhatIsMeasured

3.2Test-TakingStrategies

3.3TheDirections

3.4SampleQuestions

3.5AnswerKey

3.6AnswerExplanations

4.0CriticalReasoning


4.1WhatIsMeasured


4.3TheDirections

4.4SampleQuestions

4.5AnswerKey


5.0SentenceCorrection


5.1BasicEnglishGrammarRules

5.2StudySuggestions

5.3WhatIsMeasured


5.5TheDirections

5.6SampleQuestions

5.7AnswerKey


AppendixAAnswerSheets

ReadingComprehensionAnswerSheet

CriticalReasoningAnswerSheet

SentenceCorrectionAnswerSheet

Advert

OnlineQuestionBankInformation

EULA

Visitgmat.wiley.comtoaccessweb-basedsupplementalfeaturesavailableintheprintbookaswell.Thereyoucanaccessaquestionbankwithcustomizablepracticesetsandanswerexplanationsusing300ReadingComprehension,CriticalReasoning,andSentenceCorrectionquestions.WatchexclusivevideoshighlightingtheskillsnecessarytoperformwellontheVerbalsectionoftheexamandaddressingconcernsofnon-nativeEnglishspeakers.

http://gmat.wiley.com

1.0WhatIstheGMAT®Exam?

1.0WhatIstheGMAT®Exam?TheGraduateManagementAdmissionTest®(GMAT®)isastandardized,three-parttestdeliveredinEnglish.Thetestwasdesignedtohelpadmissionsofficersevaluatehowsuitableindividualapplicantsarefortheirgraduatebusinessandmanagementprograms.Itmeasuresbasicverbal,mathematical,andanalyticalwritingskillsthatatest-takerhasdevelopedoveralongperiodoftimethrougheducationandwork.

TheGMATexamdoesnotmeasureaperson’sknowledgeofspecificfieldsofstudy.Graduatebusinessandmanagementprogramsenrollpeoplefrommanydifferentundergraduateandworkbackgrounds,soratherthantestyourmasteryofanyparticularsubjectarea,theGMATexamwillassessyouracquiredskills.YourGMATscorewillgiveadmissionsofficersastatisticallyreliablemeasureofhowwellyouarelikelytoperformacademicallyinthecorecurriculumofagraduatebusinessprogram.

Ofcourse,therearemanyotherqualificationsthatcanhelppeoplesucceedinbusinessschoolandintheircareers—forinstance,jobexperience,leadershipability,motivation,andinterpersonalskills.TheGMATexamdoesnotgaugethesequalities.ThatiswhyyourGMATscoreisintendedtobeusedasonestandardadmissionscriterionamongother,moresubjective,criteria,suchasadmissionsessaysandinterviews.

1.1WhyTaketheGMAT®Exam?GMATscoresareusedbyadmissionsofficersinover6,000graduatebusinessandmanagementprogramsworldwide.SchoolsthatrequireprospectivestudentstosubmitGMATscoresintheapplicationprocessaregenerallyinterestedinadmittingthebest-qualifiedapplicantsfortheirprograms,whichmeansthatyoumayfindamorebeneficiallearningenvironmentatschoolsthatrequireGMATscoresaspartofyourapplication.

BecausetheGMATexamgaugesskillsthatareimportanttosuccessfulstudyofbusinessandmanagementatthegraduatelevel,yourscoreswillgiveyouagoodindicationofhowpreparedyouaretosucceedacademicallyinagraduatemanagementprogram;howwellyoudoonthetestmayalsohelpyouchoosethebusinessschoolstowhichyouapply.Furthermore,thepercentiletableyoureceivewithyourscoreswilltellyouhowyourperformanceonthetestcomparestotheperformanceofothertesttakers,givingyouonewaytogaugeyourcompetitionforadmissiontobusinessschool.

Myth-vs-FACT

M–IfIdon’tscoreinthe90thpercentile,Iwon’tgetintoanyschoolIchoose.

F–Veryfewpeoplegetveryhighscores.

Fewerthan50ofthemorethan200,000peopletakingtheGMATexameachyeargetaperfectscoreof800.Thus,whileyoumaybeexceptionallycapable,theoddsareagainstyourachievingaperfectscore.Also,theGMATexamisjustonepieceofyourapplicationpacket.AdmissionsofficersuseGMATscoresinconjunctionwithundergraduaterecords,applicationessays,interviews,lettersofrecommendation,andotherinformationwhendecidingwhomtoacceptintotheirprograms.

Schoolsconsidermanydifferentaspectsofanapplicationbeforemakinganadmissionsdecision,soevenifyouscorewellontheGMATexam,youshouldcontacttheschoolsthatinterestyoutolearnmoreaboutthemandtoaskabouthowtheyuseGMATscoresandotheradmissionscriteria(suchasyourundergraduategrades,essays,andlettersofrecommendation)toevaluatecandidatesforadmission.Schooladmissionsoffices,websites,andmaterialspublishedbyschoolsarethekeysourcesofinformationwhenyou

aredoingresearchaboutwhereyoumightwanttogotobusinessschool.

FormoreinformationontheGMAT,testpreparationmaterials,examregistration,howtouseandsendyourGMATscorestoschools,andapplyingtobusinessschool,visitmba.com.

http://mba.com

1.2GMAT®ExamFormatTheGMATexamconsistsoffourseparatelytimedsections(seethetableonthenextpage).TheteststartswithoneAnalyticalWritingAssessment(AWA)essayprompt,andyouwillhave30minutestotypeyouressayonacomputerkeyboard.TheAWAisfollowedimmediatelybythe30-minuteIntegratedReasoningsection,whichfeatures12questionpromptsinfourdifferentquestionformats.Thetestendswithtwo75-minute,multiple-choicesections:theQuantitativesection,with37questions,andtheVerbalsection,with41.

TheGMATisacomputer-adaptivetest(CAT),whichmeansthatinthemultiple-choicesectionsofthetest,thecomputerconstantlygaugeshowwellyouaredoingonthetestandpresentsyouwithquestionsthatareappropriatetoyourabilitylevel.Thesequestionsaredrawnfromahugepoolofpossibletestquestions.So,althoughwetalkabouttheGMATasonetest,theGMATexamyoutakemaybecompletelydifferentfromthetestofthepersonsittingnexttoyou.

Here’showitworks.AtthestartofeachGMATmultiple-choicesection(VerbalandQuantitative),youwillbepresentedwithaquestionofmoderatedifficulty.Thecomputerusesyourresponsetothatfirstquestiontodeterminewhichquestiontopresentnext.Ifyourespondcorrectly,thetestusuallywillgiveyouquestionsofincreasingdifficulty.Ifyourespondincorrectly,thenextquestionyouseeusuallywillbeeasierthantheoneyouansweredincorrectly.Asyoucontinuetorespondtothequestionspresented,thecomputerwillnarrowyourscoretothenumberthatbestcharacterizesyourability.Whenyoucompleteeachsection,thecomputerwillhaveanaccurateassessmentofyourability.

Myth-vs-FACT

M–GettinganeasierquestionmeansIansweredthelastonewrong.

F–Gettinganeasierquestiondoesnotnecessarilymeanyougotthepreviousquestionwrong.

Toensurethateveryonereceivesthesamecontent,thetestselectsaspecificnumberofquestionsofeachtype.Thetestmaycallforyournextquestiontobearelativelyhardproblem-solvingiteminvolvingarithmeticoperations.But,iftherearenomorerelativelydifficultproblem-solvingitemsinvolvingarithmetic,youmightbegivenaneasieritem.

Mostpeoplearenotskilledatestimatingitemdifficulty,sodon’tworrywhentakingthetestorwastevaluabletimetryingtodeterminethedifficultyofthequestionsyouareanswering.

Becauseeachquestionispresentedonthebasisofyouranswerstoallpreviousquestions,youmustanswereachquestionasitappears.Youmaynotskip,returnto,orchangeyourresponsestopreviousquestions.Randomguessingcansignificantlyloweryourscores.Ifyoudonotknowtheanswertoaquestion,youshouldtrytoeliminateasmanychoicesaspossible,thenselecttheansweryouthinkisbest.Ifyouansweraquestionincorrectlybymistake—orcorrectlybyluckyguess—youranswerstosubsequentquestionswillleadyoubacktoquestionsthatareattheappropriatelevelofdifficultyforyou.

Eachmultiple-choicequestionusedintheGMATexamhasbeenthoroughlyreviewedbyprofessionaltestdevelopers.Newmultiple-choicequestionsaretestedeachtimethetestisadministered.Answerstotrialquestionsarenotcountedinthescoringofyourtest,butthetrialquestionsarenotidentifiedandcouldappearanywhereinthetest.Therefore,youshouldtrytodoyourbestoneveryquestion.

Thetestincludesthetypesofquestionsfoundinthisguide,buttheformatandpresentationofthequestionsaredifferentonthecomputer.Whenyoutakethetest:

Onlyonequestionatatimeispresentedonthecomputerscreen.

Theanswerchoicesforthemultiple-choicequestionswillbeprecededbycircles,ratherthanbyletters.

Differentquestiontypesappearinrandomorderinthemultiple-choicesectionsofthetest.

Youmustselectyouranswerusingthecomputer.

Youmustchooseananswerandconfirmyourchoicebeforemovingontothenextquestion.

Youmaynotgobacktochangeanswerstopreviousquestions.

FormatoftheGMAT®Exam

Questions Timing

AnalyticalWriting

AnalysisofanArgument

1 30min.

IntegratedReasoning

Multi-SourceReasoning

TableAnalysis

GraphicsInterpretation

Two-PartAnalysis

12 30min.

Optionalbreak

Quantitative

ProblemSolving

DataSufficiency

37 75min.

Optionalbreak

Verbal

ReadingComprehension

CriticalReasoning

SentenceCorrection

41 75min.

TotalTime: 210min.

1.3WhatIstheContentoftheExamLike?ItisimportanttorecognizethattheGMATexamevaluatesskillsandabilitiesdevelopedoverarelativelylongperiodoftime.Althoughthesectionscontainquestionsthatarebasicallyverbalandmathematical,thecompletetestprovidesonemethodofmeasuringoverallability.

Keepinmindthatalthoughthequestionsinthisguidearearrangedbyquestiontypeandorderedfromeasytodifficult,thetestisorganizeddifferently.Whenyoutakethetest,youmayseedifferenttypesofquestionsinanyorder.

1.4QuantitativeSectionTheGMATQuantitativesectionmeasuresyourabilitytoreasonquantitatively,solvequantitativeproblems,andinterpretgraphicdata.

Twotypesofmultiple-choicequestionsareusedintheQuantitativesection:

ProblemSolving

DataSufficiency

ProblemsolvinganddatasufficiencyquestionsareintermingledthroughouttheQuantitativesection.Bothtypesofquestionsrequirebasicknowledgeof:

Arithmetic

Elementaryalgebra

Commonlyknownconceptsofgeometry

ToreviewthebasicmathematicalconceptsthatwillbetestedintheGMATQuantitativequestionsandfortest-takingtipsspecifictothequestiontypesintheQuantitativesectionoftheGMATexam,samplequestions,andanswerexplanations,seeTheOfficialGuideforGMAT®Review,2017Edition,orTheOfficialGuideforGMAT®QuantitativeReview,2017Edition;bothareavailableforpurchaseatmba.com.

http://mba.com

1.5VerbalSectionTheGMATVerbalsectionmeasuresyourabilitytoreadandcomprehendwrittenmaterial,toreasonandevaluatearguments,andtocorrectwrittenmaterialtoconformtostandardwrittenEnglish.BecausetheVerbalsectionincludesreadingsectionsfromseveraldifferentcontentareas,youmaybegenerallyfamiliarwithsomeofthematerial;however,neitherthereadingpassagesnorthequestionsassumedetailedknowledgeofthetopicsdiscussed.

Threetypesofmultiple-choicequestionsareusedintheVerbalsection:

ReadingComprehension

CriticalReasoning

SentenceCorrection

ThesequestiontypesareintermingledthroughouttheVerbalsection.

Fortest-takingtipsspecifictoeachquestiontypeintheVerbalsection,samplequestions,andanswerexplanations,seechapters3through5.

1.6WhatComputerSkillsWillINeed?YouonlyneedminimalcomputerskillstotaketheGMATComputer-AdaptiveTest(CAT).Youwillberequiredtotypeyouressaysonthecomputerkeyboardusingstandardword-processingkeystrokes.Inthemultiple-choicesections,youwillselectyourresponsesusingeitheryourmouseorthekeyboard.

TolearnmoreaboutthespecificskillsrequiredtotaketheGMATCAT,downloadthefreetest-preparationsoftwareavailableatmba.com.

http://mba.com

1.7WhatAretheTestCentersLike?TheGMATexamisadministeredatatestcenterprovidingthequietandprivacyofindividualcomputerworkstations.Youwillhavetheopportunitytotaketwooptionalbreaks—oneaftercompletingtheIntegratedReasoningsectionandanotherbetweentheQuantitativeandVerbalsections.Anerasablenotepadwillbeprovidedforyouruseduringthetest.

1.8HowAreScoresCalculated?YourGMATscoresaredeterminedby:

Thenumberofquestionsyouanswer

Whetheryouanswercorrectlyorincorrectly

Thelevelofdifficultyandotherstatisticalcharacteristicsofeachquestion

YourVerbal,Quantitative,andTotalGMATscoresaredeterminedbyacomplexmathematicalprocedurethattakesintoaccountthedifficultyofthequestionsthatwerepresentedtoyouandhowyouansweredthem.Whenyouanswertheeasierquestionscorrectly,yougetachancetoanswerharderquestions—makingitpossibletoearnahigherscore.Afteryouhavecompletedallthequestionsonthetest—orwhenyourtimeisup—thecomputerwillcalculateyourscores.YourscoresontheVerbalandQuantitativesectionsarecombinedtoproduceyourTotalscore.Ifyouhavenotrespondedtoallthequestionsinasection(37Quantitativequestionsor41Verbalquestions),yourscoreisadjusted,usingtheproportionofquestionsanswered.

YourGMATscoreincludesapercentilerankingthatcomparesyourskilllevelwithothertesttakersfromthepastthreeyears.Thepercentilerankofyourscoreshowsthepercentageofteststakenwithscoreslowerthanyourscore.EveryJuly,percentilerankingtablesareupdated.Visitmba.com/percentilerankingstoviewthemostrecentpercentilerankingstables.

http://mba.com/percentilerankings

1.9AnalyticalWritingAssessmentScoresTheAnalyticalWritingAssessmentconsistsofonewritingtask:AnalysisofanArgument.Youressayisscoredonascaleof0to6,with6beingthehighestscoreand0thelowest.Ascoreofzeroisgivenforresponsesthatareoff-topic,areinaforeignlanguage,merelyattempttocopythetopic,consistonlyofkeystrokecharacters,orareblank.

Thereaderswhoevaluatetheresponsesarecollegeanduniversityfacultymembersfromvarioussubjectmatterareas,includingmanagementeducation.Thesereadersreadholistically—thatis,theyrespondtotheoverallqualityofyourcriticalthinkingandwriting.(Fordetailsonhowreadersarequalified,visitmba.com.)Inaddition,responsesmaybescoredbyanautomatedscoringprogramdesignedtoreflectthejudgmentofexpertreaders.

Eachresponseisgiventwoindependentratings.Iftheratingsdifferbymorethanapoint,athirdreaderadjudicates.(Becauseofongoingtrainingandmonitoring,discrepantratingsarerare.)

YourAnalyticalWritingAssessmentandIntegratedReasoningscoresarecomputedandreportedseparatelyfromtheothersectionsofthetestandhavenoeffectonyourVerbal,Quantitative,orTotalscores.TheschoolsthatyouhavedesignatedtoreceiveyourscoresmayreceiveyourresponsestotheAnalyticalWritingAssessmentwithyourscorereport.Yourowncopyofyourscorereportwillnotincludecopiesofyourresponses.

http://mba.com

1.10TestDevelopmentProcessTheGMATexamisdevelopedbyexpertswhousestandardizedprocedurestoensurehigh-quality,widelyappropriatetestmaterial.Allquestionsaresubjectedtoindependentreviewsandarerevisedordiscardedasnecessary.Multiple-choicequestionsaretestedduringGMATtestadministrations.AnalyticalWritingAssessmenttasksaretestedonmba.comregistrantsandthenassessedfortheirfairnessandreliability.Formoreinformationontestdevelopment,seemba.com.

http://mba.com

http://mba.com

2.0HowtoPrepare

2.1HowCanIBestPreparetoTaketheTest?WeattheGraduateManagementAdmissionCouncil®(GMAC®)firmlybelievethatthetest-takingskillsyoucandevelopbyusingthisguide—andTheOfficialGuideforGMAT®Review,2017Edition,andTheOfficialGuideforGMAT®QuantitativeReview,2017Edition,ifyouwantadditionalpractice—areallyouneedtoperformyourbestwhenyoutaketheGMAT®

exam.ByansweringquestionsthathaveappearedontheGMATexambefore,youwillgainexperiencewiththetypesofquestionsyoumayseeonthetestwhenyoutakeit.Asyoupracticewiththisguide,youwilldevelopconfidenceinyourabilitytoreasonthroughthetestquestions.Noadditionaltechniquesorstrategiesareneededtodowellonthestandardizedtestifyoudevelopapracticalfamiliaritywiththeabilitiesitrequires.Simplybypracticingandunderstandingtheconceptsthatareassessedonthetest,youwilllearnwhatyouneedtoknowtoanswerthequestionscorrectly.

2.2WhatAboutPracticeTests?Becauseacomputer-adaptivetestcannotbepresentedinpaperform,wehavecreatedGMATPrep®softwaretohelpyouprepareforthetest.Thesoftwareisavailablefordownloadatnochargeforthosewhohavecreatedauserprofileonmba.com.Itisalsoprovidedonadisk,byrequest,toanyonewhohasregisteredfortheGMATexam.ThesoftwareincludestwopracticeGMATexamsplusadditionalpracticequestions,informationaboutthetest,andtutorialstohelpyoubecomefamiliarwithhowtheGMATexamwillappearonthecomputerscreenatthetestcenter.

Werecommendthatyoudownloadthesoftwareasyoustarttoprepareforthetest.Takeonepracticetesttofamiliarizeyourselfwiththetestandtogetanideaofhowyoumightscore.Afteryouhavestudiedusingthisbook,andasyourtestdateapproaches,takethesecondpracticetesttodeterminewhetheryouneedtoshiftyourfocustootherareasyouneedtostrengthen.

Myth-vs-FACT

M–YouneedveryadvancedmathskillstogetahighGMATscore.

F–ThemathskillstestedontheGMATexamarequitebasic.

TheGMATexamonlyrequiresbasicquantitativeanalyticskills.Youshouldreviewthemathskills(algebra,geometry,basicarithmetic)presentedinbothTheOfficialGuideforGMAT®Review,2017EditionandTheOfficialGuideforGMAT®QuantitativeReview,2017Edition,buttherequiredskilllevelislow.ThedifficultyofGMATQuantitativequestionsstemsfromthelogicandanalysisusedtosolvetheproblemsandnottheunderlyingmathskills.

http://mba.com

2.3WhereCanIGetAdditionalPractice?Ifyoucompleteallthequestionsinthisguideandthinkyouwouldlikeadditionalpractice,youmaypurchaseTheOfficialGuideforGMAT®Review,2017Edition,orTheOfficialGuideforGMAT®QuantitativeReview,2017Edition,andotherprepproductsatmba.com.

Note:TheremaybesomeoverlapbetweenthisbookandthereviewsectionsoftheGMATPrep®software.

http://mba.com

2.4GeneralTest-TakingSuggestionsSpecifictest-takingstrategiesforindividualquestiontypesarepresentedlaterinthisbook.Thefollowingaregeneralsuggestionstohelpyouperformyourbestonthetest.

1.UseyourtimewiselyAlthoughtheGMATexamstressesaccuracymorethanspeed,itisimportanttouseyourtimewisely.Onaverage,youwillhaveabout1¾minutesforeachVerbalquestion,about2minutesforeachQuantitativequestion,andabout2½minutesforeachIntegratedReasoningquestion,someofwhichhavemultiplequestions.Onceyoustartthetest,anonscreenclockwillcontinuouslycountthetimeyouhaveleft.Youcanhidethisdisplayifyouwant,butitisagoodideatochecktheclockperiodicallytomonitoryourprogress.Theclockwillautomaticallyalertyouwhen5minutesremainintheallottedtimeforthesectionyouareworkingon.

2.AnswerpracticequestionsaheadoftimeAfteryoubecomegenerallyfamiliarwithallquestiontypes,usethesamplequestionsinthisbooktopreparefortheactualtest.ItmaybeusefultotimeyourselfasyouanswerthepracticequestionstogetanideaofhowlongyouwillhaveforeachquestionduringtheactualGMATexamaswellastodeterminewhetheryouareansweringquicklyenoughtocompletethetestinthetimeallotted.

3.ReadalltestdirectionscarefullyThedirectionsexplainexactlywhatisrequiredtoanswereachquestiontype.Ifyoureadhastily,youmaymissimportantinstructionsandloweryourscores.Toreviewdirectionsduringthetest,clickontheHelpicon.Butbeawarethatthetimeyouspendreviewingdirectionswillcountagainstthetimeallottedforthatsectionofthetest.

4.ReadeachquestioncarefullyandthoroughlyBeforeyouansweramultiple-choicequestion,determineexactlywhatisbeingasked,theneliminatethewronganswersandselectthebestchoice.Neverskimaquestionorthepossibleanswers;skimmingmaycauseyoutomissimportantinformationornuances.

5.DonotspendtoomuchtimeonanyonequestionIfyoudonotknowthecorrectanswer,orifthequestionistootime-consuming,trytoeliminatechoicesyouknowarewrong,selectthebestoftheremaininganswerchoices,andmoveontothenextquestion.Trynottoworryabouttheimpactonyourscore—guessingmayloweryourscore,butnotfinishingthesectionwillloweryourscoremore.

Bearinmindthatifyoudonotfinishasectionintheallottedtime,youwillstillreceiveascore.

6.ConfirmyouranswersONLYwhenyouarereadytomoveonOnceyouhaveselectedyouranswertoamultiple-choicequestion,youwillbeaskedtoconfirmit.Onceyouconfirmyourresponse,youcannotgobackandchangeit.Youmaynotskipquestions,becausethecomputerselectseachquestiononthebasisofyourresponsestoprecedingquestions.

Myth-vs-FACT

M–Itismoreimportanttorespondcorrectlytothetestquestionsthanitistofinishthetest.

F–ThereisaseverepenaltyfornotcompletingtheGMATexam.

Ifyouarestumpedbyaquestion,giveityourbestguessandmoveon.Ifyouguessincorrectly,thecomputerprogramwilllikelygiveyouaneasierquestion,whichyouarelikelytoanswercorrectly,andthecomputerwillrapidlyreturntogivingyouquestionsmatchedtoyourability.Ifyoudon’tfinishthetest,yourscorewillbereducedgreatly.Failingtoanswerfiveverbalquestions,forexample,couldreduceyourscorefromthe91stpercentiletothe77thpercentile.Pacingisimportant.

Myth-vs-FACT

M–Thefirst10questionsarecriticalandyoushouldinvestthemosttimeonthose.

F–Allquestionscount.

Itistruethatthecomputer-adaptivetestingalgorithmusesthefirst10questionstoobtainaninitialestimateofyourability;however,thatisonlyaninitialestimate.Asyoucontinuetoanswerquestions,thealgorithmself-correctsbycomputinganupdatedestimateonthebasisofallthequestionsyouhaveanswered,andthenadministersitemsthatarecloselymatchedtothisnewestimateofyourability.Yourfinalscoreisbasedonallyourresponsesandconsidersthedifficultyofallthequestionsyouanswered.Takingadditionaltimeonthefirst10questionswillnotgamethesystemandcanhurtyourabilitytofinishthetest.

7.PlanyouressayanswersbeforeyoubegintowriteThebestwaytoapproachtheAnalysisofanArgumentsectionistoreadthedirectionscarefully,takeafewminutestothinkaboutthequestion,andplanaresponsebeforeyoubeginwriting.Takecaretoorganizeyourideasanddevelopthemfully,butleavetimetorereadyourresponseandmakeanyrevisionsthatyouthinkwouldimproveit.

3.0ReadingComprehensionReadingcomprehensionquestionsappearintheVerbalsectionoftheGMAT®exam.TheVerbalsectionusesmultiple-choicequestionstomeasureyourabilitytoreadandcomprehendwrittenmaterial,toreasonandevaluatearguments,andtocorrectwrittenmaterialtoconformtostandardwrittenEnglish.BecausetheVerbalsectionincludescontentfromavarietyoftopics,youmaybegenerallyfamiliarwithsomeofthematerial;however,neitherthepassagesnorthequestionsassumeknowledgeofthetopicsdiscussed.ReadingcomprehensionquestionsareintermingledwithcriticalreasoningandsentencecorrectionquestionsthroughouttheVerbalsectionofthetest.

Youwillhave75minutestocompletetheVerbalsection,oranaverageofabout1¾minutestoanswereachquestion.Keepinmind,however,thatyouwillneedtimetoreadthewrittenpassages—andthattimeisnotfactoredintothe1¾minuteaverage.Youshouldthereforeplantoproceedmorequicklythroughthereadingcomprehensionquestionsinordertogiveyourselfenoughtimetoreadthepassagesthoroughly.

Readingcomprehensionquestionsbeginwithwrittenpassagesupto350wordslong.Thepassagesdiscusstopicsfromthesocialsciences,humanities,thephysicalorbiologicalsciences,andsuchbusiness-relatedfieldsasmarketing,economics,andhumanresourcemanagement.Thepassagesareaccompaniedbyquestionsthatwillaskyoutointerpretthepassage,applytheinformationyougatherfromthereading,andmakeinferences(orinformedassumptions)basedonthereading.Forthesequestions,youwillseeasplitcomputerscreen.Thewrittenpassagewillremainvisibleontheleftsideaseachquestionassociatedwiththatpassageappearsinturnontherightside.Youwillseeonlyonequestionatatime,however.Thenumberofquestionsassociatedwitheachpassagemayvary.

Asyoumovethroughthereadingcomprehensionsamplequestions,trytodetermineaprocessthatworksbestforyou.Youmightbeginbyreadingapassagecarefullyandthoroughly,thoughsometest-takersprefertoskimthepassagesthefirsttimethrough,oreventoreadthefirstquestionbeforereadingthepassage.Youmaywanttorereadanysentencesthatpresentcomplicatedideasorintroducetermsthatarenewtoyou.Readeachquestionandseriesofanswerscarefully.Makesureyouunderstandexactlywhatthequestionisaskingandwhattheanswerchoicesare.

Ifyouneedto,youmaygobacktothepassageandreadanypartsthatarerelevanttoansweringthequestion.Specificportionsofthepassagesmaybehighlightedintherelatedquestions.

Thefollowingpagesdescribewhatreadingcomprehensionquestionsaredesignedtomeasure,presentthedirectionsthatwillprecedequestionsofthistype,anddescribethevariousquestiontypes.Thischapteralsoprovidestest-takingstrategies,samplequestions,anddetailedexplanationsofallthequestions.Theexplanationsfurtherillustratethewaysinwhichreadingcomprehensionquestionsevaluatebasicreadingskills.

3.1WhatIsMeasuredReadingcomprehensionquestionsmeasureyourabilitytounderstand,analyze,andapplyinformationandconceptspresentedinwrittenform.Allquestionsaretobeansweredonthebasisofwhatisstatedorimpliedinthereadingmaterial,andnospecificpriorknowledgeofthematerialisrequired.

TheGMATreadingcomprehensionquestionsevaluateyourabilitytodothefollowing:

Understandwordsandstatements.

Althoughthequestionsdonottestyourvocabulary(theywillnotaskyoutodefineterms),theydotestyourabilitytointerpretspecialmeaningsoftermsastheyareusedinthereadingpassages.ThequestionswillalsotestyourunderstandingoftheEnglishlanguage.Thesequestionsmayaskabouttheoverallmeaningofapassage.

Understandlogicalrelationshipsbetweenpointsandconcepts.

Thistypeofquestionmayaskyoutodeterminethestrongandweakpointsofanargumentorevaluatetherelativeimportanceofargumentsandideasinapassage.

Drawinferencesfromfactsandstatements.

Theinferencequestionswillaskyoutoconsiderfactualstatementsorinformationpresentedinareadingpassageand,onthebasisofthatinformation,reachconclusions.

Understandandfollowthedevelopmentofquantitativeconceptsastheyarepresentedinwrittenmaterial.

Thismayinvolvetheinterpretationofnumericaldataortheuseofsimplearithmetictoreachconclusionsaboutmaterialinapassage.

Therearesixkindsofreadingcomprehensionquestions,eachofwhichtestsadifferentskill.Thereadingcomprehensionquestionsaskaboutthefollowingareas:

MainideaEachpassageisaunifiedwhole—thatis,theindividualsentencesandparagraphssupportanddeveloponemainideaorcentralpoint.Sometimesyouwillbetoldthecentralpointinthepassageitself,andsometimesitwillbenecessaryforyoutodeterminethecentralpointfromtheoverallorganizationordevelopmentofthepassage.Youmaybeaskedinthiskindof

questionto

recognizeacorrectrestatement,orparaphrasing,ofthemainideaofapassage

identifytheauthor’sprimarypurposeorobjectiveinwritingthepassage

assignatitlethatsummarizes,brieflyandpointedly,themainideadevelopedinthepassage

SupportingideasThesequestionsmeasureyourabilitytocomprehendthesupportingideasinapassageanddifferentiatethemfromthemainidea.Thequestionsalsomeasureyourabilitytodifferentiateideasthatareexplicitlystatedinapassagefromideasthatareimpliedbytheauthorbutthatarenotexplicitlystated.Youmaybeaskedabout

factscitedinapassage

thespecificcontentofargumentspresentedbytheauthorinsupportofhisorherviews

descriptivedetailsusedtosupportorelaborateonthemainidea

Whereasquestionsaboutthemainideaaskyoutodeterminethemeaningofapassageasawhole,questionsaboutsupportingideasaskyoutodeterminethemeaningsofindividualsentencesandparagraphsthatcontributetothemeaningofthepassageasawhole.Inotherwords,thesequestionsaskforthemainpointofonesmallpartofthepassage.

InferencesThesequestionsaskaboutideasthatarenotexplicitlystatedinapassagebutareimpliedbytheauthor.Unlikequestionsaboutsupportingdetails,whichaskaboutinformationthatisdirectlystatedinapassage,inferencequestionsaskaboutideasormeaningsthatmustbeinferredfrominformationthatisdirectlystated.Authorscanmaketheirpointsinindirectways,suggestingideaswithoutactuallystatingthem.Inferencequestionsmeasureyourabilitytounderstandanauthor’sintendedmeaninginpartsofapassagewherethemeaningisonlysuggested.Thesequestionsdonotaskaboutmeaningsorimplicationsthatareremotefromthepassage;rather,theyaskaboutmeaningsthataredevelopedindirectlyorimplicationsthatarespecificallysuggestedbytheauthor.

Toanswerthesequestions,youmayhaveto

logicallytakestatementsmadebytheauthoronestepbeyondtheirliteralmeanings

recognizeanalternativeinterpretationofastatementmadebytheauthor

identifytheintendedmeaningofawordusedfigurativelyinapassage

Ifapassageexplicitlystatesaneffect,forexample,youmaybeaskedtoinferitscause.Iftheauthorcomparestwophenomena,youmaybeaskedtoinferthebasisforthecomparison.Youmaybeaskedtoinferthecharacteristicsofanoldpolicyfromanexplicitdescriptionofanewone.Whenyoureadapassage,therefore,youshouldconcentratenotonlyontheexplicitmeaningoftheauthor’swords,butalsoonthemoresubtlemeaningimpliedbythosewords.

ApplyinginformationtoacontextoutsidethepassageitselfThesequestionsmeasureyourabilitytodiscerntherelationshipsbetweensituationsorideaspresentedbytheauthorandothersituationsorideasthatmightparallelthoseinthepassage.Inthiskindofquestion,youmaybeaskedto

identifyahypotheticalsituationthatiscomparabletoasituationpresentedinthepassage

selectanexamplethatissimilartoanexampleprovidedinthepassage

applyideasgiveninthepassagetoasituationnotmentionedbytheauthor

recognizeideasthattheauthorwouldprobablyagreeordisagreewithonthebasisofstatementsmadeinthepassage

Unlikeinferencequestions,applicationquestionsuseideasorsituationsnottakenfromthepassage.Ideasandsituationsgiveninaquestionarelikethosegiveninthepassage,andtheyparallelideasandsituationsinthepassage;therefore,toanswerthequestion,youmustdomorethanrecallwhatyouread.Youmustrecognizetheessentialattributesofideasandsituationspresentedinthepassagewhentheyappearindifferentwordsandinanentirelynewcontext.

LogicalstructureThesequestionsrequireyoutoanalyzeandevaluatetheorganizationandlogicofapassage.Theymayaskyou

howapassageisconstructed—forinstance,doesitdefine,compareor

contrast,presentanewidea,orrefuteanidea?

howtheauthorpersuadesreaderstoaccepthisorherassertions

thereasonbehindtheauthor’suseofanyparticularsupportingdetail

toidentifyassumptionsthattheauthorismaking

toassessthestrengthsandweaknessesoftheauthor’sarguments

torecognizeappropriatecounterarguments

Thesequestionsmeasureyourabilitynotonlytocomprehendapassagebutalsotoevaluateitcritically.However,itisimportantforyoutorealizethatlogicalstructurequestionsdonotrelyonanykindofformallogic,nordotheyrequireyoutobefamiliarwithspecifictermsoflogicorargumentation.Youcananswerthesequestionsusingonlytheinformationinthepassageandcarefulreasoning.

AboutthestyleandtoneStyleandtonequestionsaskabouttheexpressionofapassageandabouttheideasinapassagethatmaybeexpressedthroughitsdiction—theauthor’schoiceofwords.Youmaybeaskedtodeducetheauthor’sattitudetoanidea,afact,orasituationfromthewordsthatheorsheusestodescribeit.Youmayalsobeaskedtoselectawordthataccuratelydescribesthetoneofapassage—forinstance,“critical,”“questioning,”“objective,”or“enthusiastic.”

Toanswerthistypeofquestion,youwillhavetoconsiderthelanguageofthepassageasawhole.Ittakesmorethanonepointed,criticalwordtomakethetoneofanentirepassage“critical.”Sometimes,styleandtonequestionsaskwhataudiencethepassagewasprobablyintendedfororwhattypeofpublicationitprobablyappearedin.Styleandtonequestionsmayapplytoonesmallpartofthepassageortothepassageasawhole.Toanswerthem,youmustaskyourselfwhatmeaningsarecontainedinthewordsofapassagebeyondtheliteralmeanings.Didtheauthorusecertainwordsbecauseoftheiremotionalcontent,orbecauseaparticularaudiencewouldexpecttohearthem?Remember,thesequestionsmeasureyourabilitytodiscernmeaningexpressedbytheauthorthroughhisorherchoiceofwords.

3.2Test-TakingStrategies1. Donotexpecttobecompletelyfamiliarwithanyofthematerialpresentedinreadingcomprehensionpassages.

Youmayfindsomepassageseasiertounderstandthanothers,butallpassagesaredesignedtopresentachallenge.Ifyouhavesomefamiliaritywiththematerialpresentedinapassage,donotletthisknowledgeinfluenceyourchoiceofanswerstothequestions.Answerallquestionsonthebasisofwhatisstatedorimpliedinthepassageitself.

2. Analyzeeachpassagecarefully,becausethequestionsrequireyoutohaveaspecificanddetailedunderstandingofthematerial.

Youmayfinditeasiertodotheanalysisfirst,beforemovingtothequestions.Or,youmayfindthatyouprefertoskimthepassagethefirsttimeandreadmorecarefullyonceyouunderstandwhataquestionasks.Youmayevenwanttoreadthequestionbeforereadingthepassage.Youshouldchoosethemethodmostsuitableforyou.

3. Focusonkeywordsandphrases,andmakeeveryefforttoavoidlosingthesenseofwhatisdiscussedinthepassage.

Keepthefollowinginmind:

Notehoweachfactrelatestoanideaoranargument.

Notewherethepassagemovesfromoneideatothenext.

Separatemainideasfromsupportingideas.

Determinewhatconclusionsarereachedandwhy.

4. Readthequestionscarefully,makingcertainthatyouunderstandwhatisasked.

Ananswerchoicethataccuratelyrestatesinformationinthepassagemaybeincorrectifitdoesnotanswerthequestion.Ifyouneedto,referbacktothepassageforclarification.

5. Readallthechoicescarefully.

Neverassumethatyouhaveselectedthebestanswerwithoutfirstreadingallthechoices.

6. Selectthechoicethatanswersthequestionbestintermsoftheinformationgiveninthepassage.

Donotrelyonoutsideknowledgeofthematerialtohelpyouanswerthe

questions.

7. Rememberthatcomprehension—notspeed—isthecriticalsuccessfactorwhenitcomestoreadingcomprehensionquestions.

3.3TheDirectionsThesearethedirectionsthatyouwillseeforreadingcomprehensionquestionswhenyoutaketheGMATexam.Ifyoureadthemcarefullyandunderstandthemclearlybeforegoingtositforthetest,youwillnotneedtospendtoomuchtimereviewingthemonceyouareatthetestcenterandthetestisunderway.

Thequestionsinthisgrouparebasedonthecontentofapassage.Afterreadingthepassage,choosethebestanswertoeachquestion.Answerallquestionsfollowingthepassageonthebasisofwhatisstatedorimpliedinthepassage.

3.4SampleQuestionsEachofthereadingcomprehensionquestionsisbasedonthecontentofapassage.Afterreadingthepassage,answerallquestionspertainingtoitonthebasisofwhatisstatedorimpliedinthepassage.Foreachquestion,selectthebestanswerofthechoicesgiven.

LineHumanbeings,bornwithadrivetoexploreandexperiment,thriveonlearning.Unfortunately,corporationsareorientedpredominantlytowardcontrollingemployees,notfosteringtheirlearning.(5)Ironically,thisorientationcreatestheveryconditionsthatpredestineemployeestomediocreperformances.Overtime,superiorperformancerequiressuperiorlearning,becauselong-termcorporatesurvivaldependsoncontinuallyexploring(10)newbusinessandorganizationalopportunitiesthatcancreatenewsourcesofgrowth.Tosurviveinthefuture,corporationsmustbecome“learningorganizations,”enterprisesthatareconstantlyabletoadaptandexpandtheir(15)capabilities.Toaccomplishthis,corporationsmustchangehowtheyviewemployees.Thetraditionalviewthatasinglecharismaticleadershouldsetthecorporation’sdirectionandmakekeydecisionsisrootedinanindividualisticworldview.Inan(20)increasinglyinterdependentworld,suchaviewisnolongerviable.Inlearningorganizations,thinkingandactingareintegratedatalljoblevels.Corporateleadershipisshared,andleadersbecomedesigners,teachers,andstewards,rolesrequiring(25)newskills:theabilitytobuildsharedvision,torevealandchallengeprevailingmentalmodels,andtofosterbroader,moreintegratedpatternsofthinking.Inshort,leadersinlearningorganizationsareresponsibleforbuildingorganizationsinwhich(30)employeesarecontinuallylearningnewskillsandexpandingtheircapabilitiestoshapetheirfuture.

Questions1-4refertothepassage.

1. Accordingtothepassage,traditionalcorporateleadersdifferfromleadersinlearningorganizationsinthattheformer

A. encourageemployeestoconcentrateondevelopingawiderangeofskills

B. enableemployeestorecognizeandconfrontdominantcorporatemodelsandtodevelopalternativemodels

C. makeimportantpolicydecisionsaloneandthenrequireemployeesinthecorporationtoabidebythosedecisions

D. instillconfidenceinemployeesbecauseoftheirwillingnesstomakeriskydecisionsandaccepttheirconsequences

E. areconcernedwithofferingemployeesfrequentadviceandcareerguidance

2. Whichofthefollowingbestdescribesemployeebehaviorencouragedwithinlearningorganizations,assuchorganizationsaredescribedinthepassage?

A. Carefullydefiningone’sjobdescriptionandtakingcaretoavoiddeviationsfromit

B. Designingmentoringprogramsthattrainnewemployeestofollowproceduresthathavebeenusedformanyyears

C. Concentratingone’seffortsonmasteringoneaspectofacomplicatedtask

D. Studyinganorganizationalproblem,preparingareport,andsubmittingittoacorporateleaderforapproval

E. Analyzingaproblemrelatedtoproductivity,makingadecisionaboutasolution,andimplementingthatsolution

3. Accordingtotheauthorofthepassage,corporateleadersofthefutureshoulddowhichofthefollowing?

A. Theyshouldencourageemployeestoputlong-termgoalsaheadofshort-termprofits.

B. Theyshouldexercisemorecontroloveremployeesinordertoconstrainproductioncosts.

C. Theyshouldredefineincentivesforemployees’performanceimprovement.

D. Theyshouldprovideemployeeswithopportunitiestogainnew

skillsandexpandtheircapabilities.

E. Theyshouldpromoteindividualmanagerswhoarecommittedtoestablishedcompanypolicies.

4. Theprimarypurposeofthepassageisto

A. endorseatraditionalcorporatestructure

B. introduceanewapproachtocorporateleadershipandevaluatecriticismsofit

C. explaincompetingtheoriesaboutmanagementpracticesandreconcilethem

D. contrasttwotypicalcorporateorganizationalstructures

E. proposeanalternativetoacommoncorporateapproach

LineTheGrossDomesticProduct(GDP),whichmeasuresthedollarvalueoffinishedgoodsandservicesproducedbyaneconomyduringagivenperiod,servesasthechiefindicatorofthe(5)economicwell-beingoftheUnitedStates.TheGDPassumesthattheeconomicsignificanceofgoodsandservicesliessolelyintheirprice,andthatthesegoodsandservicesaddtothenationalwell-being,notbecauseofanyintrinsicvaluetheymay(10)possess,butsimplybecausetheywereproducedandbought.Additionally,onlythosegoodsandservicesinvolvedinmonetarytransactionsareincludedintheGDP.Thus,theGDPignorestheeconomicutilityofsuchthingsasaclean(15)environmentandcohesivefamiliesandcommunities.Itisthereforenotmerelycoincidental,sincenationalpoliciesincapitalistandnoncapitalistcountriesalikearedependentonindicatorssuchastheGDP,thatboththeenvironmentandthesocial(20)structurehavebeenerodedinrecentdecades.NotonlydoestheGDPmaskthiserosion,itcanactuallyportrayitasaneconomicgain:anoilspilloffacoastalregion“adds”totheGDPbecauseitgeneratescommercialactivity.Inshort,thenation’s(25)centralmeasureofeconomicwell-beingworkslikea

calculatingmachinethataddsbutcannotsubtract.

Questions5–10refertothepassage.


A. identifywaysinwhichtheGDPcouldbemodifiedsothatitwouldserveasamoreaccurateindicatoroftheeconomicwell-beingoftheUnitedStates

B. suggestthattheGDP,inspiteofcertainshortcomings,isstillthemostreliableindicatoroftheeconomicwell-beingoftheUnitedStates

C. examinecrucialshortcomingsoftheGDPasanindicatoroftheeconomicwell-beingoftheUnitedStates

D. arguethatthegrowthoftheUnitedStateseconomyinrecentdecadeshasdiminishedtheeffectivenessoftheGDPasanindicatorofthenation’seconomicwell-being

E. discusshowtheGDPcametobeusedastheprimaryindicatoroftheeconomicwell-beingoftheUnitedStates

6. Whichofthefollowingbestdescribesthefunctionofthesecondsentenceofthepassageinthecontextofthepassageasawhole?

A. ItdescribesanassumptionabouttheGDPthatisdefendedinthecourseofthepassage.

B. ItcontributestoadiscussionoftheoriginsoftheGDP.

C. ItclarifiesacommonmisconceptionabouttheuseoftheGDP.

D. ItidentifiesamajorflawintheGDP.

E. ItsuggestsarevisiontothemethodofcalculatingtheGDP.

7. Itcanbeinferredthattheauthorofthepassagewouldagreewithwhichofthefollowingaboutthe“economicsignificance”ofthosegoodsandservicesthatareincludedintheGDP?

A. Itisacomprehensiveindicatorofanation’seconomicwell-being.

B. Itisnotaccuratelycapturedbythepriceofthosegoodsandservices.

C. Itisusuallylessthantheintrinsicvalueofthosegoodsandservices.

D. ItismoredifficulttocalculatethantheeconomicsignificanceofthosegoodsandservicesthatarenotincludedintheGDP.

E. Itiscalculateddifferentlyincapitalistcountriesthaninnoncapitalistcountries.

8. ThecomparisonoftheGDPtoacalculatingmachineservestodowhichofthefollowing?

A. RefuteanassertionthatthecalculationsinvolvedintheGDParerelativelycomplexinnature

B. IndicatethattheGDPisbettersuitedtorecordcertaintypesofmonetarytransactionsthanothers

C. SuggestthatitislikelythattheGDPwillbesupplantedbyother,moresophisticatedeconomicindicators

D. IllustratethepointthattheGDPhasnowayofmeasuringthedestructiveimpactofsuchthingsasoilspillsonthenation’seconomicwell-being

E. ExemplifyanassertionthattheGDPtendstoexaggeratetheamountofcommercialactivitygeneratedbysuchthingsasoilspills

9. ThepassageimpliesthatnationalpoliciesthatrelyheavilyoneconomicindicatorssuchastheGDPtendto

A. becomeincreasinglycapitalisticinnature

B. disregardtheeconomicimportanceofenvironmentalandsocialfactorsthatdonotinvolvemonetarytransactions

C. overestimatetheamountofcommercialactivitygeneratedbyenvironmentaldisasters

D. overestimatetheeconomicsignificanceofcohesivefamiliesandcommunities

E. assumethattheeconomicsignificanceofgoodsandservicesdoesnotliesolelyinthepriceofthosegoodsandservices

10. ItcanbeinferredthattheauthorofthepassagewouldagreewithwhichofthefollowingassessmentsoftheGDPasanindicatoroftheeconomicwell-beingoftheUnitedStates?

A. Itmaskssocialandenvironmentalerosionmorefullythanthechiefeconomicindicatorsofothernations.

B. Itisbasedoninaccurateestimationsofthepricesofmanygoodsandservices.

C. Itoverestimatestheamountofcommercialactivitythatisgenerated

intheUnitedStates.

D. Itisconducivetoerrorbecauseitconflatesdistincttypesofeconomicactivity.

E. Itdoesnottakeintoaccounttheeconomicutilityofcertainenvironmentalandsocialconditions.

LineIn1971researchershopingtopredictearthquakesintheshorttermbyidentifyingprecursoryphenomena(thosethatoccurafewdaysbeforelargequakesbutnototherwise)turnedtheirattentiontochanges(5)inseismicwavesthathadbeendetectedpriortoearthquakes.Anexplanationforsuchchangeswasofferedby“dilatancytheory,”basedonawell-knownphenomenonobservedinrocksinthelaboratory:asstressbuilds,microfracturesinrockclose,(10)decreasingtherock’svolume.Butasstresscontinuestoincrease,therockbeginstocrackandexpandinvolume,allowinggroundwatertoseepin,weakeningtherock.Accordingtothistheory,sucheffectscouldleadtoseveralprecursoryphenomenain(15)thefield,includingachangeinthevelocityofseismicwaves,andanincreaseinsmall,nearbytremors.Researchersinitiallyreportedsuccessinidentifyingthesepossibleprecursors,butsubsequentanalysesoftheirdataproveddisheartening.Seismicwaves(20)withunusualvelocitieswererecordedbeforesomeearthquakes,butwhilethehistoricalrecordconfirmsthatmostlargeearthquakesareprecededbyminortremors,theseforeshocksindicatenothingaboutthemagnitudeofanimpendingquakeandare(25)indistinguishablefromotherminortremorsthatoccurwithoutlargeearthquakes.Inthe1980s,someresearchersturnedtheireffortsfromshort-termtolong-termprediction.Notingthatearthquakestendtooccurrepeatedlyin(30)certainregions,LindhandBakerattemptedtoidentifypatternsofrecurrence,orearthquakecycles,onwhichtobasepredictions.Inastudyofearthquake-pronesitesalongtheSanAndreasFault,theydeterminedthatquakesoccurredatintervalsofapproximately22

(35)yearsnearonesiteandconcludedthattherewasa95percentprobabilityofanearthquakeinthatareaby1992.Theearthquakedidnotoccurwithinthetimeframepredicted,however.

LineEvidenceagainstthekindofregular(40)earthquakecyclesthatLindhandBakertriedtoestablishhascomefromarelativelynewfield,paleoseismology.Paleoseismologistshaveunearthedanddatedgeologicalfeaturessuchasfaultscarpsthatwerecausedby(45)earthquakesthousandsofyearsago.TheyhavedeterminedthattheaverageintervalbetweentenearthquakesthattookplaceatonesitealongtheSanAndreasFaultinthepasttwomillenniawas132years,butindividualintervalsrangedgreatly,(50)from44to332years.


11. Thepassageisprimarilyconcernedwith

A. explainingwhyonemethodofearthquakepredictionhasprovenmorepracticablethananalternativemethod

B. suggestingthataccurateearthquakeforecastingmustcombineelementsoflong-termandshort-termprediction

C. challengingtheusefulnessofdilatancytheoryforexplainingtheoccurrenceofprecursoryphenomena

D. discussingthedeficiencyoftwomethodsbywhichresearchershaveattemptedtopredicttheoccurrenceofearthquakes

E. describingthedevelopmentofmethodsforestablishingpatternsintheoccurrenceofpastearthquakes

12. Accordingtothepassage,laboratoryevidenceconcerningtheeffectsofstressonrocksmighthelpaccountfor

A. differencesinmagnitudeamongearthquakes

B. certainphenomenathatoccurpriortoearthquakes

C. variationsintheintervalsbetweenearthquakesinaparticulararea

D. differencesinthefrequencywithwhichearthquakesoccurinvariousareas

E. theunreliabilityofshort-termearthquakepredictions

13. Itcanbeinferredfromthepassagethatoneproblemwithusingprecursoryphenomenatopredictearthquakesisthatminortremors

A. typicallyoccursomedistancefromthesitesofthelargeearthquakesthatfollowthem

B. aredirectlylinkedtothemechanismsthatcauseearthquakes

C. aredifficulttodistinguishfrommajortremors

D. haveprovendifficulttomeasureaccurately

E. arenotalwaysfollowedbylargeearthquakes

14. Accordingtothepassage,someresearchersbasedtheirresearchaboutlong-termearthquakepredictiononwhichofthefollowingfacts?

A. Thehistoricalrecordconfirmsthatmostearthquakeshavebeenprecededbyminortremors.

B. TheaverageintervalbetweenearthquakesinoneregionoftheSanAndreasFaultis132years.

C. Someregionstendtobethesiteofnumerousearthquakesoverthecourseofmanyyears.

D. Changesinthevolumeofrockcanoccurasaresultofbuildingstressandcanleadtotheweakeningofrock.

E. Paleoseismologistshavebeenabletounearthanddategeologicalfeaturescausedbypastearthquakes.

15. Thepassagesuggestswhichofthefollowingaboutthepaleoseismologists’findingsdescribedinlines42–50?

A. Theysuggestthatthefrequencywithwhichearthquakesoccurredataparticularsitedecreasedsignificantlyoverthepasttwomillennia.

B. Theysuggestthatpaleoseismologistsmaysomedaybeabletomakereasonablyaccuratelong-termearthquakepredictions.

C. Theysuggestthatresearchersmaysomedaybeabletodeterminewhichpastoccurrencesofminortremorswereactuallyfollowedbylargeearthquakes.

D. Theysuggestthattherecurrenceofearthquakesinearthquake-

pronesitesistooirregulartoserveasabasisforearthquakeprediction.

E. Theyindicatethatresearchersattemptingtodeveloplong-termmethodsofearthquakepredictionhaveoverlookedimportantevidenceconcerningthecausesofearthquakes.

16. Theauthorimplieswhichofthefollowingabouttheabilityoftheresearchersmentionedinline18topredictearthquakes?

A. Theycanidentifywhenanearthquakeislikelytooccurbutnothowlargeitwillbe.

B. Theycanidentifytheregionswhereearthquakesarelikelytooccurbutnotwhentheywilloccur.

C. Theyareunabletodetermineeitherthetimeortheplacethatearthquakesarelikelytooccur.

D. Theyarelikelytobemoreaccurateatshort-termearthquakepredictionthanatlong-termearthquakeprediction.

E. Theycandeterminetheregionswhereearthquakeshaveoccurredinthepastbutnottheregionswheretheyarelikelytooccurinthefuture.

LineAkeydecisionrequiredofadvertisingmanagersiswhethera“hard-sell”or“soft-sell”strategyisappropriateforaspecifictargetmarket.Thehard-sellapproachinvolvestheuseofdirect,forceful(5)claimsregardingthebenefitsoftheadvertisedbrandovercompetitors’offerings.Incontrast,thesoft-sellapproachinvolvestheuseofadvertisingclaimsthatimplysuperioritymoresubtly.Onepositiveaspectofthehard-sellapproachis(10)itsuseofverysimpleandstraightforwardproductclaimspresentedasexplicitconclusions,withlittleroomforconfusionregardingtheadvertiser’smessage.However,someconsumersmayresentbeingtoldwhattobelieveandsomemaydistrust(15)themessage.Resentmentanddistrustoftenleadtocounterargumentationandtoboomerangeffectswhereconsumerscometobelieveconclusionsdiametricallyopposedtoconclusionsendorsedin

advertisingclaims.Bycontrast,theriskof(20)boomerangeffectsisgreatlyreducedwithsoft-sellapproaches.Onewaytoimplementthesoft-sellapproachistoprovideinformationthatimpliesthemainconclusionstheadvertiserwantstheconsumertodraw,butleavetheconclusions(25)themselvesunstated.Becauseconsumersareinvitedtomakeuptheirownminds,implicitconclusionsreducetheriskofresentment,distrust,andcounterargumentation.Recentresearchonconsumermemoryand(30)judgmentsuggestsanotheradvantageofimplicitconclusions.Beliefsorconclusionsthatareself-generatedaremoreaccessiblefrommemorythanbeliefsfromconclusionsprovidedexplicitlybyotherindividuals,andthushaveagreaterimpacton(35)judgmentanddecisionmaking.Moreover,self-generatedbeliefsareoftenperceivedasmoreaccurateandvalidthanthebeliefsofothers,becauseotherindividualsmaybeperceivedaslessknowledgeable,ormaybeperceivedas(40)manipulativeordeliberatelymisleading.

LineDespitetheseadvantages,implicitconclusionsmaynotalwaysbemoreeffectivethanexplicitconclusions.Oneriskisthatsomeconsumersmayfailtodrawtheirownconclusionsandthusmissthe(45)pointofthemessage.Inferentialactivityislikelyonlywhenconsumersaremotivatedandabletoengageineffortfulcognitiveprocesses.Anotherriskisthatsomeconsumersmaydrawconclusionsotherthantheoneintended.Evenifinferential(50)activityislikelythereisnoguaranteethatconsumerswillfollowthepathprovidedbytheadvertiser.Finally,athirdriskisthatconsumersmayinfertheintendedconclusionbutquestionthevalidityoftheirinference.


17. Itcanbeinferredfromthepassagethatonereasonanadvertisermightpreferahard-sellapproachtoasoft-sellapproachisthat

A. therisksofboomerangeffectsareminimizedwhentheconclusionsanadvertiserwantstheconsumertodrawarethemselvesleftunstated

B. counterargumentationislikelyfromconsumerswhofailtodrawtheirownconclusionsregardinganadvertisingclaim

C. inferentialactivityislikelytooccurevenifconsumersperceivethemselvestobemoreknowledgeablethantheindividualspresentingproductclaims

D. researchonconsumermemorysuggeststhattheexplicitconclusionsprovidedbyanadvertiserusingthehard-sellapproachhaveasignificantimpactondecisionmaking

E. theinformationpresentedbyanadvertiserusingthesoft-sellapproachmayimplydifferentconclusionstodifferentconsumers

18. Eachofthefollowingismentionedinthepassageasacharacteristicofthehard-sellapproachEXCEPT:

A. Itsoverallmessageisreadilygrasped.

B. Itappealstoconsumers’knowledgeabouttheproduct.

C. Itmakesexplicitclaimsthattheadvertisedbrandissuperiortootherbrands.

D. Itusesstatementsthatareexpressedveryclearly.

E. Itmakesclaimsintheformofdirectconclusions.

19. Itcanbeinferredfromthepassagethatadvertiserscouldreduceoneoftherisksdiscussedinthelastparagraphiftheywereabletoprovide

A. motivationforconsumerstothinkabouttheadvertisement’smessage

B. informationthatimpliestheadvertiser’sintendedconclusionbutleavesthatconclusionunstated

C. subtleevidencethattheadvertisedproductissuperiortothatofcompetitors

D. informationcomparingtheadvertisedproductwithitscompetitors

E. opportunityforconsumerstogeneratetheirownbeliefsor

conclusions


A. pointouttherisksinvolvedintheuseofaparticularadvertisingstrategy

B. makeacaseforthesuperiorityofoneadvertisingstrategyoveranother

C. illustratethewaysinwhichtwoadvertisingstrategiesmaybeimplemented

D. presenttheadvantagesanddisadvantagesoftwoadvertisingstrategies

E. contrastthetypesoftargetmarketsforwhichtwoadvertisingstrategiesareappropriate

21. Whichofthefollowingbestdescribesthefunctionofthesentenceinlines25–28inthecontextofthepassageasawhole?

A. Itreiteratesadistinctionbetweentwoadvertisingstrategiesthatismadeinthefirstparagraph.

B. Itexplainshowaparticularstrategyavoidsadrawbackdescribedearlierintheparagraph.

C. Itsuggeststhatariskdescribedearlierintheparagraphislessseriousthansomeresearchersbelieveittobe.

D. Itoutlineswhythestrategydescribedintheprevioussentenceinvolvescertainrisksforanadvertiser.

E. Itintroducesanargumentthatwillberefutedinthefollowingparagraph.

22. Itcanbeinferredfromthepassagethatonesituationinwhichtheboomerangeffectoftenoccursiswhenconsumers

A. havebeenexposedtoforcefulclaimsthatarediametricallyopposedtothoseinanadvertiser’smessage

B. havepreviousself-generatedbeliefsorconclusionsthatarereadilyaccessiblefrommemory

C. aresubjectedtoadvertisingmessagesthataretargetedatspecificmarketstowhichthoseconsumersdonotbelong

D. areconfusedregardingthepointoftheadvertiser’smessage

E. cometoviewtheadvertiser’smessagewithsuspicion

23. Itcanbeinferredfromthepassagethattheresearchmentionedinline29supportswhichofthefollowingstatements?

A. Implicitconclusionsaremorelikelytocaptureaccuratelythepointoftheadvertiser’smessagethanareexplicitconclusions.

B. Counterargumentationislesslikelytooccurifanindividual’sbeliefsorconclusionsarereadilyaccessiblefrommemory.

C. Thehard-sellapproachresultsinconclusionsthataremoredifficultfortheconsumertorecallthanareconclusionsresultingfromthesoft-sellapproach.

D. Whenthebeliefsofothersarepresentedasdefiniteandforcefulclaims,theyareperceivedtobeasaccurateasself-generatedbeliefs.

E. Despitetheadvantagesofimplicitconclusions,thehard-sellapproachinvolvesfewerrisksfortheadvertiserthandoesthesoft-sellapproach.

LineCoralreefsareoneofthemostfragile,biologicallycomplex,anddiversemarineecosystemsonEarth.Thisecosystemisoneofthefascinatingparadoxesofthebiosphere:howdoclear,andthusnutrient-(5)poor,waterssupportsuchprolificandproductivecommunities?Partoftheanswerlieswithinthetissuesofthecoralsthemselves.Symbioticcellsofalgaeknownaszooxanthellaecarryoutphotosynthesisusingthemetabolicwastesofthe(10)corals,therebyproducingfoodforthemselves,fortheircoralhosts,andevenforothermembersofthereefcommunity.Thissymbioticprocessallowsorganismsinthereefcommunitytousesparsenutrientresourcesefficiently.(15)Unfortunatelyforcoralreefs,however,avarietyofhumanactivitiesarecausingworldwidedegradationofshallowmarinehabitatsbyaddingnutrientstothewater.Agriculture,slash-and-burnlandclearing,sewagedisposal,andmanufacturing(20)thatcreateswasteby-productsallincreasenutrientloadsinthesewaters.Typicalsymptomsofreef

declinearedestabilizedherbivorepopulationsandanincreasingabundanceofalgaeandfilter-feedinganimals.Declinesinreefcommunitiesare(25)consistentwithobservationsthatnutrientinputisincreasingindirectproportiontogrowinghumanpopulations,therebythreateningreefcommunitiessensitivetosubtlechangesinnutrientinputtotheirwaters.



A. describingtheeffectsofhumanactivitiesonalgaeincoralreefs

B. explaininghowhumanactivitiesareposingathreattocoralreefcommunities

C. discussingtheprocessbywhichcoralreefsdeteriorateinnutrient-poorwaters

D. explaininghowcoralreefsproducefoodforthemselves

E. describingtheabundanceofalgaeandfilter-feedinganimalsincoralreefareas

25. Thepassagesuggestswhichofthefollowingaboutcoralreefcommunities?

A. Coralreefcommunitiesmayactuallybemorelikelytothriveinwatersthatarerelativelylowinnutrients.

B. Thenutrientsonwhichcoralreefcommunitiesthriveareonlyfoundinshallowwaters.

C. Humanpopulationgrowthhasledtochangingoceantemperatures,whichthreatenscoralreefcommunities.

D. Thegrowthofcoralreefcommunitiestendstodestabilizeunderwaterherbivorepopulations.

E. Coralreefcommunitiesaremorecomplexanddiversethanmostecosystemslocatedondryland.

26. Theauthorrefersto“filter-feedinganimals”(lines23–24)inorderto

A. provideanexampleofacharacteristicsignofreefdeterioration

B. explainhowreefcommunitiesacquiresustenanceforsurvival

C. identifyafactorthathelpsherbivorepopulationsthrive

D. indicateacauseofdecreasingnutrientinputinwatersthatreefsinhabit

E. identifymembersofcoralreefcommunitiesthatrelyoncoralreefsfornutrients

27. Accordingtothepassage,whichofthefollowingisafactorthatisthreateningthesurvivalofcoralreefcommunities?

A. Thewaterstheyinhabitcontainfewnutrientresources.

B. Adeclineinnutrientinputisdisruptingtheirsymbioticrelationshipwithzooxanthellae.

C. Thedegradedwatersoftheirmarinehabitatshavereducedtheirabilitytocarryoutphotosynthesis.

D. Theyaretoobiologicallycomplextosurviveinhabitatswithminimalnutrientinput.

E. Wasteby-productsresultinanincreaseinnutrientinputtoreefcommunities.

28. Itcanbeinferredfromthepassagethattheauthordescribescoralreefcommunitiesasparadoxicalmostlikelyforwhichofthefollowingreasons?

A. Theyarethrivingeventhoughhumanactivitieshavedepletedthenutrientsintheirenvironment.

B. Theyareabletosurviveinspiteofanoverabundanceofalgaeinhabitingtheirwaters.

C. Theyareabletosurviveinanenvironmentwithlimitedfoodresources.

D. Theirmetabolicwastescontributetothedegradationofthewatersthattheyinhabit.

E. Theyaredecliningevenwhenthewatersurroundingthemremainsclear.

LineSupposewewereinaspaceshipinfreefall,whereobjectsareweightless,andwantedtoknowasmallsolidobject’smass.Wecouldnotsimplybalancethatobjectagainstanotherofknownweight,aswe

(5)wouldonEarth.Theunknownmasscouldbedetermined,however,byplacingtheobjectonaspringscaleandswingingthescaleinacircleattheendofastring.Thescalewouldmeasurethetensioninthestring,whichwoulddependonboth(10)thespeedofrevolutionandthemassoftheobject.Thetensionwouldbegreater,thegreaterthemassorthegreaterthespeedofrevolution.Fromthemeasuredtensionandspeedofwhirling,wecoulddeterminetheobject’smass.(15)Astronomersuseananalogousprocedureto“weigh”double-starsystems.Thespeedwithwhichthetwostarsinadouble-starsystemcircleoneanotherdependsonthegravitationalforcebetweenthem,whichholdsthesystemtogether.This(20)attractiveforce,analogoustothetensioninthestring,isproportionaltothestars’combinedmass,accordingtoNewton’slawofgravitation.Byobservingthetimerequiredforthestarstocircleeachother(theperiod)andmeasuringthedistance(25)betweenthem,wecandeducetherestrainingforce,andhencethemasses.


29. Itcanbeinferredfromthepassagethatthetwoproceduresdescribedinthepassagehavewhichofthefollowingincommon?

A. Theyhavebeenappliedinpractice.

B. Theyrelyontheuseofadevicethatmeasurestension.

C. Theirpurposeistodetermineanunknownmass.

D. Theycanonlybeappliedtosmallsolidobjects.

E. Theyinvolveattractionbetweenobjectsofsimilarmass.

30. Accordingtothepassage,thetensioninthestringmentionedinlines8–9isanalogoustowhichofthefollowingaspectsofadouble-starsystem?

A. Thespeedwithwhichonestarorbitstheother

B. Thegravitationalattractionbetweenthestars

C. Theamountoftimeittakesforthestarstocircleoneanother

D. Thedistancebetweenthetwostars

E. Thecombinedmassofthetwostars

31. Whichofthefollowingbestdescribestherelationshipbetweenthefirstandthesecondparagraphofthepassage?

A. Thefirstparagraphprovidesanillustrationusefulforunderstandingaproceduredescribedinthesecondparagraph.

B. Thefirstparagraphdescribesahypotheticalsituationwhoseplausibilityistestedinthesecondparagraph.

C. Thefirstparagraphevaluatestheusefulnessofaprocedurewhoseapplicationisdescribedfurtherinthesecondparagraph.

D. Thesecondparagraphprovidesevidencetosupportaclaimmadeinthefirstparagraph.

E. Thesecondparagraphanalyzesthepracticalimplicationsofamethodologyproposedinthefirstparagraph.

32. Theauthorofthepassagementionsobservationsregardingtheperiodofadouble-starsystemasbeingusefulfordetermining

A. thedistancebetweenthetwostarsinthesystem

B. thetimeittakesforeachstartorotateonitsaxis

C. thesizeoftheorbitthesystem’stwostarsoccupy

D. thedegreeofgravitationalattractionbetweenthesystem’sstars

E. thespeedatwhichthestarsystemmovesthroughspace

LineHomeostasis,ananimal’smaintenanceofcertaininternalvariableswithinanacceptablerange,particularlyinextremephysicalenvironments,haslonginterestedbiologists.Thedesertratandthe(5)camelinthemostwater-deprivedenvironments,andmarinevertebratesinanall-waterenvironment,encounterthesameregulatoryproblem:maintainingadequateinternalfluidbalance.Fordesertratsandcamels,theproblemis(10)conservationofwaterinanenvironmentwherestandingwaterisnonexistent,temperatureishigh,andhumidityislow.Despitethesehandicaps,

desertratsareabletomaintaintheosmoticpressureoftheirblood,aswellastheirtotalbody-(15)watercontent,atapproximatelythesamelevelsasotherrats.Onecountermeasureisbehavioral:theseratsstayinburrowsduringthehotpartoftheday,thusavoidinglossoffluidthroughpantingorsweating,whichareregulatorymechanismsfor(20)maintaininginternalbodytemperaturebyevaporativecooling.Also,desertrats’kidneyscanexcreteaurinehavingtwiceashighasaltcontentasseawater.Camels,ontheotherhand,relymoreonsimple(25)endurance.Theycannotstorewater,andtheirrelianceonanentirelyunexceptionalkidneyresultsinarateofwaterlossthroughrenalfunctionsignificantlyhigherthanthatofdesertrats.Asaresult,camelsmusttoleratelossesinbodywater(30)ofupto30percentoftheirbodyweight.Nevertheless,camelsdorelyonaspecialmechanismtokeepwaterlosswithinatolerablerange:bysweatingandpantingonlywhentheirbodytemperatureexceedsthatwhichwouldkilla(35)human,theyconserveinternalwater.Marinevertebratesexperiencedifficultywiththeirwaterbalancebecausethoughthereisnoshortageofseawatertodrink,theymustdrinkalotofittomaintaintheirinternalfluidbalance.Butthe(40)excesssaltsfromtheseawatermustbedischargedsomehow,andthekidneysofmostmarinevertebratesareunabletoexcreteaurineinwhichthesaltsaremoreconcentratedthaninseawater.Mostoftheseanimalshavespecialsalt-secreting(45)organsoutsidethekidneythatenablethemtoeliminateexcesssalt.


33. Whichofthefollowingmostaccuratelystatesthepurposeofthepassage?

A. Tocomparetwodifferentapproachestothestudyofhomeostasis

B. Tosummarizethefindingsofseveralstudiesregardingorganisms’maintenanceofinternalvariablesinextremeenvironments

C. Toargueforaparticularhypothesisregardingvariousorganisms’conservationofwaterindesertenvironments

D. Tociteexamplesofhowhomeostasisisachievedbyvariousorganisms

E. Todefendanewtheoryregardingthemaintenanceofadequatefluidbalance

34. Itcanbeinferredfromthepassagethatsomemechanismsthatregulateinternalbodytemperature,likesweatingandpanting,canleadtowhichofthefollowing?

A. Ariseintheexternalbodytemperature

B. Adropinthebody’sinternalfluidlevel

C. Adecreaseintheosmoticpressureoftheblood

D. Adecreaseintheamountofrenalwaterloss

E. Adecreaseintheurine’ssaltcontent

35. Itcanbeinferredfromthepassagethattheauthorcharacterizesthecamel’skidneyas“entirelyunexceptional”(line26)primarilytoemphasizethatit

A. functionsmuchasthekidneyofaratfunctions

B. doesnotaidthecamelincopingwiththeexceptionalwaterlossresultingfromtheextremeconditionsofitsenvironment

C. doesnotenablethecameltoexcreteasmuchsaltasdothekidneysofmarinevertebrates

D. issimilarinstructuretothekidneysofmostmammalslivinginwater-deprivedenvironments

E. requiresthehelpofotherorgansineliminatingexcesssalt

LineIn1994,ateamofscientistsledbyDavidMcKaybeganstudyingthemeteoriteALH84001,whichhadbeendiscoveredinAntarcticain1984.Twoyearslater,theMcKayteamannouncedthatALH84001,(5)whichscientistsgenerallyagreeoriginatedonMars,

containedcompellingevidencethatlifeonceexistedonMars.ThisevidenceincludesthediscoveryoforganicmoleculesinALH84001,thefirsteverfoundinMartianrock.Organic(10)molecules—complex,carbon-basedcompounds—formthebasisforterrestriallife.TheorganicmoleculesfoundinALH84001arepolycyclicaromatichydrocarbons,orPAHs.Whenmicrobesdie,theirorganicmaterialoftendecaysintoPAHs.(15)SkepticismabouttheMcKayteam’sclaimremains,however.Forexample,ALH84001hasbeenonEarthfor13,000years,suggestingtosomescientiststhatitsPAHsmighthaveresultedfromterrestrialcontamination.However,McKay’s(20)teamhasdemonstratedthattheconcentrationofPAHsincreasesasonelooksdeeperintoALH84001,contrarytowhatonewouldexpectfromterrestrialcontamination.Theskeptics’strongestargument,however,isthatprocessesunrelatedto(25)organiclifecaneasilyproducealltheevidencefoundbyMcKay’steam,includingPAHs.Forexample,starformationproducesPAHs.Moreover,PAHsfrequentlyappearinothermeteorites,andnooneattributestheirpresencetolifeprocesses.Yet(30)McKay’steamnotesthattheparticularcombinationofPAHsinALH84001ismoresimilartothecombinationsproducedbydecayingorganismsthantothoseoriginatingfromnonbiologicalprocesses.



A. describenewwaysofstudyingthepossibilitythatlifeonceexistedonMars

B. reviseatheoryregardingtheexistenceoflifeonMarsinlightofnewevidence

C. reconcileconflictingviewpointsregardingthepossibilitythatlifeonceexistedonMars

D. evaluatearecentlyproposedargumentconcerningtheoriginof

ALH84001

E. describeacontroversyconcerningthesignificanceofevidencefromALH84001

37. ThepassageassertswhichofthefollowingabouttheclaimthatALH84001originatedonMars?

A. ItwasinitiallyproposedbytheMcKayteamofscientists.

B. Itisnotamatterofwidespreadscientificdispute.

C. IthasbeenquestionedbysomeskepticsoftheMcKayteam’swork.

D. IthasbeenunderminedbyrecentworkonPAHs.

E. ItisincompatiblewiththefactthatALH84001hasbeenonEarthfor13,000years.

38. ThepassagesuggeststhatthefactthatALH84001hasbeenonEarthfor13,000yearshasbeenusedbysomescientiststosupportwhichofthefollowingclaimsaboutALH84001?

A. ALH84001maynothaveoriginatedonMars.

B. ALH84001containsPAHsthataretheresultofnonbiologicalprocesses.

C. ALH84001maynothavecontainedPAHswhenitlandedonEarth.

D. TheorganicmoleculesfoundinALH84001arenotPAHs.

E. TheorganicmoleculesfoundinALH84001couldnotbetheresultofterrestrialcontamination.

39. ThepassagesuggeststhatifameteoritecontainedPAHsthatweretheresultofterrestrialcontamination,thenonewouldexpectwhichofthefollowingtobetrue?

A. ThemeteoritewouldhavebeenonEarthformorethan13,000years.

B. ThemeteoritewouldhaveoriginatedfromasourceotherthanMars.

C. ThePAHscontainedinthemeteoritewouldhaveoriginatedfromnonbiologicalprocesses.

D. ThemeteoritewouldcontainfewerPAHsthanmostothermeteoritescontain.

E. ThePAHscontainedinthemeteoritewouldbeconcentratedtoward

themeteorite’ssurface.

40. Whichofthefollowingbestdescribesthefunctionofthelastsentenceofthefirstparagraph?

A. ItidentifiesapossibleorganicsourceforthePAHsfoundinALH84001.

B. ItdescribesafeatureofPAHsthatisnotsharedbyothertypesoforganicmolecules.

C. Itexplainshowacharacteristiccommontomostmeteoritesoriginates.

D. ItsuggestshowtheterrestrialcontaminationofALH84001mighthavetakenplace.

E. ItpresentsevidencethatunderminestheclaimthatlifeonceexistedonMars.

41. ThepassagesuggeststhatMcKay’steamwouldagreewithwhichofthefollowingregardingthePAHsproducedbynonorganicprocesses?

A. ThesePAHsarenotlikelytobefoundinanymeteoritethathasbeenonEarthfor13,000yearsormore.

B. ThesePAHsarenotlikelytobefoundinanymeteoritethatoriginatedfromMars.

C. ThesePAHsarenotlikelytobeproducedbystarformation.

D. ThesePAHsarelikelytobefoundincombinationsthatdistinguishthemfromthePAHsproducedbyorganicprocesses.

E. ThesePAHsarelikelytobefoundinfewermeteoritesthanthePAHsproducedbyorganicprocesses.

LineIncurrenthistoriography,thepictureofaconsistent,unequivocaldeclineinwomen’sstatuswiththeadventofcapitalismandindustrializationisgivingwaytoananalysisthatnotonlyemphasizesbothchange(whether(5)improvementordecline)andcontinuitybutalsoaccountsforgeographicalandoccupationalvariation.Thehistoryofwomen’sworkinEnglishfarmhousecheesemakingbetween1800and1930isacaseinpoint.InherinfluentialWomenWorkersandtheIndustrial

(10)Revolution(1930),Pinchbeckarguedthattheagriculturalrevolutionoftheeighteenthandearlynineteenthcenturies,withitsattendantspecializationandenlargedscaleofoperation,curtailedwomen’sparticipationinthebusinessofcheeseproduction.Earlier,she(15)maintained,womenhadconcernedthemselveswithfeedingcows,rearingcalves,andevensellingthecheeseinlocalmarketsandfairs.Pinchbeckthoughtthattheadventofspecializationmeantthatwomen’sworkincheesedairyingwasreducedsimplyto(20)processingthemilk.“Dairymen”(anewsocialcategory)raisedandfedcowsandsoldthecheesethroughfactors,whowerealsomen.Withthisnarrowingofthescopeofwork,Pinchbeckbelieved,womenlostbusinessability,independence,andinitiative.(25)ThoughPinchbeckportrayedprecapitalist,preindustrialconditionsassuperiortowhatfollowed,recentscholarshiphasseriouslyquestionedthenotionofagoldenageforwomeninprecapitalistsociety.Forexample,scholarsnotethatwomen’scontrolseldom(30)extendedtothedisposaloftheproceedsoftheirwork.Inthecaseofcheese,theriseoffactorsmayhavecompromisedwomen’sabilitytomarketcheeseatfairs.Butmerelysellingthecheesedidnotnecessarilyimplyaccesstothemoney:Davidoffcites(35)thecaseofanEssexmanwhoappropriatedallbutafractionofthemoneyfromhiswife’scheesesales.Byfocusingonsomewhatperipheraloperations,moreover,Pinchbeckmissedasubstantialelementofcontinuityinwomen’sparticipation:throughoutthe(40)periodwomendidthecentralworkofactuallymakingcheese.TheirpersistenceinEnglishcheesedairyingcontrastswithwomen’searlydisappearancefromarableagricultureinsoutheastEnglandandfromAmericancheesedairying.Comparingthese(45)threedivergentdevelopmentsyieldssomereasonsforthedifferencesamongthem.Englishcheese-makingwomenworkedinasettinginwhichculturalvalues,agriculturalconditions,andthenatureoftheirworkcombinedtosupporttheircontinued

(50)participation.Intheothercases,oneormoreoftheseelementswaslacking.



A. presentrecentlydiscoveredevidencethatsupportsaconventionalinterpretationofahistoricalperiod

B. describehowreinterpretationsofavailableevidencehavereinvigoratedaonce-discreditedscholarlyposition

C. explainwhysomehistorianshavetendedtoemphasizechangeratherthancontinuityindiscussingaparticularperiod

D. explorehowchangesinaparticularoccupationservetocountertheprevailingviewofahistoricalperiod

E. examineaparticularareaofhistoricalresearchinordertoexemplifyageneralscholarlytrend

43. RegardingEnglishlocalmarketsandfairs,whichofthefollowingcanbeinferredfromthepassage?

A. Bothbeforeandaftertheagriculturalrevolution,thesellersofagriculturalproductsatthesevenuesweremen.

B. Knowingwhotheactivesellerswereatthesevenuesmaynotgiveareliableindicationofwhocontrolledtherevenuefromthesales.

C. TherewerenoparallelinstitutionsatwhichAmericancheesemakerscouldselltheirownproducts.

D. Priortotheagriculturalrevolution,thesellersofagriculturalproductsatthesevenuesweregenerallytheproducersthemselves.

E. Priortotheagriculturalrevolution,womensoldnotonlycheesebutalsoproductsofarableagricultureatthesevenues.

44. ThepassagedescribestheworkofPinchbeckprimarilyinorderto

A. demonstratethatsomeoftheconclusionsreachedbyrecenthistorianswereanticipatedinearlierscholarship

B. provideaninstanceoftheviewpointthat,accordingtothepassage’sauthor,isbeingsuperseded

C. illustratethewaysinwhichrecenthistorianshavebuiltontheworkoftheirpredecessors

D. provideapointofreferenceforsubsequentscholarshiponwomen’sworkduringtheagriculturalrevolution

E. showtheeffectthatthespecializationintroducedintheagriculturalandindustrialrevolutionshadonwomen’swork

45. Itcanbeinferredfromthepassagethatwomendidworkin

A. Americancheesemakingatsomepointpriortoindustrialization

B. arableagricultureinnorthernEnglandbothbeforeandaftertheagriculturalrevolution

C. arableagricultureinsoutheastEnglandaftertheagriculturalrevolution,inthoselocalesinwhichculturalvaluessupportedtheirparticipation

D. thesaleofcheeseatlocalmarketsinEnglandevenaftertheagriculturalrevolution

E. someareasofAmericancheesedairyingafterindustrialization

LineExactlywhenintheearlymoderneraNativeAmericansbeganexchanginganimalfurswithEuropeansforEuropean-madegoodsisuncertain.Whatisfairlycertain,eventhoughtheyleft(5)nowrittenevidenceofhavingdoneso,isthatthefirstEuropeanstoconductsuchtradeduringthemodernperiodwerefishingcrewsworkingthewatersaroundNewfoundland.Archaeologistshadnoticedthatsixteenth-centuryNativeAmerican(10)siteswerestrewnwithironboltsandmetalpins.Onlylater,uponreadingNicolasDenys’s1672accountofseventeenth-centuryEuropeansettlementsinNorthAmerica,didarchaeologistsrealizethatsixteenth-centuryEuropeanfishing(15)crewshaddismantledandexchangedpartsoftheirshipsforfurs.BythetimeEuropeanssailingtheAtlanticcoastofNorthAmericafirstdocumentedthefurtrade,itwasapparentlywellunderway.Thefirsttorecord(20)suchtrade—thecaptainofaPortuguesevesselsailingfromNewfoundlandin1501—observedthataNativeAmericanaboardtheshipworeVenetiansilverearrings.Anotherearlychroniclernotedin1524that

(25)NativeAmericanslivingalongthecoastofwhatisnowNewEnglandhadbecomeselectiveaboutEuropeantradegoods:theyacceptedonlyknives,fishhooks,andsharpmetal.BythetimeCartiersailedtheSaintLawrenceRivertenyearslater,NativeAmericanshad(30)tradedwithEuropeansformorethanthirtyyears,perhapshalfacentury.


46. TheauthorofthepassagedrawsconclusionsaboutthefurtradeinNorthAmericafromallofthefollowingsourcesEXCEPT

A. Cartier’saccountsoftradingwithNativeAmericans

B. aseventeenth-centuryaccountofEuropeansettlements

C. asixteenth-centuryaccountwrittenbyasailingvesselcaptain

D. archaeologicalobservationsofsixteenth-centuryNativeAmericansites

E. asixteenth-centuryaccountofNativeAmericansinwhatisnowNewEngland

47. ThepassagesuggeststhatwhichofthefollowingispartiallyresponsibleforthedifficultyinestablishingtheprecisedatewhenthefurtradeinNorthAmericabegan?

A. AlackofwrittenaccountsbeforethatofNicolasDenysin1672

B. Alackofwrittendocumentationbefore1501

C. AmbiguitiesintheevidencefromNativeAmericansources

D. UncertaintyaboutNativeAmericantradenetworks

E. UncertaintyabouttheoriginofartifactssupposedlytradedbyEuropeanfishingcrewsforfurs

48. Whichofthefollowing,iftrue,moststrengthenstheauthor’sassertioninthefirstsentenceofthesecondparagraph?

A. WhenEuropeansretracedCartier’svoyageinthefirstyearsoftheseventeenthcentury,theyfrequentlytradedwithNativeAmericans.

B. Fursfrombeavers,whichwereplentifulinNorthAmericabutnearlyextinctinEurope,becameextremelyfashionableinEuropeinthefinaldecadesofthesixteenthcentury.

C. Firingarmswererarelyfoundonsixteenth-centuryNativeAmericansitesoronEuropeanlistsoftradinggoodssincesucharmsrequiredfrequentmaintenanceandrepair.

D. EuropeansandNativeAmericanshadestablishedtradeprotocols,suchasbodylanguageassuringoneanotheroftheirpeacefulintentions,thatantedatetheearliestrecordsoftrade.

E. Duringthefirstquarterofthesixteenthcentury,anItalianexplorerrecordedseeingmanyNativeAmericanswithwhatappearedtobecopperbeads,thoughtheymayhavebeenmadeofindigenouscopper.

49. Whichofthefollowingbestdescribestheprimaryfunctionoflines11–16?

A. Itoffersareconsiderationofaclaimmadeintheprecedingsentence.

B. Itrevealshowarchaeologistsarrivedataninterpretationoftheevidencementionedintheprecedingsentence.

C. Itshowshowscholarsmisinterpretedthesignificanceofcertainevidencementionedintheprecedingsentence.

D. Itidentifiesoneofthefirstsignificantaccountsofseventeenth-centuryEuropeansettlementsinNorthAmerica.

E. ItexplainswhyDenys’saccountofseventeenth-centuryEuropeansettlementsisthoughttobesignificant.

50. ItcanbeinferredfromthepassagethattheauthorwouldagreewithwhichofthefollowingstatementsaboutthefurtradebetweenNativeAmericansandEuropeansintheearlymodernera?

A. Thistrademayhavebegunasearlyasthe1480s.

B. Thistradeprobablydidnotcontinuemuchbeyondthe1530s.

C. Thistradewasmostlikelyatitspeakinthemid-1520s.

D. Thistradeprobablydidnotbeginpriorto1500.

E. Thereisnowrittenevidenceofthistradepriortotheseventeenthcentury.

51. WhichofthefollowingcanbeinferredfromthepassageabouttheNativeAmericansmentionedinline25?

A. Theyhadlittleusefordecorativeobjectssuchasearrings.

B. Theybecameincreasinglydependentonfishingbetween1501and1524.

C. By1524,onlycertaingroupsofEuropeanswerewillingtotradewiththem.

D. TheselectivityoftheirtradingchoicesmadeitdifficultforthemtoengageinwidespreadtradewithEuropeans.

E. TheselectivityoftheirtradingchoicesindicatesthattheyhadbeentradingwithEuropeansforasignificantperiodoftimepriorto1524.

52. Thepassagesupportswhichofthefollowingstatementsaboutsixteenth-centuryEuropeanfishingcrewsworkingthewatersoffNewfoundland?

A. Theywrotenoaccountsoftheirfishingvoyages.

B. TheyprimarilysailedundertheflagofPortugal.

C. TheyexchangedshippartswithNativeAmericansforfurs.

D. TheycommonlytradedjewelrywithNativeAmericansforfurs.

E. TheycarriedsurplusmetalimplementstotradewithNativeAmericansforfurs.

53. WhichofthefollowingcanbeinferredfromthepassageaboutevidencepertainingtothefurtradebetweenNativeAmericansandEuropeansintheearlymodernera?

A. AlackofwrittenevidencehasmadeitdifficulttoestablishwhichEuropeansfirstparticipatedinthistrade.

B. Ingeneral,thephysicalevidencepertainingtothistradehasbeenmoreusefulthanthewrittenevidencehasbeen.

C. Thereismorewrittenevidencepertainingtothistradefromtheearlypartofthesixteenthcenturythanfromlaterinthatcentury.

D. Theearliestwrittenevidencepertainingtothistradedatesfromatimewhenthetradewasalreadywellestablished.

E. Someimportantpiecesofevidencepertainingtothistrade,suchasDenys’s1672account,werelongoverlookedbyarchaeologists.

54. Thepassagesuggestswhichofthefollowingaboutthesixteenth-centuryNativeAmericanswhotradedwithEuropeansonthecoastofwhatisnowcalledNewEngland?

A. By1524theyhadbecomeaccustomedtoexchanginggoodswith

Europeans.

B. TheywereunfamiliarwithmetalsbeforeencounteringEuropeans.

C. TheyhadnopracticalusesforEuropeangoodsotherthanmetalsandmetalimplements.

D. By1524theyhadbecomedisdainfulofEuropeantradersbecausesuchtradershadtreatedthemunfairlyinthepast.

E. By1524theydemandedonlythemostprizedEuropeangoodsbecausetheyhadcometorealizehowvaluablefurswereonEuropeanmarkets.

Thispassagewasadaptedfromanarticlepublishedin1992.

LineWhilethereisnoblueprintfortransformingalargelygovernment-controlledeconomyintoafreeone,theexperienceoftheUnitedKingdomsince1979clearlyshowsoneapproachthatworks:privatiza-(5)tion,inwhichstate-ownedindustriesaresoldtopri-vatecompanies.By1979,thetotalborrowingsandlossesofstate-ownedindustrieswererunningatabout£3billionayear.Bysellingmanyoftheseindustries,thegovernmenthasdecreasedthese(10)borrowingsandlosses,gainedover£34billionfromthesales,andnowreceivestaxrevenuesfromthenewlyprivatizedcompanies.Alongwithadramati-callyimprovedoveralleconomy,thegovernmenthasbeenabletorepay12.5percentofthenet(15)nationaldebtoveratwo-yearperiod.Infact,privatizationhasnotonlyrescuedindividualindustriesandawholeeconomyheadedfordisaster,buthasalsoraisedthelevelofperformanceineveryarea.AtBritishAirwaysand(20)BritishGas,forexample,productivityperemployeehasrisenby20percent.AtAssociatedBritishPorts,labordisruptionscommoninthe1970sandearly1980shavenowvirtuallydisappeared.AtBritishTelecom,thereisnolongerawaitinglist—as(25)therealwayswasbeforeprivatization—tohaveatelephoneinstalled.

Partofthisimprovedproductivityhascomeaboutbecausetheemployeesofprivatizedindustriesweregiventheopportunitytobuyshares(30)intheirowncompanies.Theyrespondedenthusiasticallytotheofferofshares:atBritishAerospace,89percentoftheeligibleworkforceboughtshares;atAssociatedBritishPorts,90percent;andatBritishTelecom,92percent.(35)Whenpeoplehaveapersonalstakeinsomething,theythinkaboutit,careaboutit,worktomakeitprosper.AttheNationalFreightConsortium,thenewemployee-ownersgrewsoconcernedabouttheircompany’sprofitsthatduringwage(40)negotiationstheyactuallypressedtheiruniontoloweritswagedemands.Someeconomistshavesuggestedthatgivingawayfreeshareswouldprovideaneededaccelerationoftheprivatizationprocess.Yetthey(45)missThomasPaine’spointthat“whatweobtaintoocheapweesteemtoolightly.”Inorderforthefar-rangingbenefitsofindividualownershiptobeachievedbyowners,companies,andcountries,employeesandotherindividualsmustmaketheir(50)owndecisionstobuy,andtheymustcommitsomeoftheirownresourcestothechoice.


55. Accordingtothepassage,allofthefollowingwerebenefitsofprivatizingstate-ownedindustriesintheUnitedKingdomEXCEPT:

A. Privatizedindustriespaidtaxestothegovernment.

B. Thegovernmentgainedrevenuefromsellingstate-ownedindustries.

C. Thegovernmentrepaidsomeofitsnationaldebt.

D. Profitsfromindustriesthatwerestillstate-ownedincreased.

E. Totalborrowingsandlossesofstate-ownedindustriesdecreased.

56. Accordingtothepassage,whichofthefollowingresultedinincreasedproductivityincompaniesthathavebeenprivatized?

A. Alargenumberofemployeeschosetopurchasesharesintheircompanies.

B. Freeshareswerewidelydistributedtoindividualshareholders.

C. Thegovernmentceasedtoregulatemajorindustries.

D. Unionsconductedwagenegotiationsforemployees.

E. Employee-ownersagreedtohavetheirwageslowered.

57. Itcanbeinferredfromthepassagethattheauthorconsiderslabordisruptionstobe

A. aninevitableprobleminaweaknationaleconomy

B. apositivesignofemployeeconcernaboutacompany

C. apredictorofemployeereactionstoacompany’soffertosellsharestothem

D. aphenomenonfoundmoreofteninstate-ownedindustriesthaninprivatecompanies

E. adeterrencetohighperformancelevelsinanindustry

58. Thepassagesupportswhichofthefollowingstatementsaboutemployeesbuyingsharesintheirowncompanies?

A. Atthreedifferentcompanies,approximatelynineoutoftenoftheworkerswereeligibletobuysharesintheircompanies.

B. Approximately90percentoftheeligibleworkersatthreedifferentcompanieschosetobuysharesintheircompanies.

C. Theopportunitytobuyshareswasdiscouragedbyatleastsomelaborunions.

D. Companiesthatdemonstratedthehighestproductivitywerethefirsttoallowtheiremployeestheopportunitytobuyshares.

E. Eligibilitytobuyshareswascontingentonemployees’agreeingtoincreasedworkloads.

59. Whichofthefollowingstatementsismostconsistentwiththeprincipledescribedinlines35–37?

A. Ademocraticgovernmentthatdecidesitisinappropriatetoownaparticularindustryhasinnowayabdicateditsresponsibilitiesasguardianofthepublicinterest.

B. Theidealwayforagovernmenttoprotectemployeeinterestsistoforcecompaniestomaintaintheirshareofacompetitivemarketwithoutgovernmentsubsidies.

C. Thefailuretoharnessthepowerofself-interestisanimportantreasonthatstate-ownedindustriesperformpoorly.

D. Governmentsthatwanttoimplementprivatizationprogramsmusttrytoeliminateallresistancetothefree-marketsystem.

E. Theindividualshareholderwillreaponlyaminuteshareofthegainsfromwhateversacrificesheorshemakestoachievethesegains.

60. WhichofthefollowingcanbeinferredfromthepassageabouttheprivatizationprocessintheUnitedKingdom?

A. Itdependstoapotentiallydangerousdegreeonindividualownershipofshares.

B. ItconformsinitsmostgeneraloutlinestoThomasPaine’sprescriptionforbusinessownership.

C. Itwasoriginallyconceivedtoincludesomegivingawayoffreeshares.

D. Ithasbeensuccessful,eventhoughprivatizationhasfailedinothercountries.

E. Itistakingplacemoreslowlythansomeeconomistssuggestisnecessary.

61. Thequotationinlines45–46ismostprobablyusedto

A. counterapositionthattheauthorofthepassagebelievesisincorrect

B. stateasolutiontoaproblemdescribedintheprevioussentence

C. showhowopponentsoftheviewpointoftheauthorofthepassagehavesupportedtheirarguments

D. pointoutaparadoxcontainedinacontroversialviewpoint

E. presentahistoricalmaximtochallengetheprincipleintroducedinthethirdparagraph

LineThenewschoolofpoliticalhistorythatemergedinthe

1960’sand1970’ssoughttogobeyondthetraditionalfocusofpoliticalhistoriansonleadersandgovernmentinstitutionsbyexaminingdirectly(5)thepoliticalpracticesofordinarycitizens.Liketheoldapproach,however,thisnewapproachexcludedwomen.TheverytechniquesthesehistoriansusedtouncovermasspoliticalbehaviorinthenineteenthcenturyUnitedStates—quantitativeanalysesof(10)electionreturns,forexample—wereuselessinanalyzingthepoliticalactivitiesofwomen,whoweredeniedthevoteuntil1920.Byredefining“politicalactivity,”historianPaulaBakerhasdevelopedapoliticalhistorythatincludes(15)women.Sheconcludesthatamongordinarycitizens,politicalactivismbywomeninthenineteenthcenturyprefiguredtrendsintwentiethcenturypolitics.Defining“politics”as“anyactiontakentoaffectthecourseofbehaviorof(20)governmentorofthecommunity,”Bakerconcludesthat,whilevotingandholdingofficewererestrictedtomen,womeninthenineteenthcenturyorganizedthemselvesintosocietiescommittedtosocialissuessuchastemperanceandpoverty.Inother(25)words,Bakercontends,womenactivistswereearlypractitionersofnonpartisan,issue-orientedpoliticsandthusweremoreinterestedinenlistinglawmakers,regardlessoftheirpartyaffiliation,onbehalfofcertainissuesthaninensuringthatone(30)partyoranotherwonanelection.Inthetwentiethcentury,moremendrewclosertowomen’sideasaboutpoliticsandtookupmodesofissue-orientedpoliticsthatBakerseeswomenashavingpioneered.



A. enumeratereasonswhybothtraditionalscholarlymethodsandnewerscholarlymethodshavelimitations

B. identifyashortcominginascholarlyapproachanddescribean

alternativeapproach

C. provideempiricaldatatosupportalong-heldscholarlyassumption

D. comparetwoscholarlypublicationsonthebasisoftheirauthors’backgrounds

E. attempttoprovideapartialanswertoalong-standingscholarlydilemma

63. Thepassagesuggestswhichofthefollowingconcerningthetechniquesusedbythenewpoliticalhistoriansdescribedinthefirstparagraphofthepassage?

A. Theyinvolvedtheextensiveuseofthebiographiesofpoliticalpartyleadersandpoliticaltheoreticians.

B. Theywereconceivedbypoliticalhistorianswhowerereactingagainstthepoliticalclimatesofthe1960’sand1970’s.

C. TheywereofmoreuseinanalyzingthepositionsofUnitedStatespoliticalpartiesinthenineteenthcenturythaninanalyzingthepositionsofthoseinthetwentiethcentury.

D. Theywereofmoreuseinanalyzingthepoliticalbehaviorofnineteenth-centuryvotersthaninanalyzingthepoliticalactivitiesofthosewhocouldnotvoteduringthatperiod.

E. Theyweredevisedasameansoftracingtheinfluenceofnineteenth-centurypoliticaltrendsontwentieth-centurypoliticaltrends.

64. ItcanbeinferredthattheauthorofthepassagequotesBakerdirectlyinthesecondparagraphprimarilyinorderto

A. clarifyapositionbeforeprovidinganalternativetothatposition

B. differentiatebetweenanoveldefinitionandtraditionaldefinitions

C. provideanexampleofapointagreedonbydifferentgenerationsofscholars

D. provideanexampleoftheprosestyleofanimportanthistorian

E. amplifyadefinitiongiveninthefirstparagraph

65. Accordingtothepassage,PaulaBakerandthenewpoliticalhistoriansofthe1960’sand1970’ssharedwhichofthefollowing?

A. Acommitmenttointerestgrouppolitics

B. Adisregardforpoliticaltheoryandideology

C. Aninterestinthewaysinwhichnineteenth-centurypoliticsprefiguredcontemporarypolitics

D. Arelianceonsuchquantitativetechniquesastheanalysisofelectionreturns

E. Anemphasisonthepoliticalinvolvementofordinarycitizens

66. Whichofthefollowingbestdescribesthestructureofthefirstparagraphofthepassage?

A. Twoscholarlyapproachesarecompared,andashortcomingcommontobothisidentified.

B. Tworivalschoolsofthoughtarecontrasted,andathirdisalludedto.

C. Anoutmodedscholarlyapproachisdescribed,andacorrectiveapproachiscalledfor.

D. Anargumentisoutlined,andcounterargumentsarementioned.

E. Ahistoricaleraisdescribedintermsofitspoliticaltrends.

67. Theinformationinthepassagesuggeststhatapre-1960spoliticalhistorianwouldhavebeenmostlikelytoundertakewhichofthefollowingstudies?

A. Ananalysisofvotingtrendsamongwomenvotersofthe1920’s

B. Astudyofmalevoters’gradualideologicalshiftfrompartypoliticstoissue-orientedpolitics

C. Abiographyofaninfluentialnineteenth-centuryministerofforeignaffairs

D. Ananalysisofnarrativeswrittenbypreviouslyunrecognizedwomenactivists

E. Astudyofvotingtrendsamongnaturalizedimmigrantlaborersinanineteenth-centuryloggingcamp

LineSeekingacompetitiveadvantage,someprofessionalservicefirms(forexample,firmsprovidingadvertising,accounting,orhealthcareservices)haveconsideredofferingunconditional(5)guaranteesofsatisfaction.Suchguaranteesspecify

whatclientscanexpectandwhatthefirmwilldoifitfailstofulfilltheseexpectations.Particularlywithfirst-timeclients,anunconditionalguaranteecanbeaneffectivemarketingtooliftheclientisvery(10)cautious,thefirm’sfeesarehigh,thenegativeconsequencesofbadservicearegrave,orbusinessisdifficulttoobtainthroughreferralsandword-of-mouth.However,anunconditionalguaranteecan(15)sometimeshindermarketingefforts.Withitsimplicationthatfailureispossible,theguaranteemay,paradoxically,causeclientstodoubttheservicefirm’sabilitytodeliverthepromisedlevelofservice.Itmayconflictwithafirm’sdesireto(20)appearsophisticated,ormayevensuggestthatafirmisbeggingforbusiness.Inlegalandhealthcareservices,itmaymisleadclientsbysuggestingthatlawsuitsormedicalprocedureswillhaveguaranteedoutcomes.Indeed,professionalservice(25)firmswithoutstandingreputationsandperformancetomatchhavelittletogainfromofferingunconditionalguarantees.Andanyfirmthatimplementsanunconditionalguaranteewithoutundertakingacommensuratecommitmentto(30)qualityofserviceismerelyemployingapotentiallycostlymarketinggimmick.


68. Theprimaryfunctionofthepassageasawholeisto

A. accountforthepopularityofapractice

B. evaluatetheutilityofapractice

C. demonstratehowtoinstituteapractice

D. weightheethicsofusingastrategy

E. explainthereasonsforpursuingastrategy

69. AllofthefollowingarementionedinthepassageascircumstancesinwhichprofessionalservicefirmscanbenefitfromofferinganunconditionalguaranteeEXCEPT:

A. Thefirmishavingdifficultyretainingitsclientsoflongstanding.

B. Thefirmishavingdifficultygettingbusinessthroughclientrecommendations.

C. Thefirmchargessubstantialfeesforitsservices.

D. Theadverseeffectsofpoorperformancebythefirmaresignificantfortheclient.

E. Theclientisreluctanttoincurrisk.

70. Whichofthefollowingiscitedinthepassageasagoalofsomeprofessionalservicefirmsinofferingunconditionalguaranteesofsatisfaction?

A. Alimitonthefirm’sliability

B. Successfulcompetitionagainstotherfirms

C. Abilitytojustifyfeeincreases

D. Attainmentofanoutstandingreputationinafield

E. Improvementinthequalityofthefirm’sservice

71. Thepassage’sdescriptionoftheissueraisedbyunconditionalguaranteesforhealthcareorlegalservicesmostclearlyimpliesthatwhichofthefollowingistrue?

A. Thelegalandmedicalprofessionshavestandardsofpracticethatwouldbeviolatedbyattemptstofulfillsuchunconditionalguarantees.

B. Theresultofalawsuitormedicalprocedurecannotnecessarilybedeterminedinadvancebytheprofessionalshandlingaclient’scase.

C. Thedignityofthelegalandmedicalprofessionsisunderminedbyanyattemptsatmarketingofprofessionalservices,includingunconditionalguarantees.

D. Clientswhoselawsuitsormedicalprocedureshaveunsatisfactoryoutcomescannotbeadequatelycompensatedbyfinancialsettlementsalone.

E. Predictingthemonetarycostoflegalorhealthcareservicesismoredifficultthanpredictingthemonetarycostofothertypesofprofessionalservices.

72. Whichofthefollowinghypotheticalsituationsbestexemplifiesthe

potentialproblemnotedinthesecondsentenceofthesecondparagraph(lines15–19)?

A. Aphysician’sunconditionalguaranteeofsatisfactionencouragespatientstosueformalpracticeiftheyareunhappywiththetreatmenttheyreceive.

B. Alawyer’sunconditionalguaranteeofsatisfactionmakesclientssuspectthatthelawyerneedstofindnewclientsquicklytoincreasethefirm’sincome.

C. Abusinessconsultant’sunconditionalguaranteeofsatisfactionisunderminedwhentheconsultantfailstoprovidealloftheservicesthatarepromised.

D. Anarchitect’sunconditionalguaranteeofsatisfactionmakesclientswonderhowoftenthearchitect’sbuildingsfailtopleaseclients.

E. Anaccountant’sunconditionalguaranteeofsatisfactionleadsclientstobelievethattaxreturnspreparedbytheaccountantarecertaintobeaccurate.

73. Thepassagemostclearlyimplieswhichofthefollowingabouttheprofessionalservicefirmsmentionedinlines24–27?

A. Theyareunlikelytohaveofferedunconditionalguaranteesofsatisfactioninthepast.

B. Theyareusuallyprofitableenoughtobeabletocompensateclientsaccordingtothetermsofanunconditionalguarantee.

C. Theyusuallypracticeinfieldsinwhichtheoutcomesarepredictable.

D. Theirfeesareusuallymoreaffordablethanthosechargedbyotherprofessionalservicefirms.

E. Theirclientsareusuallyalreadysatisfiedwiththequalityofservicethatisdelivered.

LineIna1918editorial,W.E.B.DuBoisadvisedAfricanAmericanstostopagitatingforequalityandtoproclaimtheirsolidaritywithWhiteAmericansforthedurationoftheFirstWorldWar.Theeditorial(5)surprisedmanyAfricanAmericanswhoviewedDuBoisasanuncompromisingAfricanAmerican

leaderandachiefopponentoftheaccommodationisttacticsurgedbyBookerT.Washington.Infact,however,DuBoisoftenshiftedpositionsalongthe(10)continuumbetweenWashingtonandconfrontationistssuchasWilliamTrotter.In1895,whenWashingtoncalledonAfricanAmericanstoconcentrateonimprovingtheircommunitiesinsteadofopposingdiscriminationandagitatingforpolitical(15)rights,DuBoispraisedWashington’sspeech.In1903,however,DuBoisalignedhimselfwithTrotter,Washington’smilitantopponent,lessforideologicalreasonsthanbecauseTrotterhaddescribedtohimWashington’seffortstosilencethoseintheAfrican(20)AmericanpresswhoopposedWashington’spositions.DuBois’swartimepositionthusreflectednotachangeinhislong-termgoalsbutratherapragmaticresponseinthefaceofsocialpressures:(25)governmentofficialshadthreatenedAfricanAmericanjournalistswithcensorshipiftheycontinuedtovoicegrievances.Furthermore,DuBoisbelievedthatAfricanAmericans’contributionstopastwareffortshadbroughtthem(30)somelegalandpoliticaladvances.DuBois’saccommodationismdidnotlast,however.UponlearningofsystematicdiscriminationexperiencedbyAfricanAmericansinthemilitary,hecalledonthemto“returnfighting”fromthewar.



A. identifyinghistoricalcircumstancesthatled

DuBoistoalterhislong-termgoals

B. defining“accommodationism”andshowinghowDuBoisusedthisstrategytoachievecertaingoals

C. accountingforaparticularpositionadoptedbyDuBoisduringtheFirstWorldWar

D. contestingtheviewthatDuBoiswassignificantlyinfluencedby

eitherWashingtonorTrotter

E. assessingtheeffectivenessofastrategythatDuBoisurgedAfricanAmericanstoadopt

75. ThepassageindicateswhichofthefollowingaboutDuBois’sattitudetowardWashington?

A. ItunderwentashiftduringtheFirstWorldWarasDuBoisbecamemoresympatheticwithTrotter’sviews.

B. Itunderwentashiftin1903forreasonsotherthanDuBois’sdisagreementwithWashington’saccommodationistviews.

C. ItunderwentashiftasDuBoismadealong-termcommitmenttothestrategyofaccommodation.

D. ItremainedconsistentlypositiveeventhoughDuBoisdisagreedwithWashington’seffortstocontroltheAfricanAmericanpress.

E. ItwasshapedprimarilybyDuBois’sappreciationofWashington’spragmaticapproachtotheadvancementoftheinterestsofAfricanAmericans.

76. ThepassagesuggestswhichofthefollowingaboutthecontributionsofAfricanAmericanstotheUnitedStateswareffortduringtheFirstWorldWar?

A. ThecontributionsweremadelargelyinresponsetoDuBois’s1918editorial.

B. ThecontributionshadmuchthesameeffectasAfricanAmericans’contributionstopreviouswars.

C. ThecontributionsdidnotenddiscriminationagainstAfricanAmericansinthemilitary.

D. ThecontributionsweremadeinprotestagainstTrotter’sconfrontationisttactics.

E. Thecontributionsweremadeprimarilybycivilrightsactivistswhoreturnedtoactivismafterthewar.

77. TheauthorofthepassagereferstoWashington’scalltoAfricanAmericansin1895primarilyinorderto

A. identifyDuBois’scharacteristicpositiononthecontinuumbetweenaccommodationismandconfrontationism

B. explainwhyDuBoiswassympatheticwithWashington’sviewsin

1895

C. clarifyhowTrotter’sviewsdifferedfromthoseofWashingtonin1895

D. supportanassertionaboutDuBois’stendencytoshifthispoliticalpositions

E. dismisstheclaimthatDuBois’spositioninhis1918editorialwasconsistentwithhispreviousviews

78. Accordingtothepassage,whichofthefollowingistrueofthestrategythatDuBois’s1918editorialurgedAfricanAmericanstoadoptduringtheFirstWorldWar?

A. ItwasastrategythatDuBoishadconsistentlyrejectedinthepast.

B. ItrepresentedacompromisebetweenDuBois’sownviewsandthoseofTrotter.

C. Itrepresentedasignificantredefinitionofthelong-termgoalsDuBoisheldpriortothewar.

D. ItwasadvocatedbyDuBoisinresponsetohisrecognitionofthediscriminationfacedbyAfricanAmericansduringthewar.

E. ItwasadvocatedbyDuBoisinpartbecauseofhishistoricalknowledgeofgainsAfricanAmericanshadmadeduringpastwars.

LineThefactthatsuperiorservicecangenerateacompetitiveadvantageforacompanydoesnotmeanthateveryattemptatimprovingservicewillcreatesuchanadvantage.Investmentsinservice,(5)likethoseinproductionanddistribution,mustbebalancedagainstothertypesofinvestmentsonthebasisofdirect,tangiblebenefitssuchascostreductionandincreasedrevenues.Ifacompanyisalreadyeffectivelyonaparwithitscompetitors(10)becauseitprovidesservicethatavoidsadamagingreputationandkeepscustomersfromleavingatanunacceptablerate,theninvestmentinhigherservicelevelsmaybewasted,sinceserviceisadecidingfactorforcustomersonlyinextreme(15)situations.Thistruthwasnotapparenttomanagersofone

regionalbank,whichfailedtoimproveitscompetitivepositiondespiteitsinvestmentinreducingthetimeacustomerhadtowaitfora(20)teller.Thebankmanagersdidnotrecognizethelevelofcustomerinertiaintheconsumerbankingindustrythatarisesfromtheinconvenienceofswitchingbanks.Nordidtheyanalyzetheirserviceimprovementtodeterminewhetheritwouldattract(25)newcustomersbyproducinganewstandardofservicethatwouldexcitecustomersorbyprovingdifficultforcompetitorstocopy.Theonlymeritoftheimprovementwasthatitcouldeasilybedescribedtocustomers.



A. contrastpossibleoutcomesofatypeofbusinessinvestment

B. suggestmorecarefulevaluationofatypeofbusinessinvestment

C. illustratevariouswaysinwhichatypeofbusinessinvestmentcouldfailtoenhancerevenues

D. tracethegeneralproblemsofacompanytoacertaintypeofbusinessinvestment

E. criticizethewayinwhichmanagerstendtoanalyzethecostsandbenefitsofbusinessinvestments

80. Accordingtothepassage,investmentsinservicearecomparabletoinvestmentsinproductionanddistributionintermsofthe

A. tangibilityofthebenefitsthattheytendtoconfer

B. increasedrevenuesthattheyultimatelyproduce

C. basisonwhichtheyneedtobeweighed

D. insufficientanalysisthatmanagersdevotetothem

E. degreeofcompetitiveadvantagethattheyarelikelytoprovide

81. Thepassagesuggestswhichofthefollowingaboutserviceprovidedbytheregionalbankpriortoitsinvestmentinenhancingthatservice?

A. Itenabledthebanktoretaincustomersatanacceptablerate.

B. Itthreatenedtoweakenthebank’scompetitivepositionwithrespecttootherregionalbanks.

C. Ithadalreadybeenimprovedafterhavingcauseddamagetothebank’sreputationinthepast.

D. Itwasslightlysuperiortothatofthebank’sregionalcompetitors.

E. Itneededtobeimprovedtoattainparitywiththeserviceprovidedbycompetingbanks.

82. Thepassagesuggeststhatbankmanagersfailedtoconsiderwhetherornottheserviceimprovementmentionedinlines18–20

A. wastoocomplicatedtobeeasilydescribedtoprospectivecustomers

B. madeameasurablechangeintheexperiencesofcustomersinthebank’soffices

C. couldbesustainedifthenumberofcustomersincreasedsignificantly

D. wasaninnovationthatcompetingbankscouldhaveimitated

E. wasadequatetobringthebank’sgenerallevelofservicetoalevelthatwascomparablewiththatofitscompetitors

83. Thediscussionoftheregionalbankinthesecondparagraphserveswhichofthefollowingfunctionswithinthepassageasawhole?

A. Itdescribesanexceptionalcaseinwhichinvestmentinserviceactuallyfailedtoproduceacompetitiveadvantage.

B. Itillustratesthepitfallsofchoosingtoinvestinserviceatatimewheninvestmentisneededmoreurgentlyinanotherarea.

C. Itdemonstratesthekindofanalysisthatmanagersapplywhentheychooseonekindofserviceinvestmentoveranother.

D. Itsupportstheargumentthatinvestmentsincertainaspectsofservicearemoreadvantageousthaninvestmentsinotheraspectsofservice.

E. Itprovidesanexampleofthepointaboutinvestmentinservicemadeinthefirstparagraph.

84. Theauthorusestheword“only”inline27mostlikelyinorderto

A. highlighttheoddityoftheserviceimprovement

B. emphasizetherelativelylowvalueoftheinvestmentinservice

improvement

C. distinguishtheprimaryattributeoftheserviceimprovementfromsecondaryattributes

D. singleoutacertainmeritoftheserviceimprovementfromothermerits

E. pointoutthelimiteddurationoftheactualserviceimprovement

LineFindingsfromseveralstudiesoncorporatemergersandacquisitionsduringthe1970’sand1980’sraisequestionsaboutwhyfirmsinitiateandconsummatesuchtransactions.Onestudyshowed,forexample,(5)thatacquiringfirmswereonaverageunabletomaintainacquiredfirms’pre-mergerlevelsofprofitability.Asecondstudyconcludedthatpost-acquisitiongainstomostacquiringfirmswerenotadequatetocoverthepremiumspaidtoobtain(10)acquiredfirms.Athirddemonstratedthat,followingtheannouncementofaprospectivemerger,thestockoftheprospectiveacquiringfirmtendstoincreaseinvaluemuchlessthandoesthatofthefirmforwhichitbids.Yetmergersandacquisitions(15)remaincommon,andbidderscontinuetoassertthattheirobjectivesareeconomicones.Acquisitionsmaywellhavethedesirableeffectofchannelinganation’sresourcesefficientlyfromlesstomoreefficientsectorsofitseconomy,butthe(20)individualacquisitionsexecutivesarrangingthesedealsmustseethemasadvancingeithertheirownortheircompanies’privateeconomicinterests.Itseemsthatfactorshavinglittletodowithcorporateeconomicinterestsexplainacquisitions.These(25)factorsmayincludetheincentivecompensationofexecutives,lackofmonitoringbyboardsofdirectors,andmanagerialerrorinestimatingthevalueoffirmstargetedforacquisition.Alternatively,theacquisitionactsofbiddersmayderivefrom(30)modeling:amanagerdoeswhatothermanagersdo.



A. reviewresearchdemonstratingthebenefitsofcorporatemergersandacquisitionsandexaminesomeofthedrawbacksthatacquisitionbehaviorentails

B. contrasttheeffectsofcorporatemergersandacquisitionsonacquiringfirmsandonfirmsthatareacquired

C. reportfindingsthatraisequestionsaboutareasonforcorporatemergersandacquisitionsandsuggestpossiblealternativereasons

D. explainchangesinattitudeonthepartofacquiringfirmstowardcorporatemergersandacquisitions

E. accountforarecentdeclineintherateofcorporatemergersandacquisitions

86. Thefindingscitedinthepassagesuggestwhichofthefollowingabouttheoutcomesofcorporatemergersandacquisitionswithrespecttoacquiringfirms?

A. Theyincludeadecreaseinvalueofmanyacquiringfirms’stocks.

B. Theytendtobemorebeneficialforsmallfirmsthanforlargefirms.

C. Theydonotfulfilltheprofessedgoalsofmostacquiringfirms.

D. Theytendtobebeneficialtosuchfirmsinthelongtermeventhoughapparentlydetrimentalintheshortterm.

E. Theydiscouragemanysuchfirmsfromattemptingtomakesubsequentbidsandacquisitions.

87. Itcanbeinferredfromthepassagethattheauthorwouldbemostlikelytoagreewithwhichofthefollowingstatementsaboutcorporateacquisitions?

A. Theirknownbenefitstonationaleconomiesexplaintheirappealtoindividualfirmsduringthe1970’sand1980’s.

B. Despitetheiradverseimpactonsomefirms,theyarethebestwaytochannelresourcesfromlesstomoreproductivesectorsofanation’seconomy.

C. Theyareaslikelytooccurbecauseofpoormonitoringbyboardsofdirectorsastobecausedbyincentivecompensationformanagers.

D. Theywillbelessprevalentinthefuture,sincetheiractualeffectswillgainwiderrecognition.

E. Factorsotherthaneconomicbenefittotheacquiringfirmhelptoexplainthefrequencywithwhichtheyoccur.

88. Theauthorofthepassagementionstheeffectofacquisitionsonnationaleconomiesmostprobablyinorderto

A. provideanexplanationforthemergersandacquisitionsofthe1970’sand1980’soverlookedbythefindingsdiscussedinthepassage

B. suggestthatnationaleconomicinterestsplayedanimportantroleinthemergersandacquisitionsofthe1970’sand1980’s

C. supportanoneconomicexplanationforthemergersandacquisitionsofthe1970’sand1980’sthatwascitedearlierinthepassage

D. citeandpointouttheinadequacyofonepossibleexplanationfortheprevalenceofmergersandacquisitionsduringthe1970’sand1980’s

E. explainhowmodelingaffectedthedecisionsmadebymanagersinvolvedinmergersandacquisitionsduringthe1970’sand1980’s

89. Accordingtothepassage,duringthe1970’sand1980’sbiddingfirmsdifferedfromthefirmsforwhichtheybidinthatbiddingfirms

A. tendedtobemoreprofitablebeforeamergerthanafteramerger

B. weremoreoftenconcernedabouttheimpactofacquisitionsonnationaleconomies

C. wererunbymanagerswhoseactionsweremodeledonthoseofothermanagers

D. anticipatedgreatereconomicadvantagesfromprospectivemergers

E. experiencedlessofanincreaseinstockvaluewhenaprospectivemergerwasannounced

90. Accordingtothepassage,whichofthefollowingwastrueofcorporateacquisitionsthatoccurredduringthe1970’sand1980’s?

A. Fewoftheacquisitionsthatfirmsmadeweresubsequentlydivested.

B. Mostsuchacquisitionsproducedonlysmallincreasesinacquiredfirms’levelsofprofitability.

C. Mostsuchacquisitionswerebasedonanoverestimationofthevalueoftargetfirms.

D. Thegainsrealizedbymostacquiringfirmsdidnotequaltheamountsexpendedinacquiringtargetfirms.

E. Abouthalfofsuchacquisitionsledtolong-termincreasesinthevalueofacquiringfirms’stocks.

91. Theauthorofthepassageimpliesthatwhichofthefollowingisapossiblepartialexplanationforacquisitionbehaviorduringthe1970’sand1980’s?

A. Managerswishedtoimitateothermanagersprimarilybecausetheysawhowfinanciallybeneficialotherfirms’acquisitionswere.

B. Managersmiscalculatedthevalueoffirmsthatweretobeacquired.

C. Lackofconsensuswithinboardsofdirectorsresultedintheirimposingconflictinggoalsonmanagers.

D. Totalcompensationpackagesformanagersincreasedduringthatperiod.

E. Thevalueofbiddingfirms’stockincreasedsignificantlywhenprospectivemergerswereannounced.

LineInadditiontoconventionalgalaxies,theuniversecontainsverydimgalaxiesthatuntilrecentlywentunnoticedbyastronomers.Possiblyasnumerousasconventionalgalaxies,thesegalaxieshavethe(5)samegeneralshapeandeventhesameapproximatenumberofstarsasacommontypeofconventionalgalaxy,thespiral,buttendtobemuchlarger.Becausethesegalaxies’massisspreadoutoverlargerareas,theyhavefarfewerstarsperunit(10)volumethandoconventionalgalaxies.Apparentlytheselow-surface-brightnessgalaxies,astheyarecalled,takemuchlongerthanconventionalgalaxiestocondensetheirprimordialgasandconvertittostars—thatis,theyevolvemuchmoreslowly.(15)Thesegalaxiesmayconstituteananswertothelong-standingpuzzleofthemissingbaryonicmassintheuniverse.Baryons—subatomicparticlesthat

aregenerallyprotonsorneutrons—arethesourceofstellar,andthereforegalactic,luminosity,andso(20)theirnumberscanbeestimatedbasedonhowluminousgalaxiesare.However,theamountofheliumintheuniverse,asmeasuredbyspectroscopy,suggeststhattherearefarmorebaryonsintheuniversethanestimatesbasedon(25)galacticluminosityindicate.Astronomershavelongspeculatedthatthemissingbaryonicmassmighteventuallybediscoveredinintergalacticspaceorassomelargepopulationofgalaxiesthataredifficulttodetect.


92. Accordingtothepassage,conventionalspiralgalaxiesdifferfromlow-surface-brightnessgalaxiesinwhichofthefollowingways?

A. Theyhavefewerstarsthandolow-surface-brightnessgalaxies.

B. Theyevolvemorequicklythanlow-surface-brightnessgalaxies.

C. Theyaremorediffusethanlow-surface-brightnessgalaxies.

D. Theycontainlessheliumthandolow-surface-brightnessgalaxies.

E. Theyarelargerthanlow-surface-brightnessgalaxies.

93. Itcanbeinferredfromthepassagethatwhichofthefollowingisanaccuratephysicaldescriptionoftypicallow-surface-brightnessgalaxies?

A. Theyarelargespiralgalaxiescontainingfewerstarsthanconventionalgalaxies.

B. Theyarecompactbutverydimspiralgalaxies.

C. Theyarediffusespiralgalaxiesthatoccupyalargevolumeofspace.

D. Theyaresmall,youngspiralgalaxiesthatcontainahighproportionofprimordialgas.

E. Theyarelarge,densespiralswithlowluminosity.

94. Itcanbeinferredfromthepassagethatthe“long-standingpuzzle”referstowhichofthefollowing?

A. Thedifferencebetweentherateatwhichconventionalgalaxiesevolveandtherateatwhichlow-surface-brightnessgalaxiesevolve

B. Thediscrepancybetweenestimatesoftotalbaryonicmassderivedfrommeasuringheliumandestimatesbasedonmeasuringgalacticluminosity

C. Theinconsistencybetweentheobservedamountofheliumintheuniverseandthenumberofstarsintypicallow-surface-brightnessgalaxies

D. Uncertaintiesregardingwhatproportionofbaryonicmassiscontainedinintergalacticspaceandwhatproportioninconventionalgalaxies

E. Difficultiesinvolvedindetectingverydistantgalaxiesandininvestigatingtheirluminosity

95. Theauthorimpliesthatlow-surface-brightnessgalaxiescouldconstituteananswertothepuzzlediscussedinthesecondparagraphprimarilybecause

A. theycontainbaryonicmassthatwasnottakenintoaccountbyresearchersusinggalacticluminositytoestimatethenumberofbaryonsintheuniverse

B. they,likeconventionalgalaxiesthatcontainmanybaryons,haveevolvedfrommassive,primordialgasclouds

C. theymaycontainrelativelymorehelium,andhencemorebaryons,thandogalaxieswhoseheliumcontenthasbeenstudiedusingspectroscopy

D. theyhaverecentlybeendiscoveredtocontainmorebaryonicmassthanscientistshadthoughtwhenlow-surface-brightnessgalaxieswerefirstobserved

E. theycontainstarsthataresignificantlymoreluminousthanwouldhavebeenpredictedonthebasisofinitialstudiesofluminosityinlow-surface-brightnessgalaxies

96. Theauthormentionsthefactthatbaryonsarethesourceofstars’luminosityprimarilyinordertoexplain

A. howastronomersdeterminethatsomegalaxiescontainfewerstarsperunitvolumethandoothers

B. howastronomersareabletocalculatethetotalluminosityofagalaxy

C. whyastronomerscanusegalacticluminositytoestimatebaryonic

mass

D. whyastronomers’estimatesofbaryonicmassbasedongalacticluminosityaremorereliablethanthosebasedonspectroscopicstudiesofhelium

E. howastronomersknowbrightgalaxiescontainmorebaryonsthandodimgalaxies

97. Theauthorofthepassagewouldbemostlikelytodisagreewithwhichofthefollowingstatements?

A. Low-surface-brightnessgalaxiesaremoredifficulttodetectthanareconventionalgalaxies.

B. Low-surface-brightnessgalaxiesareoftenspiralinshape.

C. Astronomershaveadvancedplausibleideasaboutwheremissingbaryonicmassmightbefound.

D. Astronomershavedevisedausefulwayofestimatingthetotalbaryonicmassintheuniverse.

E. Astronomershavediscoveredasubstantialamountofbaryonicmassinintergalacticspace.


A. describeaphenomenonandconsideritsscientificsignificance

B. contrasttwophenomenaanddiscussapuzzlingdifferencebetweenthem

C. identifyanewlydiscoveredphenomenonandexplainitsorigins

D. comparetwoclassesofobjectsanddiscussthephysicalpropertiesofeach

E. discussadiscoveryandpointoutitsinconsistencywithexistingtheory

LineMicro-wearpatternsfoundontheteethoflong-extinctspecimensoftheprimatespeciesaustralopithecinemayprovideevidenceabouttheirdiets.Forexample,onthebasisoftoothmicro-wear(5)patterns,WalkerdismissesJolly’shypothesisthataustralopithecinesatehardseeds.HealsodisputesSzalay’ssuggestionthattheheavyenamelof

australopithecineteethisanadaptationtobonecrunching,sincebothseedcrackingandbone(10)crunchingproducedistinctivemicro-wearcharacteristicsonteeth.Hisconclusionthataustralopithecineswerefrugivores(fruiteaters)isbaseduponhisobservationthatthetoothmicro-wearcharacteristicsofeastAfrican(15)australopithecinespecimensareindistinguishablefromthoseofchimpanzeesandorangutans,whicharecommonlyassumedtobefrugivorousprimates.However,researchonthedietsofcontemporaryprimatessuggeststhatmicro-wear(20)studiesmayhavelimitedutilityindeterminingthefoodsthatareactuallyeaten.Forexample,insecteating,whichcancausedistinctmicro-wearpatterns,wouldnotcausemuchtoothabrasioninmodernbaboons,whoeatonlysoft-bodiedinsects(25)ratherthanhard-bodiedinsects.Inaddition,thedietsofcurrentomnivorousprimatesvaryconsiderablydependingontheenvironmentsthatdifferentgroupswithinaprimatespeciesinhabit;ifaustralopithecineswereomnivorestoo,wemight(30)expecttofindconsiderablepopulationvariationintheirtoothmicro-wearpatterns.Thus,Walker’sdescriptionofpossibleaustralopithecinedietsmayneedtobeexpandedtoincludeamuchmorediversediet.


99. Accordingtothepassage,WalkerandSzalaydisagreeonwhichofthefollowingpoints?

A. Thestructureandcompositionofaustralopithecineteeth

B. Thekindsofconclusionsthatcanbedrawnfromthemicro-wearpatternsonaustralopithecineteeth

C. Theideathatfruitwasapartoftheaustralopithecinediet

D. Theextenttowhichseedcrackingandbonecrunchingproducesimilarmicro-wearpatternsonteeth

E. Thefunctionoftheheavyenamelonaustralopithecineteeth

100. ThepassagesuggeststhatWalker’sresearchindicatedwhichofthefollowingaboutaustralopithecineteeth?

A. Theyhadmicro-wearcharacteristicsindicatingthatfruitconstitutedonlyasmallpartoftheirdiet.

B. Theylackedmicro-wearcharacteristicsassociatedwithseedeatingandbonecrunching.

C. Theyhadmicro-wearcharacteristicsthatdifferedincertainwaysfromthemicro-wearpatternsofchimpanzeesandorangutans.

D. Theyhadmicro-wearcharacteristicssuggestingthatthedietofaustralopithecinesvariedfromoneregiontoanother.

E. Theylackedthemicro-wearcharacteristicsdistinctiveofmodernfrugivores.

101. Thepassagesuggeststhatwhichofthefollowingwouldbetrueofstudiesoftoothmicro-wearpatternsconductedonmodernbaboons?

A. Theywouldinaccuratelysuggestthatsomebaboonseatmoresoft-bodiedthanhard-bodiedinsects.

B. Theywouldsuggestthatinsectsconstitutethelargestpartofsomebaboons’diets.

C. Theywouldrevealthattherearenosignificantdifferencesintoothmicro-wearpatternsamongbaboonpopulations.

D. Theywouldinadequatelyreflecttheextenttowhichsomebaboonsconsumecertaintypesofinsects.

E. Theywouldindicatethatbaboonsincertainregionseatonlysoft-bodiedinsects,whereasbaboonsinotherregionseathard-bodiedinsects.

102. Thepassagesuggestswhichofthefollowingaboutthemicro-wearpatternsfoundontheteethofomnivorousprimates?

A. Thepatternsprovideinformationaboutwhatkindsoffoodsarenoteatenbytheparticularspeciesofprimate,butnotaboutthefoodsactuallyeaten.

B. Thepatternsofvariousprimatespecieslivinginthesameenvironmentresembleoneanother.

C. Thepatternsmaynotprovideinformationabouttheextenttowhichaparticularspecies’dietincludesseeds.

D. Thepatternsprovidemoreinformationabouttheseprimates’dietthandothetoothmicro-wearpatternsofprimateswhoarefrugivores.

E. Thepatternsmaydifferamonggroupswithinaspeciesdependingontheenvironmentwithinwhichaparticulargrouplives.

103. Itcanbeinferredfromthepassagethatifstudiesoftoothmicro-wearpatternswereconductedonmodernbaboons,whichofthefollowingwouldmostlikelybetrueoftheresultsobtained?

A. Therewouldbeenoughabrasiontoallowadeterminationofwhetherbaboonsarefrugivorousorinsectivorous.

B. Theresultswouldsuggestthatinsectsconstitutethelargestpartofthebaboons’diet.

C. Theresultswouldrevealthattherearenosignificantdifferencesintoothmicro-wearpatternsfromoneregionalbaboonpopulationtoanother.

D. Theresultswouldprovideanaccurateindicationoftheabsenceofsomekindsofinsectsfromthebaboons’diet.

E. Theresultswouldbeunlikelytoprovideanyindicationofwhatinferencesabouttheaustralopithecinedietcanorcannotbedrawnfrommicro-wearstudies.

104. ItcanbeinferredfromthepassagethatWalker’sconclusionabouttheaustralopithecinedietwouldbecalledintoquestionunderwhichofthefollowingcircumstances?

A. Thetoothenamelofaustralopithecinesisfoundtobemuchheavierthanthatofmodernfrugivorousprimates.

B. Themicro-wearpatternsofaustralopithecineteethfromregionsotherthaneastAfricaareanalyzed.

C. Orangutansarefoundtohaveamuchbroaderdietthaniscurrentlyrecognized.

D. TheenvironmentofeastAfricaatthetimeaustralopithecineslivedthereisfoundtohavebeenfarmorevariedthaniscurrentlythought.

E. Theareainwhichtheaustralopithecinespecimenswerefoundisdiscoveredtohavebeenveryrichinsoft-bodiedinsectsduringtheperiodwhenaustralopithecineslivedthere.

105. Theauthorofthepassagementionsthedietsofbaboonsandotherlivingprimatesmostlikelyinorderto

A. provideevidencethatrefutesWalker’sconclusionsaboutthefoodsmakingupthedietsofaustralopithecines

B. suggestthatstudiesoftoothmicro-wearpatternsareprimarilyusefulfordeterminingthedietsoflivingprimates

C. suggestthataustralopithecineswereprobablyomnivoresratherthanfrugivores

D. illustratesomeofthelimitationsofusingtoothmicro-wearpatternstodrawdefinitiveconclusionsaboutagroup’sdiet

E. suggestthattoothmicro-wearpatternsarecausedbypersistent,asopposedtooccasional,consumptionofparticularfoods

3.5AnswerKey1. C

2. E

3. D

4. E

5. C

6. D

7. B

8. D

9. B

10. E

11. D

12. B

13. E

14. C

15. D

16. C

17. E

18. B

19. A

20. D

21. B

22. E

23. C

24. B

25. A

26. A

27. E

28. C

29. C

30. B

31. A

32. D

33. D

34. B

35. B

36. E

37. B

38. C

39. E

40. A

41. D

42. E

43. B

44. B

45. A

46. A

47. B

48. D

49. B

50. A

51. E

52. C

53. D

54. A

55. D

56. A

57. E

58. B

59. C

60. E

61. A

62. B

63. D

64. B

65. E

66. A

67. C

68. B

69. A

70. B

71. B

72. D

73. E

74. C

75. B

76. C

77. D

78. E

79. B

80. C

81. A

82. D

83. E

84. B

85. C

86. C

87. E

88. D

89. E

90. D

91. B

92. B

93. C

94. B

95. A

96. C

97. E

98. A

99. E

100. B

101. D

102. E

103. D

104. C

105. D

3.6AnswerExplanationsThefollowingdiscussionofreadingcomprehensionisintendedtofamiliarizeyouwiththemostefficientandeffectiveapproachestothekindsofproblemscommontoreadingcomprehension.TheparticularquestionsinthischapteraregenerallyrepresentativeofthekindsofreadingcomprehensionquestionsyouwillencounterontheGMAT.Rememberthatitistheproblemsolvingstrategythatisimportant,notthespecificdetailsofaparticularquestion.

Questions1-4refertothepassageonpage22.

1. Accordingtothepassage,traditionalcorporateleadersdifferfromleadersinlearningorganizationsinthattheformer

A. encourageemployeestoconcentrateondevelopingawiderangeofskills

B. enableemployeestorecognizeandconfrontdominantcorporatemodelsandtodevelopalternativemodels

C. makeimportantpolicydecisionsaloneandthenrequireemployeesinthecorporationtoabidebythosedecisions

D. instillconfidenceinemployeesbecauseoftheirwillingnesstomakeriskydecisionsandaccepttheirconsequences

E. areconcernedwithofferingemployeesfrequentadviceandcareerguidance

Supportingidea

Thisquestionrequiresunderstandingofthecontrastthepassagedrawsbetweenleadersoftraditionalcorporationsandleadersoflearningorganizations.Accordingtothesecondparagraph,theformeraretraditionallycharismaticleaderswhosetpolicyandmakedecisions,whilethelatterfosterintegratedthinkingatalllevelsoftheorganization.

A. Accordingtothepassage,itisleadersinlearningorganizations,nottraditionalcorporateleaders,whoencouragethedevelopmentofawiderangeofskills.

B. Leadersinlearningorganizationsarethosewhowanttheiremployeestochallengedominantmodels.

C. Correct.Thesecondparagraphstatesthattraditionalcorporate

leadersareindividualistic;theyalonesetthecorporation’sdirectionandmakekeydecisions.

D. Thepassagedoesnotaddressthequestionofwhethertraditionalcorporateleadersinstillconfidenceinemployees.Infact,thefirstparagraphsuggeststhattheymaynot;rather,theymightcomeacrossasobjectionablycontrolling.

E. Thepassagesuggeststhatadviceandguidancearemorelikelytobeofferedbyleadersoflearningorganizationsthanbyleadersoftraditionalcorporations.

ThecorrectanswerisC.

2. Whichofthefollowingbestdescribesemployeebehaviorencouragedwithinlearningorganizations,assuchorganizationsaredescribedinthepassage?

A. Carefullydefiningone’sjobdescriptionandtakingcaretoavoiddeviationsfromit

B. Designingmentoringprogramsthattrainnewemployeestofollowproceduresthathavebeenusedformanyyears

C. Concentratingone’seffortsonmasteringoneaspectofacomplicatedtask

D. Studyinganorganizationalproblem,preparingareport,andsubmittingittoacorporateleaderforapproval

E. Analyzingaproblemrelatedtoproductivity,makingadecisionaboutasolution,andimplementingthatsolution

Application

Thesecondparagraphofthepassageindicatesthatemployeesoflearningorganizationsareencouragedtothinkandactforthemselves;theylearnnewskillsandexpandtheircapabilities.

A. Avoidingdeviationsfromone’scarefullydefinedjobdescriptionwouldmorelikelybeencouragedinatraditionalcorporation,asdescribedinthefirstparagraph,thaninalearningorganization.

B. Anyemployeetrainingthatinvolvesfollowinglong-standingprocedureswouldmorelikelybeencouragedinatraditionalcorporationthanalearningorganization.

C. Accordingtothepassage,masteringonlyoneaspectofatask,no

matterhowcomplicated,wouldbeinsufficientinalearningorganization,inwhichbroadpatternsofthinkingareencouraged.

D. Asdescribedinthepassage,theroleofcorporateleadersinlearningorganizationsisnot,characteristically,toapproveemployees’solutionstoproblems,butrathertoenableandempoweremployeestoimplementsolutionsontheirown.

E. Correct.Employeesinlearningorganizationsareexpectedtoactontheirowninitiative;thus,theywouldbeencouragedtoanalyzeandsolveproblemsontheirown,implementingwhateversolutionstheydevised.

ThecorrectanswerisE.

3. Accordingtotheauthorofthepassage,corporateleadersofthefutureshoulddowhichofthefollowing?

A. Theyshouldencourageemployeestoputlong-termgoalsaheadofshort-termprofits.

B. Theyshouldexercisemorecontroloveremployeesinordertoconstrainproductioncosts.

C. Theyshouldredefineincentivesforemployees’performanceimprovement.

D. Theyshouldprovideemployeeswithopportunitiestogainnewskillsandexpandtheircapabilities.

E. Theyshouldpromoteindividualmanagerswhoarecommittedtoestablishedcompanypolicies.

Supportingidea

Thisquestionfocusesonwhattheauthorrecommendsinthepassageforfuturecorporateleaders.Inthesecondparagraph,theauthorstatesthat,amongotherthings,corporateleadersneedtobeteacherstoprovidechallengestotheiremployeesandcreateanatmospherewhereemployeesarecontinuallylearningnewskillsandexpandingtheircapabilitiestoshapetheirfuture.

A. Thepassagedoesnotdirectlydiscusstheissueofcorporategoalsandprofitabilityinthelongorshortterm.

B. Thepassagedoesnotaddressthetopicofproductioncosts,anditsuggeststhatitsauthorwouldfavorreducing,ratherthanincreasing,corporateleaders’controloveremployees.Thefirst

paragraphstatesthatleaderswhoattempttocontrolemployeesleadthoseemployeestoperforminmediocrefashion.

C. Thepassagedoesnotdiscussincentivizingemployees’performance;rather,employees,performancewillimprove,thepassagesuggests,underdifferentcorporateleadership.

D. Correct.Thefinalsentenceofthepassagestatesdirectlythatleadersmustbuildorganizationsinwhichemployeescanlearnnewskillsandexpandtheircapabilities.

E. Thefirstparagraphindicatesthatclingingtoestablishedcompanypoliciesisastrategyforthefuturethatislikelytobeunproductive.

ThecorrectanswerisD.


A. endorseatraditionalcorporatestructure

B. introduceanewapproachtocorporateleadershipandevaluatecriticismsofit

C. explaincompetingtheoriesaboutmanagementpracticesandreconcilethem

D. contrasttwotypicalcorporateorganizationalstructures

E. proposeanalternativetoacommoncorporateapproach

Mainidea

Thisquestiondependsonunderstandingthepassageasawhole.Thefirstparagraphexplainsthewayinwhichcorporationsfailtofacilitatehowhumanslearn.Thesecondparagraphsuggeststhatcorporationsshouldchangethewaytheyviewemployeesinordertopromotelearning,anditexplainsthepositiveoutcomesthatwouldresultfromthatshiftinthinking.

A. Thefirstparagraphexplainsthatthetraditionalcorporatestructureleadstomediocreperformance;itdoesnotendorsethatstructure.

B. Thesecondparagraphintroducestheconceptofalearningorganizationanditsattendantapproachtocorporateleadership.Ratherthanidentifyinganycriticismsofthatapproach,thepassageendorsesitwholeheartedly.

C. Thepassagediscussesthedifferencebetweentheideaofasinglecharismaticleaderandthatofasharedcorporateleadership,butit

doesnotattempttoreconcilethesetwoideas.

D. Thepassage’smainfocusisonadvocatingaparticularapproach,notonmerelycontrastingitwithanother.Furthermore,itportraysonlyoneoftheapproachesastypical.Itsuggeststhattheorganizationalstructurethatreliesonasinglecharismaticleaderistypicalbutthatanotherapproach,thatinwhichleadershipisshared,shouldinsteadbecometypical.

E. Correct.Thepassageidentifiesacommoncorporateapproach,onebasedoncontrollingemployees,andproposesthatcorporationsshouldinsteadbecomelearningorganizations.


Questions5–10refertothepassageonpage24.


A. identifywaysinwhichtheGDPcouldbemodifiedsothatitwouldserveasamoreaccurateindicatoroftheeconomicwell-beingoftheUnitedStates

B. suggestthattheGDP,inspiteofcertainshortcomings,isstillthemostreliableindicatoroftheeconomicwell-beingoftheUnitedStates

C. examinecrucialshortcomingsoftheGDPasanindicatoroftheeconomicwell-beingoftheUnitedStates

D. arguethatthegrowthoftheUnitedStateseconomyinrecentdecadeshasdiminishedtheeffectivenessoftheGDPasanindicatorofthenation’seconomicwell-being

E. discusshowtheGDPcametobeusedastheprimaryindicatoroftheeconomicwell-beingoftheUnitedStates

Mainidea

Thisquestionrequiresdeterminingthemainpurposeofthepassageasawhole.ThepassagebeginsbybroadlydefiningGDPanddescribinghowitisusedasanindicatoroftheeconomicwell-beingoftheUnitedStates.ThepassagethendescribesinmoredetailwhatisandisnottakenintoaccountbytheGDPandthendrawsacausalconnectionbetweenthelimitationsofwhattheGDPmeasuresanddisturbingtrendswithintheU.S.inrecentdecades.

A. ThereisnodiscussioninthepassageaboutmodifyinghowtheGDP

iscalculated.

B. ThepassagemakesnojudgmentaboutthemeritsofusingtheGDPinrelationtoothereconomicindicators.

C. Correct.ThepassageportraystheGDPashavinglimitationsthatmakeitaproblematicindicatorofrealeconomicwell-being.

D. ThepassagedoesnotportraytheGDPasbeinganylessusefulasaneconomicindicatorthaniteverwas.

E. ThereisnodiscussioninthepassageofthehistoryofhowtheGDPcametobeusedasaneconomicindicator.


6. Whichofthefollowingbestdescribesthefunctionofthesecondsentenceofthepassageinthecontextofthepassageasawhole?

A. ItdescribesanassumptionabouttheGDPthatisdefendedinthecourseofthepassage.

B. ItcontributestoadiscussionoftheoriginsoftheGDP.

C. ItclarifiesacommonmisconceptionabouttheuseoftheGDP.

D. ItidentifiesamajorflawintheGDP.

E. ItsuggestsarevisiontothemethodofcalculatingtheGDP.

Evaluation

Answeringthisquestionrequiresunderstandinghowaparticularpartofthepassagefunctionsinthepassageasawhole.ThesecondsentencedescribestheGDPasbeingsolelyconcernedwiththepricesofgoodsandservicesproducedintheUnitedStates,asidefromanyotherkindofvalue.Thepassagethengoesontoimplythatbyignoringvalueotherthanprice,theGDPmayactuallymaskproblemspresentinthenation’soveralleconomy.

A. ThepassageisconcernedwithcallingintoquestiontheuseoftheGDP,notdefendingit.

B. ThepassagedoesnotmentionhowtheGDPcametobeusedasaprimaryeconomicindicator.

C. ThepassagedoesnotdescribethefunctionoftheGDPasbeingcommonlymisunderstood.

D. Correct.ThelimitationsoftheGDPasdescribedinthesecond

sentencearethen,intherestofthepassage,tiedtoproblemsintheUnitedStates.

E. ThepassagemakesnoexplicitrecommendationsaboutrevisinghowtheGDPismeasured.


7. Itcanbeinferredthattheauthorofthepassagewouldagreewithwhichofthefollowingaboutthe“economicsignificance”ofthosegoodsandservicesthatareincludedintheGDP?

A. Itisacomprehensiveindicatorofanation’seconomicwell-being.

B. Itisnotaccuratelycapturedbythepriceofthosegoodsandservices.

C. Itisusuallylessthantheintrinsicvalueofthosegoodsandservices.

D. ItismoredifficulttocalculatethantheeconomicsignificanceofthosegoodsandservicesthatarenotincludedintheGDP.

E. Itiscalculateddifferentlyincapitalistcountriesthaninnoncapitalistcountries.

Inference

Thisquestionaskswhattheauthorimpliesaboutapieceofinformationgiveninthepassage.ThepassagestatesthattheGDPassumesthattheeconomicsignificanceofgoodsandservicesliessolelyintheirprice(lines5–7)andthattheGDPignorestheeconomicutility(lines13–14)ofthingssuchasahealthyenvironmentandacohesivesocialstructure.ThepassagethenimpliesthattheworseningproblemswiththeenvironmentandsocialstructureinrecentdecadesareduetothewaytheGDPiscalculated.

A. IndescribingtheGDPaslimitedinwhatitmeasures,theauthorwouldnotagreethattheGDPisacomprehensiveindicator.

B. Correct.TheauthorimpliesthatbecausetheGDPignorestheeconomicutilityofcertainthings,itisaninaccurateindicatorofeconomicwell-being.

C. Theauthormakesnocomparisonbetweentheeconomicvalueandtheintrinsicvalueofgoodsandservices.

D. TheauthormakesnojudgmentaboutthedifficultyofmeasuringthevalueofgoodsandservicesnotmeasuredbytheGDP.

E. Theauthordoesnotindicatehownoncapitalistcountriescalculate

GDP.

ThecorrectanswerisB.

8. ThecomparisonoftheGDPtoacalculatingmachineservestodowhichofthefollowing?

A. RefuteanassertionthatthecalculationsinvolvedintheGDParerelativelycomplexinnature

B. IndicatethattheGDPisbettersuitedtorecordcertaintypesofmonetarytransactionsthanothers

C. SuggestthatitislikelythattheGDPwillbesupplantedbyother,moresophisticatedeconomicindicators

D. IllustratethepointthattheGDPhasnowayofmeasuringthedestructiveimpactofsuchthingsasoilspillsonthenation’seconomicwell-being

E. ExemplifyanassertionthattheGDPtendstoexaggeratetheamountofcommercialactivitygeneratedbysuchthingsasoilspills

Evaluation

Thisquestionaskshowacertainstatementinthepassagefunctionsinthepassageasawhole.Inlines13–16and20–24,respectively,thepassageindicatesthattheGDPnotonlyignoresproblemsaffectinganation’seconomybutthatitactuallycanportraytheseproblemsaseconomicgains,anditsubsequentlyusestheexampleofanoilspilladdingtotheGDPtoillustratethis.ThepassagethenclosesbydescribingtheGDPasacalculatingmachinethatcanaddbutnotsubtract.

A. ThepassagedoesnotdiscussthecomplexitiesofcalculatingtheGDP.

B. ThepassagemakesnojudgmentabouttherelativesuccessesoftheGDPinrecordingdifferenttypesofmonetarytransactions.

C. ThepassagemakesnomentionofothereconomicindicatorsasidefromtheGDP.

D. Correct.BycharacterizingtheGDPasacalculatingmachinethatcannotsubtract,thepassagehelpsillustratewhysomethinglikeanoilspillismisrepresentedbytheGDP.

E. WhilethepassagedoesmentionthattheGDPmeasurescommercial

activitygeneratedbyanoilspill,itdoesnotsuggestthattheGDPexaggeratestheamountofthatactivity.


9. ThepassageimpliesthatnationalpoliciesthatrelyheavilyoneconomicindicatorssuchastheGDP

tendto

A. becomeincreasinglycapitalisticinnature

B. disregardtheeconomicimportanceofenvironmentalandsocialfactorsthatdonotinvolvemonetarytransactions

C. overestimatetheamountofcommercialactivitygeneratedbyenvironmentaldisasters

D. overestimatetheeconomicsignificanceofcohesivefamiliesandcommunities

E. assumethattheeconomicsignificanceofgoodsandservicesdoesnotliesolelyinthepriceofthosegoodsandservices

Inference

Thisquestionrequiresunderstandingwhatthepassageimpliesaboutthemainissueitdiscusses.Inlines13–14,thepassagestatesthattheGDPignorestheeconomicutilityofthingssuchasacleanenvironmentandsocialcohesiveness.ItthenindicatesthatincountriesthataredependentoneconomicindicatorssuchastheGDP,theenvironmentandthesocialstructurehavebeenerodedinrecentdecades(lines19–20).

A. ThepassagedoesnotmentionhoworiftheGDPaffectsthecapitalistnatureofnationalpolicies.

B. Correct.InindicatingthattheGDPignoresenvironmentalandsocialfactors,thepassageimpliesthatpoliciesdependentontheGDPwillalsoignoretheseissues.

C. ThepassageindicatesthattheGDPtakesintoaccountthecommercialactivitygeneratedbyenvironmentaldisastersbutdoesnotsuggestthattheamountofthatactivityisoverestimated.

D. ThepassageindicatesthattheGDPignoresthevalueofsocialcohesion.

E. ThepassageindicatesthattheGDPassumesthattheeconomic

significanceofgoodsandservicesliessolelyintheirprice(lines5–7).


10. ItcanbeinferredthattheauthorofthepassagewouldagreewithwhichofthefollowingassessmentsoftheGDPasanindicatoroftheeconomicwell-beingoftheUnitedStates?

A. Itmaskssocialandenvironmentalerosionmorefullythanthechiefeconomicindicatorsofothernations.

B. Itisbasedoninaccurateestimationsofthepricesofmanygoodsandservices.

C. ItoverestimatestheamountofcommercialactivitythatisgeneratedintheUnitedStates.

D. Itisconducivetoerrorbecauseitconflatesdistincttypesofeconomicactivity.

E. Itdoesnottakeintoaccounttheeconomicutilityofcertainenvironmentalandsocialconditions.

Inference

Thisquestionrequiresunderstandingwhattheauthorimpliesaboutinformationinthepassage.ThepassagestatesthattheGDPisthechiefindicatoroftheeconomicwell-beingoftheUnitedStates(lines4–5).ItalsostatesthattheGDPignorestheeconomicutility(lines13–16)ofthingssuchasacleanenvironmentandsocialcohesiveness.Therefore,theGDPdoesnottakeintoaccounttheeconomicutilityofcertainenvironmentalandsocialconditions.

A. Thepassagemakesnocomparisonsamongdifferentnations’economicindicators.

B. ThepassagedoesnotdescribetheGDPasbeinginaccurateinitsestimatesofthepricesofgoodsandservices.

C. ThepassagedoesnotdescribetheGDPasoverestimatingamountsofcommercialactivity.

D. ThepassagedoesnotdescribetheGDPasconfusingdifferenttypesofeconomicactivity.

E. Correct.ThepassagestatesthattheGDPignorestheeconomicutilityofacleanenvironmentandsocialcohesiveness.




A. explainingwhyonemethodofearthquakepredictionhasprovenmorepracticablethananalternativemethod

B. suggestingthataccurateearthquakeforecastingmustcombineelementsoflong-termandshort-termprediction

C. challengingtheusefulnessofdilatancytheoryforexplainingtheoccurrenceofprecursoryphenomena

D. discussingthedeficiencyoftwomethodsbywhichresearchershaveattemptedtopredicttheoccurrenceofearthquakes

E. describingthedevelopmentofmethodsforestablishingpatternsintheoccurrenceofpastearthquakes

Mainidea

Toanswerthisquestion,focusonwhatthepassageasawholeistryingtodo.Thefirstparagraphdescribesamethodforpredictingtheoccurrenceofearthquakes,andthesecondparagraphexplainsproblemswiththatmethod.Thethirdparagraphdescribesasecondmethodforpredictingtheoccurrenceofearthquakes,andthefourthparagraphexplainsproblemswiththatmethod.Thus,thepassageasawholeisprimarilyconcernedwithexplainingthedeficienciesoftwomethodsforpredictingtheoccurrenceofearthquakes.

A. Thepassagedoesnotcomparethepracticabilityofthetwomethods.

B. Thepassagedoesnotdiscusscombininglong-termandshort-termmethods.

C. Onlythefirsthalfofthepassagediscussesdilatancytheory;thesecondhalfdiscussesadifferentmethodforpredictingtheoccurrenceofearthquakes.

D. Correct.Thepassagedescribestwomethodsforpredictingtheoccurrenceofearthquakesandexplainstheshortcomingsofeachmethod.

E. Onlythesecondhalfofthepassagediscussespatternsintheoccurrenceofpastearthquakes;thefirsthalfdiscussesadifferentmethodforpredictingtheoccurrenceofearthquakes.


12. Accordingtothepassage,laboratoryevidenceconcerningtheeffectsofstressonrocksmighthelpaccountfor

A. differencesinmagnitudeamongearthquakes

B. certainphenomenathatoccurpriortoearthquakes

C. variationsintheintervalsbetweenearthquakesinaparticulararea

D. differencesinthefrequencywithwhichearthquakesoccurinvariousareas

E. theunreliabilityofshort-termearthquakepredictions

Supportingideas

Thisquestionasksforinformationexplicitlystatedinthepassage.Thefirstparagraphexplainsthatrockssubjectedtostressinthelaboratoryundergomultiplechanges.Accordingtodilatancytheory,suchchangeshappeningtorocksinthefieldcouldleadtoearthquakeprecursors—phenomenathatoccurbeforelargeearthquakes.

A. Thepassageexplainshowlaboratoryevidencemightbeusedtopredicttheoccurrenceoflargeearthquakes,nottodifferentiatebetweenearthquakes’magnitudes.

B. Correct.Accordingtodilatancytheory,thesortofchangesthathavebeenobservedinlaboratoriestooccurinrocksmightleadtoearthquakeprecursorsinthefield.

C. Althoughthepassagediscussesvariationinearthquakeintervals,thatevidenceisbasedonhistoricalrecords,notlaboratoryevidence.

D. Thepassagedoesnotreferinanywaytodifferencesinthefrequencyofearthquakesinvariousregions.

E. Theunreliabilityofonemethodformakingshort-termearthquakepredictionsisimpliedbyinformationgatheredinthefield,notbylaboratoryevidence.


13. Itcanbeinferredfromthepassagethatoneproblemwithusingprecursoryphenomenatopredictearthquakesisthatminortremors

A. typicallyoccursomedistancefromthesitesofthelargeearthquakesthatfollowthem

B. aredirectlylinkedtothemechanismsthatcauseearthquakes

C. aredifficulttodistinguishfrommajortremors

D. haveprovendifficulttomeasureaccurately

E. arenotalwaysfollowedbylargeearthquakes

Inference

Thisquestionaskswhatcanbeinferredfromcertaininformationinthepassage.Thesecondparagraphexplainstwoproblemswithusingminortremorstopredictearthquakes.First,minortremorsprovidenoinformationabouthowlargeanimpendingearthquakewillbe.Second,theminortremorsthatoccurpriortoalargeearthquakeareindistinguishablefromotherminortremors.Thus,itcanbeinferredthatminortremorssometimesoccurwhennolargeearthquakefollows.

A. Thepassagedoesnotmentionthedistancebetweenminortremorsandensuingearthquakes.

B. Thepassageimpliesthatminortremorssometimesoccurwithoutanensuingearthquake,sothephenomenaaremostlikelynotdirectlylinked.

C. Thepassagesuggestsnodifficultyindistinguishingbetweenminortremorsandmajortremors.

D. Thepassagedoesnotmentionanydifficultiesinthemeasurementofminortremors.

E. Correct.Thepassageindicatesthatminortremorsoccurringpriortoalargeearthquakeareindistinguishablefromminortremorsthatarenotfollowedbylargeearthquakes.Sothefactthatminortremorsarenotalwaysfollowedbylargeearthquakes,togetherwiththeinabilitytodistinguishbetweenthosethatareandthosethatarenot,posesaproblemforanyattempttopredictlargeearthquakesonthebasisofthistypeofprecursoryphenomena.


14. Accordingtothepassage,someresearchersbasedtheirresearchaboutlong-termearthquakepredictiononwhichofthefollowingfacts?

A. Thehistoricalrecordconfirmsthatmostearthquakeshavebeenprecededbyminortremors.

B. TheaverageintervalbetweenearthquakesinoneregionoftheSan

AndreasFaultis132years.

C. Someregionstendtobethesiteofnumerousearthquakesoverthecourseofmanyyears.

D. Changesinthevolumeofrockcanoccurasaresultofbuildingstressandcanleadtotheweakeningofrock.

E. Paleoseismologistshavebeenabletounearthanddategeologicalfeaturescausedbypastearthquakes.

Supportingidea

Thisquestionasksforinformationexplicitlyprovidedinthepassage.Thequestionaskswhatthebasisisfortheresearchintolong-termearthquakepredictiondescribedinthethirdparagraph.Basedonthefactthatnumerousearthquakesoccurinsomeregionsoverthecourseofmanyyears,theresearcherstriedtoidentifyregularearthquakeintervalsthatwouldassistinmakinglong-termpredictions.Thus,thebasisoftheirresearchistheoccurrenceofnumerousearthquakesatparticularsites.

A. Thepassageindicatesthatminortremorsareusedbysomescientiststomakeshort-termearthquakepredictions,notthattheywerethebasisforresearchaboutlong-termpredictions.

B. ThisfactabouttheSanAndreasFaultwasusedbypaleoseismologiststoshowtheinadequacyofthelong-termpredictionresearch,sinceactualearthquakeintervalsvariedgreatlyfromtheaverage.

C. Correct.Sinceearthquakesoccurrepeatedlyincertainregions,researcherstriedtoidentifyregularcyclesinearthquakeintervals.

D. Thepassageindicatesthatchangesinrockvolumehavebeenusedbysomescientiststomakeshort-termearthquakepredictions,notthattheywerethebasisforresearchaboutlong-termpredictions.

E. Paleoseismologists’researchprovidedevidenceagainsttheexistenceofregularearthquakecyclesusedinmakinglong-termpredictions.


15. Thepassagesuggestswhichofthefollowingaboutthepaleoseismologists’findingsdescribedinlines42–50?

A. Theysuggestthatthefrequencywithwhichearthquakesoccurredat

aparticularsitedecreasedsignificantlyoverthepasttwomillennia.

B. Theysuggestthatpaleoseismologistsmaysomedaybeabletomakereasonablyaccuratelong-termearthquakepredictions.

C. Theysuggestthatresearchersmaysomedaybeabletodeterminewhichpastoccurrencesofminortremorswereactuallyfollowedbylargeearthquakes.

D. Theysuggestthattherecurrenceofearthquakesinearthquake-pronesitesistooirregulartoserveasabasisforearthquakeprediction.

E. Theyindicatethatresearchersattemptingtodeveloplong-termmethodsofearthquakepredictionhaveoverlookedimportantevidenceconcerningthecausesofearthquakes.

Inference

Thisquestionasksaboutwhatcanbeinferredfromaparticularportionofthepassage(lines42–50).Thethirdparagraphdescribesresearchthatattemptedtoidentifyregularpatternsofrecurrenceinearthquake-proneregions,toaidinlong-termearthquakeprediction.Thefourthparagraphdescribesevidencediscoveredbypaleoseismologiststhatunderminesthisideathatregularearthquakecyclesexist.TheparagraphindicatesthatinoneregionalongtheSanAndreasFault,theaverageintervalbetweenearthquakeswas132years,butindividualintervalsvariedwidely—from44to332years.Thisinformationimpliesthatearthquakeintervalsaretooirregulartobeusedforaccuratelong-termearthquakeprediction.

A. Theevidencesuggeststhattheearthquakeintervalsareirregular,notthattheyhavebecomeshorterovertime.

B. Thefindingsprovideevidenceagainsttheuseofregularearthquakecyclesinlong-termearthquakeprediction.

C. Thefindingsdonotclearlypertaintominortremors.

D. Correct.Thegreatvariationinintervalsbetweenearthquakessuggeststhatrecurrenceistooirregulartoserveasthebasisforlong-termearthquakeprediction.

E. Thepaleoseismologistsstudiedevidenceshowingwhenearthquakesoccurred.Thepassagedoesnotsuggestthattheevidencehasanyimplicationsregardingthecausesofearthquakes.


16. Theauthorimplieswhichofthefollowingabouttheabilityoftheresearchersmentionedinline18topredictearthquakes?

A. Theycanidentifywhenanearthquakeislikelytooccurbutnothowlargeitwillbe.

B. Theycanidentifytheregionswhereearthquakesarelikelytooccurbutnotwhentheywilloccur.

C. Theyareunabletodetermineeitherthetimeortheplacethatearthquakesarelikelytooccur.

D. Theyarelikelytobemoreaccurateatshort-termearthquakepredictionthanatlong-termearthquakeprediction.

E. Theycandeterminetheregionswhereearthquakeshaveoccurredinthepastbutnottheregionswheretheyarelikelytooccurinthefuture.

Supportingidea

Thequestionasksforinformationexplicitlyprovidedinthepassage.Thesecondparagraphindicatesthatresearchersatfirstreportedsuccessinidentifyingearthquakeprecursors,butfurtheranalysisofthedataunderminedtheirtheory.Thepassagethenexplainsthatatypicalseismicwaveswererecordedbeforesomeearthquakes;thisevidenceatfirstseemedtosupporttheresearchers’theory,beforefurtheranalysisprovedtheevidenceinadequate.

A. Althoughearthquakesarecausedbystressonrock,thepassagedoesnotindicatethatthisfactencouragedresearcherstobelievethatprecursorscouldbeusedtopredictearthquakes.

B. Thisfactwouldunderminethetheorythatchangesinseismicwavesareprecursoryphenomenathatcanbeusedtopredictearthquakes.

C. Correct.Seismicwaveswithunusualvelocitiesoccurringbeforeearthquakesatfirstseemedtoprovidesupportforresearchers’theorythatearthquakescouldbepredictedbyprecursoryphenomena.

D. Thoughearthquakes’recurrenceincertainregionsismentionedasbeingimportanttoresearchersseekingtomakelong-termearthquakepredictions,itisnotmentionedasbeingrelevanttoresearchers’theorythatearthquakescanbepredictedbyprecursory

phenomena.

E. Thisisnotmentionedasbeingrelevanttoscientists’beliefthatearthquakescouldbepredictedonthebasisofprecursoryphenomena.



17. Itcanbeinferredfromthepassagethatonereasonanadvertisermightpreferahard-sellapproachtoasoft-sellapproachisthat

A. therisksofboomerangeffectsareminimizedwhentheconclusionsanadvertiserwantstheconsumertodrawarethemselvesleftunstated

B. counterargumentationislikelyfromconsumerswhofailtodrawtheirownconclusionsregardinganadvertisingclaim

C. inferentialactivityislikelytooccurevenifconsumersperceivethemselvestobemoreknowledgeablethantheindividualspresentingproductclaims

D. researchonconsumermemorysuggeststhattheexplicitconclusionsprovidedbyanadvertiserusingthehard-sellapproachhaveasignificantimpactondecisionmaking

E. theinformationpresentedbyanadvertiserusingthesoft-sellapproachmayimplydifferentconclusionstodifferentconsumers

Inference

Thisquestionreliesonwhatthepassagesuggestsaboutthedifferencebetweenthehard-sellandsoft-sellapproaches—andwhythehard-sellapproachmightbepreferred.Thehard-sellapproach,accordingtothesecondparagraph,presentsexplicitconclusions.Thesoft-sellapproach,ontheotherhand,doesnotexplicitlystateconclusionsaboutproducts;instead,consumersmakeuptheirownminds.

A. Whilethepassagemakesclearthatboomerangeffectsareminimizedwhenconclusionsareleftunstated,thisisanadvantageofthesoft-sellapproachoverthehard-sellapproach.

B. Accordingtothesecondparagraph,counterargumentationisadisadvantage,notanadvantage,ofthehard-sellapproach.Thisisareasonnottopreferthehardsell.

C. Thethirdparagraphsuggeststhatincasesinwhichconsumersmayperceivethemselvesasmoreknowledgeablethanindividualspresentingproductclaims,thesoft-sellapproachoffersanadvantageoverthehard-sellapproach.

D. Accordingtothethirdparagraph,self-generatedconclusionsthatareassociatedwiththesoft-sellapproachhaveagreaterimpactondecisionmakingthanexplicitconclusions.Thepassagedoesnotalludetoanyresearchonmemorythatwouldfavorthehard-sellapproach.

E. Correct.Thefourthparagraphsuggeststhatoneproblemwiththesoft-sellapproachisthatconsumerscouldmissthepoint;theymaynotcometotheconclusionsthattheadvertiserwouldprefer.Thusanadvertisermightpreferahard-sellapproach.


18. Eachofthefollowingismentionedinthepassageasacharacteristicofthehard-sellapproachEXCEPT:

A. Itsoverallmessageisreadilygrasped.

B. Itappealstoconsumers’knowledgeabouttheproduct.

C. Itmakesexplicitclaimsthattheadvertisedbrandissuperiortootherbrands.

D. Itusesstatementsthatareexpressedveryclearly.

E. Itmakesclaimsintheformofdirectconclusions.

Supportingidea

Thisquestionasksaboutwhatisdirectlystatedinthepassageaboutthehard-sellapproach.Thefirstandsecondparagraphsprovidethedetailsaboutthisapproach,includingthatitusesdirect,forcefulclaimsaboutbenefitsofabrandovercompetitors’brands;itsclaimsaresimpleandstraightforward,intheformofexplicitconclusions;andconsumersaregenerallyleftwithlittleroomforconfusionaboutthemessage.

A. Thesecondparagraphstatesthatthereislittleroomforconfusionaboutthemessage.

B. Correct.Theextentofconsumers’knowledgeabouttheproductisnotmentionedinthepassage.

C. Thefirstparagraphindicatesthatinthehard-sellapproach

advertisersmakedirectclaimsregardingthebenefitsoftheadvertisedbrandoverotherofferings.

D. Thefirstandsecondparagraphssaythathard-sellclaimsaredirect,simple,andstraightforward.

E. Thesecondparagraphemphasizesthatthehard-sellapproachpresentsitclaimsintheformofexplicitconclusions.


19. Itcanbeinferredfromthepassagethatadvertiserscouldreduceoneoftherisksdiscussedinthelastparagraphiftheywereabletoprovide

A. motivationforconsumerstothinkabouttheadvertisement’smessage

B. informationthatimpliestheadvertiser’sintendedconclusionbutleavesthatconclusionunstated

C. subtleevidencethattheadvertisedproductissuperiortothatofcompetitors

D. informationcomparingtheadvertisedproductwithitscompetitors

E. opportunityforconsumerstogeneratetheirownbeliefsorconclusions

Inference

Thisquestionrequiresunderstandingtherisksdiscussedinthelastparagraphofthepassage.Thoserisksare,first,thatconsumerswouldnotbemotivatedtothinkabouttheadvertisementandthuswouldmissthemessage’spoint;second,thatconsumersmaydrawconclusionsthattheadvertiserdidnotintend;andfinally,thatconsumerscouldquestionthevalidityoftheconclusionstheyreach,evenifthoseconclusionsarewhatadvertisersintend.

A. Correct.Providingmotivationforconsumerstothinkaboutanadvertisement’smessagewouldreducethefirstriskdiscussedinthelastparagraph:thatconsumerswouldfailtodrawanyconclusionsbecausetheywouldlackmotivationtoengagewithadvertisements.

B. Providinginformationthatimpliesaconclusionbutleavesitunstatedistheverydefinitionofthesoft-sellapproach,anditisthisapproachthatgivesrisetotherisksdiscussedinthelastparagraph.

C. Providingsubtleevidencethataproductissuperiorismostlikelyto

giverisetoallthreeoftherisksidentifiedinthelastparagraph,inthatitssubtletywouldleaveconsumersfreetodrawtheirownconclusions,tofailtodrawthoseconclusions,ortoquestionthevalidityoftheirownconclusions.

D. Adirectcomparisonoftheadvertisedproductwithitscompetitorswouldrunalltherisksidentifiedinthelastparagraph:consumersmightnotfindthecomparisonmotivating;theycoulddrawconclusionsthattheadvertiserdidnotintend(e.g.,thatthecompetingproductsaresuperior);ortheycouldquestionwhateverconclusionstheydodraw.

E. Givingconsumerstheopportunitytogeneratetheirownbeliefsorconclusionsisanintrinsicpartofthesoft-sellapproach,whichproducestherisksdiscussedinthelastparagraph.

ThecorrectanswerisA.


A. pointouttherisksinvolvedintheuseofaparticularadvertisingstrategy

B. makeacaseforthesuperiorityofoneadvertisingstrategyoveranother

C. illustratethewaysinwhichtwoadvertisingstrategiesmaybeimplemented

D. presenttheadvantagesanddisadvantagesoftwoadvertisingstrategies

E. contrastthetypesoftargetmarketsforwhichtwoadvertisingstrategiesareappropriate

Inference

Overall,thepassageisconcernedwithtwoadvertisingstrategies.Thefirstparagraphintroducesthestrategies.Thesecondparagraphexplainshowaparticularaspectofoneapproachmaybebothpositiveandnegativeandhowthesecondapproachmitigatestheseproblems.Thethirdparagraphcontinuesthisdiscussionofmitigation,whilethefourthparagraphpointsoutthattherearedrawbackstothisapproach,too.Thus,accordingtothepassage,bothstrategieshavepositiveandnegativeaspects.

A. Thepassageisconcernednotwithoneparticularadvertising

strategybutwithtwo,anditdiscussesbenefits,aswellasrisks,involvedwithbothstrategies.

B. Thepassagedoesnotsuggestthatonestrategyissuperiortotheotherbutratherthateachhaspositiveandnegativeaspects.

C. Thepassagedoesnotdiscusshowtoimplementeitherofthestrategiesitisconcernedwith;instead,itdealswithhowconsumersarelikelytorespondoncetheimplementationhasalreadytakenplace.

D. Correct.Thepassageisprimarilyconcernedwithshowingthatbothofthestrategiesdescribedhaveadvantagesanddisadvantages.

E. Thepassageprovidessomeindirectgroundsforinferringthetargetmarketsforwhicheachadvertisingstrategymightbeappropriate,butitisnotprimarilyconcernedwithcontrastingthosemarkets.


21. Whichofthefollowingbestdescribesthefunctionofthesentenceinlines25–28inthecontextofthepassageasawhole?

A. Itreiteratesadistinctionbetweentwoadvertisingstrategiesthatismadeinthefirstparagraph.

B. Itexplainshowaparticularstrategyavoidsadrawbackdescribedearlierintheparagraph.

C. Itsuggeststhatariskdescribedearlierintheparagraphislessseriousthansomeresearchersbelieveittobe.

D. Itoutlineswhythestrategydescribedintheprevioussentenceinvolvescertainrisksforanadvertiser.

E. Itintroducesanargumentthatwillberefutedinthefollowingparagraph.

Evaluation

Thesentenceinlines25–28explainshowthekindsofconclusionsconsumersareinvitedtodrawbasedonthesoft-sellapproachreducetheriskthatconsumerswillrespondwithresentment,distrust,andcounterargumentation—thatis,thepossibleboomerangeffectidentifiedearlierintheparagraphasadrawbackofthehard-sellapproach.

A. Thesentencedoesnotreiteratethedistinctionbetweenthehard-andsoft-sellapproaches;rather,itexplainsanadvantageofthesoft-

sellapproach.

B. Correct.Thesentenceexplainshowthesoft-sellapproachavoidstheproblemsthatcanarisefromthehard-sellapproach’sexplicitlystatedconclusions.

C. Thesentencesuggeststhattheriskofboomerangeffectsdescribedearlierintheparagraphisseriousbutthatadifferentapproachcanmitigateit.

D. Thesentenceoutlineswhythestrategydescribedintheprevioussentencereducesadvertisers’risks,notwhyitinvolvesrisks.

E. Atnopointdoesthepassagerefutetheideathatimplicitconclusionsreducetheriskofboomerangeffects.Itdoessaythattherecouldbedrawbackstothesoft-sellapproach,butthosedrawbacksarerelatedtotheproblemwithimplicitconclusionsthemselvesandhowpeoplereachthem.Inaddition,thefollowingparagraphdoesnotmentionthedrawbacks,onlytheadvantagesofimplicitconclusions.


22. Itcanbeinferredfromthepassagethatonesituationinwhichtheboomerangeffectoftenoccursiswhenconsumers

A. havebeenexposedtoforcefulclaimsthatarediametricallyopposedtothoseinanadvertiser’smessage

B. havepreviousself-generatedbeliefsorconclusionsthatarereadilyaccessiblefrommemory

C. aresubjectedtoadvertisingmessagesthataretargetedatspecificmarketstowhichthoseconsumersdonotbelong

D. areconfusedregardingthepointoftheadvertiser’smessage

E. cometoviewtheadvertiser’smessagewithsuspicion

Inference

Thepassagediscussestheboomerangeffectinthesecondparagraph.Thiseffectisdefinedasconsumersderivingconclusionsfromadvertisingthataretheoppositeofthosethatadvertisersintendedtopresent,anditoccurswhenconsumersresentand/ordistrustwhattheyarebeingtold.

A. Thepassageprovidesnogroundsforinferringthatconsumersneed

tobeexposedtoopposingclaimsinordertobelievesuchclaims;theymayreachopposingclaimsontheirown.

B. Thepassageindicatesthattheboomerangeffectcanbereducedbyusingasoft-sellapproach,whichcanresultinself-generatedconclusions,butitprovidesnoevidenceaboutanypossibleeffectsofpreexistingself-generatedbeliefsorconclusionsontheboomerangeffect.

C. Thepassagedoesnotaddresshowconsumerswhoaresubjectedtoadvertisingmessagesnotintendedforthemmightrespond.

D. Confusionregardingthepointoftheadvertiser’smessageismorelikelytooccur,thepassagesuggests,whenadvertisersuseasoft-sellapproach—butitisthehard-sellapproach,notthesoft-sell,thatislikelytoresultintheboomerangeffect.

E. Correct.Thesecondparagraphindicatesthatconsumerswhoresentbeingtoldwhattobelieveandcometodistrusttheadvertiser’smessage—thatis,thosewhoviewthemessagewithsuspicion—mayexperienceaboomerangeffect,believingtheoppositeoftheconclusionsoffered.


23. Itcanbeinferredfromthepassagethattheresearchmentionedinline29supportswhichofthefollowingstatements?

A. Implicitconclusionsaremorelikelytocaptureaccuratelythepointoftheadvertiser’smessagethanareexplicitconclusions.

B. Counterargumentationislesslikelytooccurifanindividual’sbeliefsorconclusionsarereadilyaccessiblefrommemory.

C. Thehard-sellapproachresultsinconclusionsthataremoredifficultfortheconsumertorecallthanareconclusionsresultingfromthesoft-sellapproach.

D. Whenthebeliefsofothersarepresentedasdefiniteandforcefulclaims,theyareperceivedtobeasaccurateasself-generatedbeliefs.

E. Despitetheadvantagesofimplicitconclusions,thehard-sellapproachinvolvesfewerrisksfortheadvertiserthandoesthesoft-sellapproach.

Inference

Theresearchthisitemrefersto—researchonconsumermemoryand

judgment—indicatesthatbeliefsaremorememorablewhentheyareself-generatedandsomatterwhenmakingjudgmentsanddecisions.Further,self-generatedbeliefsseemmorebelievabletothosewhohavethemthanbeliefsthatcomefromelsewhere.

A. Thefourthparagraphindicatesthatimplicitconclusionsaremorelikelytofailtoreplicatetheadvertiser’smessagethanexplicitconclusionsare.

B. Theresearchdiscussedinthepassagedoesnotaddresswhencounterargumentationismoreorlesslikelytooccur.Eventhoughcounterargumentationisariskwhenconsumersdistrusttheadvertiser’smessage—astheymaydowhenharder-to-recallexplicitconclusionsaregiven—itmaybeasmuchofariskwhenconsumersreachanimplicitconclusionthatisreadilyaccessiblefrommemory.

C. Correct.Theresearchindicatesthatitiseasierforconsumerstorecallconclusionstheyhavereachedontheirown—thatis,thesortsofconclusionsthatareencouragedbythesoft-sellapproach—thanconclusionsthathavebeenprovidedexplicitly,ashappensinthehard-sellapproach.

D. Theresearchdoesnotshowthattheforcefulnesswithwhichclaimsarepresentedincreasesperceptionsoftheaccuracyofthoseclaims.Indeed,itismostlikelytheopposite,astheforcefulnessofothers’claimsmaymakethemseemevenlessrelatedtoanyconclusionstheconsumermightgenerateforhim-orherself.

E. Theresearchsuggeststhatitisthesoft-sell,notthehard-sell,approachthathasfewerrisks.Thefourthparagraphindicatesthattherecouldbesomeriskstotheimplicitconclusionsthatconsumersdraw,butthisisnotpartoftheresearchinquestion.




A. describingtheeffectsofhumanactivitiesonalgaeincoralreefs

B. explaininghowhumanactivitiesareposingathreattocoralreefcommunities

C. discussingtheprocessbywhichcoralreefsdeteriorateinnutrient-poorwaters

D. explaininghowcoralreefsproducefoodforthemselves

E. describingtheabundanceofalgaeandfilter-feedinganimalsincoralreefareas

Mainidea

Thisquestionconcernstheauthor’smainpoint,thefocusofthepassageasawhole.Thefirstparagraphdescribesthesymbioticprocessofcoralreefssothatreaderswillunderstandhowhumanactivitiesaredegradingthisfragileecosystem,asexplainedinthesecondparagraph.Theauthorfocusesonhowharmfulthesehumanactivitiesaretocoralreefs.

A. Theincreasedabundanceofalgae(line23)isadetailsupportingthemainpoint.

B. Correct.Humanactivitiesarethreateningcomplexcoralreefcommunities.

C. Thefirstparagraphexplainshowcoralreefsthriveinnutrient-poorwaters.

D. Thezooxanthellaecellsofalgaefeedthecoralreefs(lines7–12);thispointisadetailthatsupportsthemainidea.

E. Thisabundanceisadetailsupportingthemainidea,notthemainideaitself.


25. Thepassagesuggestswhichofthefollowingaboutcoralreefcommunities?

A. Coralreefcommunitiesmayactuallybemorelikelytothriveinwatersthatarerelativelylowinnutrients.

B. Thenutrientsonwhichcoralreefcommunitiesthriveareonlyfoundinshallowwaters.

C. Humanpopulationgrowthhasledtochangingoceantemperatures,whichthreatenscoralreefcommunities.

D. Thegrowthofcoralreefcommunitiestendstodestabilizeunderwaterherbivorepopulations.

E. Coralreefcommunitiesaremorecomplexanddiversethanmostecosystemslocatedondryland.

Inference

Thewordsuggestsinthequestionindicatesthattheanswerwillbeaninferencebasedonwhatthepassagesaysaboutcoralreefcommunities.Thebeginningofthepassagestatesthatnutrient-poorwaters(lines4–5)sustainthethrivinglifeofacoralreef.Lines25–27showthatnutrientinputisincreasingbecauseofhumanactivities,withconsequentdeclinesinreefcommunities(line24).Giventhisinformation,itisreasonabletoconcludethatcoralreefsthriveinnutrient-poor,ratherthannutrient-rich,waters.

A. Correct.Coralreefsflourishinclear,nutrient-poorwaters.

B. Shallowwatersarementionedonlyinthecontextofdeterioratingmarinehabitats(line17),notasasourceofnutrients;thepassagedoesnotindicatethatthenutrientsareuniquetoshallowwaters.

C. Oceantemperaturesarenotmentionedinthepassage.

D. Reefdecline,notreefgrowth,leadstodestabilizedherbivorepopulations(lines21–22).

E. Nocomparisonsaremadebetweenecosystemsinwaterandonland.


26. Theauthorrefersto“filter-feedinganimals”(lines23–24)inorderto

A. provideanexampleofacharacteristicsignofreefdeterioration

B. explainhowreefcommunitiesacquiresustenanceforsurvival

C. identifyafactorthathelpsherbivorepopulationsthrive

D. indicateacauseofdecreasingnutrientinputinwatersthatreefsinhabit

E. identifymembersofcoralreefcommunitiesthatrelyoncoralreefsfornutrients

Logicalstructure

Thisquestionconcernswhytheauthorhasincludedaparticulardetail.Lookatthecontextforthephrasefilter-feedinganimals.Thecompletesentence(lines21–24)showsthatahigherpopulationoffilter-feedinganimalsisasymptomofreefdecline.

A. Correct.Anincreasingabundanceoftheseanimalsisatypicalsignofreefdecline.

B. Zooxanthellaecellsofalgae,notfilter-feedinganimals,providesustenanceforreefcommunities(lines7–12).

C. Anincreaseinfilter-feedinganimalsisassociatedwithdestabilized,notthriving,herbivorepopulations.

D. Anincreaseinnutrients,ratherthanadecrease,causesreefdecline,whenthepopulationoffilter-feedinganimalsthengrows.

E. Theauthorincludesfilter-feedinganimalsinthecontextofthedeclineofcoralreefs,notthesymbioticprocessofcoralreefs.


27. Accordingtothepassage,whichofthefollowingisafactorthatisthreateningthesurvivalofcoralreefcommunities?

A. Thewaterstheyinhabitcontainfewnutrientresources.

B. Adeclineinnutrientinputisdisruptingtheirsymbioticrelationshipwithzooxanthellae.

C. Thedegradedwatersoftheirmarinehabitatshavereducedtheirabilitytocarryoutphotosynthesis.

D. Theyaretoobiologicallycomplextosurviveinhabitatswithminimalnutrientinput.

E. Wasteby-productsresultinanincreaseinnutrientinputtoreefcommunities.

Supportingideas

Thephraseaccordingtothepassageindicatesthatthenecessaryinformationisexplicitlystatedinthepassage.Lookatthethreatstocoralreefslistedinlines18–21andmatchthemagainstthepossibleanswers.Wasteby-productsincreasenutrientsinthewater,andreefsdeclineasnutrientsgrowmoreplentiful(lines21–24).

A. Coralreefsthriveinnutrient-poorwaters,asthefirstparagraphexplains.

B. Nutrientinputisincreasing,notdecreasing(lines20–21).

C. Thepassagedoesnotsaythatthedegradedwatersinhibitphotosynthesis.

D. Thecomplexecosystemofcoralreefsthrivesinnutrient-poorwaters.

E. Correct.Wasteby-productscontributetoincreasednutrientinput,whichcausesreefdecline.


28. Itcanbeinferredfromthepassagethattheauthordescribescoralreefcommunitiesasparadoxicalmostlikelyforwhichofthefollowingreasons?

A. Theyarethrivingeventhoughhumanactivitieshavedepletedthenutrientsintheirenvironment.

B. Theyareabletosurviveinspiteofanoverabundanceofalgaeinhabitingtheirwaters.

C. Theyareabletosurviveinanenvironmentwithlimitedfoodresources.

D. Theirmetabolicwastescontributetothedegradationofthewatersthattheyinhabit.

E. Theyaredecliningevenwhenthewatersurroundingthemremainsclear.

Inference

Aparadoxisapuzzlingstatementthatseemstocontradictitself.Toanswerthisquestion,lookforinformationthatappearspuzzling.Theauthorcallscoralreefsoneofthefascinatingparadoxesofthebiospherebecausethereefsareprolificandproductivedespiteinhabitingclearwaterswithfewnutrients.Theparadoxisthatthereefsseemtoflourishwithlittlefood.

A. Humanactivitieshaveharmedcoralreefsbyincreasingnutrientinput(lines24–29).

B. Anincreaseinalgaeisasignofreefdecline,notreefsurvival(lines21–23).

C. Correct.Coralreefsthriveinwatersthatprovidelittlefood.

D. Algaecellsusethemetabolicwastesofthecoralstocarryoutphotosynthesis;theresultissustenanceforthereefcommunity,notadegradationofwaters(lines9–12).

E. Coralreefsthriveinclear,nutrient-poorwateranddeclineinnutrient-richwater.



29. Itcanbeinferredfromthepassagethatthetwoproceduresdescribedin

thepassagehavewhichofthefollowingincommon?

A. Theyhavebeenappliedinpractice.

B. Theyrelyontheuseofadevicethatmeasurestension.

C. Theirpurposeistodetermineanunknownmass.

D. Theycanonlybeappliedtosmallsolidobjects.

E. Theyinvolveattractionbetweenobjectsofsimilarmass.

Inference

Theproceduresdescribedinthepassageareintroducedbythesuggestioninthefirstparagraphthatsomeoneinaspaceshipwhowantedtodetermineasolidobject’smasscoulddosoinaparticularway.Thesecondparagraphusesthewordweighinquotestorefertoasimilarprocedurefordeterminingthemassofadouble-starsystem.

A. Thelanguageofthefirstparagraphishypothetical:wecoulddoparticularthings.Thus,thereisnowaytodeterminefromthepassagewhetherthatprocedurehasbeenappliedinpractice.

B. Thefirstprocedurereliesonaspringscale,whichmeasurestension,butthesecondproceduremeasurestimeanddistancetodeterminerestrainingforce.

C. Correct.Bothproceduresdeterminemass:thefirstprocedurecandeterminethemassofasmallsolidobjectonaspaceshipinfreefall,andthesecondcandeterminethemassofadouble-starsystem.

D. Thefirstprocedurewould,accordingtothepassage,beappliedtoasmallsolidobject,butthesecondweighsdouble-starsystems,whichareclearlynotsmallobjects.

E. Thesecondprocedureinvolvesattractionbetweentwostars,whichcouldbeofsimilarmass,inthesamesystem,butthefirstprocedureinvolvesmeasuringtensioninastringandspeedofwhirling,notattractionbetweenobjects.


30. Accordingtothepassage,thetensioninthestringmentionedinlines8–9isanalogoustowhichofthefollowingaspectsofadouble-starsystem?

A. Thespeedwithwhichonestarorbitstheother

B. Thegravitationalattractionbetweenthestars

C. Theamountoftimeittakesforthestarstocircleoneanother

D. Thedistancebetweenthetwostars

E. Thecombinedmassofthetwostars

Supportingidea

Thesecondparagraphstatesthatanattractiveforceisanalogoustothetensioninthestring.Thisattractiveforceisidentifiedintheprevioussentenceasthegravitationalforcebetweenthetwostarsinadouble-starsystem.

A. Thesecondparagraphstatesthatthespeedwithwhichthestarscircleeachotherdependsonthegravitationalforcebetweenthem,butitisthatforcethatisanalogoustothetensioninthestring.

B. Correct.Thesecondparagraphclearlyidentifiesthegravitationalforcebetweenthetwostarsastheattractiveforcethatisanalogoustothetensioninthespringscale’sstring.

C. Theamountoftimeittakesforthestarstocircleoneanotherisnecessaryforcalculatingtheforcethatholdsthemtogether,butitistheforceitselfthatisanalogoustothestring’stension.

D. Thedistancebetweenthestarsmustbemeasurediftheattractionbetweenthemistobedetermined,buttheattraction,notthedistance,isanalogoustothestring’stension.

E. Thecombinedmassofthetwostarsiswhattheprocedureisdesignedtodetermine;itisanalogoustothemassofthesmallsolidobject,asdescribedinthefirstparagraph.


31. Whichofthefollowingbestdescribestherelationshipbetweenthefirstandthesecondparagraphofthepassage?

A. Thefirstparagraphprovidesanillustrationusefulforunderstandingaproceduredescribedinthesecondparagraph.

B. Thefirstparagraphdescribesahypotheticalsituationwhoseplausibilityistestedinthesecondparagraph.

C. Thefirstparagraphevaluatestheusefulnessofaprocedurewhoseapplicationisdescribedfurtherinthesecondparagraph.

D. Thesecondparagraphprovidesevidencetosupportaclaimmadeinthefirstparagraph.

E. Thesecondparagraphanalyzesthepracticalimplicationsofamethodologyproposedinthefirstparagraph.

Evaluation

Thisquestionrequiresunderstandingthatthesecondparagraphdescribesasomewhatdifficult-to-understandprocedurethatthefirstparagraphillustratesinsmaller,andsimpler,terms.

A. Correct.Thefirstparagraphillustrates,hypothetically,asimpleprocedurefordeterminingmass,andthisillustrationprovidesthegroundsonwhichthepassageexplainstheprocedureofthesecondparagraph.

B. Thefirstparagraphdescribesasituationinhypotheticalterms,butthesecondparagraphdoesnottestthatsituation’splausibility.Instead,thesecondparagraphdrawsananalogybetweentheinitialsituationandanotherprocedure.

C. Thefirstparagraphdoesnotevaluatetheusefulnessoftheprocedurefordeterminingasmallsolidobject’smasswhileinaspaceshipinfreefall;itsimplydescribeshowthatprocedurewouldwork.

D. Thesecondparagraphprovidesnoevidence;itdescribesaprocedureanalogoustowhatisdescribedinthefirstparagraph.

E. Thesecondparagraphdoesnotdiscussthepracticalimplicationsofthefirstparagraph’smethodologybutratheraprocedurethatisanalogoustothehypotheticalsituationofthefirstparagraph.


32. Theauthorofthepassagementionsobservationsregardingtheperiodofadouble-starsystemasbeingusefulfordetermining

A. thedistancebetweenthetwostarsinthesystem

B. thetimeittakesforeachstartorotateonitsaxis

C. thesizeoftheorbitthesystem’stwostarsoccupy

D. thedegreeofgravitationalattractionbetweenthesystem’sstars

E. thespeedatwhichthestarsystemmovesthroughspace

Supportingidea

Theauthormentionstheperiodofadouble-starsysteminthefinalsentenceofthesecondparagraph,definingitasthetimerequiredfor

starstocircleeachother.Knowingthistime,incombinationwiththedistancebetweenthestars,enablesthedeterminationoftherestrainingforcebetweenthestars.

A. Thefinalsentenceofthesecondparagraphindicatesthattheperiodofadouble-starsystemismeasuredindependentlyofthedistancebetweenthetwostarsinthesystem.

B. Thepassageisnotconcernedwithhowlongittakeseachstartorotateonitsaxis.

C. Thepassagedoesnotmentionanyone’stryingtodeterminethesizeoftheorbitofasystem’stwostars.Itdoesmentiontherelatedtopicofdistancebetweenthestarsbutindicatesthatknowingsuchdistanceisrequiredformeasuringthestars’mass,notthatitcanbeinferredfromtheperiodofthesystem.

D. Correct.Accordingtothepassage,therestrainingforce,orgravitationalattraction,betweenthetwostarscanbededucedbasedontheperiodandthedistancebetweenthem.

E. Thepassagedoesnotmentionthespeedatwhichthestarsystemmovesthroughspace.



33. Whichofthefollowingmostaccuratelystatesthepurposeofthepassage?

A. Tocomparetwodifferentapproachestothestudyofhomeostasis

B. Tosummarizethefindingsofseveralstudiesregardingorganisms’maintenanceofinternalvariablesinextremeenvironments

C. Toargueforaparticularhypothesisregardingvariousorganisms’conservationofwaterindesertenvironments

D. Tociteexamplesofhowhomeostasisisachievedbyvariousorganisms

E. Todefendanewtheoryregardingthemaintenanceofadequatefluidbalance

Mainidea

Toanswerthisquestion,lookatthepassageasawhole.Thefirstparagraphdefineshomeostasisandnamesthreeanimalsthatmust

maintaininternalfluidbalanceindifficultcircumstances.Thetopicofthesecondparagraphishowdesertratsmaintainfluidbalance.Thethirdparagraphdiscusseshowcamelsmaintainfluidbalance,whilethefinalparagraphdescribesmaintenanceofwaterbalanceinmarinevertebrates.Thus,theoverallpurposeistogivethreeexamplesofhowhomeostasisisachieved.

A. Examplesofhomeostasisaregiven,butdifferentapproachestostudyingitarenotdiscussed.

B. Thepassagedescribesexamples,butitdoesnotsummarizestudies.

C. Whilethepassagedoesdiscusstwodesertanimals,itdoesnotpresentanyargumentforaparticularhypothesis.

D. Correct.Thepassagediscussestheexamplesofdesertrats,camels,andmarinevertebratestoshowhowtheseorganismsareabletoachievehomeostasis.

E. Thepassagedescribeshowthreeorganismsmaintainwaterbalance,butitpresentsnotheoryaboutit.


34. Itcanbeinferredfromthepassagethatsomemechanismsthatregulateinternalbodytemperature,likesweatingandpanting,canleadtowhichofthefollowing?

A. Ariseintheexternalbodytemperature

B. Adropinthebody’sinternalfluidlevel

C. Adecreaseintheosmoticpressureoftheblood

D. Adecreaseintheamountofrenalwaterloss

E. Adecreaseintheurine’ssaltcontent

Inference

Aninferenceisdrawnfromstatedinformation.Toanswerthisquestion,lookattheinformationaboutsweatingandpantinginlines18–21and33–35.Thepassagestatesthatdesertratsavoidlossoffluidthroughpantingorsweating,whichareregulatorymechanismsformaintaininginternalbodytemperaturebyevaporativecooling.Thesemechanismsreduceinternalbodytemperatures.Additionally,camelsconserveinternalwater(line35)whentheyavoidsweatingandpanting,exceptatveryhighbodytemperatures.Therefore,theymustloseinternalwater

whentheydosweatandpant.

A. Thepassagedoesnotdiscussexternalbodytemperature;sweatingandpantinglowerinternalbodytemperature,andthereisnoreasontoinferexternalbodytemperaturesmightrise.

B. Correct.Sweatingandpantingleadtolossoffluid.Desertratsavoidsweatingandpantingbystayinginburrows,andcamelsdonotemploythesemechanismsexceptatveryhighbodytemperatures(lines33–35)andthusconserveinternalwater.

C. Thepassagestatesthatdesertratsareabletomaintaintheosmoticpressureoftheirblood,aswellastheirtotalbody-watercontent(lines13–15)anddoesnotconnectchangesinosmoticpressuretotemperature-regulatingmechanismssuchassweatingandpanting.

D. Whilethepassagedoesdiscussrenalwaterloss,itdoesnotrelatethistotemperature-regulatingmechanismslikesweatingandpanting.

E. Thepassagedoesnotrelatebodytemperatureregulatorslikesweatingandpantingtochangesintheurine’ssaltcontent.


35. Itcanbeinferredfromthepassagethattheauthorcharacterizesthecamel’skidneyas“entirelyunexceptional”(line26)primarilytoemphasizethatit

A. functionsmuchasthekidneyofaratfunctions

B. doesnotaidthecamelincopingwiththeexceptionalwaterlossresultingfromtheextremeconditionsofitsenvironment

C. doesnotenablethecameltoexcreteasmuchsaltasdothekidneysofmarinevertebrates

D. issimilarinstructuretothekidneysofmostmammalslivinginwater-deprivedenvironments

E. requiresthehelpofotherorgansineliminatingexcesssalt

Inference

Toanswerthisquestion,lookatthephraseentirelyunexceptionalinthecontextofthepassage.Desertratsandcamelssharetheproblemofconservingwaterinanenvironmentwherewaterislacking,temperatureishigh,andhumidityislow(lines10–12).Desertratshaveaspartof

theircopingmechanismsexceptionalkidneysthatproduceurinewithahighsaltcontent.Theauthorcomparescamels’kidneystothoseofdesertratsandshowsthatthecamelshaveordinarykidneysthatdonothelpthecamelsconservewater.

A. Sinceacontrastisdrawnbetweenthekidneysofcamelsandthoseofdesertrats,thetwomustfunctiondifferently;thepassagemakesnoreferencetothekidneysofotherrats.

B. Correct.Thecamel’skidneydoesnothingspecialtohelpthecamelcopewithitsdifficultenvironment.

C. Nocomparisonbetweenthekidneysofcamelsandthekidneysofmarinevertebratesismade.

D. Thereisnoinformationgivenaboutthekidneystructureofmostmammalsindesertenvironmentssothisconclusionisnotjustified.

E. Marinevertebrateshaveotherorgansthathelpeliminateextrasalt;camelsdonot.




A. describenewwaysofstudyingthepossibilitythatlifeonceexistedonMars

B. reviseatheoryregardingtheexistenceoflifeonMarsinlightofnewevidence

C. reconcileconflictingviewpointsregardingthepossibilitythatlifeonceexistedonMars

D. evaluatearecentlyproposedargumentconcerningtheoriginofALH84001

E. describeacontroversyconcerningthesignificanceofevidencefromALH84001

Mainidea

Answeringthisquestionrequiresdeterminingthepurposeofthepassageasawhole.Inthefirstparagraph,thepassageindicatesthataresearchteamfoundthataMartianmeteoriteinAntarcticacontainscompellingevidencethatlifeexistedonMars.Therestofthepassagethendescribesargumentsbyskepticsagainsttheresearchteam’s

conclusiontogetherwiththeresearchteam’srebuttalstotheskeptics’arguments.

A. WhilethepassagediscussesonetypeofevidencethatlifemighthaveexistedonMars,itdoesnotdescribemultiplewaysofstudyingthepossibilityofMartianlife,norcharacterizeanymethodofstudyasnew.

B. Thepassagemerelyreportsanddoesnotmakeanyattemptatrevisingexistingtheories.

C. ThepassagedescribesbutdoesnottrytoreconcileconflictingviewpointsconcerninglifeonMars.

D. TheoriginofALH84001isgenerallyagreedupon(line5),notarecentlyproposedhypothesisevaluatedbythepassage.

E. Correct.ThepassagedescribesopposingargumentsaboutwhetherALH84001suggestslifeeverexistedonMars.


37. ThepassageassertswhichofthefollowingabouttheclaimthatALH84001originatedonMars?

A. ItwasinitiallyproposedbytheMcKayteamofscientists.

B. Itisnotamatterofwidespreadscientificdispute.

C. IthasbeenquestionedbysomeskepticsoftheMcKayteam’swork.

D. IthasbeenunderminedbyrecentworkonPAHs.

E. ItisincompatiblewiththefactthatALH84001hasbeenonEarthfor13,000years.

Supportingideas

Thisquestionrequiresrecognizingwhatthepassageindicatesaboutapieceofinformationitoffers.Thepassagestatesthatscientistsgenerallyagree(line5)thatALH84001originatedonMars,whichstronglysuggeststhatthereisnotmuchdisputeaboutit.

A. WhileitispossiblethatMcKay’steaminitiallymadetheproposal,thepassagedoesnotsayso.

B. Correct.InstatingthatscientistsgenerallyagreeALH84001originatedonMars,thepassageindicatesthereisnorealcontroversyonthismatter.

C. TheskepticsmentionedinthepassagearenotdescribedascallingintoquestionthatALH84001originatedonMars.

D. ThepassagedoesnottietheexistenceofPAHsinALH84001toquestionsaboutitsMartianorigins.

E. ThepassagemakesnoconnectionbetweenthetimeALH84001hasbeenontheEarthandquestionsastoitsMartianorigins.


38. ThepassagesuggeststhatthefactthatALH84001hasbeenonEarthfor13,000yearshasbeenusedbysomescientiststosupportwhichofthefollowingclaimsaboutALH84001?

A. ALH84001maynothaveoriginatedonMars.

B. ALH84001containsPAHsthataretheresultofnonbiologicalprocesses.

C. ALH84001maynothavecontainedPAHswhenitlandedonEarth.

D. TheorganicmoleculesfoundinALH84001arenotPAHs.

E. TheorganicmoleculesfoundinALH84001couldnotbetheresultofterrestrialcontamination.

Supportingideas

Thisquestionrequiresrecognizinghowaparticularfactisusedtosupportaparticularpointofviewreportedinthepassage.Inthesecondparagraph,thepassagepresentsvariousskeptics’argumentsaboutwhetherthePAHsinALH84001originatedonMars.Inlines15–19,thepassageindicatesthatsomescientistsseethefactthatALH84001hasbeenonEarthfor13,000yearsasraisingthepossibilitythatthePAHsinALH84001resultedfromterrestrialcontaminationorinotherwordsthatitdidnotcontainPAHswhenitlandedonEarth.

A. ThepassageindicatesonlythatmostscientistsbelievethatALH84001originatedonMars.

B. AlthoughthepassageindicatesthatskepticshavepointedoutthatPAHscanbeformedbynonbiologicalprocesses,theirpointisnotrelatedtothelengthoftimeALH84001hasbeenonEarth.

C. Correct.ThepassageindicatesthatsomescientistsbelievethatthePAHsinALH84001mayhavebeentransferredtoitduringits13,000yearsonEarth.

D. ThepassagedoesnotindicatethatanyscientistsdoubtthepresenceofPAHsinALH84001.

E. ThepassageindicatesthatthefactthatALH84001hasbeenonEarthfor13,000yearsisusedbysomescientiststosupporttheideaofterrestrialcontamination.


39. ThepassagesuggeststhatifameteoritecontainedPAHsthatweretheresultofterrestrialcontamination,thenonewouldexpectwhichofthefollowingtobetrue?

A. ThemeteoritewouldhavebeenonEarthformorethan13,000years.

B. ThemeteoritewouldhaveoriginatedfromasourceotherthanMars.

C. ThePAHscontainedinthemeteoritewouldhaveoriginatedfromnonbiologicalprocesses.

D. ThemeteoritewouldcontainfewerPAHsthanmostothermeteoritescontain.

E. ThePAHscontainedinthemeteoritewouldbeconcentratedtowardthemeteorite’ssurface.

Application

Answeringthisquestioninvolvesapplyinginformationcontainedinthepassagetoasituationthatisnotdescribedinthepassage.Accordingtothepassage,somescientistsbelievethatbecauseALH84001hasbeenonEarthforaslongas13,000years,anyPAHscontainedinitmayhavebeentransferredfromtheEarth,aprocessthepassagedescribesasterrestrialcontamination(line19).ThepassagealsoindicatesthatifterrestrialcontaminationoccurredwithALH84001,then,contrarytothefindingsofMcKay’steamthatshowedPAHconcentrationsincreasingasonelooksdeeperintoALH84001(lines21–22),thePAHswouldbeexpectedtobeconcentratedmoretowardtheouterparts,orsurface,ofALH84001.

A. Thepassageindicatesthatscientistsbelievethat13,000yearsissufficienttimeforterrestrialcontaminationtohappen.

B. ThepassagedoesnotsuggestthattheoriginofameteoriteaffectsitsabilitytobecomecontaminatedwithterrestrialPAHs.

C. ThepassagedoesnotindicatewhetherPAHsresultingfrom

terrestrialcontaminationwouldbenonbiologicalornot.

D. ThepassagedoesnotmentionthatdifferentmeteoritesmaycontaindifferentamountsofPAHs.

E. Correct.ThepassagesuggeststhatifALH84001experiencedterrestrialcontamination,thenthePAHswouldbemoreconcentratedtowardtheoutersurfaceofthemeteorite.


40. Whichofthefollowingbestdescribesthefunctionofthelastsentenceofthefirstparagraph?

A. ItidentifiesapossibleorganicsourceforthePAHsfoundinALH84001.

B. ItdescribesafeatureofPAHsthatisnotsharedbyothertypesoforganicmolecules.

C. Itexplainshowacharacteristiccommontomostmeteoritesoriginates.

D. ItsuggestshowtheterrestrialcontaminationofALH84001mighthavetakenplace.

E. ItpresentsevidencethatunderminestheclaimthatlifeonceexistedonMars.

Evaluation

Thisquestionrequiresunderstandinghowapartofthepassagefunctionswithinthepassageasawhole.ThefirstparagraphbeginsbyestablishingthatMcKay’steambelievesthatthePAHsfoundinALH84001providecompellingevidencethatlifeexistedonMars.Toexplainthis,thepassageindicatesthatPAHsareatypeoforganicmolecules,whichformthebasisforlife.Furthermore,toconnectPAHstopossiblelifeonMars,thefinalsentenceofthefirstparagraphindicatesthatonesourceofPAHsisthedecayofdeadmicrobes.

A. Correct.WithoutevidenceofanorganicsourceforthePAHsinALH84001,theteam’sargumentwouldnotmakesense.

B. ThepassageindicatesthatPAHscanbeformedbythedecayoforganicmaterialfrommicrobesbutdoesnotimplythatotherorganicmoleculescannotbeformedthisway.

C. Thesentencereferredtoexplainsonepossibleoriginofamolecule

foundinALH84001butdoesnotimplythatmostmeteoritescontainthatmolecule.

D. Thesentencereferredtodoesnotinvolvetheprocessofterrestrialcontamination.

E. Thesentencereferredtoprovidesinformationnecessarytotheteam’sargumentthatlifemayhaveexistedonMars.


41. ThepassagesuggeststhatMcKay’steamwouldagreewithwhichofthefollowingregardingthePAHsproducedbynonorganicprocesses?

A. ThesePAHsarenotlikelytobefoundinanymeteoritethathasbeenonEarthfor13,000yearsormore.

B. ThesePAHsarenotlikelytobefoundinanymeteoritethatoriginatedfromMars.

C. ThesePAHsarenotlikelytobeproducedbystarformation.

D. ThesePAHsarelikelytobefoundincombinationsthatdistinguishthemfromthePAHsproducedbyorganicprocesses.

E. ThesePAHsarelikelytobefoundinfewermeteoritesthanthePAHsproducedbyorganicprocesses.

Inference

Thisquestioninvolvesunderstandingaparticularpointofviewpresentedinthepassage.Thepassageindicatesinlines11–13thattheorganicmoleculesfoundinALH84001arePAHs.Inlines23–27,skepticsofMcKay’steam’sfindingspointoutthatprocessesunrelatedtoorganiclife,includingstarformation,canproducePAHs.Inthefinalsentenceofthepassage,McKay’steamnotesthatthetypeofPAHsfoundinALH84001aremoresimilartothoseproducedbyorganicprocessesthantothoseproducedbynonorganicprocesses.

A. McKay’steamdoesnottiethepresenceofnonorganicPAHsinmeteoritestothelengthoftimethemeteoriteshavebeenonEarth.

B. McKay’steamdoesnotdenythepossibilitythatatleastsomeofthePAHsfoundinMartianmeteoritesarenonorganicinorigin.

C. McKay’steamdoesnotdenythatPAHscanbeproducedbytheformationofstars.

D. Correct.McKay’steamnotesinlines29–34thatthePAH

combinationsproducedbyorganicprocessescanbedistinguishedfromthoseproducedbynonorganicprocesses.

E. McKay’steamdoesnotaddresstheprobabilityofnonorganicPAHsbeingfoundinmeteorites.




A. presentrecentlydiscoveredevidencethatsupportsaconventionalinterpretationofahistoricalperiod

B. describehowreinterpretationsofavailableevidencehavereinvigoratedaonce-discreditedscholarlyposition

C. explainwhysomehistorianshavetendedtoemphasizechangeratherthancontinuityindiscussingaparticularperiod

D. explorehowchangesinaparticularoccupationservetocountertheprevailingviewofahistoricalperiod

E. examineaparticularareaofhistoricalresearchinordertoexemplifyageneralscholarlytrend

Mainidea

Thisquestionasksaboutthepassage’smainpurpose.Thefirstparagraphinitiallydescribesawayinwhichhistoriographyischanging:theideaofaconsistent,monolithicdeclineinwomen’sstatusisbeingcomplicatedbyrecentresearch.TherestofthepassageusestheexampleofPinchbeck’sinterpretationofwomen’sworkinEnglishcheesemakingtoshowthelimitsofearlierideasaboutwomen’sstatus:Pinchbeck’sworkillustratestheideaofconsistentdecline,butrecentscholarshiphascalledthatworkintoquestion.

A. ThefirstparagraphsuggeststhatPinchbeck’sworkrepresentstheconventionalpositionthatwomen’sstatusdeclinedconsistentlywiththeadventofcapitalism;accordingtothepassage,recentevidenceundermines,ratherthansupports,thatposition.

B. Accordingtothepassage,reinterpretationsofevidencehaveinspirednewinterpretations;theyhavenotreinvigoratedadiscreditedposition.

C. Thepassageisconcernedwithnotingbothchangeandcontinuity,as

statedinthefirstsentence.

D. Inthepassage,continuity,notchange,inaparticularoccupation—Englishfarmhousecheesemaking—helpstocountertheprevailingview.

E. Correct.Thepassage’smainpurposeistoexaminewomen’sworkinEnglishfarmhousecheesemakingsoastoillustrateatrendinhistoriographyofwomen’sstatusundercapitalismandindustrialization.


43. RegardingEnglishlocalmarketsandfairs,whichofthefollowingcanbeinferredfromthepassage?

A. Bothbeforeandaftertheagriculturalrevolution,thesellersofagriculturalproductsatthesevenuesweremen.

B. Knowingwhotheactivesellerswereatthesevenuesmaynotgiveareliableindicationofwhocontrolledtherevenuefromthesales.

C. TherewerenoparallelinstitutionsatwhichAmericancheesemakerscouldselltheirownproducts.

D. Priortotheagriculturalrevolution,thesellersofagriculturalproductsatthesevenuesweregenerallytheproducersthemselves.

E. Priortotheagriculturalrevolution,womensoldnotonlycheesebutalsoproductsofarableagricultureatthesevenues.

Inference

ThepassagediscussesEnglishlocalmarketsandfairsinthefirstandsecondparagraphs:thefirstparagraphstatesthatbeforetheagriculturalrevolution,womenhadsoldcheeseinsuchvenuesbutthatafterthat,factors,whoweremen,soldthecheese.ThesecondparagrapharguesthateventhoughEnglishwomeninprecapitalist,preindustrialtimesmayhaveatonepointsoldcheeseatfairs,evidenceindicatesthatinatleastonecase,amanappropriatedmostofthemoneyhiswifemadefromhersales.

A. Thefirstparagraphstatesthatpriortotheagriculturalrevolution,womensoldcheeseatlocalmarketsandfairs.

B. Correct.Asthesecondparagraphindicates,womenmayhavesoldthecheese,butthereisevidencetosuggestthattheydidnotnecessarilycontroltherevenuefromitssale.

C. ThepassagedoesnotprovideevidenceregardinganyinstitutionsatwhichAmericancheesemakerssoldtheirproducts.

D. WhilethepassageindicatesthattheproducersofEnglishfarmhousecheesemayhavebeentheoneswhosoldthatcheeseatlocalmarketsandfairs,thereisnoevidencetosuggestthatthiswasnecessarilythecaseforotheragriculturalproducts.

E. Thepassageprovidesnoinformationregardingwhetherwomensoldproductsofarableagricultureinanyvenue.


44. ThepassagedescribestheworkofPinchbeckprimarilyinorderto

A. demonstratethatsomeoftheconclusionsreachedbyrecenthistorianswereanticipatedinearlierscholarship

B. provideaninstanceoftheviewpointthat,accordingtothepassage’sauthor,isbeingsuperseded

C. illustratethewaysinwhichrecenthistorianshavebuiltontheworkoftheirpredecessors

D. provideapointofreferenceforsubsequentscholarshiponwomen’sworkduringtheagriculturalrevolution

E. showtheeffectthatthespecializationintroducedintheagriculturalandindustrialrevolutionshadonwomen’swork

Evaluation

ThisquestionfocusesonthefunctionofPinchbeck’sworkinthepassage.Pinchbeck’sstudyofwomen’sworkincheeseproductionis,accordingtothepassage,anillustrationoftheviewthatwomen’sstatusdeclinedconsistentlywiththeadventofindustrialization.Thatview,theauthorclaims,isbeingchallengedbycurrenthistoriography.

A. ThepassageindicatesthattheconclusionsofPinchbeck,whorepresentsearlierscholarship,didnotanticipaterecentwork,butratherthatrecentworkarguesagainstthoseconclusions.

B. Correct.Pinchbeck’sworkillustratesearliertrendsinhistoriography,trendsthattheauthorsuggestsarenowgivingwaytonewerideas.

C. ThepassagedoesnotfocusonanywaysinwhichrecenthistorianshavebuiltonPinchbeck’swork;instead,itdiscusseshowtheyhave

arguedagainstitsconclusions.

D. Pinchbeck’sworkprovidesapointofreferenceonlyinsofarassubsequentscholarshipisarguingagainstit.

E. Pinchbeckmakestheargumentthatspecializationcausedwomen’sstatustodecline,butthepassageisconcernedwithunderminingthisargument.


45. Itcanbeinferredfromthepassagethatwomendidworkin

A. Americancheesemakingatsomepointpriortoindustrialization

B. arableagricultureinnorthernEnglandbothbeforeandaftertheagriculturalrevolution

C. arableagricultureinsoutheastEnglandaftertheagriculturalrevolution,inthoselocalesinwhichculturalvaluessupportedtheirparticipation

D. thesaleofcheeseatlocalmarketsinEnglandevenaftertheagriculturalrevolution

E. someareasofAmericancheesedairyingafterindustrialization

Inference

Thisquestionfocusesmainlyonthefinalparagraphofthepassage,inwhichwomen’scontinuedworkinEnglishcheesedairyingiscontrastedwithwhatthepassagecallstheirdisappearancefromarableagricultureinsoutheastEnglandandfromAmericancheesedairying,presumablyduringtheperiodofindustrialization.Thecorrectanswerwillbeaconclusionthatcanbedrawnfromthisinformation.

A. Correct.Thatwomen“disappeared”fromAmericancheesedairyingduringindustrializationprovidesgroundsforinferringthattheydidsuchdairyingworkatsomepointpriortoindustrialization.

B. ThepassagesaysthatwomendisappearedfromarableagricultureinsoutheastEngland,butitgivesnoinformationabouttheirparticipationinarableagricultureinnorthernEngland.

C. Thepassagemakesablanketstatementaboutwomen’sdisappearancefromarableagricultureinsoutheastEngland,sothereisnoreasontoinferthatanylocalessupportedwomen’sparticipationinagriculture.

D. Thefirstparagraphstatesthatfactors,whoweremen,soldcheeseaftertheagriculturalrevolution.

E. ThefinalparagraphexplicitlystatesthatwomendisappearedfromAmericancheesedairying;thus,thereisnobasisforinferringthatwomenworkedinanyareasofthatfieldafterindustrialization.



46. TheauthorofthepassagedrawsconclusionsaboutthefurtradeinNorthAmericafromallofthefollowingsourcesEXCEPT

A. Cartier’saccountsoftradingwithNativeAmericans

B. aseventeenth-centuryaccountofEuropeansettlements

C. asixteenth-centuryaccountwrittenbyasailingvesselcaptain

D. archaeologicalobservationsofsixteenth-centuryNativeAmericansites

E. asixteenth-centuryaccountofNativeAmericansinwhatisnowNewEngland

Supportingidea

Thisquestionasksaboutthesourcesmentionedbytheauthorofthepassage.AnsweringthequestioncorrectlyrequiresdeterminingwhichansweroptionisNOTreferredtointhepassageasasourceofevidenceregardingtheNorthAmericanfurtrade.

A. Correct.ThepassagementionsCartier’svoyagebutdoesnotrefertoCartier’saccountsofhistrading.

B. Inthefirstparagraph,NicolasDenys’s1672accountofEuropeansettlementsprovidesevidenceoffurtradingbysixteenth-centuryEuropeanfishingcrews.

C. Inthesecondparagraph,aPortuguesecaptain’srecordsprovideevidencethatthefurtradewasgoingonforsometimepriortohis1501account.

D. Inthefirstparagraph,archaeologists’observationsofsixteenth-centuryNativeAmericansitesprovideevidenceoffurtradingatthattime.

E. Inthesecondparagraph,a1524accountprovidesevidencethatNativeAmericanslivinginwhatisnowNewEnglandhadbecome

selectiveaboutwhichEuropeangoodstheywouldacceptintradeforfurs.


47. ThepassagesuggeststhatwhichofthefollowingispartiallyresponsibleforthedifficultyinestablishingtheprecisedatewhenthefurtradeinNorthAmericabegan?

A. AlackofwrittenaccountsbeforethatofNicolasDenysin1672

B. Alackofwrittendocumentationbefore1501

C. AmbiguitiesintheevidencefromNativeAmericansources

D. UncertaintyaboutNativeAmericantradenetworks

E. UncertaintyabouttheoriginofartifactssupposedlytradedbyEuropeanfishingcrewsforfurs

Inference

Thequestionasksaboutinformationimpliedbythepassage.ThefirstparagraphpointsoutthedifficultyofestablishingexactlywhenthefurtradebetweenNativeAmericansandEuropeansbegan.Thesecondparagraphexplainsthatthefirstwrittenrecordofthefurtrade(atleasttheearliestknowntoscholarswhostudythehistoryofthetrade)datesto1501,butthattradingwasalreadywellestablishedbythattime.Thus,itcanbeinferredthatlackofwrittenrecordspriorto1501contributestothedifficultyinestablishinganexactdateforthebeginningofthefurtrade.

A. TwowrittenrecordsofthefurtradepriortotheaccountbyNicolasDenysarementionedinthepassage.Thepassagedoesnotsuggestthatalackofwrittenrecordsfrombefore1672isasourceofthedifficultyinestablishingthedate.

B. Correct.Thepassageindicatesthatthefurtradewaswellestablishedbythetimeofthedocumentationdatingfrom1501butstronglysuggeststhatthereisnoknownearlierdocumentationregardingthattrade,soalackofrecordsbeforethattimecontributestothedifficultyinestablishinganexactdate.

C. TheonlyNativeAmericansourcesmentionedinthepassagearearchaeologicalsites,andthereisnoindicationofambiguitiesatthosesites.

D. NativeAmericantradenetworksarenotmentionedinthepassage.

E. Thepassagementionsthatfishingcrewsexchangedpartsoftheirshipsforfursanddoesnotsuggestanyuncertaintyabouttheoriginofthoseartifacts.


48. Whichofthefollowing,iftrue,moststrengthenstheauthor’sassertioninthefirstsentenceofthesecondparagraph?

A. WhenEuropeansretracedCartier’svoyageinthefirstyearsoftheseventeenthcentury,theyfrequentlytradedwithNativeAmericans.

B. Fursfrombeavers,whichwereplentifulinNorthAmericabutnearlyextinctinEurope,becameextremelyfashionableinEuropeinthefinaldecadesofthesixteenthcentury.

C. Firingarmswererarelyfoundonsixteenth-centuryNativeAmericansitesoronEuropeanlistsoftradinggoodssincesucharmsrequiredfrequentmaintenanceandrepair.

D. EuropeansandNativeAmericanshadestablishedtradeprotocols,suchasbodylanguageassuringoneanotheroftheirpeacefulintentions,thatantedatetheearliestrecordsoftrade.

E. Duringthefirstquarterofthesixteenthcentury,anItalianexplorerrecordedseeingmanyNativeAmericanswithwhatappearedtobecopperbeads,thoughtheymayhavebeenmadeofindigenouscopper.

Evaluation

Thequestiondependsonevaluatinganassertionmadeinthepassageanddeterminingwhichadditionalevidencewouldmoststrengthenit.ThefirstsentenceofthesecondparagraphclaimsthatthefurtradewaswellestablishedbythetimeEuropeanssailingtheAtlanticcoastofAmericafirstdocumentedit.Thepassagethenindicatesthatthefirstwrittendocumentationofthetradedatesto1501.Thus,evidenceshowingthattradehadbeengoingonforsometimebefore1501wouldstrengthen(support)theassertion.

A. Thisevidenceshowstradeoccurringinthefirstyearsoftheseventeenthcentury,notpriortothefirstrecordsfrom1501.

B. Thisevidenceshowstradeoccurringinthefinaldecadesofthesixteenthcentury,notpriortothefirstrecordsfrom1501.

C. Thisevidencedoesnotindicatethattradetookplacepriortothe

firstrecordsfrom1501.

D. Correct.Evidencethattradeprotocolshaddevelopedbeforethetradewasfirstrecorded(in1501)wouldstrengthensupportfortheassertionthattradewastakingplacepriortotheearliestdocumentation.

E. BecausethecopperbeadsmayhavebeenmadebyNativeAmericansratherthanacquiredthroughtradewithothersocieties,thisobservationwouldnotprovideevidencethattradewithEuropeanstookplacepriorto1501.


49. Whichofthefollowingbestdescribestheprimaryfunctionoflines11–16?

A. Itoffersareconsiderationofaclaimmadeintheprecedingsentence.

B. Itrevealshowarchaeologistsarrivedataninterpretationoftheevidencementionedintheprecedingsentence.

C. Itshowshowscholarsmisinterpretedthesignificanceofcertainevidencementionedintheprecedingsentence.

D. Itidentifiesoneofthefirstsignificantaccountsofseventeenth-centuryEuropeansettlementsinNorthAmerica.

E. ItexplainswhyDenys’saccountofseventeenth-centuryEuropeansettlementsisthoughttobesignificant.

Evaluation

Thisquestiondependsonunderstandinghowthelastsentenceofthefirstparagraphfunctionsinrelationtothelargerpassage.ThefirstparagraphexplainsthattheearliestEuropeanstotradewithNativeAmericanswerefishingcrewsnearNewfoundland.Thesecond-to-lastsentenceoftheparagraphdescribesarchaeologicalartifactsfromNativeAmericansites.ThelastsentencethenexplainsthatNicolasDenys’s1672accounthelpedarchaeologistsrealizethattheartifactswereevidenceoftradewithfishingcrews.Thus,thelastsentenceofthepassageshowshowarchaeologistslearnedtointerprettheevidencementionedintheprevioussentence.

A. Theonlyclaimmadeintheprevioussentenceisthatarchaeologistsfoundaparticulartypeofevidence.Thefinalsentenceofthe

paragraphdoesnotsuggestthatthisclaimshouldbereconsidered.

B. Correct.AfterreadingDenys’saccount,archaeologistswereabletointerpretthearchaeologicalevidencementionedintheprevioussentence.

C. Thepassagesuggeststhatarchaeologistscorrectlyinterpretedtheevidence,notmisinterpretedit.

D. Denys’saccountismentionedprimarilytoexplainhowarchaeologistslearnedtointerpretthearchaeologicalevidence,notprimarilytoidentifyanimportantearlyaccountofsettlements.

E. ThepassagedoesnotdiscusswhyDenys’saccountissignificant,onlythatarchaeologistsusedittohelpunderstandtheevidencementionedintheprevioussentence.


50. ItcanbeinferredfromthepassagethattheauthorwouldagreewithwhichofthefollowingstatementsaboutthefurtradebetweenNativeAmericansandEuropeansintheearlymodernera?

A. Thistrademayhavebegunasearlyasthe1480s.

B. Thistradeprobablydidnotcontinuemuchbeyondthe1530s.

C. Thistradewasmostlikelyatitspeakinthemid-1520s.

D. Thistradeprobablydidnotbeginpriorto1500.

E. Thereisnowrittenevidenceofthistradepriortotheseventeenthcentury.

Inference

Thequestionrequiresdeterminingwhichstatementcanmostreasonablybeinferredfromtheinformationinthepassage.ThepassagearguesthatitisdifficulttodeterminewhenthefurtradebetweenNativeAmericansandEuropeansbegan,sincetheearliestpeopletoparticipateinthattradeapparentlyleftnowrittenrecords.Thesecondparagraphnotesthatatthetimeoftheearliestknownrecordin1501,tradewasalreadywellunderway.Inthefinaltwosentencesofthepassage,theauthormentionsaneventthatoccurredin1534andthensaysthatbythattimethetrademayhavebeengoingonforperhapshalfacentury.

A. Correct.Thenext-to-lastsentenceofthepassagecitesevidenceoffurtradebetweenNativeAmericansandEuropeansin1524.Inthe

finalsentenceofthepassage,theauthormentionsaneventthathappenedadecadeafterthatdate—thusin1534—andexpressestheopinionthatthetradestartedperhapshalfacentury(fiftyyears)beforethatlaterdate.Fiftyyearsbefore1534wouldbe1484.Thisimpliesthattheauthoracceptsthatthetrademayhavebegunbythe1480s.

B. Thepassagegivesnoindicationthattheauthorbelievestradeendedshortlyafterthe1530s.

C. Thepassagedoesnotdiscusswhenthefurtradewasatitspeak.

D. Tothecontrary,thepassagearguesthattradebeganwellbefore1501.

E. Thepassagementionswrittenevidenceofthetradefrom1501and1524.


51. WhichofthefollowingcanbeinferredfromthepassageabouttheNativeAmericansmentionedinline25?

A. Theyhadlittleusefordecorativeobjectssuchasearrings.

B. Theybecameincreasinglydependentonfishingbetween1501and1524.

C. By1524,onlycertaingroupsofEuropeanswerewillingtotradewiththem.

D. TheselectivityoftheirtradingchoicesmadeitdifficultforthemtoengageinwidespreadtradewithEuropeans.

E. TheselectivityoftheirtradingchoicesindicatesthattheyhadbeentradingwithEuropeansforasignificantperiodoftimepriorto1524.

Inference

Thequestionasksaboutinformationthatcanbeinferredfromthepassage.TheNativeAmericansmentionedinthe1524chroniclesacceptedonlycertainkindsofEuropeangoodsintrade.ThepassageindicatesthattheseNativeAmericanshadbecomeselectiveaboutwhichgoodstheywouldaccept,whichimpliesthatby1524theyhadbeentradinglongenoughtodeterminewhichEuropeangoodsweremostvaluabletothem.

A. ThepassagedoesnotimplythattheseNativeAmericanshadnouse

fordecorativeobjects,onlythattheydidnotdesiretoobtainsuchitemsthroughtradewithEuropeans.

B. ThepassagedoesnotsuggestthattheNativeAmericans’dependencyonfishingchangedovertime.

C. ThereisnoindicationthatanygroupsofEuropeanswereunwillingtotradewiththeseNativeAmericans.

D. ThepassagenotesthattheNativeAmericanswereselectiveintheirtradechoicesbutdoesnotsuggestthatsuchselectivitymadewidespreadtradedifficult.

E. Correct.Thepassagenotesthatby1524,theNativeAmericanshadbecomeselectiveaboutwhichEuropeangoodstheywouldaccept,andthepassagetakesthistoindicatethatthetradewithEuropeanssignificantlypredated1524.


52. Thepassagesupportswhichofthefollowingstatementsaboutsixteenth-centuryEuropeanfishingcrewsworkingthewatersoffNewfoundland?

A. Theywrotenoaccountsoftheirfishingvoyages.

B. TheyprimarilysailedundertheflagofPortugal.

C. TheyexchangedshippartswithNativeAmericansforfurs.

D. TheycommonlytradedjewelrywithNativeAmericansforfurs.

E. TheycarriedsurplusmetalimplementstotradewithNativeAmericansforfurs.

Inference

Thequestionaskswhichstatementissupportedbyinformationprovidedinthepassage.ThefirstparagraphstatesthatEuropeanfishingcrewsaroundNewfoundlandwerethefirstEuropeanstotradegoodsforfurswithNativeAmericansinthemodernperiod.Thelastsentenceoftheparagraphstatesthatarchaeologicalevidenceindicatesthecrewshaddismantledtheirshipstotradeshippartsforfurs.

A. ThesecondsentencestatesthatthecrewsleftnowrittenaccountsoftheirtradewithNativeAmericans,butitdoesnotsuggestthattheyleftnowrittenaccountsoftheirvoyages.

B. ThepassagementionsonePortuguesevesselbutdoesnotsuggestthattheEuropeancrewswhofishedoffNewfoundlandweremostly

onPortuguesevessels.

C. Correct.Thelastsentenceofthefirstparagraphsupportstheconclusionthatthecrewstradedshippartsforfurs.

D. ThepassagementionsoneinstanceofaNativeAmericanacquiringearringsfromEuropeansbutdoesnotsuggestthattradesforsuchgoodswerecommon.

E. ThepassageindicatesthatfishingcrewstradedmetalimplementswithNativeAmericansbutdoesnotsuggestthattheybroughtsurplusimplementsforthatpurpose—andinfactmentionsthatsometimestradedmetalarticleshadbeenpartsoftheirownships.


53. WhichofthefollowingcanbeinferredfromthepassageaboutevidencepertainingtothefurtradebetweenNativeAmericansandEuropeansintheearlymodernera?

A. AlackofwrittenevidencehasmadeitdifficulttoestablishwhichEuropeansfirstparticipatedinthistrade.

B. Ingeneral,thephysicalevidencepertainingtothistradehasbeenmoreusefulthanthewrittenevidencehasbeen.

C. Thereismorewrittenevidencepertainingtothistradefromtheearlypartofthesixteenthcenturythanfromlaterinthatcentury.

D. Theearliestwrittenevidencepertainingtothistradedatesfromatimewhenthetradewasalreadywellestablished.

E. Someimportantpiecesofevidencepertainingtothistrade,suchasDenys’s1672account,werelongoverlookedbyarchaeologists.

Inference

Thisquestionasksaboutinformationthatcanbeinferredfromthepassage.AnysuggestionthatNativeAmericansmayhaveproducedwrittenevidenceoftheearly-moderntradewithEuropeansisabsentfromthepassage.ThesecondparagraphstatesthatbythetimeEuropeansfirstdocumentedthefurtrade,itwasalreadywellunderway.Thisstatement,inthecontextofthepassage,impliesthattheearliestwrittenrecordsofthetradedatetoatimeafteritwaswellestablished.

A. ThefirstparagraphindicatesthatthefirstEuropeanstoparticipateinthetradewerequitecertainlyfishingcrewsnearNewfoundland.

B. Thepassagegivesnoindicationthatphysicalevidenceofthetradehasbeenmoreusefulthanwrittenevidence.

C. Althoughthepassagedoesnotcitewrittenevidencefromthelatesixteenthcentury,thepassagegivesnoreasontobelievethatlesswrittenevidenceexistsfromthattime.

D. Correct.Accordingtothepassage,thefurtradewaswellunderwaywhenwrittenevidenceofthetradewasfirstdocumentedbyEuropeans.ThepassagecontainsnosuggestionthattheremighthavebeenearlierdocumentationofthattradebyanybodyotherthanEuropeans.

E. Thepassagedoesnotimplythatarchaeologistsoverlookedevidenceforlongperiodsoftime.


54. Thepassagesuggestswhichofthefollowingaboutthesixteenth-centuryNativeAmericanswhotradedwithEuropeansonthecoastofwhatisnowcalledNewEngland?

A. By1524theyhadbecomeaccustomedtoexchanginggoodswithEuropeans.

B. TheywereunfamiliarwithmetalsbeforeencounteringEuropeans.

C. TheyhadnopracticalusesforEuropeangoodsotherthanmetalsandmetalimplements.

D. By1524theyhadbecomedisdainfulofEuropeantradersbecausesuchtradershadtreatedthemunfairlyinthepast.

E. By1524theydemandedonlythemostprizedEuropeangoodsbecausetheyhadcometorealizehowvaluablefurswereonEuropeanmarkets.

Inference

Thequestionasksaboutwhatisimpliedinthepassage.TheNativeAmericanstradingwithEuropeansonthecoastofwhatisnowcalledNewEnglandarediscussedinthe1524chroniclesmentionedinthesecondparagraph.ThepassageindicatesthattheseNativeAmericanshadbecomeselectiveaboutwhichEuropeangoodstheywouldacceptintrade,whichsuggeststheyhadbecomeaccustomedtotradingwithEuropeans.

A. Correct.Bythetimethechroniclewaswritten,theNative

AmericanswerefamiliarenoughwithtradetobeabletospecifywhichEuropeangoodstheywouldaccept.

B. AlthoughtheNativeAmericanschosetotradefursforEuropeanmetalgoods,thepassagedoesnotimplytheywereunfamiliarwithanymetalspriortoencounteringEuropeans.

C. ThepassagedoesnotsuggestwhyNativeAmericanspreferredcertaingoodsoverothers.

D. ThepassagedoesnotattributedisdainforEuropeantraderstoNativeAmericans.

E. ThereisnoindicationinthepassagethatNativeAmericanswereawareoffurs’valueinEuropeanmarkets.



55. Accordingtothepassage,allofthefollowingwerebenefitsofprivatizingstate-ownedindustriesintheUnitedKingdomEXCEPT:

A. Privatizedindustriespaidtaxestothegovernment.

B. Thegovernmentgainedrevenuefromsellingstate-ownedindustries.

C. Thegovernmentrepaidsomeofitsnationaldebt.

D. Profitsfromindustriesthatwerestillstate-owned

increased.

E. Totalborrowingsandlossesofstate-ownedindustriesdecreased.

Supportingideas

Thisquestionbeginswiththephraseaccordingtothepassage,indicatingthatitcanbeansweredusingfactsstatedinthepassage.Thefirstparagraphliststhebenefitsofprivatization.Usetheprocessofeliminationandcheckthefivepossibleanswerchoicesagainstthebenefitsdescribedinlines8–15.ThepointthatisNOTdiscussedinthepassageisthecorrectanswer.

A. Lines11–12discusstaxrevenues.

B. Lines10–11discussrevenuefromthesales.

C. Lines13–15discussdebtrepayment.

D. Correct.Profitsfromstate-ownedindustriesarenotdiscussed.

E. Lines9–10discussdecreasedborrowingsandlosses.


56. Accordingtothepassage,whichofthefollowingresultedinincreasedproductivityincompaniesthathavebeenprivatized?

A. Alargenumberofemployeeschosetopurchasesharesintheircompanies.

B. Freeshareswerewidelydistributedtoindividualshareholders.

C. Thegovernmentceasedtoregulatemajorindustries.

D. Unionsconductedwagenegotiationsforemployees.

E. Employee-ownersagreedtohavetheirwageslowered.

Supportingideas

Thisquestionisbasedoninformationexplicitlystatedinthepassage.Thesecondparagraphdescribestheincreasedproductivity,andthethirdparagraphbeginsbystatingonereasonforit:employeesofprivatizedindustriesweregiventheopportunitytobuysharesintheirowncompanies(lines28–30).Theparagraphalsocitesthehighpercentageofemployeesbuyingsharesinthreeprivatizedcompanies,supportingtheideathatmanyemployeesboughtshares.

A. Correct.Productivityincreasedafteremployeesbecameshareholdersintheircompanies.

B. Thetheoreticaladvantagesanddisadvantagesoffreesharesarediscussed(lines42–51),butthepassagedoesnotsaythatanyweregivenaway.

C. Thepassagedoesnotexaminegovernmentalregulation.

D. Althoughwagesarediscussedinlines38–41,thepassagedoesnotanalyzetherelationbetweenwagesandproductivity.

E. Lines38–41citeoneexampleofemployee-ownerwillingnesstoacceptlowerwages,butthisisnotsaidtohaveresultedinincreasedproductivity.


57. Itcanbeinferredfromthepassagethattheauthorconsiderslabordisruptionstobe

A. aninevitableprobleminaweaknationaleconomy

B. apositivesignofemployeeconcernaboutacompany

C. apredictorofemployeereactionstoacompany’soffertosellsharestothem

D. aphenomenonfoundmoreofteninstate-ownedindustriesthaninprivatecompanies

E. adeterrencetohighperformancelevelsinanindustry

Inference

Thisquestionstatesthataninferenceisrequired;thisinferenceisbasedonmaterialpresentedinthesecondparagraph.Todemonstratethatprivatizationhasraisedthelevelofperformanceineveryarea,theauthorgivesthreeexamples(lines19–26).Oneexampleisthedisappearanceoflabordisruptions,oncecommon.Iftheabsenceoflabordisruptionsraisesthelevelofperformance,thentheauthormustbelievethatthepresenceoflabordisruptionsimpedesanincreaseinperformancelevels.

A. Theauthordoesnotlinklabordisruptionswithaweaknationaleconomy.

B. Theauthordoesnotpresentlabordisruptionsinapositivelight.

C. Theauthordoesnotidentifylabordisruptionsasapredictorofemployees’responsestoopportunitiestobuyacompany’sshares.

D. Labordisruptionsinstate-ownedandprivateindustriesarenotcompared.

E. Correct.Theauthorimpliesthatlabordisruptionsinterferewithhighlevelsofperformanceinindustry.


58. Thepassagesupportswhichofthefollowingstatementsaboutemployeesbuyingsharesintheirowncompanies?

A. Atthreedifferentcompanies,approximatelynineoutoftenoftheworkerswereeligibletobuysharesintheircompanies.

B. Approximately90percentoftheeligibleworkersatthreedifferentcompanieschosetobuysharesintheircompanies.

C. Theopportunitytobuyshareswasdiscouragedbyatleastsomelaborunions.

D. Companiesthatdemonstratedthehighestproductivitywerethefirsttoallowtheiremployeestheopportunitytobuyshares.

E. Eligibilitytobuyshareswascontingentonemployees’agreeingtoincreasedworkloads.

Supportingideas

Checkeachstatementbycomparingittotheinformationpresentedinthepassage.Onlyonestatementissupported.Thethirdparagraphpresentsthepercentagesoftheeligibleemployeeswhopurchasedsharesintheircompanies:89percentatonecompany,90percentatasecond,and92percentatathird(lines31–34).Thus,itistruethatroughly90percentoftheeligibleworkforceatthreedifferentcompaniesboughtsharesintheircompaniesoncetheyweregiventheopportunitytodoso.

A. Thepassagecitesthepercentagesoftheeligibleemployeeswhoboughtshares,notthepercentagesofthetotalworkforcethatwereeligible.

B. Correct.Thepassageshowsthatroughly90percentoftheeligibleemployeesatthreedifferentcompaniesboughtsharesintheircompanies.

C. Thepassagedoesnotaddresstheattitudeoflaborunionstowardemployeesharebuying.

D. Thepassageoffersnoevidencethatcompanieswithhighproductivitywerethefirsttooffersharestotheiremployees.

E. Thepassagedoesnotshoweligibilitytobedependentonincreasedworkload.


59. Whichofthefollowingstatementsismostconsistentwiththeprincipledescribedinlines35–37?

A. Ademocraticgovernmentthatdecidesitisinappropriatetoownaparticularindustryhasinnowayabdicateditsresponsibilitiesasguardianofthepublicinterest.

B. Theidealwayforagovernmenttoprotectemployeeinterestsistoforcecompaniestomaintaintheirshareofacompetitivemarketwithoutgovernmentsubsidies.

C. Thefailuretoharnessthepowerofself-interestisanimportant

reasonthatstate-ownedindustriesperformpoorly.

D. Governmentsthatwanttoimplementprivatizationprogramsmusttrytoeliminateallresistancetothefree-marketsystem.

E. Theindividualshareholderwillreaponlyaminuteshareofthegainsfromwhateversacrificesheorshemakestoachievethesegains.

Application

Toanswerthisquestion,firstidentifytheprincipleinvolved,andthenfindthestatementthatismostcompatiblewiththatprinciple.Lines35–37arguethathavingapersonalstakeinabusinessmakesemployeesworktomakeitprosper.Whenthereisnopersonalstake,orself-interest,involved,employeesdonothavethesameincentivetoworkhardtomaketheirindustryprosper.Thus,thepoorperformanceofstate-ownedindustriescanbeascribedinparttoemployees’lackofmotivationwhentheyhavenopersonalstakeinthebusiness.

A. Theprincipleinvolvesapersonal,ratherthangovernmental,relationship.

B. Accordingtotheprinciple,self-interestmayinspirepeopletodomore;governmentcoercionisnotconsistentwiththisprinciple.

C. Correct.State-ownedindustriesperformpoorlyinpartbecauseemployeesdonothavethepowerfulmotivationofself-interest.

D. Theprinciplehastodowiththemotivationofindividuals,notgovernments;eliminatingallresistancetothefree-marketsystemisnotdiscussed.

E. Lines35–37describetheprincipleofself-interest,notself-sacrifice.


60. WhichofthefollowingcanbeinferredfromthepassageabouttheprivatizationprocessintheUnitedKingdom?

A. Itdependstoapotentiallydangerousdegreeonindividualownershipofshares.

B. ItconformsinitsmostgeneraloutlinestoThomasPaine’sprescriptionforbusinessownership.

C. Itwasoriginallyconceivedtoincludesomegivingawayoffreeshares.

D. Ithasbeensuccessful,eventhoughprivatizationhasfailedinothercountries.

E. Itistakingplacemoreslowlythansomeeconomistssuggestisnecessary.

Inference

Answeringthisquestionrequireslookingateachpossibleinferencetoseeifitissupportedsomewhereinthepassage.Supportfortheinferenceaboutthepaceofprivatizationisprovidedbythesuggestionofsomeeconomiststhatgivingawayfreeshareswouldprovideaneededaccelerationoftheprivatizationprocess(lines42–44).Ifsomeeconomiststhinkprivatizationneedstobeaccelerated,thenitmustbegoingtooslowly,atleastaccordingtotheseeconomists.

A. Thepassagedoesnotalludetoanydangerinindividualownershipofshares.

B. Paineisquotedonlyinreferencetoemployees’receivingfreesharesasopposedtobuyingshares;also,theprocessofprivatizationhadoccurredbeforeemployeesboughtsharesinthenewlyprivatizedcompanies.

C. NoevidencesupportsthedistributionoffreesharesaspartoftheUnitedKingdom’splantoprivatize.

D. Aphraseinline4,oneapproachthatworks,suggeststhatperhapstherewereotherapproachesthatdidnotwork;however,nowheredoesthepassageindicatethatprivatizationhasnotworkedinothercountries.

E. Correct.Theeconomists’suggestioncomesfromwhattheyseeastheneedtospeedupaprocessthatiscurrentlytakingtoolong.


61. Thequotationinlines45–46ismostprobablyusedto

A. counterapositionthattheauthorofthepassagebelievesisincorrect

B. stateasolutiontoaproblemdescribedintheprevioussentence

C. showhowopponentsoftheviewpointoftheauthorofthepassagehavesupportedtheirarguments

D. pointoutaparadoxcontainedinacontroversialviewpoint

E. presentahistoricalmaximtochallengetheprincipleintroducedinthethirdparagraph

Logicalstructure

Lookingatthequotation’scontextleadstoanunderstandingofwhythequotationwasused.Paine’squotationoffersaconciseandtime-honoredcounterargumenttotheviewvoicedintheprecedingsentence.Theeconomistssuggestgivingawayfreeshares,buttheauthornotesthattheseeconomistsareforgettingthat,accordingtoPaine,peopledonotvaluewhattheygettoocheaply.Theauthorusesthequotationtoshowthebasicerrorintheeconomists’thinking.

A. Correct.TheauthorusesPaine’squotationasanaptcountertotheeconomists’suggestion.

B. Thequotationchallengesthesolutionposedintheprevioussentence.

C. TheauthoragreeswithPaine,asisevidentinthefinallinesofthepassage.

D. Theauthorimpliesthataviewpointisilladvisedbutdoesnotsayitiscontroversial.

E. Paine’smaximdoesnotchallengetheprincipleofself-interest.




A. enumeratereasonswhybothtraditionalscholarlymethodsandnewerscholarlymethodshavelimitations

B. identifyashortcominginascholarlyapproachanddescribeanalternativeapproach

C. provideempiricaldatatosupportalong-heldscholarlyassumption

D. comparetwoscholarlypublicationsonthebasisoftheirauthors’backgrounds

E. attempttoprovideapartialanswertoalong-standingscholarlydilemma

Mainidea

Tofindtheprimarypurpose,lookatwhattheauthorisdoinginthe

entirepassage.Inthefirstparagraph,theauthorexaminestwoapproachestopoliticalhistory,bothofwhichsufferfromthesameflaw,theexclusionofwomen.Inthesecondparagraph,theauthorreviewsanalternative,moreinclusivewaytounderstandpoliticalhistory.

A. Thefirstparagraphidentifiesonlyonereasonthatthetwoapproachesareflawed;analternativeapproachisdiscussedinthesecondparagraph.

B. Correct.Theauthorpointstotheflawinearlierapproachestohistoryandshowsanalternativewayofthinkingaboutpoliticalhistory.

C. Nodataareofferedtosupportanassumption.

D. Onlyonehistorianismentionedbyname;herbackgroundisnotmentioned.

E. Nolong-standingdilemmaisdiscussed.


63. Thepassagesuggestswhichofthefollowingconcerningthetechniquesusedbythenewpoliticalhistoriansdescribedinthefirstparagraphofthepassage?

A. Theyinvolvedtheextensiveuseofthebiographiesofpoliticalpartyleadersandpoliticaltheoreticians.

B. Theywereconceivedbypoliticalhistorianswhowerereactingagainstthepoliticalclimatesofthe1960’sand1970’s.

C. TheywereofmoreuseinanalyzingthepositionsofUnitedStatespoliticalpartiesinthenineteenthcenturythaninanalyzingthepositionsofthoseinthetwentiethcentury.

D. Theywereofmoreuseinanalyzingthepoliticalbehaviorofnineteenth-centuryvotersthaninanalyzingthepoliticalactivitiesofthosewhocouldnotvoteduringthatperiod.

E. Theyweredevisedasameansoftracingtheinfluenceofnineteenth-centurypoliticaltrendsontwentieth-centurypoliticaltrends.

Inference

Thequestion’suseoftheverbsuggestsisanindicationthataninferencemustbemade.Examinethefirstparagraph,wherethenewschoolof

politicalhistoryisdiscussed.Thesehistoriansusedtechniquessuchasquantitativeanalysesofelectionreturnsthattheauthordescribesasuselessinanalyzingthepoliticalactivitiesofwomen,whoweredeniedthevoteuntil1920(lines9–12).Itcan,however,beassumedthatthesametechniquesdidproveusefulinunderstandingthemasspoliticalbehaviorofvoters.

A. Thefirstsentenceexplainsthatthesehistorianssoughttogobeyondthetraditionalfocus...onleadersandgovernmentinstitutions.

B. Thepassagedoesnotindicatethatthenewhistorianswerereactingagainstthepoliticalclimateoftheirowntime.

C. Thenewhistoriansexaminedthepoliticalpracticesofordinarycitizens(line5),notthepositionsofpoliticalparties.

D. Correct.Lines7–12explicitlystatethatthenewhistorians’techniqueswereuselessinanalyzingthepoliticalactivitiesofthosenotallowedtovote;thesamelinesimplythatthetechniqueswereusefulinanalyzingthepoliticalbehaviorofvoters.

E. Noinformationinthepassagesupportsthisexplanation.


64. ItcanbeinferredthattheauthorofthepassagequotesBakerdirectlyinthesecondparagraphprimarilyinorderto

A. clarifyapositionbeforeprovidinganalternativetothatposition

B. differentiatebetweenanoveldefinitionandtraditionaldefinitions

C. provideanexampleofapointagreedonbydifferentgenerationsofscholars

D. provideanexampleoftheprosestyleofanimportanthistorian

E. amplifyadefinitiongiveninthefirstparagraph

Logicalstructure

Toanalyzewhytheauthorusesadirectquotation,lookatthelogicalstructureofthepassageinrelationtothequotation.Thehistoriansdiscussedinthefirstparagraphdefinepoliticalactivityasvoting.PaulaBaker,however,hasanewdefinitionofpoliticalactivity,onethatincludestheactivitiesofthosewhowerenotallowedtovote.ItisreasonabletoinferthattheauthorquotesBakertodrawattentiontothis

newdefinition,whichprovidesaninnovative,alternativewayofthinkingaboutpoliticalhistory.

A. PaulaBaker’sisthealternativepositionoffered;noalternativetohersisdiscussed.

B. Correct.Bakerisquotedtoemphasizethatherdefinitionisnewandthatitdifferssignificantlyfromthetraditionaldefinitionusedbyotherhistorians.

C. Thecontrastingviewsexpressedinthefirstandsecondparagraphsshowthatdifferentgenerationsofscholarshavenotagreed.

D. TheauthordoesnotcommentonBaker’sprosestyle.

E. Baker’sdefinitioncontrastswith,ratherthanamplifies,theoneofferedinthefirstparagraph.


65. Accordingtothepassage,PaulaBakerandthenewpoliticalhistoriansofthe1960’sand1970’ssharedwhichofthefollowing?

A. Acommitmenttointerestgrouppolitics

B. Adisregardforpoliticaltheoryandideology

C. Aninterestinthewaysinwhichnineteenthcenturypoliticsprefiguredcontemporarypolitics

D. Arelianceonsuchquantitativetechniquesastheanalysisofelectionreturns

E. Anemphasisonthepoliticalinvolvementofordinarycitizens

Supportingideas

Sincethequestionusesthephraseaccordingtothepassage,theanswerisexplicitlystatedinthepassage.LookforapointonwhichthenewpoliticalhistoriansandBakeragree.Thefirstsentenceofthepassagesaysthatthesenewhistorianswereinterestedinthepoliticalactivitiesofordinarycitizens(line5).PaulaBakerissimilarlyinterestedinthepoliticalactivitiesofordinarycitizens(lines15–16),especiallyoffemalecitizens,whowerenotallowedtovote.

A. Nomentionatallismadeofinterestgrouppolitics,neitherinrelationtoBakernorinrelationtothenewhistorians.

B. Thepassagedoesnotshowthattheydisregardedpoliticaltheoryandideology.

C. ThepassageonlydiscussesBaker’sinterestinthewaywomen’spoliticalactivitiesinthenineteenthcenturyprefiguredtwentieth-centurytrends(lines16–18).

D. ThepassageexplainsthatnewhistoriansreliedonsuchtechniquesbutthatBakerdidnot.

E. Correct.BoththenewhistoriansandBakeraresaidtohavestudiedthepoliticalactivitiesofordinarycitizens.


66. Whichofthefollowingbestdescribesthestructureofthefirstparagraphofthepassage?

A. Twoscholarlyapproachesarecompared,andashortcomingcommontobothisidentified.

B. Tworivalschoolsofthoughtarecontrasted,andathirdisalludedto.

C. Anoutmodedscholarlyapproachisdescribed,andacorrectiveapproachiscalledfor.

D. Anargumentisoutlined,andcounterargumentsarementioned.

E. Ahistoricaleraisdescribedintermsofitspoliticaltrends.

Logicalstructure

Toanswerthisquestion,analyzethestructureofthefirstparagraph.Itcomparestheoldapproachofstudyingpoliticalhistorythroughemphasisonleadersandgovernmentinstitutionswiththenewschoolofpoliticalhistory,whichturnedinsteadtothepoliticalpracticesofordinarycitizens.Bothapproachessufferedfromthesamedrawback:thefailuretoincludewomenintheiranalyses.

A. Correct.Twoapproachestohistoryarediscussed,andaflawsharedbyboth,theexclusionofwomen,isidentified.

B. Thefirstparagraphdoesnotalludetoathirdschoolofthought.

C. Acorrectiveapproachisnotdiscussedinthefirstparagraph.

D. Thefirstparagraphdoespresentanargument,butnocounterargumentsaremade.

E. Thepoliticaltrendsofanhistoricaleraarenotdetailedinthefirstparagraph.


67. Theinformationinthepassagesuggeststhatapre-1960’spoliticalhistorianwouldhavebeenmostlikelytoundertakewhichofthefollowingstudies?

A. Ananalysisofvotingtrendsamongwomenvotersofthe1920’s

B. Astudyofmalevoters’gradualideologicalshiftfrompartypoliticstoissue-orientedpolitics

C. Abiographyofaninfluentialnineteenth-centuryministerofforeignaffairs

D. Ananalysisofnarrativeswrittenbypreviouslyunrecognizedwomenactivists

E. Astudyofvotingtrendsamongnaturalizedimmigrantlaborersinanineteenth-centuryloggingcamp

Inference

Inusingsuggests,thisquestionasksthereadertoapplyinformationstatedinthepassagetomakeaninferenceaboutthemethodsofhistoriansbeforethe1960’s.Thesemethodsarediscussedinthefirstparagraph.Lines3–4saythatthetraditionalfocusofpoliticalhistorians(beforetheadventofthenewschoolofhistoriansinthe1960’sand1970’s)wasonleadersandgovernmentinstitutions.Itisreasonabletoinferthatthepre-1960’shistorianwaslikelytofocusonaleaderorgovernmentinstitution.

A. Traditionalhistoriansdidnotfocusonordinarycitizens,butontheirleaders.

B. Bakerisinterestedinthisgroupshift,buttraditionalhistorianswerenot.

C. Correct.Traditionalhistoriansemphasizedtheworkofleadersandgovernmentinstitutions;abiographyofaforeignaffairsministerfitsthisfocusperfectly.

D. SuchananalysiswouldbeofinteresttoBakerbutnottotraditionalhistoriansfocusingonleadersandgovernment.

E. Thenewhistorianswouldbeinterestedinsuchastudy,butnottraditionalhistorians,whodidnotlookattheactivitiesofordinarycitizens.



68. Theprimaryfunctionofthepassageasawholeisto

A. accountforthepopularityofapractice

B. evaluatetheutilityofapractice

C. demonstratehowtoinstituteapractice

D. weightheethicsofusingastrategy

E. explainthereasonsforpursuingastrategy

Mainidea

Thisquestionexplicitlyrequireslookingatthepassageasawholeinordertodeterminetheauthor’spurpose.Thefirstparagraphexplainsthepracticeofofferingguaranteesandlistscircumstancesinwhichanunconditionalguaranteemaybeanappropriatemarketingtool.ThesecondparagraphbeginswithHowever,implyingthatacontradictionisabouttofollow.Theseriousdrawbackstoguaranteesareexamined,andthepassagecloseswithawarning.

A. Thepassagedoesnotdiscussthepopularityofguarantees.

B. Correct.Thepassageexaminesandjudgestheadvantagesanddisadvantagesofabusinesspractice.

C. Thepassagedoesnotshowhowtoputguaranteesintoplace.

D. Thepassagedoesnotdiscussethics.

E. Thefirstparagraphdoesexplainthereasonsforofferingguarantees,butthatisonlyaportionofthepassage,notthepassageasawhole.


69. AllofthefollowingarementionedinthepassageascircumstancesinwhichprofessionalservicefirmscanbenefitfromofferinganunconditionalguaranteeEXCEPT:

A. Thefirmishavingdifficultyretainingitsclientsoflongstanding.

B. Thefirmishavingdifficultygettingbusinessthroughclientrecommendations.

C. Thefirmchargessubstantialfeesforitsservices.

D. Theadverseeffectsofpoorperformancebythefirmaresignificantfortheclient.

E. Theclientisreluctanttoincurrisk.

Supportingideas

Thephrasementionedinthepassageindicatesthatthenecessaryinformationisexplicitlystated.Toanswerthisquestion,usetheprocessofeliminationtofindtheoneexamplethatisNOTmentionedinthepassage.Thequestionreferstolines8–13,wherethecircumstancesinwhichanunconditionalguaranteemightbebeneficialtoafirmarelisted.Checkeachoftheresponsestothequestionagainstthelist;theonethatdoesnotappearinthelististhecorrectanswer.

A. Correct.Thesentencebeginsbynotingthatunconditionalguaranteesareparticularlyimportantwithnewclients;clientsoflongstandingarenotdiscussed.

B. Lines12–13includethedifficultyofgettingbusinessthroughreferralsandword-of-mouth.

C. Line10citeshighfeesassuchacircumstance.

D. Lines10–11includethesevererepercussionsofbadservice.

E. Lines9–10citethecautiousnessoftheclient.


70. Whichofthefollowingiscitedinthepassageasagoalofsomeprofessionalservicefirmsinofferingunconditionalguaranteesofsatisfaction?

A. Alimitonthefirm’sliability

B. Successfulcompetitionagainstotherfirms

C. Abilitytojustifyfeeincreases

D. Attainmentofanoutstandingreputationinafield

E. Improvementinthequalityofthefirm’sservice

Supportingideas

Whenthequestionsaystofindananswercitedinthepassage,theanswerwillbeexplicitlystatedinformation.Thepassageopenswithanexplanationofwhysomefirmswanttoofferunconditionalguarantees:Seekingacompetitiveadvantageexplainstheirrationale.Firmsoffertheguaranteestocompetemoreeffectivelyagainstfirmsthatdonotofferguarantees.

A. Thepassagedoesnotmentionliabilitylimits.

B. Correct.Somefirmsofferunconditionalguaranteesasawaytocompetesuccessfullyagainstfirmsthatdonotofferthem.

C. Line10mentionsthathighfeeswouldbeareasontoofferguarantees,butfeeincreasesarenotdiscussed.

D. Thesecondparagraphsuggeststhereverse:offeringaguaranteemayhurtafirm’sreputation.

E. Improvingthequalityofserviceisnotmentionedasareasontoofferguarantees.


71. Thepassage’sdescriptionoftheissueraisedbyunconditionalguaranteesforhealthcareorlegalservicesmostclearlyimpliesthatwhichofthefollowingistrue?

A. Thelegalandmedicalprofessionshavestandardsofpracticethatwouldbeviolatedbyattemptstofulfillsuchunconditionalguarantees.

B. Theresultofalawsuitormedicalprocedurecannotnecessarilybedeterminedinadvancebytheprofessionalshandlingaclient’scase.

C. Thedignityofthelegalandmedicalprofessionsisunderminedbyanyattemptsatmarketingofprofessionalservices,includingunconditionalguarantees.

D. Clientswhoselawsuitsormedicalprocedureshaveunsatisfactoryoutcomescannotbeadequatelycompensatedbyfinancialsettlementsalone.

E. Predictingthemonetarycostoflegalorhealthcareservicesismoredifficultthanpredictingthemonetarycostofothertypesofprofessionalservices.

Inference

Thequestion’suseofthewordimpliesmeansthattheanswerdependsonmakinganinference.Thisquestionreferstoonesentenceinthepassage(lines21–24),soitisessentialtoreviewwhatthatsentencesaysinordertounderstandwhatitimplies.Anunconditionalguaranteeofsatisfactionmayhaveaparticulardisadvantageinthecaseofhealthcareandlegalservicesbecauseclientsmaybemisledintobelievingthatlawsuitsormedicalprocedureshaveguaranteedoutcomeswhentheydo

not.Sinceaninferencemaybedrawnonlyfromexplicitlystatedinformation,thecorrectresponsemustbeabouttheproblemofguaranteesandoutcomes.

A. Althoughthisstatementmaybetrue,itcannotbederivedfromthecitedreference.

B. Correct.Legalandmedicalprofessionalscannotguaranteetheoutcomesoftheirwork.

C. Thisstatementcannotbedrawnfromthedescriptionoftheissue.

D. Compensationisnotdiscussedinthereference.

E. Predictingcostsisnotdiscussedinthereference.


72. Whichofthefollowinghypotheticalsituationsbestexemplifiesthepotentialproblemnotedinthesecondsentenceofthesecondparagraph(lines15–19)?

A. Aphysician’sunconditionalguaranteeofsatisfactionencouragespatientstosueformalpracticeiftheyareunhappywiththetreatmenttheyreceive.

B. Alawyer’sunconditionalguaranteeofsatisfactionmakesclientssuspectthatthelawyerneedstofindnewclientsquicklytoincreasethefirm’sincome.

C. Abusinessconsultant’sunconditionalguaranteeofsatisfactionisunderminedwhentheconsultantfailstoprovidealloftheservicesthatarepromised.

D. Anarchitect’sunconditionalguaranteeofsatisfactionmakesclientswonderhowoftenthearchitect’sbuildingsfailtopleaseclients.

E. Anaccountant’sunconditionalguaranteeofsatisfactionleadsclientstobelievethattaxreturnspreparedbytheaccountantarecertaintobeaccurate.

Application

Thisquestioninvolvestakingtheproblemidentifiedinlines15–19andapplyingittothehypotheticalsituationthatbestfitsit.Offeringanunconditionalguaranteemaynotworkasamarketingstrategybecausepotentialclientsmaydoubtthefirm’sabilitytodeliverthepromisedlevelofservice.Thisstrategymayactuallyintroducedoubtsor

reservationsonthepartofpotentialclientsandinfactdiscouragethemfromeverhiringthefirmortheindividualprovidingtheservice.

A. Inthiscase,theproblemoccursafter,notbefore,theserviceisrendered.

B. Thissituationexemplifiesanotherproblemofunconditionalguarantees,thesuggestionthatafirmisbeggingforbusiness(line21).

C. Theproblemoccursafter,notbefore,theserviceisrendered.

D. Correct.Thearchitect’sapparentneedtoofferanunconditionalguaranteemakespotentialclientsquestiontheoutcomeofthearchitect’sworkbysuggestingthelikelihoodoftheirdissatisfactionwiththearchitecturalservices.

E. Thissituationcontradictstheproblem.


73. Thepassagemostclearlyimplieswhichofthefollowingabouttheprofessionalservicefirmsmentionedinlines24–27?

A. Theyareunlikelytohaveofferedunconditionalguaranteesofsatisfactioninthepast.

B. Theyareusuallyprofitableenoughtobeabletocompensateclientsaccordingtothetermsofanunconditionalguarantee.

C. Theyusuallypracticeinfieldsinwhichtheoutcomesarepredictable.

D. Theirfeesareusuallymoreaffordablethanthosechargedbyotherprofessionalservicefirms.

E. Theirclientsareusuallyalreadysatisfiedwiththequalityofservicethatisdelivered.

Inference

Thequestionasksfortheimplicationsofthestatementinlines24–27:professionalservicefirmswithoutstandingreputationsandperformancetomatchhavelittletogainfromofferingunconditionalguarantees.Whyisitlogicaltoinferthatthesefirmshavelittletogainfromthisstrategy?Iftheirperformanceandreputationarebothoutstanding,itislikelythattheirclientsarealreadysatisfiedwiththequalityoftheworktheyprovideandthatofferingsuchguaranteeswould

providenocompetitiveadvantage.

A. Thestatementinthepassageconcernsthepresent;nothingisimpliedaboutwhatmayhavebeentrueinthepast.

B. Thestatementincludesnoinformationaboutprofitability,sonoinferencemaybedrawn.

C. Noinformationisprovidedaboutspecificfieldsorlikelyoutcomes.

D. Feesarenotdiscussedinthisstatement.

E. Correct.Noguaranteeisneededwhenclientsarealreadysatisfiedwiththequalityofworkprovided.




A. identifyinghistoricalcircumstancesthatledDuBoistoalterhislong-termgoals

B. defining“accommodationism”andshowinghowDuBoisusedthisstrategytoachievecertaingoals

C. accountingforaparticularpositionadoptedbyDuBoisduringtheFirstWorldWar

D. contestingtheviewthatDuBoiswassignificantlyinfluencedbyeitherWashingtonorTrotter

E. assessingtheeffectivenessofastrategythatDuBoisurgedAfricanAmericanstoadopt

Mainidea

Thisquestionaskswhatthepassageasawholeisattemptingtodo.ThepassageopensbyindicatingthatmanyAfricanAmericansweresurprisedbyapoliticalpositiontakenbyDuBoisin1918,whichseemedmoreaccommodationistthanexpected.ThepassagethengoesontodemonstratethatDuBoisoftenshiftedpositions(line9)andstatesthatDuBois’s1918positionwaspragmaticinthatitrespondedtorealsocialpressure.ThepassagethenindicatesthatDuBois’saccommodationiststancedidnotlast(line31),andthathereturnedtoamoreconfrontationiststanceuponlearningofthetreatmentofAfricanAmericansinthemilitary.

A. ThepassageindicatesthatDuBoisdidnotchangehislong-term

goals(lines22–24).

B. Accomodationismisnotdefinedinthepassagebutisassociatedwithcertainactions(communityimprovement),ideologies(solidarity),andleaders(Washington);thepassagedoesnotindicateifDuBoiswassuccessfulinachievingtheaccommodationistgoalsof1895(lines11–15).

C. Correct.ThepassageexplainswhyDuBoistookhisaccommodationistpositionandwhyheeventuallyrejectedit.

D. ThepassageoffersnojudgmentastohowmuchDuBoiswasinfluencedbyWashingtonorTrotter.

E. ThepassagedoesnotindicatethattherewaswidespreadadoptionofanyofthestrategiesDuBoisrecommended.


75. ThepassageindicateswhichofthefollowingaboutDuBois’sattitudetowardWashington?

A. ItunderwentashiftduringtheFirstWorldWarasDuBoisbecamemoresympatheticwithTrotter’sviews.

B. Itunderwentashiftin1903forreasonsotherthanDuBois’sdisagreementwithWashington’saccommodationistviews.

C. ItunderwentashiftasDuBoismadealong-termcommitmenttothestrategyofaccommodation.

D. ItremainedconsistentlypositiveeventhoughDuBoisdisagreedwithWashington’seffortstocontroltheAfricanAmericanpress.

E. ItwasshapedprimarilybyDuBois’sappreciationofWashington’spragmaticapproachtotheadvancementoftheinterestsofAfricanAmericans.

Supportingideas

Answeringthisquestioninvolvesrecognizingwhatthepassageindicatesaboutaparticularpointofviewitdescribes.Inline15,thepassageindicatesthatDuBoispraisedWashington’sideas,butthatin1903DuBoisalignedhimselfwithWashington’smilitantopponent(lines16–17),ashiftthepassagedescribesasbeingduelesstoideologicalreasons(lines17–21)thantopoliticalreasons.

A. Thepassageindicatesthattheshiftdescribedoccurredin1903,not

duringtheFirstWorldWar.

B. Correct.ThepassageindicatesDuBois’sshiftwasnotduetodifferenceshehadwithWashington’sideasorviews.

C. ThepassageindicatesthatDuBois’saccommodationiststancedidnotlast(lines30–31)andthereforewasnotalong-termcommitment.

D. Thepassageindicatesinlines16–17thatDuBoisatonepointalignedhimselfwithWashington’smilitantopponent.

E. ThepassageindicatesthatDuBoiseventuallyrejectedtheaccommodationistviewsofWashington.


76. ThepassagesuggestswhichofthefollowingaboutthecontributionsofAfricanAmericanstotheUnitedStateswareffortduringtheFirstWorldWar?

A. ThecontributionsweremadelargelyinresponsetoDuBois’s1918editorial.

B. ThecontributionshadmuchthesameeffectasAfricanAmericans’contributionstopreviouswars.

C. ThecontributionsdidnotenddiscriminationagainstAfricanAmericansinthemilitary.

D. ThecontributionsweremadeinprotestagainstTrotter’sconfrontationisttactics.

E. Thecontributionsweremadeprimarilybycivilrightsactivistswhoreturnedtoactivismafterthewar.

Inference

Thisquestionrequiresmakinganinferencefrominformationgiveninthepassage.ThepassagebeginsbyindicatingthatDuBoiscalledonAfricanAmericanstosuspendtheirfightforequalityandtohelpwiththewareffortduringtheFirstWorldWar.Thefinalsentenceofthepassage,however,indicatesthatDuBoislearnedthatAfricanAmericanswereexperiencingsystematicdiscriminationinthemilitaryduringthistime.

A. ThepassagedoesnotindicatehowAfricanAmericansrespondedtoDuBois’seditorialotherthanthatmanyAfricanAmericanswere

surprisedbyit.

B. ThepassageindicatesthatAfricanAmericans’participationinpreviouswarsbroughtlegalandpoliticaladvancesbutthatAfricanAmericansexperienceddiscriminationintheFirstWorldWar.

C. Correct.ThepassageindicatesthatAfricanAmericansexperiencedsystematicdiscriminationinthemilitaryduringtheFirstWorldWar.

D. ThepassagedoesnotdescribehowAfricanAmericansrespondedtoTrotter’stacticsduringtheFirstWorldWar.

E. ThepassagedoesnotindicatewhetherAfricanAmericansinvolvedinthewareffortwereprimarilycivilrightsactivists.


77. TheauthorofthepassagereferstoWashington’scalltoAfricanAmericansin1895primarilyinorderto

A. identifyDuBois’scharacteristicpositiononthecontinuumbetweenaccommodationismandconfrontationism

B. explainwhyDuBoiswassympatheticwithWashington’sviewsin1895

C. clarifyhowTrotter’sviewsdifferedfromthoseofWashingtonin1895

D. supportanassertionaboutDuBois’stendencytoshifthispoliticalpositions

E. dismisstheclaimthatDuBois’spositioninhis1918editorialwasconsistentwithhispreviousviews

Evaluation

Thisquestionrequiresunderstandinghowapartofthepassagefunctionswithinthepassageasawhole.ThepassagebeginsbyindicatingthatmanyAfricanAmericansweresurprisedbyDuBois’sviewsinhis1918editorial.ThepassagethenexplainsthatDuBoisoftenshiftedpositionsalongthecontinuum(lines9–10).Todemonstratethis,thepassageindicatesthatDuBoispraisedWashington’s1895speechdirectedtoAfricanAmericans,butthatby1903,DuBoishadalignedhimselfwithWashington’smilitantopponent(lines16–17).

A. ThepassageindicatesthatDuBoisshiftedpositions(line9)along

theaccommodationist-confrontationistcontinuum.

B. ThepassagedoesnotindicatewhyDuBoispraisedWashington’s1895speech.

C. ThepassagedoesnotindicatewhatTrotter’sviewsofWashington’s1895speechwere.

D. Correct.ThepassageusesDuBois’spraiseforWashington’s1895speechandsubsequentsupportofTrottertoillustrateDuBois’stendencytoshiftpositions.

E. ThepassagedoesnotincludeanyclaimsthatDuBois’s1918editorialwasconsistentwithhispreviousviews.


78. Accordingtothepassage,whichofthefollowingistrueofthestrategythatDuBois’s1918editorialurgedAfricanAmericanstoadoptduringtheFirstWorldWar?

A. ItwasastrategythatDuBoishadconsistentlyrejectedinthepast.

B. ItrepresentedacompromisebetweenDuBois’sownviewsandthoseofTrotter.

C. Itrepresentedasignificantredefinitionofthelong-termgoalsDuBoisheldpriortothewar.

D. ItwasadvocatedbyDuBoisinresponsetohisrecognitionofthediscriminationfacedbyAfricanAmericansduringthewar.

E. ItwasadvocatedbyDuBoisinpartbecauseofhishistoricalknowledgeofgainsAfricanAmericanshadmadeduringpastwars.

Supportingideas

Thisquestionrequiresrecognizinghowapartofthepassagefunctionswithinthepassageasawhole.ThepassagebeginsbyindicatingthatDuBois’s1918editorialcalledonAfricanAmericanstoabandonpoliticalandsocialactivismandhelpwiththewareffortintheFirstWorldWar.Inthesecondparagraph,thepassageindicatesthatDuBois’swartimeposition,expressedinhis1918speech,wasatleastpartlymotivatedbyhisbeliefthatAfricanAmericans’contributionstopastwareffortshadbroughtthemsomelegalandpoliticaladvances(lines28–30).

A. ThepassagedoesnotdiscusswhetherDuBoisrecommendedthisstrategypriorto1918.

B. ThepassagedoesnotindicatethatDuBoisconsciouslycompromisedwithTrotter’sviews.

C. Thepassageindicatesthathis1918wartimeviewswerenotachangeinhislong-termgoals(lines22–23).

D. ThepassageindicatesthatDuBois’srecognitionofdiscriminationinthemilitarycausedhimtorejecthisown1918wartimeviews.

E. Correct.ThepassageindicatesthatDuBois’s1918viewswereinfluencedpartlybyabeliefthatpastwareffortshelpedAfricanAmericansbothlegallyandpolitically.




A. contrastpossibleoutcomesofatypeofbusinessinvestment

B. suggestmorecarefulevaluationofatypeofbusinessinvestment

C. illustratevariouswaysinwhichatypeofbusinessinvestmentcouldfailtoenhancerevenues

D. tracethegeneralproblemsofacompanytoacertaintypeofbusinessinvestment

E. criticizethewayinwhichmanagerstendtoanalyzethecostsandbenefitsofbusinessinvestments

Mainidea

Lookatthepassageasawholetofindtheprimarypurpose.Thispassageusesanexample,describedinthesecondparagraph,toillustratetheprincipleofbusinesspracticeexplainedinthefirstparagraph.Theauthorbeginsbysayingthateffortstoimproveservicedonotalwaysresultinacompetitiveadvantageforacompany.Thus,aninvestmentinservicemustbecarefullyevaluatedtodetermineifitwillreducecostsorincreaserevenues(lines4–8).

A. Onlyoneoutcome,failuretogainacompetitiveadvantage,isexamined.

B. Correct.Investmentsinservicemustbecarefullyevaluatedforthereturnstheywillbring.

C. Onlyoneway,anunnecessaryinvestmentinimprovedservice,isdiscussed.

D. Theexampleofthebankisusedonlytoillustrateageneralbusinessprinciple;thebankitselfisnotthefocusofthepassage.

E. Thepassagecriticizestheabsenceofsuchananalysis,notthewayitisconducted.


80. Accordingtothepassage,investmentsinservicearecomparabletoinvestmentsinproductionanddistributionintermsofthe

A. tangibilityofthebenefitsthattheytendtoconfer

B. increasedrevenuesthattheyultimatelyproduce

C. basisonwhichtheyneedtobeweighed

D. insufficientanalysisthatmanagersdevotetothem

E. degreeofcompetitiveadvantagethattheyarelikelytoprovide

Supportingideas

Thephraseaccordingtothepassageindicatesthatthequestioncoversmaterialthatisexplicitlystatedinthepassage.Theanswertothisquestiondemandsacarefulreadingofthesecondsentence(lines4–8).Investmentsinservicearelikeinvestmentsinproductionanddistributionbecausetheymustbebalancedagainstothertypesofinvestmentsonthebasisofdirect,tangiblebenefits.Thus,theseinvestmentsshouldbeweighedonthesamebasis.

A. Theauthorisnotequatingthetangiblebenefitsthedifferentkindsofinvestmentsreapbutratherthebasisonwhichdecisionstomakeinvestmentsaremade.

B. Revenuesgeneratedfrominvestinginservicearenotsaidtobecomparabletorevenuesgeneratedfrominvestinginproductionanddistribution.

C. Correct.Anevaluationofwhetherornottomaketheseinvestmentsmustbemadeonthesamebasis.

D. Howmanagersanalyzeinvestmentsinproductionanddistributionisnotdiscussed.

E. Thecompetitiveadvantageofsuperiorserviceisacknowledged,butnotthedegreeofit;itisnotmentionedatallinthecontextofproductionanddistribution.


81. Thepassagesuggestswhichofthefollowingaboutserviceprovidedbytheregionalbankpriortoitsinvestmentinenhancingthatservice?

A. Itenabledthebanktoretaincustomersatanacceptablerate.

B. Itthreatenedtoweakenthebank’scompetitivepositionwithrespecttootherregionalbanks.

C. Ithadalreadybeenimprovedafterhavingcauseddamagetothebank’sreputationinthepast.

D. Itwasslightlysuperiortothatofthebank’sregionalcompetitors.

E. Itneededtobeimprovedtoattainparitywiththeserviceprovidedbycompetingbanks.

Inference

Becausethequestionusesthewordsuggests,findingtheanswerdependsonmakinganinferenceaboutserviceatthebank.Theparagraphthatdiscussesthebankbeginswiththetransitionalexpression,thistruth,whichreferstotheprevioussentence(lines8–15).Thetruthisthatinvestinginimprovedserviceisawasteifacompanyisalreadyeffectivelyonaparwithitscompetitorsbecauseitprovidesservicethatavoidsadamagingreputationandkeepscustomersfromleavingatanunacceptablerate.Becauseofthewaytheauthorhaslinkedthisgeneralizationtothedescriptionofthebankafterinvestment,itisreasonabletoinferthatthehypotheticalcompany’ssituationdescribesthebankpriortoitsinvestmentinimprovedservice.

A. Correct.Thebank’sservicewouldhavebeengoodenoughtoavoidadamagingreputationandtoretaincustomersatanacceptablerate.

B. Thepassagedoesnotsuggestthatthebank’sservicewaseitherpoorordeficienttothatofitscompetitors.

C. Thepassageimpliesthatthebank’sserviceavoidedadamagingreputation.

D. Thebankwouldhavebeenonaparwithitscompetitors,notsuperiortothem.

E. Thebankwouldhavebeenonaparwithitscompetitors,notinferiortothem.


82. Thepassagesuggeststhatbankmanagersfailedtoconsiderwhetherornottheserviceimprovementmentionedinlines18–20

A. wastoocomplicatedtobeeasilydescribedtoprospectivecustomers

B. madeameasurablechangeintheexperiencesofcustomersinthebank’soffices

C. couldbesustainedifthenumberofcustomersincreasedsignificantly

D. wasaninnovationthatcompetingbankscouldhaveimitated

E. wasadequatetobringthebank’sgenerallevelofservicetoalevelthatwascomparablewiththatofitscompetitors

Inference

Thequestion’suseofthewordsuggestsmeansthattheanswerdependsonmakinganinference.Toanswerthisquestion,lookattheentiresecondparagraph.Managersfailedtothinkahead.Wouldtheserviceimprovementattractnewcustomersbecauseotherbankswouldfinditdifficulttocopy?Orwouldtheserviceimprovementbeeasilyimitatedbycompetitors?Themanagersshouldhaveinvestigatedthisareabeforeinvestinginimprovedservice.

A. Thepassagestatestheimprovementcouldeasilybedescribedtocustomers(lines28–29).

B. Noevidenceinthepassageshowsthatthemanagersfailedtothinkabouttheircustomers’experienceinthebank.

C. Thepassagedoesnotimplythatmanagersfailedtoconsideranincreaseinclients.

D. Correct.Themanagersdidnotwonderifotherbankswouldcopytheirserviceimprovement.

E. Lines8–12implythatthebankenjoyedacomparablelevelofservicebeforeinvestinginserviceimprovement.


83. Thediscussionoftheregionalbankinthesecondparagraphserveswhichofthefollowingfunctionswithinthepassageasawhole?

A. Itdescribesanexceptionalcaseinwhichinvestmentinserviceactuallyfailedtoproduceacompetitiveadvantage.

B. Itillustratesthepitfallsofchoosingtoinvestinserviceatatime

wheninvestmentisneededmoreurgentlyinanotherarea.

C. Itdemonstratesthekindofanalysisthatmanagersapplywhentheychooseonekindofserviceinvestmentoveranother.

D. Itsupportstheargumentthatinvestmentsincertainaspectsofservicearemoreadvantageousthaninvestmentsinotheraspectsofservice.

E. Itprovidesanexampleofthepointaboutinvestmentinservicemadeinthefirstparagraph.

Logicalstructure

Thisquestionrequiresthinkingaboutwhatthesecondparagraphcontributestothewholepassage.Thefirstparagraphmakesageneralizationaboutinvestinginimprovementsinservice;incertainconditions,suchimprovementsdonotresultinthecompetitiveadvantageacompanyhopesfor.Thesecondparagraphoffersthebankasanexampleofthisgeneralization.

A. Thefirstsentenceofthepassageexplainsthatimprovingservicedoesnotnecessarilybringacompetitiveadvantage,sothebankisnotexceptional.

B. Thebankillustratesthepitfallofnotevaluatingaserviceimprovementonthebasisoftangiblebenefits;otherareasofthebankarenotmentioned.

C. Thepassagedoesnotdiscusshowmanagersanalyzeandchoosedifferentserviceinvestments.

D. Investmentsindifferentaspectsofservicearenotevaluatedinthepassage.

E. Correct.Thebankisanexampleofthepositionstatedinthefirstparagraphthatinvestinginimprovedservicecanbeawasteiftheinvestmentisnotevaluatedcarefully.


84. Theauthorusestheword“only”inline27mostlikelyinorderto

A. highlighttheoddityoftheserviceimprovement

B. emphasizetherelativelylowvalueoftheinvestmentinserviceimprovement

C. distinguishtheprimaryattributeoftheserviceimprovementfrom

secondaryattributes

D. singleoutacertainmeritoftheserviceimprovementfromothermerits

E. pointoutthelimiteddurationoftheactualserviceimprovement

Logicalstructure

Thequestionasksyoutoconsiderthelogicoftheauthor’swordchoice.Theprevioustwosentencesdiscusswhytheserviceimprovementwasawastedinvestment.Incontrast,thefinalsentenceturnstothesoleadvantageoftheserviceimprovement,whichistrivialbycomparison.Theauthorusesonlytomodifymeritinordertoemphasizetheminimalnatureofthisadvantage.

A. Thepassagedoesnotindicatethattheserviceimprovementissomehowstrangeorpeculiar.

B. Correct.Onlyemphasizesthelowvalueattachedtothesinglebenefit.

C. Noattributesoftheserviceimprovementarementioned.

D. Onlysignifiesthattherewasonesolemeritoftheserviceimprovement.

E. Thedurationofthebenefitisnotdiscussedinthepassage.




A. reviewresearchdemonstratingthebenefitsofcorporatemergersandacquisitionsandexaminesomeofthedrawbacksthatacquisitionbehaviorentails

B. contrasttheeffectsofcorporatemergersandacquisitionsonacquiringfirmsandonfirmsthatareacquired

C. reportfindingsthatraisequestionsaboutareasonforcorporatemergersandacquisitionsandsuggestpossiblealternativereasons

D. explainchangesinattitudeonthepartofacquiringfirmstowardcorporatemergersandacquisitions

E. accountforarecentdeclineintherateofcorporatemergersandacquisitions

Mainidea

Thisquestionrequiresunderstandingwhatthepassageasawholeistryingtodo.Thepassagebeginsbycitingthreestudiesthatdemonstratethatwhenfirmsacquireotherfirms,thereisnotnecessarilyaworthwhileeconomicgain.Thepassagethenciteseconomicinterestsasthereasongivenbyfirmswhentheyacquireotherfirmsbutcallsintoquestiontheveracityofthisreasoning.Thepassagethengoesontospeculateastowhymergersandacquisitionsoccur.

A. Theresearchcitedinthepassagecallsintoquestionwhethermergersandacquisitionsarebeneficialtofirms.

B. Thepassageisnotconcernedwithcomparingtherelativeeffectsofmergersandacquisitionsontheacquiredandacquiringfirms.

C. Correct.Thepassagesurveysreportsthatquestionthereasonsgivenbyfirmswhentheyacquireotherfirmsandsuggestsotherreasonsfortheseacquisitions.

D. Thepassagedoesnotindicatethattherehasbeenachangeintheattitudeofacquiringfirmstowardmergersandacquisitions.

E. Thepassagedoesnotindicatethattherehasbeenadeclineintherateofmergersandacquisitions.


86. Thefindingscitedinthepassagesuggestwhichofthefollowingabouttheoutcomesofcorporatemergersandacquisitionswithrespecttoacquiringfirms?

A. Theyincludeadecreaseinvalueofmanyacquiringfirms’stocks.

B. Theytendtobemorebeneficialforsmallfirmsthanforlargefirms.

C. Theydonotfulfilltheprofessedgoalsofmostacquiringfirms.

D. Theytendtobebeneficialtosuchfirmsinthelongtermeventhoughapparentlydetrimentalintheshortterm.

E. Theydiscouragemanysuchfirmsfromattemptingtomakesubsequentbidsandacquisitions.

Inference

Answeringthisquestionrequiresrecognizingwhatisinferablefrominformationgiveninthepassage.Thepassagebeginsbycitingthreestudiesthatshowthatmergersandacquisitionsoftenharmthe

economicgoalsofacquiringfirms.Thepassagealsoindicatesthat,nonetheless,acquiringfirmscontinuetoassertthattheirobjectivesareeconomicones(lines15–16),suggestingthatthegoalsofthesefirmsarenotmetbyacquiringotherfirms.

A. Thepassagesuggeststhatthestockofacquiringfirmstendstoincreaseinvalue(lines12–13),albeitlessthanthefirmitacquires.

B. Thethreestudiescitedinthepassagedocontrasttheeffectsofcorporatemergersonacquiringfirmsandonacquiredfirms,buttheeffectsinquestionaresignificantonlyinsofarastheycontributetothewiderinvestigationintowhymergerstakeplaceatall.

C. Correct.Thepassageindicatesthatevenwhileacquiringfirmsciteeconomicgoals,theresultsofthestudiesindicatethatthesegoalsarenotbeingmet.

D. Thepassagemakesnocomparisonbetweenthelong-termandshort-termgainsofacquiringfirms.

E. Thepassagedoesnotindicatethatfirmshavebeenaffectedbytheresultsofthestudiescited.


87. Itcanbeinferredfromthepassagethattheauthorwouldbemostlikelytoagreewithwhichofthefollowingstatementsaboutcorporateacquisitions?

A. Theirknownbenefitstonationaleconomiesexplaintheirappealtoindividualfirmsduringthe1970’sand1980’s.

B. Despitetheiradverseimpactonsomefirms,theyarethebestwaytochannelresourcesfromlesstomoreproductivesectorsofanation’seconomy.

C. Theyareaslikelytooccurbecauseofpoormonitoringbyboardsofdirectorsastobecausedbyincentivecompensationformanagers.

D. Theywillbelessprevalentinthefuture,sincetheiractualeffectswillgainwiderrecognition.

E. Factorsotherthaneconomicbenefittotheacquiringfirmhelptoexplainthefrequencywithwhichtheyoccur.

Inference

Thisquestionrequiresunderstandingwhatviewtheauthorhasabouta

particularissue.Thethreestudiescitedbythepassageallsuggestthatmergersandacquisitionsdonotnecessarilybringeconomicbenefittotheacquiringfirms.Theauthorconcludesthereforethatfactorshavinglittletodowithcorporateeconomicinterestsexplainacquisitions(lines23–24)andthengoesontospeculateastowhatthereasonsmayactuallybe.

A. Thepassageindicatesthatwhilemergersandacquisitionsmaybenefitthenationaleconomy,theappealofmergersandacquisitionsmustbetiedtocompanies’privateeconomicinterests(lines19–22).

B. Thepassagemakesnojudgmentastothebestwayforfirmstohelpchannelresourcesfromlesstomoreefficienteconomicsectors.

C. Thepassagemakesnocomparisonbetweentheinfluenceofpoormonitoringbyboardsandthatofexecutiveincentives.

D. Thepassagemakesnopredictionastofuturetrendsinthemarketformergersandacquisitions.

E. Correct.Thepassagestatesthatfactorsotherthaneconomicinterestsdrivemergersandacquisitions.


88. Theauthorofthepassagementionstheeffectofacquisitionsonnationaleconomiesmostprobablyinorderto

A. provideanexplanationforthemergersandacquisitionsofthe1970’sand1980’soverlookedbythefindingsdiscussedinthepassage

B. suggestthatnationaleconomicinterestsplayedanimportantroleinthemergersandacquisitionsofthe1970’sand1980’s

C. supportanoneconomicexplanationforthemergersandacquisitionsofthe1970’sand1980’sthatwascitedearlierinthepassage

D. citeandpointouttheinadequacyofonepossibleexplanationfortheprevalenceofmergersandacquisitionsduringthe1970’sand1980’s

E. explainhowmodelingaffectedthedecisionsmadebymanagersinvolvedinmergersandacquisitionsduringthe1970’sand1980’s

Evaluation

Thisquestionrequiresunderstandingwhyapieceofinformationisincludedinthepassage.Afterthepassagecitestheresultsofthethreestudiesonmergersandacquisitions,whichcallintoquestiontheeconomicbenefitsofacquisitions,itindicatesthatfirmsnonethelessclaimthattheirobjectivesareeconomic.Thepassagethenstatesthatwhileacquisitionsmaywellhaveadesirableeffectonnationaleconomies(lines17–19),theresultsofthestudiessuggestthatfactorsotherthaneconomicinterestmustdriveexecutivestoarrangemergersandacquisitions.

A. Thepassagedoesnotmentionnationaleconomiesaspartofanexplanationfortheoccurrenceofmergersandacquisitions.

B. Thepassagesuggeststhattheeffectofacquisitionsonnationaleconomiesisnottiedtoanyexplanationsforwhyacquisitionsoccur.

C. Theeffectofacquisitionsonnationaleconomiesisnotmentionedinthepassageasanexplanationforwhyacquisitionsoccur.

D. Correct.Thepassageusesthementionofnationaleconomiesaspartofalargerpointquestioningthestatedmotivationsbehindfirms’effortstoacquireotherfirms.

E. Inthepassage,modelingisunrelatedtotheideathatacquisitionsmayhaveadesirableeffectonnationaleconomies.


89. Accordingtothepassage,duringthe1970’sand1980’s,biddingfirmsdifferedfromthefirmsforwhichtheybidinthatbiddingfirms

A. tendedtobemoreprofitablebeforeamergerthanafteramerger

B. weremoreoftenconcernedabouttheimpactofacquisitionsonnationaleconomies

C. wererunbymanagerswhoseactionsweremodeledonthoseofothermanagers

D. anticipatedgreatereconomicadvantagesfromprospectivemergers

E. experiencedlessofanincreaseinstockvaluewhenaprospectivemergerwasannounced

Supportingideas

Thisquestionrequiresrecognizinginformationcontainedinthepassage.

Inlines10–14,thepassagedescribesthefindingsofthethirdstudyofmergersandacquisitionsinthe1970’sand1980’s.Thisstudyfoundthat,aftertheannouncementofapossiblemerger,thestockvalueofanacquiring,orbidding,firmincreasesmuchlessthanthestockvalueofthefirmforwhichitisintheprocessofbidding.

A. Thepassagedoesnotindicatewhethertheprofitabilityofacquiringfirmstendedtobegreaterorlessafteramerger.

B. Thepassagedoesnotindicatethatacquiringfirmswereconcernedabouttheimpactoftheiractionsonnationaleconomies.

C. Thepassagedoesnotmentiontheactionsofmanagersatfirmsthatarebeingacquired.

D. Thepassagedoesnotdiscusswhetheracquiringfirmstendedtoexpectgreateroveralleconomicgainsthanactuallyoccurred.

E. Correct.Thepassageindicatesthatthestockvalueofacquiringfirmsgrewlessthanthatofthefirmstheywereattemptingtoacquire.


90. Accordingtothepassage,whichofthefollowingwastrueofcorporateacquisitionsthatoccurredduringthe1970’sand1980’s?

A. Fewoftheacquisitionsthatfirmsmadeweresubsequentlydivested.

B. Mostsuchacquisitionsproducedonlysmallincreasesinacquiredfirms’levelsofprofitability.

C. Mostsuchacquisitionswerebasedonanoverestimationofthevalueoftargetfirms.

D. Thegainsrealizedbymostacquiringfirmsdidnotequaltheamountsexpendedinacquiringtargetfirms.

E. Abouthalfofsuchacquisitionsledtolong-termincreasesinthevalueofacquiringfirms’stocks.

Supportingideas

Thisquestionrequiresrecognizinginformationcontainedinthepassage.Thepassagereportsonthreestudiesofmergersandacquisitionsinthe1970’sand1980’s.Inlines7–10,thepassageindicatesthatthesecondstudyfoundthatthepostacquisitiongainstomostoftheacquiringfirmsdidnotoffset,oratleastequal,thepricepaidtoacquirethefirms.

A. Thepassagedoesnotdiscusspost-acquisitiondivesting.

B. Thepassageindicatesthatonaverage,theprofitabilityofacquiredfirmsfellafterbeingacquired(lines5–7).

C. Thepassagedoesnotindicatewhethermostacquiringfirmsoverestimatedthevalueofthefirmstheyacquired.

D. Correct.Thepassagestatesthatformostacquiringfirmsthecostsofbuyingtheacquiredfirmweregreaterthanthegainsderivedfromacquiringit.

E. Thepassagedoesnotindicatewhatpercentageofacquiringfirms,ifany,experiencedlong-termgainsintheirstockvalue.


91. Theauthorofthepassageimpliesthatwhichofthefollowingisapossiblepartialexplanationforacquisitionbehaviorduringthe1970’sand1980’s?

A. Managerswishedtoimitateothermanagersprimarilybecausetheysawhowfinanciallybeneficialotherfirms’acquisitionswere.

B. Managersmiscalculatedthevalueoffirmsthatweretobeacquired.

C. Lackofconsensuswithinboardsofdirectorsresultedintheirimposingconflictinggoalsonmanagers.

D. Totalcompensationpackagesformanagersincreasedduringthatperiod.

E. Thevalueofbiddingfirms’stockincreasedsignificantlywhenprospectivemergerswereannounced.

Inference

Thisquestionrequiresrecognizingwhatcanbeinferredfromtheinformationinthepassage.Afterprovidingtheresultsofthestudiesofmergersandacquisitions,theauthorconcludesthateventhoughacquiringfirmsstatethattheirobjectivesareeconomic,factorshavinglittletodowithcorporateeconomicinterestsexplainacquisitions(lines22–24).Amongalternativeexplanations,theauthorpointstomanagerialerrorinestimatingthevalueoffirmstargetedforacquisition(lines27–28)aspossiblycontributingtoacquisitionbehaviorinthe1970’sand1980’s.

A. Whilethepassageindicatesthatmanagersmayhavemodeledtheir

behavioronothermanagers,itdoesnotprovideareasonforwhythiswouldbeso.

B. Correct.Theauthorstatesthatoneexplanationforacquisitionbehaviormaybethatmanagerserredwhentheyestimatedthevalueoffirmsbeingacquired.

C. Theauthordiscussesalackofmonitoringbyboardsofdirectorsbutmakesnomentionofconsensuswithintheseboards.

D. Theauthordoesnotdiscusscompensationpackagesformanagers.

E. Thepassagedoesnotstatehowsignificantlythevalueofthebiddingfirm’sstockincreaseduponannouncingamergerbutonlythatitincreasedlessinvaluethandidthestockoftheprospectivefirmbeingacquired.



92. Accordingtothepassage,conventionalspiralgalaxiesdifferfromlow-surface-brightnessgalaxiesinwhichofthefollowingways?

A. Theyhavefewerstarsthandolow-surface-brightnessgalaxies.

B. Theyevolvemorequicklythanlow-surface-brightnessgalaxies.

C. Theyaremorediffusethanlow-surface-brightnessgalaxies.

D. Theycontainlessheliumthandolow-surface-brightnessgalaxies.

E. Theyarelargerthanlow-surface-brightnessgalaxies.

Supportingideas

Thisquestionrequiresrecognizinginformationthatisprovidedinthepassage.Thefirstparagraphdescribesandcomparestwotypesofgalaxies:conventionalgalaxiesanddim,orlow-surface-brightness,galaxies.Itstatesthatdimgalaxieshavethesameapproximatenumberofstarsasacommontypeofconventionalgalaxybuttendtobelargerandmorediffusebecausetheirmassisspreadoverwiderareas(lines4–10).Thepassagealsoindicatesthatdimgalaxiestakelongerthanconventionalgalaxiestoconverttheirprimordialgasesintostars,meaningthatdimgalaxiesevolvemuchmoreslowlythanconventionalgalaxies(lines10–14),whichentailsthatconventionalgalaxiesevolvemorequicklythandimgalaxies.

A. Thepassagestatesthatdimgalaxieshaveapproximatelythesame

numbersofstarsasacommontypeofconventionalgalaxy.

B. Correct.Thepassageindicatesthatdimgalaxiesevolvemuchmoreslowlythanconventionalgalaxies,whichentailsthatconventionalgalaxiesevolvemorequickly.

C. Thepassagestatesthatdimgalaxiesaremorespreadout,andthereforemorediffuse,thanconventionalgalaxies.

D. Thepassagedoesnotmentiontherelativeamountsofheliuminthetwotypesofgalaxiesunderdiscussion.

E. Thepassagestatesthatdimgalaxiestendtobemuchlargerthanconventionalgalaxies.


93. Itcanbeinferredfromthepassagethatwhichofthefollowingisanaccuratephysicaldescriptionoftypicallow-surface-brightnessgalaxies?

A. Theyarelargespiralgalaxiescontainingfewerstarsthanconventionalgalaxies.

B. Theyarecompactbutverydimspiralgalaxies.

C. Theyarediffusespiralgalaxiesthatoccupyalargevolumeofspace.

D. Theyaresmall,youngspiralgalaxiesthatcontainahighproportionofprimordialgas.

E. Theyarelarge,densespiralswithlowluminosity.

Inference

Thisquestionrequiresdrawinganinferencefrominformationgiveninthepassage.Thefirstparagraphcomparesdimgalaxiesandconventionalgalaxies.Dimgalaxiesaredescribedashavingthesamegeneralshape(lines4–5)asacommontypeofconventionalgalaxy,thespiralgalaxy,suggestingthatdimgalaxiesare,themselves,spiralshaped.Thepassagealsoindicatesthat,althoughbothtypesofgalaxiestendtohaveapproximatelythesamenumberofstars,dimgalaxiestendtobemuchlargerandspreadoutoverlargerareasofspace(lines4–10)thanconventionalgalaxies.

A. Thepassagestatesthatthetwotypesofgalaxieshaveapproximatelythesamenumberofstars.

B. Thepassageindicatesthatdimgalaxiesarerelativelylargeandspreadout.

C. Correct.Thepassageindicatesthatdimgalaxieshavethesamegeneralshapeasspiralgalaxiesandthattheirmassisspreadoutoverlargeareasofspace.

D. Thepassageindicatesthatdimgalaxiesarerelativelylargeandspreadout.

E. Thepassagestatesthatdimgalaxieshavefewstarsperunitofvolume,suggestingthattheyarenotdensebutdiffuse.


94. Itcanbeinferredfromthepassagethatthe“long-standingpuzzle”referstowhichofthefollowing?

A. Thedifferencebetweentherateatwhichconventionalgalaxiesevolveandtherateatwhichlow-surface-brightnessgalaxiesevolve

B. Thediscrepancybetweenestimatesoftotalbaryonicmassderivedfrommeasuringheliumandestimatesbasedonmeasuringgalacticluminosity

C. Theinconsistencybetweentheobservedamountofheliumintheuniverseandthenumberofstarsintypicallow-surface-brightnessgalaxies

D. Uncertaintiesregardingwhatproportionofbaryonicmassiscontainedinintergalacticspaceandwhatproportioninconventionalgalaxies

E. Difficultiesinvolvedindetectingverydistantgalaxiesandininvestigatingtheirluminosity

Inference

Thisquestionrequiresdrawinganinferencefrominformationgiveninthepassage.Thesecondparagraphdescribesthelong-standingpuzzleofthemissingbaryonicmassintheuniverse.Thepassagestatesthatbaryonsarethesourceofgalacticluminosity,andsoscientistscanestimatetheamountofbaryonicmassintheuniversebymeasuringtheluminosityofgalaxies(lines17–21).Thepuzzleisthatspectroscopicmeasuresofheliumintheuniversesuggestthatthebaryonicmassintheuniverseismuchhigherthanmeasuresofluminositywouldindicate(21–25).

A. Thedifferencesbetweentheratesofevolutionofthetwotypesofgalaxiesisnottreatedasbeingcontroversialinthepassage.

B. Correct.Thepassageindicatesthatmeasurementsusingspectroscopyandmeasurementsusingluminosityresultinpuzzlingdifferencesinestimatesoftheuniverse’sbaryonicmass.

C. Thepassagedoesnotsuggesthowheliummightrelatetothenumbersofstarsindimgalaxies.

D. Thepassageindicatesthatastronomershavespeculatedthatthemissingbaryonicmassmightbediscoveredinintergalacticspaceorhard-to-detectgalaxiesbutdoesnotsuggestthatthesespeculationsareconstituentsofthelong-standingpuzzle.

E. Thepassagedoesnotmentionhowthedistancetogalaxiesaffectsscientists’abilitytodetectthesegalaxies.


95. Theauthorimpliesthatlow-surface-brightnessgalaxiescouldconstituteananswertothepuzzlediscussedinthesecondparagraphprimarilybecause

A. theycontainbaryonicmassthatwasnottakenintoaccountbyresearchersusinggalacticluminositytoestimatethenumberofbaryonsintheuniverse

B. they,likeconventionalgalaxiesthatcontainmanybaryons,haveevolvedfrommassive,primordialgasclouds

C. theymaycontainrelativelymorehelium,andhencemorebaryons,thandogalaxieswhoseheliumcontenthasbeenstudiedusingspectroscopy

D. theyhaverecentlybeendiscoveredtocontainmorebaryonicmassthanscientistshadthoughtwhenlow-surface-brightnessgalaxieswerefirstobserved

E. theycontainstarsthataresignificantlymoreluminousthanwouldhavebeenpredictedonthebasisofinitialstudiesofluminosityinlow-surface-brightnessgalaxies

Inference

Thisquestionrequiresdrawinganinferencefrominformationgiveninthepassage.Thepuzzleisthatestimatesofthebaryonicmassoftheuniversebasedonluminosityarelowerthanthosebasedonspectroscopy(lines21–25).Thepassagestatesthatastronomersdidnotnoticedimgalaxiesuntilrecently(lines2–3)andthatthesegalaxiesmay

helpaccountforthemissingbaryonicmassintheuniverse(lines15–17).Thepassagealsosuggeststhatastronomersmeasuretheluminosityofspecificgalaxies(lines19–21).Thusitcanbeinferredthat,priortotheirbeingnoticedbyastronomers,theluminosityofthesedimgalaxieswasnotmeasured,andtheirbaryonicmasswasnottakenintoaccountintheestimatesofluminositythatledtothelong-standingpuzzle.

A. Correct.Thepassagestatesthatthemissingbaryonicmassintheuniversemaybediscoveredinthedimgalaxiesthathaveonlyrecentlybeennoticedbyastronomers.

B. Thepassagedoesnotsuggestthatdimandconventionalgalaxiesbothoriginatingfromprimordialgascloudshelpsolvethelong-standingpuzzleofthemissingbaryonicmassintheuniverse.

C. Thepassagedoesnotsuggestthatdimgalaxiesmightcontainmoreheliumthandoconventionalgalaxiesorthatmeasuresofbaryonicmassusingspectroscopydonottakesomedimgalaxiesintoaccount.

D. Thepassagedoesnotsuggestthatdimgalaxiescontainmorebaryonicmassthanscientistsoriginallybelievedupondiscoveringthesegalaxies.

E. Thepassagesuggeststhatscientistsmeasuredtheluminosityofgalaxies,notofindividualstars.


96. Theauthormentionsthefactthatbaryonsarethesourceofstars’luminosityprimarilyinordertoexplain

A. howastronomersdeterminethatsomegalaxiescontainfewerstarsperunitvolumethandoothers

B. howastronomersareabletocalculatethetotalluminosityofagalaxy

C. whyastronomerscanusegalacticluminositytoestimatebaryonicmass

D. whyastronomers’estimatesofbaryonicmassbasedongalacticluminosityaremorereliablethanthosebasedonspectroscopicstudiesofhelium

E. howastronomersknowbrightgalaxiescontainmorebaryonsthandodimgalaxies

Evaluation

Thisquestionrequiresunderstandinghowoneaspectofthepassagerelatestothereasoninginalargerportionofthepassage.Thesecondparagraphexplainsthatscientistshavebeenpuzzledovermissingbaryonicmassintheuniverseasmeasuredbyluminosity(lines21–25).Giventhatbaryonsarethesourceofluminosityinthegalaxy(lines17–19),astronomerscanestimatethebaryonicmassofagalaxybymeasuringitsluminosity.

A. Thepassagediscussionofbaryonsdoesnotaddressthenumberofstarsinindividualgalaxies.

B. Thepassagediscusseshowtheluminosityofgalaxiescanbeusedtoestimatebaryonicmassbutdoesnotaddresshowtotalluminosityismeasured.

C. Correct.Thepassageindicatesthatbecausebaryonsarethesourceofgalacticluminosity,measuringluminositycanbeusedtoestimatebaryonicmassofgalaxies.

D. Thepassagesuggeststhatestimatesbasedonluminositymayhavebeenlessaccurate,notmoreaccurate,thanthosebasedonspectroscopy.

E. Thepassagedoesnotindicatethatbrightgalaxiescontainmorebaryonsthandodimgalaxies.


97. Theauthorofthepassagewouldbemostlikelytodisagreewithwhichofthefollowingstatements?

A. Low-surface-brightnessgalaxiesaremoredifficulttodetectthanareconventionalgalaxies.

B. Low-surface-brightnessgalaxiesareoftenspiralinshape.

C. Astronomershaveadvancedplausibleideasaboutwheremissingbaryonicmassmightbefound.

D. Astronomershavedevisedausefulwayofestimatingthetotalbaryonicmassintheuniverse.

E. Astronomershavediscoveredasubstantialamountofbaryonicmassinintergalacticspace.

Inference

Thisquestioninvolvesidentifyingwhichansweroptionpotentiallyconflictswiththeinformationtheauthorhasprovidedinthepassage.Thesecondparagraphindicatesthatastronomers’estimatesofthebaryonicmassoftheuniverseislowerwhenmeasuredusingluminositythanitiswhenmeasuredusingspectroscopy(lines21–25).Thefinalsentencestatesthatastronomershavespeculatedthatthemissingbaryonicmassmightbediscoveredinintergalacticspaceorinhard-to-detectgalaxies(lines25–29).Althoughthepassagedoesindicatethatthediscoveryofdim,low-surface-brightnessgalaxiesmighthelpaccountforthemissingbaryonicmass(lines15–17),thepassageprovidesnosupportforthepossibilitythatbaryonicmasshasbeendiscoveredinintergalacticspace.

A. Thepassageindicatesthatlow-surface-brightnessgalaxieswentunnoticeduntilrecently,unlikeconventionalgalaxies.

B. Thepassageindicatesthatlow-surface-brightnessgalaxieshavethesamegeneralshapeasspiralgalaxies.

C. Thepassagedescribestwopossibleexplanationsastronomershavegivenforthemissingbaryonicmass,oneofwhichwasmademoreplausiblebythediscoveryoflow-surface-brightnessgalaxies.

D. Thepassageindicatesthatastronomershaveusedspectroscopytoestimatebaryonicmassandgivesnoreasontosuspectthatthismethodisnotuseful.

E. Correct.Thepassagedoesnotindicatethatastronomershavefoundanybaryonicmassinintergalacticspace.



A. describeaphenomenonandconsideritsscientificsignificance

B. contrasttwophenomenaanddiscussapuzzlingdifferencebetweenthem

C. identifyanewlydiscoveredphenomenonandexplainitsorigins

D. comparetwoclassesofobjectsanddiscussthephysicalpropertiesofeach

E. discussadiscoveryandpointoutitsinconsistencywithexistingtheory

Mainidea

Thisquestionrequiresunderstanding,inbroadterms,thepurposeofthepassageasawhole.Thefirstparagraphdescribesaphenomenon:thediscoveryofdimgalaxiesandsomeoftheirgeneralattributes.Thesecondparagraphdescribeshowthisdiscoverymayhelpastronomerstosolvealong-standingpuzzleaboutthebaryonicmassoftheuniverse.

A. Correct.Thepassagedescribesthephenomenonofdimgalaxiesanddescribestheirsignificanceinsolvingthelong-standingpuzzleofthemissingbaryonicmassintheuniverse.

B. Althoughthepassagediscussesthepuzzlingdifferencebetweenthetwoestimatesofbaryonicmass,thisoptiondoesnotaccountforthebroadertopicofdimgalaxies.

C. Whilethepassageidentifiesthenewlydiscoveredphenomenonofdimgalaxies,itdoesnotofferasignificantexplanationforthesegalaxies’origins.

D. Althoughthepassagecomparesdimandconventionalgalaxiesinthefirstparagraph,thisoptiondoesnotaccountfortheimportantdetailthatdimgalaxiesmayhelpsolvealong-standingpuzzle.

E. Thediscoveryofdimgalaxiesdiscussedinthepassageisnotsaidtobeinconsistentwithanyexistingscientifictheory.



99. Accordingtothepassage,WalkerandSzalaydisagreeonwhichofthefollowingpoints?

A. Thestructureandcompositionofaustralopithecineteeth

B. Thekindsofconclusionsthatcanbedrawnfromthemicro-wearpatternsonaustralopithecineteeth

C. Theideathatfruitwasapartoftheaustralopithecinediet

D. Theextenttowhichseedcrackingandbonecrunchingproducesimilarmicro-wearpatternsonteeth

E. Thefunctionoftheheavyenamelonaustralopithecineteeth

Supportingidea

Thisquestionreferstothefirstparagraph,whichstatesthatWalkerdoesnotagreewithSzalay’sideathattheheavyenamelofaustralopithecineteethisanadaptationtobonecrunching.

A. Accordingtothepassage,WalkerandSzalaydisagreeaboutthefunctionofheavyenamelontheteeth,notthestructureandcompositionoftheteeth.

B. ThepassagedoesnotindicatethatSzalayhasanythingtosayaboutthemicro-wearpatternsontheteeth.

C. Walkerdoes,accordingtothepassage,believethataustralopithecinesatefruit,butitgivesnoevidenceaboutwhetherSzalaybelievesthattheyateatleastsomefruit.

D. Accordingtothepassage,Walkerbelievesthatseedcrackingandbonecrunchingproducedistinctivemicro-wearpatternsonteeth,buthedoesnotnecessarilybelievethattheyaresimilar.ThepassagedoesnotindicateSzalay’spositiononthedifferencebetweenmicro-wearpatterns.

E. Correct.ThefunctionoftheheavyenamelontheteethistheonlyideaaboutwhichthepassageclearlyindicatesthatWalkerandSzalaydisagree.


100. ThepassagesuggeststhatWalker’sresearchindicatedwhichofthefollowingaboutaustralopithecineteeth?

A. Theyhadmicro-wearcharacteristicsindicatingthatfruitconstitutedonlyasmallpartoftheirdiet.

B. Theylackedmicro-wearcharacteristicsassociatedwithseedeatingandbonecrunching.

C. Theyhadmicro-wearcharacteristicsthatdifferedincertainwaysfromthemicro-wearpatternsofchimpanzeesandorangutans.

D. Theyhadmicro-wearcharacteristicssuggestingthatthedietofaustralopithecinesvariedfromoneregiontoanother.

E. Theylackedthemicro-wearcharacteristicsdistinctiveofmodernfrugivores.

Inference

Accordingtothepassage,Walker’sresearchfocusesonmicro-wearpatternsontheteethofaustralopithecines.Hedrawsseveralconclusionsonthebasisofthesepatterns:first,thataustralopithecinesdidnoteathardseeds;next,thattheydidnotcrunchbones;andfinally,thattheyatefruit.

A. ThepassageindicatesthatWalker’sobservationofmicro-wearpatternsledhimtoconcludethataustralopithecinesatemostlyfruit,notthatfruitconstitutedonlyasmallpartoftheirdiet.

B. Correct.ThefirstparagraphexplainsthatWalkerconcludedfrommicro-wearpatternsthataustralopithecinesdidnoteathardseedsanddidnotcrunchbones;thus,hisresearchmusthaveindicatedthattheylackedmicro-wearcharacteristicsassociatedwithsuchactivities.

C. Accordingtothepassage,theoppositeistrue:basedontheobservationthattheirmicro-wearpatternswereindistinguishablefromthoseofchimpanzeesandorangutans,Walkerconcludedthataustralopithecinesatefruit.

D. ThesecondparagraphofthepassagecomplicatesWalker’sviewbysuggestingthataustralopithecines’dietmighthavevariedfromoneregiontoanother,butthepassagesaysnothingaboutWalker’sresearchfromwhichtoinferthatitindicatedsuchvariation.

E. Chimpanzeesandorangutansareassumedtobefrugivores,accordingtothepassage,andWalker’sresearchindicatedthataustralopithecineteethhadmicro-wearcharacteristicsidenticaltotheirs.


101. Thepassagesuggeststhatwhichofthefollowingwouldbetrueofstudiesoftoothmicro-wearpatternsconductedonmodernbaboons?

A. Theywouldinaccuratelysuggestthatsomebaboonseatmoresoft-bodiedthanhard-bodiedinsects.

B. Theywouldsuggestthatinsectsconstitutethelargestpartofsomebaboons’diets.

C. Theywouldrevealthattherearenosignificantdifferencesintoothmicro-wearpatternsamongbaboonpopulations.

D. Theywouldinadequatelyreflecttheextenttowhichsomebaboonsconsumecertaintypesofinsects.

E. Theywouldindicatethatbaboonsincertainregionseatonlysoft-bodiedinsects,whereasbaboonsinotherregionseathard-bodiedinsects.

Inference

Thesecondparagraphstatesthatmodernbaboonseatonlysoft-bodiedinsectsandsowouldnotexhibittoothabrasiontoindicatethattheywereinsectivores.Thus,itwouldbedifficulttodetermineexactlywhichsoft-bodiedinsectstheyate.

A. Thepassagestatesthatbaboonseatonlysoft-bodiedinsects—soitisinfactaccuratetosuggestthatallbaboonseatmoresoft-bodiedthanhard-bodiedinsects.

B. Thepassagesaysthatbaboonseatonlysoft-bodiedinsects.Italsosuggeststhatsoft-bodiedinsectsdonotleavesignificantenoughabrasionsonbaboons’teethtoprovideevidenceofthisaspectoftheirdiet.Therefore,thetooth-wearpatternswouldgivelittleornoinformationregardingwhatproportionofthebaboons’overalldietconsistsofinsects.

C. Thepassagedoesnotprovidegroundsforinferringanythingaboutthedifferences,orlackthereof,amongbaboonpopulationsintermsoftoothmicro-wearpatterns.

D. Correct.Becausesoft-bodiedinsectscauselittletoothabrasion,micro-wearpatternswouldmostlikelynotreflecttheextenttowhichbaboonsconsumesoft-bodiedinsects.

E. Thepassagestatesthatbaboonseatonlysoft-bodiedinsects.Nothinginthepassagesuggeststhatbaboonsincertainregionseathard-bodiedinsects.


102. Thepassagesuggestswhichofthefollowingaboutthemicro-wearpatternsfoundontheteethofomnivorousprimates?

A. Thepatternsprovideinformationaboutwhatkindsoffoodsarenoteatenbytheparticularspeciesofprimate,butnotaboutthefoodsactuallyeaten.

B. Thepatternsofvariousprimatespecieslivinginthesameenvironmentresembleoneanother.

C. Thepatternsmaynotprovideinformationabouttheextenttowhichaparticularspecies’dietincludesseeds.

D. Thepatternsprovidemoreinformationabouttheseprimates’dietthandothetoothmicro-wearpatternsofprimateswhoarefrugivores.

E. Thepatternsmaydifferamonggroupswithinaspeciesdependingontheenvironmentwithinwhichaparticulargrouplives.

Inference

Thisquestionfocusesmainlyontheendofthesecondparagraph,whichstatesthatthedietsofcurrentomnivorousprimatesvaryconsiderablydependingontheenvironmentsinwhichtheylive.Itgoesontoconcludethataustralopithecines,iftheywereomnivores,wouldsimilarlyconsumevarieddiets,dependingonenvironment,andexhibitvariedtoothmicro-wearpatternsaswell.Thus,itisreasonabletoconcludethatanyomnivorousprimateslivingindifferentenvironmentsandconsumingdifferentdietswouldexhibitvariedmicro-wearpatterns.

A. Thepassageindicatesthattheabsenceofcertaintypesofmicro-wearpatternscanprovideevidenceaboutwhatfoodsaspeciesdoesnoteat.Italsosaysthatamongomnivorousprimates,onemightexpecttofindconsiderablepopulationvariationintheirtoothmicro-wearpatterns.Wherevermicro-wearpatternsarepresent,theyprovideevidenceaboutwhatkindsoffoodsareeaten.

B. Thepassagesuggeststhatvariousprimatespecieslivinginthesameenvironmentmightconsumeavarietyofdifferentdiets,sothereisnoreasontoconcludethattheirmicro-wearpatternswouldresembleoneanother.

C. Thepassageindicatesthatseed-eatingproducesdistinctivemicro-wearpatterns,sothepatterns,orlackthereof,ontheteethofanyspecieswouldmostlikelyprovideinformationabouttheextenttowhichthespecies’dietincludesseeds.

D. Theendofthefirstparagraphsuggeststhatfrugivores’micro-wearpatternsaredistinctive;thepassageprovidesnoreasontobelievethatomnivores’dietsprovidemoreinformation.

E. Correct.Accordingtothepassage,omnivorousprimatesofaparticularspeciesmayconsumedifferentdietsdependingonwheretheylive.Thus,theirmicro-wearpatternsmaydifferonthisbasis.


103. Itcanbeinferredfromthepassagethatifstudiesoftoothmicro-wearpatternswereconductedonmodernbaboons,whichofthefollowingwouldmostlikelybetrueoftheresultsobtained?

A. Therewouldbeenoughabrasiontoallowadeterminationof

whetherbaboonsarefrugivorousorinsectivorous.

B. Theresultswouldsuggestthatinsectsconstitutethelargestpartofthebaboons’diet.

C. Theresultswouldrevealthattherearenosignificantdifferencesintoothmicro-wearpatternsfromoneregionalbaboonpopulationtoanother.

D. Theresultswouldprovideanaccurateindicationoftheabsenceofsomekindsofinsectsfromthebaboons’diet.

E. Theresultswouldbeunlikelytoprovideanyindicationofwhatinferencesabouttheaustralopithecinedietcanorcannotbedrawnfrommicro-wearstudies.

Inference

Thesecondparagraphstatesthatmodernbaboonseatsoft-bodiedinsectsbutnothard-bodiedones—anditishard-bodiedinsects,thepassagesuggests,thatwouldcauseparticularmicro-wearpatternsonteeth.Sothepatternsonmodernbaboons’teethmostlikelydonotexhibitthepatternsindicatinghard-bodiedinsectconsumption.

A. Thepassagestatesthatbaboons’consumptionofsoft-bodiedinsectswouldnotshowupinthepatternsontheirteeth—sotheabrasionwouldmostlikelynotprovideenoughinformationforadeterminationofwhetherbaboonsarefrugivorousorinsectivorous.

B. Sincesoft-bodiedinsectsdonotabradetheteethsignificantly,itwouldbedifficulttodetermine,basedonmicro-wearpatterns,thepartsuchinsectsplayinthebaboons’diet.Furthermore,thepassagedoesnotsuggestthatmicro-wearpatternscanindicatethequantityoffoodananimalmighthaveeaten.

C. Therecouldbedifferencesintoothmicro-wearpatternsfromoneregionalbaboonpopulationtoanotheriftheyconsumedanythinginadditiontosoft-bodiedinsects.

D. Correct.Studyingtoothmicro-wearpatternsonbaboons’teethwouldmostlikelyshowthattheirteethdonotexhibitpatternstypicalofcreaturesthatconsumehard-bodiedinsects.

E. Thepassagesuggeststhatbasedonresultsfrommicro-wearpatternsonmodernbaboons’teeth,onecannotinferfrommicro-wearstudieswhetheraustralopithecinesatesoft-bodiedinsects.


104. ItcanbeinferredfromthepassagethatWalker’sconclusionabouttheaustralopithecinedietwouldbecalledintoquestionunderwhichofthefollowingcircumstances?

A. Thetoothenamelofaustralopithecinesisfoundtobemuchheavierthanthatofmodernfrugivorousprimates.

B. Themicro-wearpatternsofaustralopithecineteethfromregionsotherthaneastAfricaareanalyzed.

C. Orangutansarefoundtohaveamuchbroaderdietthaniscurrentlyrecognized.

D. TheenvironmentofeastAfricaatthetimeaustralopithecineslivedthereisfoundtohavebeenfarmorevariedthaniscurrentlythought.

E. Theareainwhichtheaustralopithecinespecimenswerefoundisdiscoveredtohavebeenveryrichinsoft-bodiedinsectsduringtheperiodwhenaustralopithecineslivedthere.

Inference

ThepassageexplainsthatWalkerbaseshisconclusionaboutthefrugivorousnatureoftheaustralopithecinedietonthefactthatthemicro-wearpatternsonaustralopithecineteethareindistinguishablefromthoseofchimpanzeesandorangutans,bothofwhicharepresumedtohavefrugivorousdiets.

A. ThepassageindicatesthatWalkertookintoaccountthefactthataustralopithecineshadrelativelyheavytoothenamelandthatherejectedtheviewthatthisheavinesswasevidenceagainstthehypothesisthattheywerefrugivorous.Forallwecantellfromtheinformationinthepassage,theaustralopithecines’toothenamelwasalreadyknowntobemuchheavierthanthatofmodernfrugivorousprimates.

B. Itcouldbethecasethatanalyzingthemicro-wearpatternsofaustralopithecineteethfromotherregionswouldyieldthesamedataasthosefromeastAfrica.

C. Correct.Accordingtothepassage,Walkerbasestheconclusionthataustralopithecineswerefrugivorousonthesimilaritybetweentheirmicro-wearpatternsandthoseofmodernchimpanzeesandorangutans.Iforangutanswerefoundtohaveadietthatincludeda

greaterrangeofnon-fruitfoodsthaniscurrentlyrecognized,thenthecorrespondencebetweentheirmicro-wearpatternsandaustralopithecines’micro-wearpatternswouldbeconsistentwiththehypothesisthataustralopithecines’dietwasbroaderaswell.

D. EveniftheenvironmentofeastAfricaweremorevaried,thatwouldnotmeantheaustralopithecinesnecessarilyateamorevarieddiet.Manyspeciesthatliveinveryvariedenvironmentsspecializenarrowlyonparticularfoodsinthoseenvironments.

E. Justbecausemanysoft-bodiedinsectsmighthavebeenavailabletoaustralopithecinesdoesnotmeanthataustralopithecinesatethem.


105. Theauthorofthepassagementionsthedietsofbaboonsandotherlivingprimatesmostlikelyinorderto

A. provideevidencethatrefutesWalker’sconclusionsaboutthefoodsmakingupthedietsofaustralopithecines

B. suggestthatstudiesoftoothmicro-wearpatternsareprimarilyusefulfordeterminingthedietsoflivingprimates

C. suggestthataustralopithecineswereprobablyomnivoresratherthanfrugivores

D. illustratesomeofthelimitationsofusingtoothmicro-wearpatternstodrawdefinitiveconclusionsaboutagroup’sdiet

E. suggestthattoothmicro-wearpatternsarecausedbypersistent,asopposedtooccasional,consumptionofparticularfoods

Evaluation

Thepassagediscussesthedietsofbaboonsandotherlivingprimatesmainlyinthesecondparagraph,whichisconcernedwithexplainingthelimitedutilityofmicro-wearstudies.

A. TheauthorraisessomedoubtsaboutWalker’sconclusionsbutdoesnotgoasfarastotrytorefutethemoutright.Theauthorarguesonlythat,asthefinalsentenceofthepassagestates,theymayneedtobeexpanded.

B. Theauthordiscussesthedietsofbaboonsandotherlivingprimatesinrelationtomicro-wearresearchonextinctprimates.Nothinginthediscussionsuggeststhatmicro-wearstudieswouldbemoreusefulfordeterminingthedietsoflivingprimatesthanfor

providingevidenceregardingthedietsofearlierprimatesorofothertypesofanimals.Furthermore,thementionofbaboondietssuggeststhatmicro-wearstudiesmaynotbeveryusefulfordeterminingthedietsofsomelivingprimates.

C. Theauthorleavesopenthequestionofwhetheraustralopithecineswereomnivoresorfrugivores.Thepassagesuggeststhatsomeaustralopithecinesmighthavebeenomnivores,ifaustralopithecines’dietsvariedaccordingtotheenvironmentstheyinhabited.Walker’sconclusionregardingeastAfricanaustralopithecines’beingfrugivoresmightstillhold,however.

D. Correct.Theauthorreferstobaboons’dietsandthoseofcurrentomnivorousprimatesinordertosuggestthattheremightbelimitationstoWalker’suseoftoothmicro-wearpatternstodetermineaustralopithecines’diet.

E. Thepassagedoesnotmakeadistinctionbetweenpersistentandoccasionalconsumptionofparticularfoods.


4.0CriticalReasoningCriticalreasoningquestionsappearintheVerbalsectionoftheGMAT®

exam.TheVerbalsectionusesmultiple-choicequestionstomeasureyourabilitytoreadandcomprehendwrittenmaterial,toreasonandtoevaluatearguments,andtocorrectwrittenmaterialtoconformtostandardwrittenEnglish.BecausetheVerbalsectionincludescontentfromavarietyoftopics,youmaybegenerallyfamiliarwithsomeofthematerial;however,neitherthepassagesnorthequestionsassumeknowledgeofthetopicsdiscussed.CriticalreasoningquestionsareintermingledwithreadingcomprehensionandsentencecorrectionquestionsthroughouttheVerbalsectionofthetest.

Youwillhave75minutestocompletetheVerbalsection,orabout1¾minutestoanswereachquestion.Althoughcriticalreasoningquestionsarebasedonwrittenpassages,thesepassagesareshorterthanreadingcomprehensionpassages.Theytendtobelessthan100wordsinlengthandgenerallyarefollowedbyoneortwoquestions.Forthesequestions,youwillseeasplitcomputerscreen.Thewrittenpassagewillremainvisibleaseachquestionassociatedwiththatpassageappearsinturnonthescreen.Youwillseeonlyonequestionatatime.

Criticalreasoningquestionsaredesignedtotestthereasoningskillsinvolvedin(1)makingarguments,(2)evaluatingarguments,and(3)formulatingorevaluatingaplanofaction.Thematerialsonwhichquestionsarebasedaredrawnfromavarietyofsources.TheGMATexamdoesnotsupposeanyfamiliaritywiththesubjectmatterofthosematerials.

Inthesequestions,youaretoanalyzethesituationonwhicheachquestionisbased,andthenselecttheanswerchoicethatmostappropriatelyanswersthequestion.Beginbyreadingthepassagescarefully,thenreadingthefiveanswerchoices.Ifthecorrectanswerisnotimmediatelyobvioustoyou,seewhetheryoucaneliminatesomeofthewronganswers.Readingthepassageasecondtimemaybehelpfulinilluminatingsubtletiesthatwerenotimmediatelyevident.

Answeringcriticalreasoningquestionsrequiresnospecializedknowledgeofanyparticularfield;youdon’thavetohaveknowledgeoftheterminologyandconventionsofformallogic.Thesamplecriticalreasoningquestionsinthischapterillustratethevarietyoftopicsthetestmaycover,thekindsofquestionsitmayask,andthelevelofanalysisitrequires.

Thefollowingpagesdescribewhatcriticalreasoningquestionsaredesignedtomeasureandpresentthedirectionsthatwillprecedequestionsofthis

type.Samplequestionsandexplanationsofthecorrectanswersfollow.

4.1WhatIsMeasuredCriticalreasoningquestionsaredesignedtoprovideonemeasureofyourabilitytoreasoneffectivelyinthefollowingareas:

Argumentconstruction

Questionsinthiscategorymayaskyoutorecognizesuchthingsasthebasicstructureofanargument,properlydrawnconclusions,underlyingassumptions,well-supportedexplanatoryhypotheses,andparallelsbetweenstructurallysimilararguments.

Argumentevaluation

Thesequestionsmayaskyoutoanalyzeagivenargumentandtorecognizesuchthingsasfactorsthatwouldstrengthenorweakenthegivenargument;reasoningerrorscommittedinmakingthatargument;andaspectsofthemethodbywhichtheargumentproceeds.

Formulatingandevaluatingaplanofaction

Thistypeofquestionmayaskyoutorecognizesuchthingsastherelativeappropriateness,effectiveness,orefficiencyofdifferentplansofaction;factorsthatwouldstrengthenorweakentheprospectsofsuccessofaproposedplanofaction;andassumptionsunderlyingaproposedplanofaction.

4.2Test-TakingStrategies1. Readverycarefullythesetofstatementsonwhichaquestionisbased.

Paycloseattentionto

whatisputforwardasfactualinformation

whatisnotsaidbutnecessarilyfollowsfromwhatissaid

whatisclaimedtofollowfromfactsthathavebeenputforward

howwellsubstantiatedareanyclaimsthataparticularconclusionfollowsfromthefactsthathavebeenputforward

Inreadingthearguments,itisimportanttopayattentiontothelogicalreasoningused;theactualtruthofstatementsportrayedasfactisnotimportant.

2. Identifytheconclusion.

Theconclusiondoesnotnecessarilycomeattheendofthetext;itmaycomesomewhereinthemiddleorevenatthebeginning.Bealerttocluesinthetextthatanargumentfollowslogicallyfromanotherstatementorstatementsinthetext.

3. Determineexactlywhateachquestionasks.

Youmightfindithelpfultoreadthequestionfirst,beforereadingthematerialonwhichitisbased;don’tassumethatyouknowwhatyouwillbeaskedaboutanargument.Anargumentmayhaveobviousflaws,andonequestionmayaskyoutodetectthem.ButanotherquestionmaydirectyoutoselecttheoneanswerchoicethatdoesNOTdescribeaflawintheargument.

4. Readalltheanswerchoicescarefully.

Donotassumethatagivenansweristhebestwithoutfirstreadingallthechoices.

4.3TheDirectionsThesearethedirectionsyouwillseeforcriticalreasoningquestionswhenyoutaketheGMATexam.Ifyoureadthemcarefullyandunderstandthemclearlybeforegoingtositforthetest,youwillnotneedtospendtoomuchtimereviewingthemwhenyouareatthetestcenterandthetestisunderway.

Forthesequestions,selectthebestoftheanswerchoicesgiven.

4.4SampleQuestionsEachofthecriticalreasoningquestionsisbasedonashortargument,asetofstatements,oraplanofaction.Foreachquestion,selectthebestanswerofthechoicesgiven.

106. PhishCorunsanumberoffarmsinthearidprovinceofNufa,dependinglargelyonirrigation.Now,aspartofaplantoefficientlyincreasethefarms’totalproduction,itplanstodrilldowntoanaquifercontainingwarm,slightlysaltywaterthatwillbeusedtoraisefishinponds.Thewaterfromthepondswilllaterbeusedtosupplementpiped-inirrigationwaterforPhishCo’svegetablefields,andthepondsandaccompanyingvegetationshouldhelpreducetheheatintheareaofthefarms.

Whichofthefollowingwould,iftrue,moststronglysuggestthattheplan,ifimplemented,wouldincreasetheoverallefficiencyofPhishCo’sfarms?

A. MostofthevegetationtobeplacedaroundthepondsisnativetoNufa.

B. FishraisedonPhishCo’sfarmsarelikelytobesaleableinthenearesturbanareas.

C. Organicwastefromfishinthepondwaterwillhelptofertilizefieldswhereitisusedforirrigation.

D. ThegovernmentofNufawillhelptoarrangeloanfinancingtopartiallycoverthecostsofdrilling.

E. Pondswillbelocatedonlow-lyinglandnowpartiallyoccupiedbygraincrops.

107. Thesustainedmassiveuseofpesticidesinfarminghastwoeffectsthatareespeciallypernicious.First,itoftenkillsoffthepests’naturalenemiesinthearea.Second,itoftenunintentionallygivesrisetoinsecticide-resistantpests,sincethoseinsectsthatsurviveaparticularinsecticidewillbetheonesmostresistanttoit,andtheyaretheoneslefttobreed.

Fromthepassageabove,itcanbeproperlyinferredthattheeffectivenessofthesustainedmassiveuseofpesticidescanbeextendedbydoingwhichofthefollowing,assumingthateachisarealisticpossibility?

A. Usingonlychemicallystableinsecticides

B. Periodicallyswitchingthetypeofinsecticideused

C. Graduallyincreasingthequantitiesofpesticidesused

D. Leavingafewfieldsfalloweveryyear

E. Breedinghigher-yieldingvarietiesofcropplants

108. Whichofthefollowing,iftrue,mostlogicallycompletestheargumentbelow?

Manufacturersarenowrequiredtomakeallcigarettelighterschild-resistantbyequippingthemwithsafetylevers.Butthischangeisunlikelytoresultinasignificantreductioninthenumberoffirescausedbychildrenplayingwithlighters,becausechildrengiventheopportunitycanfigureouthowtoworkthesafetyleversand________.

A. theadditionofthesafetylevershasmadelightersmoreexpensivethantheywerebeforetherequirementwasinstituted

B. adultsaremorelikelytoleavechild-resistantlightersthannon-child-resistantlightersinplacesthatareaccessibletochildren

C. manyofthefiresstartedbyyoungchildrenarequicklydetectedandextinguishedbytheirparents

D. unlikechild-resistantlighters,lightersthatarenotchild-resistantcanbeoperatedbychildrenasyoungastwoyearsold

E. approximately5,000firesperyearhavebeenattributedtochildrenplayingwithlightersbeforethesafetyleverswererequired

109. Whichofthefollowingmostlogicallycompletesthepassage?

AbusinessanalysisoftheAppenianrailroadsystemdivideditslong-distancepassengerroutesintotwocategories:ruralroutesandinterurbanroutes.Theanalysisfoundthat,unliketheinterurbanroutes,fewruralroutescarriedahighenoughpassengervolumetobeprofitable.Closingunprofitableruralroutes,however,willnotnecessarilyenhancetheprofitabilityofthewholesystem,since________.

A. alargepartofthepassengervolumeoninterurbanroutesisaccountedforbypassengerswhobeginorendtheirjourneysonruralroutes

B. withinthelasttwodecadesseveraloftheleastusedruralrouteshavebeenclosedandtheirpassengerserviceshavebeenreplacedbybuses

C. theruralrouteswerealloriginallyconstructedatleastonehundredyearsago,whereassomeoftheinterurbanrouteswereconstructedrecentlyfornewhigh-speedexpresstrains

D. notallofAppenia’slargecitiesareequallywellservedbyinterurban

railroadservices

E. thegreatestpassengervolume,relativetotheroutes’capacity,isnotoneithercategoryoflong-distanceroutesbutisonsuburbancommuterroutes

110. Therateatwhicharoadwearsdependsonvariousfactors,includingclimate,amountoftraffic,andthesizeandweightofthevehiclesusingit.TheonlylandtransportationtoRittland’sseaportisviaadividedhighway,onesidecarryingtraffictotheseaportandonecarryingtrafficawayfromit.Thesideleadingtotheseaporthaswornfaster,eventhougheachsidehascarriedvirtuallythesameamountoftraffic,consistingmainlyoflargetrucks.

Whichofthefollowing,iftrue,mosthelpstoexplainthedifferenceintherateofwear?

A. ThevolumeoftraffictoandfromRittland’sseaporthasincreasedbeyondtheintendedcapacityofthehighwaythatservesit.

B. WearonthehighwaythatservesRittland’sseaportisconsiderablygreaterduringthecoldwintermonths.

C. WearonthesideofthehighwaythatleadstoRittland’sseaporthasencouragedpeopletotakebusestotheseaportratherthandrivingthereintheirownautomobiles.

D. AgreatertonnageofgoodsisexportedfromRittland’sseaportthanisimportedthroughit.

E. AllofRittland’sautomobilesareimportedbyship.

111. Sincethemayor’spublicitycampaignforGreenville’sbusservicebegansixmonthsago,morningautomobiletrafficintothemidtownareaofthecityhasdecreased7percent.Duringthesameperiod,therehasbeenanequivalentriseinthenumberofpersonsridingbusesintothemidtownarea.Obviously,themayor’spublicitycampaignhasconvincedmanypeopletoleavetheircarsathomeandridethebustowork.

Whichofthefollowing,iftrue,caststhemostseriousdoubtontheconclusiondrawnabove?

A. FaresforallbusroutesinGreenvillehaverisenanaverageof5percentduringthepastsixmonths.

B. ThemayorofGreenvilleridesthebustoCityHallinthecity’smidtownarea.

C. Roadreconstructionhasgreatlyreducedthenumberoflanesavailabletocommutersinmajorstreetsleadingtothemidtownareaduringthepastsixmonths.

D. ThenumberofbusesenteringthemidtownareaofGreenvilleduringthemorninghoursisexactlythesamenowasitwasoneyearago.

E. SurveysshowthatlongtimebusridersarenomoresatisfiedwiththeGreenvillebusservicethantheywerebeforethemayor’spublicitycampaignbegan.

112. AlthoughAckerburg’ssubwaysystemiscurrentlyoperatingatadeficit,thetransitauthoritywilllowersubwayfaresnextyear.Theauthorityprojectsthatthelowerfareswillresultinatenpercentincreaseinthenumberofsubwayriders.Sincetheadditionalincomefromthelargerridershipwillmorethanoffsetthedecreaseduetolowerfares,thetransitauthorityactuallyexpectsthefarereductiontoreduceoreliminatethesubwaysystem’soperatingdeficitfornextyear.

Whichofthefollowing,iftrue,providesthemostsupportforthetransitauthority’sexpectationofreducingthesubwaysystem’soperatingdeficit?

A. Throughouttheyearsthatthesubwaysystemhasoperated,fareshaveneverbeforebeenreduced.

B. Theplannedfarereductionwillnotapplytostudents,whocanalreadyridethesubwayforareducedfare.

C. Nextyear,thetransitauthoritywillhavetoundertakeseverallarge-scaletrackmaintenanceprojects.

D. Thesubwaysystemcanaccommodateatenpercentincreaseinridershipwithoutincreasingthenumberoftrainsitrunseachday.

E. ThecurrentsubwayfaresinAckerburgarehigherthansubwayfaresinothercitiesintheregion.

113. Patrickusuallyprovideschildcareforsixchildren.ParentsleavetheirchildrenatPatrick’shouseinthemorningandpickthemupafterwork.Attheendofeachworkweek,theparentspayPatrickatanhourlyrateforthechildcareprovidedthatweek.TheweeklyincomePatrickreceivesisusuallyadequatebutnotalwaysuniform,particularlyinthewinter,whenchildrenarelikelytogetsickandbeunpredictablyabsent.

Whichofthefollowingplans,ifputintoeffect,hasthebestprospectof

makingPatrick’sweeklyincomebothuniformandadequate?

A. Poolresourceswithaneighborwhoprovideschildcareundersimilararrangements,sothatthetwoofthemcooperateincaringfortwiceasmanychildrenasPatrickcurrentlydoes.

B. ReplacepaymentbyactualhoursofchildcareprovidedwithafixedweeklyfeebaseduponthenumberofhoursofchildcarethatPatrickwouldtypicallybeexpectedtoprovide.

C. Hireafull-timehelperandinvestinfacilitiesforprovidingchildcaretosickchildren.

D. IncreasethehourlyratetoalevelthatwouldprovideadequateincomeeveninaweekwhenhalfofthechildrenPatrickusuallycaresforareabsent.

E. Increasethenumberofhoursmadeavailableforchildcareeachday,sothatparentscanleavetheirchildreninPatrick’scareforalongerperiodeachdayatthecurrenthourlyrate.

114. Acomputerequippedwithsignature-recognitionsoftware,whichrestrictsaccesstoacomputertothosepeoplewhosesignaturesareonfile,identifiesaperson’ssignaturebyanalyzingnotonlytheformofthesignaturebutalsosuchcharacteristicsaspenpressureandsigningspeed.Eventhemostadeptforgerscannotduplicateallofthecharacteristicstheprogramanalyzes.

Whichofthefollowingcanbelogicallyconcludedfromthepassageabove?

A. Thetimeittakestorecordandanalyzeasignaturemakesthesoftwareimpracticalforeverydayuse.

B. Computersequippedwiththesoftwarewillsoonbeinstalledinmostbanks.

C. Nobodycangainaccesstoacomputerequippedwiththesoftwaresolelybyvirtueofskillatforgingsignatures.

D. Signature-recognitionsoftwarehastakenmanyyearstodevelopandperfect.

E. Inmanycasesevenauthorizedusersaredeniedlegitimateaccesstocomputersequippedwiththesoftware.

115. Extinctionisaprocessthatcandependonavarietyofecological,geographical,andphysiologicalvariables.Thesevariablesaffectdifferent

speciesoforganismsindifferentways,andshould,therefore,yieldarandompatternofextinctions.However,thefossilrecordshowsthatextinctionoccursinasurprisinglydefinitepattern,withmanyspeciesvanishingatthesametime.

Whichofthefollowing,iftrue,formsthebestbasisforatleastapartialexplanationofthepatternedextinctionsrevealedbythefossilrecord?

A. Majorepisodesofextinctioncanresultfromwidespreadenvironmentaldisturbancesthataffectnumerousdifferentspecies.

B. Certainextinctionepisodesselectivelyaffectorganismswithparticularsetsofcharacteristicsuniquetotheirspecies.

C. Somespeciesbecomeextinctbecauseofaccumulatedgradualchangesintheirlocalenvironments.

D. Ingeologicallyrecenttimes,forwhichthereisnofossilrecord,humaninterventionhaschangedthepatternofextinctions.

E. Speciesthatarewidelydispersedaretheleastlikelytobecomeextinct.

116. InpartsofSouthAmerica,vitamin-Adeficiencyisaserioushealthproblem,especiallyamongchildren.Inoneregion,agriculturistsareattemptingtoimprovenutritionbyencouragingfarmerstoplantanewvarietyofsweetpotatocalledSPK004thatisrichinbeta-carotene,whichthebodyconvertsintovitaminA.Theplanhasgoodchancesofsuccess,sincesweetpotatoisastapleoftheregion’sdietandagriculture,andthevarietiescurrentlygrowncontainlittlebeta-carotene.

Whichofthefollowing,iftrue,moststronglysupportsthepredictionthattheplanwillsucceed?

A. ThegrowingconditionsrequiredbythevarietiesofsweetpotatocurrentlycultivatedintheregionareconditionsinwhichSPK004canflourish.

B. ThefleshofSPK004differsfromthatofthecurrentlycultivatedsweetpotatoesincolorandtexture,sotraditionalfoodswouldlooksomewhatdifferentwhenpreparedfromSPK004.

C. Therearenoothervarietiesofsweetpotatothataresignificantlyricherinbeta-carotenethanSPK004is.

D. ThevarietiesofsweetpotatocurrentlycultivatedintheregioncontainsomeimportantnutrientsthatarelackinginSPK004.

E. Thereareothervegetablescurrentlygrownintheregionthatcontainmorebeta-carotenethanthecurrentlycultivatedvarietiesofsweetpotatodo.

117. Manyleadershiptheorieshaveprovidedevidencethatleadersaffectgroupsuccessratherthanthesuccessofparticularindividuals.Soitisirrelevanttoanalyzetheeffectsofsupervisortraitsontheattitudesofindividualswhomtheysupervise.Instead,assessmentofleadershipeffectivenessshouldoccuronlyatthegrouplevel.

Whichofthefollowingwoulditbemostusefultoestablishinordertoevaluatetheargument?

A. Whethersupervisors’documentationofindividualsupervisees’attitudestowardthemisusuallyaccurate

B. Whetheritispossibletoassessindividualsupervisees’attitudestowardtheirsupervisorswithouttherebychangingthoseattitudes

C. Whetheranyoftheleadershiptheoriesinquestionholdthatleadersshouldassessotherleaders’attitudes

D. Whethersometypesofgroupsdonotneedsupervisioninordertobesuccessfulintheirendeavors

E. Whetherindividuals’attitudestowardsupervisorsaffectgroupsuccess

118. Whichofthefollowingmostlogicallycompletestheargument?

Thelastmembersofanow-extinctspeciesofaEuropeanwilddeercalledthegiantdeerlivedinIrelandabout16,000yearsago.PrehistoriccavepaintingsinFrancedepictthisanimalashavingalargehumponitsback.Fossilsofthisanimal,however,donotshowanyhump.Nevertheless,thereisnoreasontoconcludethatthecavepaintingsarethereforeinaccurateinthisregard,since__________.

A. someprehistoriccavepaintingsinFrancealsodepictotheranimalsashavingahump

B. fossilsofthegiantdeeraremuchmorecommoninIrelandthaninFrance

C. animalhumpsarecomposedoffattytissue,whichdoesnotfossilize

D. thecavepaintingsofthegiantdeerwerepaintedwellbefore16,000yearsago

E. onlyonecurrentlyexistingspeciesofdeerhasanyanatomicalfeaturethatevenremotelyresembles

ahump

119. Highlevelsoffertilizerandpesticides,neededwhenfarmerstrytoproducehighyieldsofthesamecropyearafteryear,pollutewatersupplies.Expertsthereforeurgefarmerstodiversifytheircropsandtorotatetheirplantingsyearly.

Toreceivegovernmentalprice-supportbenefitsforacrop,farmersmusthaveproducedthatsamecropforthepastseveralyears.

Thestatementsabove,iftrue,bestsupportwhichofthefollowingconclusions?

A. Therulesforgovernmentalsupportoffarmpricesworkagainsteffortstoreducewaterpollution.

B. Theonlysolutiontotheproblemofwaterpollutionfromfertilizersandpesticidesistotakefarmlandoutofproduction.

C. Farmerscancontinuetomakeaprofitbyrotatingdiversecrops,thusreducingcostsforchemicals,butnotbyplantingthesamecropeachyear.

D. Newfarmingtechniqueswillbedevelopedtomakeitpossibleforfarmerstoreducetheapplicationoffertilizersandpesticides.

E. Governmentalpricesupportsforfarmproductsaresetatlevelsthatarenothighenoughtoallowfarmerstogetoutofdebt.

120. TenyearsagothenumberoftaxpayersinGreenspaceCountywasslightlygreaterthanthenumberofregisteredvoters.Thenumberoftaxpayershasdoubledoverthelasttenyears,whilethenumberofregisteredvotershasincreased,butatalowerratethanhasthenumberoftaxpayers.

WhichofthefollowingmustbetrueinGreenspaceCountyifthestatementsabovearetrue?

A. Thenumberoftaxpayersisnowsmallerthanthenumberofregisteredvoters.

B. Everyonewhoisaregisteredvoterisalsoataxpayer.

C. Theproportionofregisteredvoterstotaxpayershasincreasedoverthelasttenyears.

D. Theproportionofregisteredvoterstotaxpayershasdecreasedoverthelasttenyears.

E. Theproportionofregisteredvoterstotaxpayershasremainedunchangedoverthelasttenyears.

121. Theinterviewisanessentialpartofasuccessfulhiringprogrambecause,withit,jobapplicantswhohavepersonalitiesthatareunsuitedtotherequirementsofthejobwillbeeliminatedfromconsideration.

Theargumentabovelogicallydependsonwhichofthefollowingassumptions?

A. Ahiringprogramwillbesuccessfulifitincludesinterviews.

B. Theinterviewisamoreimportantpartofasuccessfulhiringprogramthanisthedevelopmentofajobdescription.

C. Interviewerscanaccuratelyidentifyapplicantswhosepersonalitiesareunsuitedtotherequirements

ofthejob.

D. Theonlypurposeofaninterviewistoevaluatewhetherjobapplicants’personalitiesaresuitedtotherequirementsofthejob.

E. Thefitofjobapplicants’personalitiestotherequirementsofthejobwasoncethemostimportantfactorinmakinghiringdecisions.

122. AmajorhealthinsurancecompanyinLagoliapaysforspecialproceduresprescribedbyphysiciansonlyiftheprocedureisfirstapprovedas“medicallynecessary”byacompany-appointedreviewpanel.Theruleisintendedtosavethecompanythemoneyitmightotherwisespendonmedicallyunnecessaryprocedures.Thecompanyhasrecentlyannouncedthatinordertoreduceitscosts,itwillabandonthisrule.

Whichofthefollowing,iftrue,providesthestrongestjustificationforthecompany’sdecision?

A. Patientsoftenregisterdissatisfactionwithphysicianswhoprescribenothingfortheirailments.

B. Physiciansoftenprescribespecialproceduresthatarehelpfulbutnotaltogethernecessaryforthehealthofthepatient.

C. Thereviewprocessisexpensiveandpracticallyalwaysresultsinapprovaloftheprescribedprocedure.

D. Thecompany’sreviewprocessdoesnotinterferewiththe

prerogativeofphysicians,incaseswheremorethanoneeffectiveprocedureisavailable,toselecttheonetheypersonallyprefer.

E. Thenumberofmembersofthecompany-appointedreviewpanelwhoreviewagivenproceduredependsonthecostoftheprocedure.

123. Toevaluateaplantosavemoneyonoffice-spaceexpendituresbyhavingitsemployeesworkathome,XYZCompanyaskedvolunteersfromitsstafftotrythearrangementforsixmonths.Duringthisperiod,theproductivityoftheseemployeeswasashighasorhigherthanbefore.

Whichofthefollowing,iftrue,wouldarguemoststronglyagainstdeciding,onthebasisofthetrialresults,toimplementthecompany’splan?

A. Theemployeeswhoagreedtoparticipateinthetestoftheplanwereamongthecompany’smostself-motivatedandindependentworkers.

B. Thesavingsthatwouldaccruefromreducedoffice-spaceexpendituresalonewouldbesufficienttojustifythearrangementforthecompany,apartfromanyproductivityincreases.

C. Othercompaniesthathaveachievedsuccessfulresultsfromwork-at-homeplanshaveworkforcesthataresubstantiallylargerthanthatofXYZ.

D. Thevolunteerswhoworkedathomewereabletocommunicatewithotheremployeesasnecessaryforperformingthework.

E. MinorchangesinthewayofficeworkisorganizedatXYZwouldyieldincreasesinemployeeproductivitysimilartothoseachievedinthetrial.

124. Newsletter:Acondominiumgenerallyoffersmorevalueforitscostthananindividualhousebecauseofeconomiesofscale.Thehomeownersinacondominiumassociationcancollectivelybuyproductsandservicesthattheycouldnotaffordontheirown.Andsinceaprofessionalmanagementcompanyhandlesmaintenanceofcommonareas,condominiumownersspendlesstimeandmoneyonmaintenancethanindividualhomeownersdo.

Thetwoportionsinboldfaceplaywhichofthefollowingrolesinthenewsletter’sargument?

A. Thefirstistheargument’smainconclusion;thesecondisanotherconclusionsupportingthefirst.

B. Thefirstisapremise,forwhichnoevidenceisprovided;thesecondistheargument’sonlyconclusion.

C. Thefirstisaconclusionsupportingthesecond;thesecondistheargument’smainconclusion.

D. Thefirstistheargument’sonlyconclusion;thesecondisapremise,forwhichnoevidenceisprovided.

E. Botharepremises,forwhichnoevidenceisprovided,andbothsupporttheargument’sonlyconclusion.

125. Consumerhealthadvocate:Yourcandycompanyaddscaffeinetoyourchocolatecandybarssothateachonedeliversaspecifiedamountofcaffeine.Sincecaffeineishighlyaddictive,thisindicatesthatyouintendtokeepyourcustomersaddicted.

Candymanufacturer:Ourmanufacturingprocessresultsintherebeinglesscaffeineineachchocolatecandybarthanintheunprocessedcacaobeansfromwhichthechocolateismade.

Thecandymanufacturer’sresponseisflawedasarefutationoftheconsumerhealthadvocate’sargumentbecauseit

A. failstoaddresstheissueofwhetherthelevelofcaffeineinthecandybarssoldbythemanufacturerisenoughtokeeppeopleaddicted

B. assumeswithoutwarrantthatallunprocessedcacaobeanscontainauniformamountofcaffeine

C. doesnotspecifyexactlyhowcaffeineislostinthemanufacturingprocess

D. treatstheconsumerhealthadvocate’sargumentasthoughitwereabouteachcandybarratherthanaboutthemanufacturer’scandyingeneral

E. merelycontradictstheconsumerhealthadvocate’sconclusionwithoutgivinganyreasontobelievethattheadvocate’sreasoningisunsound

126. Nutritionistsareadvisingpeopletoeatmorefish,sincetheomega-3fattyacidsinfishhelpcombatmanydiseases.Ifeveryonetookthisadvice,however,therewouldnotbeenoughfishinoceans,rivers,andlakestosupplythedemand;theoceansarealreadybeingoverfished.Theobviousmethodtoeasethepressureonwildfishpopulationsisfor

peopletoincreasetheirconsumptionoffarmedfish.

Whichofthefollowing,iftrue,raisesthemostseriousdoubtconcerningtheprospectsforsuccessofthesolutionproposedabove?

A. Aquaculture,orfishfarming,raisesmorefishinagivenvolumeofwaterthanaregenerallypresentinthewild.

B. Somefishfarming,particularlyofshrimpandothershellfish,takesplaceinenclosuresintheocean.

C. Therearelargeexpansesofoceanwatersthatdonotcontainenoughnutrientstosupportsubstantialfishpopulations.

D. Thefeedforfarmedoceanfishislargelymadefromsmallwild-caughtfish,includingtheyoungofmanypopularfoodspecies.

E. Someofthespeciesthatarenowfarmedextensivelywerenotcommonlyeatenwhentheywereonlyavailableinthewild.

127. Cropscanbetradedonthefuturesmarketbeforetheyareharvested.Ifapoorcornharvestispredicted,pricesofcornfuturesrise;ifabountifulcornharvestispredicted,pricesofcornfuturesfall.Thismorningmeteorologistsarepredictingmuch-neededrainforthecorn-growingregionstartingtomorrow.Therefore,sinceadequatemoistureisessentialforthecurrentcrop’ssurvival,pricesofcornfutureswillfallsharplytoday.

Whichofthefollowing,iftrue,mostweakenstheargumentabove?

A. Cornthatdoesnotreceiveadequatemoistureduringitscriticalpollinationstagewillnotproduceabountifulharvest.

B. Futurespricesforcornhavebeenfluctuatingmoredramaticallythisseasonthanlastseason.

C. Therainthatmeteorologistspredictedfortomorrowisexpectedtoextendwellbeyondthecorn-growingregion.

D. Agricultureexpertsannouncedtodaythatadiseasethathasdevastatedsomeofthecorncropwillspreadwidelybeforetheendofthegrowingseason.

E. Mostpeoplewhotradeincornfuturesrarelytakephysicalpossessionofthecorntheytrade.

128. Largenationalbudgetdeficitsdonotcauselargetradedeficits.Iftheydid,countrieswiththelargestbudgetdeficitswouldalsohavethelargest

tradedeficits.Infact,whendeficitfiguresareadjustedsothatdifferentcountriesarereliablycomparabletoeachother,thereisnosuchcorrelation.

Ifthestatementsabovearealltrue,whichofthefollowingcanproperlybeinferredonthebasisofthem?

A. Countrieswithlargenationalbudgetdeficitstendtorestrictforeigntrade.

B. Reliablecomparisonsofthedeficitfiguresofonecountrywiththoseofanotherareimpossible.

C. Reducingacountry’snationalbudgetdeficitwillnotnecessarilyresultinaloweringofanytradedeficitthatcountrymayhave.

D. Whencountriesareorderedfromlargesttosmallestintermsofpopulation,thesmallestcountriesgenerallyhavethesmallestbudgetandtradedeficits.

E. Countrieswiththelargesttradedeficitsneverhavesimilarlylargenationalbudgetdeficits.

129. Whichofthefollowingbestcompletesthepassagebelow?

Themoreworriedinvestorsareaboutlosingtheirmoney,themoretheywilldemandahighpotentialreturnontheirinvestment;greatrisksmustbeoffsetbythechanceofgreatrewards.Thisprincipleisthefundamentaloneindetermininginterestrates,anditisillustratedbythefactthat

A. successfulinvestorsaredistinguishedbyanabilitytomakeveryriskyinvestmentswithoutworryingabouttheirmoney

B. lendersreceivehigherinterestratesonunsecuredloansthanonloansbackedbycollateral

C. intimesofhighinflation,theinterestpaidtodepositorsbybankscanactuallybebelowtherateofinflation

D. atanyonetime,acommercialbankwillhaveasinglerateofinterestthatitwillexpectallofitsindividualborrowerstopay

E. thepotentialreturnoninvestmentinanewcompanyistypicallylowerthanthepotentialreturnoninvestmentinawell-establishedcompany

130. Itisoftensaidthathighratesofinflationtendtodiminishpeople’s

incentivetosaveandinvest.Thisviewmustbeincorrect,however,becausepeoplegenerallysavedandinvestedmoreoftheirincomeinthe1970’swheninflationrateswerehighthantheydidinthe1980’swheninflationrateswerelow.

Ofthefollowing,thebestcriticismoftheargumentaboveisthatitoverlooksthepossibilitythat

A. allpeopledonotrespondinthesamewaytoagiveneconomicstimulus

B. certainfactorsoperatinginthe1980’sbutnotinthe1970’sdiminishedpeople’sincentivetosaveandinvest

C. thepopulationwaslargerinthe1980’sthanitwasinthe1970’s

D. theproponentsoftheviewcitedwouldstandtogainifinflationratesbecomelower

E. afactorthataffectspeople’ssavingsbehaviorinacertainwaycouldaffectpeople’sinvestmentbehaviorquitedifferently

131. Aproposedordinancerequirestheinstallationinnewhomesofsprinklersautomaticallytriggeredbythepresenceofafire.However,ahomebuilderarguedthatbecausemorethan90percentofresidentialfiresareextinguishedbyahouseholdmember,residentialsprinklerswouldonlymarginallydecreasepropertydamagecausedbyresidentialfires.

Whichofthefollowing,iftrue,wouldmostseriouslyweakenthehomebuilder’sargument?

A. Mostindividualshavenoformaltraininginhowtoextinguishfires.

B. Sincenewhomesareonlyatinypercentageofavailablehousinginthecity,thenewordinancewouldbeextremelynarrowinscope.

C. Theinstallationofsmokedetectorsinnewresidencescostssignificantlylessthantheinstallationofsprinklers.

D. Inthecitywheretheordinancewasproposed,theaveragetimerequiredbythefiredepartmenttorespondtoafirewaslessthanthenationalaverage.

E. Thelargestproportionofpropertydamagethatresultsfromresidentialfiresiscausedbyfiresthatstartwhennohouseholdmemberispresent.

132. Whichofthefollowingmostlogicallycompletestheargumentbelow?

Withintheearth’score,whichisiron,pressureincreaseswithdepth.Becausethetemperatureatwhichironmeltsincreaseswithpressure,theinnercoreissolidandtheoutercoreismolten.Physicistscandeterminethemeltingtemperatureofironatanygivenpressureandthepressureforanygivendepthintheearth.Therefore,theactualtemperatureattheboundaryoftheearth’souterandinnercores—themeltingtemperatureofironthere—canbedetermined,since__________.

A. thedepthbeneaththeearth’ssurfaceoftheboundarybetweentheouterandinnercoresisknown

B. someoftheheatfromtheearth’scoreflowstothesurfaceoftheearth

C. pressureswithintheearth’soutercorearemuchgreaterthanpressuresabovetheoutercore

D. nowhereintheearth’scorecanthetemperaturebemeasureddirectly

E. thetemperatureswithintheearth’sinnercorearehigherthanintheoutercore


WhenofficialsinTannersburgreleasedtheirplantowidenthecity’smainroads,environmentalistsprotestedthatwidenedroadswouldattractmoretrafficandleadtoincreasedairpollution.Inresponse,cityofficialspointedoutthattoday’spollution-controldevicesareattheirmosteffectiveinvehiclestravelingathigherspeedsandthatwideningroadswouldincreasetheaveragespeedoftraffic.However,thiseffectcanhardlybeexpectedtooffsettheeffectpointedoutbyenvironmentalists,since__________.

A. increasesintrafficvolumegenerallyproducedecreasesintheaveragespeedoftrafficunlessroadsarewidened

B. severaloftheroadsthatareslatedforwideningwillhavetobeclosedtemporarilywhileconstructionisunderway

C. mostoftheairpollutiongeneratedbyurbantrafficcomesfromvehiclesthatdonothavefunctioningpollution-controldevices

D. thenewlywidenedroadswillnothaveincreasedtrafficvolumeif

theroadsthatmustbeusedtoreachthemareinadequate

E. avehicletravelingonaroutethatgoesthroughTannersburgwillspendlesstimeonTannersburg’sroadsoncetheroadsarewidened

134. Whichofthefollowingmostlogicallycompletesthereasoning?

Eitherfoodscarcityorexcessivehuntingcanthreatenapopulationofanimals.Ifthegroupfacesfoodscarcity,individualsinthegroupwillreachreproductivematuritylaterthanotherwise.Ifthegroupfacesexcessivehunting,individualsthatreachreproductivematurityearlierwillcometopredominate.Therefore,itshouldbepossibletodeterminewhetherprehistoricmastodonsbecameextinctbecauseoffoodscarcityorhumanhunting,sincetherearefossilizedmastodonremainsfrombothbeforeandaftermastodonpopulationsdeclined,and__________.

A. therearemorefossilizedmastodonremainsfromtheperiodbeforemastodonpopulationsbegantodeclinethanfromafterthatperiod

B. theaverageageatwhichmastodonsfromagivenperiodreachedreproductivematuritycanbeestablishedfromtheirfossilizedremains

C. itcanbeaccuratelyestimatedfromfossilizedremainswhenmastodonsbecameextinct

D. itisnotknownwhenhumansfirstbeganhuntingmastodons

E. climatechangesmayhavegraduallyreducedthefoodavailabletomastodons

135. Unlikethewholesalepriceofrawwool,thewholesalepriceofrawcottonhasfallenconsiderablyinthelastyear.Thus,althoughtheretailpriceofcottonclothingatretailclothingstoreshasnotyetfallen,itwillinevitablyfall.

Whichofthefollowing,iftrue,mostseriouslyweakenstheargumentabove?

A. Thecostofprocessingrawcottonforclothhasincreasedduringthelastyear.

B. Thewholesalepriceofrawwoolistypicallyhigherthanthatofthesamevolumeofrawcotton.

C. Theoperatingcostsoftheaverageretailclothingstorehaveremainedconstantduringthelastyear.

D. Changesinretailpricesalwayslagbehindchangesinwholesaleprices.

E. Thecostofharvestingrawcottonhasincreasedinthelastyear.

136. Manyofficebuildingsdesignedtopreventoutsideairfromenteringhavebeenshowntohaveelevatedlevelsofvarioustoxicsubstancescirculatingthroughtheairinside,aphenomenonknownassickbuildingsyndrome.Yettheairinotherofficebuildingsdoesnothaveelevatedlevelsofthesesubstances,eventhoughthosebuildingsarethesameageasthe“sick”buildingsandhavesimilardesignsandventilationsystems.

Whichofthefollowing,iftrue,mosthelpstoexplainwhynotallofficebuildingsdesignedtopreventoutsideairfromenteringhaveairthatcontainselevatedlevelsoftoxicsubstances?

A. Certainadhesivesanddryingagentsusedinparticulartypesoffurniture,carpets,andpaintcontributethebulkofthetoxicsubstancesthatcirculateintheairofofficebuildings.

B. Mostofficebuildingswithsickbuildingsyndromewerebuiltbetween1950and1990.

C. Amongbuildingsdesignedtopreventoutsideairfromentering,housesarenolesslikelythanofficebuildingstohaveairthatcontainselevatedlevelsoftoxicsubstances.

D. Thetoxicsubstancesthatarefoundintheairof“sick”officebuildingsaresubstancesthatarefoundinatleastsmallquantitiesinnearlyeverybuilding.

E. Officebuildingswithwindowsthatcanreadilybeopenedareunlikelytosufferfromsickbuildingsyndrome.

137. Adiscountretailerofbasichouseholdnecessitiesemploysthousandsofpeopleandpaysmostofthemattheminimumwagerate.Yetfollowingafederallymandatedincreaseoftheminimumwageratethatincreasedtheretailer’soperatingcostsconsiderably,theretailer’sprofitsincreasedmarkedly.

Whichofthefollowing,iftrue,mosthelpstoresolvetheapparentparadox?

A. Overhalfoftheretailer’soperatingcostsconsistofpayrollexpenditures;yetonlyasmallpercentageofthoseexpendituresgotopaymanagementsalaries.

B. Theretailer’scustomerbaseismadeupprimarilyofpeoplewhoearn,orwhodependontheearningsofotherswhoearn,theminimumwage.

C. Theretailer’soperatingcosts,otherthanwages,increasedsubstantiallyaftertheincreaseintheminimumwageratewentintoeffect.

D. Whentheincreaseintheminimumwageratewentintoeffect,theretaileralsoraisedthewagerateforemployeeswhohadbeenearningjustaboveminimumwage.

E. Themajorityoftheretailer’semployeesworkascashiers,andmostcashiersarepaidtheminimumwage.

138. Prematurebabieswhoreceiveregularmassagesaremoreactivethanprematurebabieswhodonot.Evenwhenallthebabiesdrinkthesameamountofmilk,themassagedbabiesgainmoreweightthandotheunmassagedbabies.Thisispuzzlingbecauseamoreactivepersongenerallyrequiresagreaterfoodintaketomaintainorgainweight.

Whichofthefollowing,iftrue,bestreconcilestheapparentdiscrepancydescribedabove?

A. Increasedactivityleadstoincreasedlevelsofhunger,especiallywhenfoodintakeisnotalsoincreased.

B. Massageincreasesprematurebabies’curiosityabouttheirenvironment,andcuriosityleadstoincreasedactivity.

C. Increasedactivitycausestheintestinesofprematurebabiestomaturemorequickly,enablingthebabiestodigestandabsorbmoreofthenutrientsinthemilktheydrink.

D. Massagedoesnotincreasethegrowthrateofbabiesoveroneyearold,ifthebabieshadnotbeenpreviouslymassaged.

E. Prematurebabiesrequireadailyintakeofnutrientsthatissignificantlyhigherthanthatrequiredbybabieswhowerenotbornprematurely.

139. Conventionalwisdomsuggestsvaccinatingelderlypeoplefirstinfluseason,becausetheyareatgreatestriskofdyingiftheycontractthevirus.Thisyear’sfluvirusposesparticularrisktoelderlypeopleandalmostnoneatalltoyoungerpeople,particularlychildren.Nevertheless,healthprofessionalsarerecommendingvaccinatingchildrenfirstagainstthevirusratherthanelderlypeople.

Whichofthefollowing,iftrue,providesthestrongestreasonforthehealthprofessionals’recommendation?

A. Childrenarevulnerabletodangerousinfectionswhentheirimmunesystemsareseverelyweakenedbyotherdiseases.

B. Childrenareparticularlyunconcernedwithhygieneandthereforearethegroupmostresponsibleforspreadingthefluvirustoothers.

C. Thevaccinationsreceivedlastyearwillconfernoimmunitytothisyear’sfluvirus.

D. Childrenwhocatchonestrainofthefluvirusandthenrecoverarelikelytodevelopimmunitytoatleastsomestrainswithwhichtheyhavenotyetcomeincontact.

E. Childrenarenomorelikelythanadultstohaveimmunitytoaparticularfluvirusiftheyhaveneverlivedthroughapreviousepidemicofthesamevirus.

140. Aneyeglassmanufacturertriedtoboostsalesforthesummerquarterbyofferingitsdistributorsaspecialdiscountiftheirordersforthatquarterexceededthoseforlastyear’ssummerquarterbyatleast20percent.Manydistributorsqualifiedforthisdiscount.Evenwithmuchmerchandisediscounted,salesincreasedenoughtoproduceahealthygaininnetprofits.Themanufacturerplanstorepeatthissuccessbyofferingthesamesortofdiscountforthefallquarter.

Whichofthefollowing,iftrue,mostclearlypointstoaflawinthemanufacturer’splantorepeatthesuccessfulperformanceofthesummerquarter?

A. Ingeneral,adistributor’sordersforthesummerquarterarenohigherthanthoseforthespringquarter.

B. Alongwithofferingspecialdiscountstoqualifyingdistributors,themanufacturerincreasednewspaperandradioadvertisinginthosedistributors’salesareas.

C. Thedistributorsmostlikelytoqualifyforthemanufacturer’sspecialdiscountarethosewhoseorderswereunusuallylowayearearlier.

D. Thedistributorswhoqualifiedforthemanufacturer’sspecialdiscountwerefreetodecidehowmuchofthatdiscounttopassontotheirowncustomers.

E. Thedistributors’orderingmoregoodsinthesummerquarterleft

themoverstockedforthefallquarter.

141. Vitacorp,amanufacturer,wishestomakeitsinformationboothatanindustryconventionmoreproductiveintermsofboostingsales.Theboothoffersinformationintroducingthecompany’snewproductsandservices.Toachievethedesiredresult,Vitacorp’smarketingdepartmentwillattempttoattractmorepeopletothebooth.Themarketingdirector’sfirstmeasurewastoinstructeachsalespersontocallhisorherfivebestcustomersandpersonallyinvitethemtovisitthebooth.

Whichofthefollowing,iftrue,moststronglysupportsthepredictionthatthemarketingdirector’sfirstmeasurewillcontributetomeetingthegoalofboostingsales?

A. Vitacorp’ssalespeopleroutinelyinformeachimportantcustomeraboutnewproductsandservicesassoonasthedecisiontolaunchthemhasbeenmade.

B. ManyofVitacorp’scompetitorshavemadeplansformakingtheirowninformationboothsmoreproductiveinincreasingsales.

C. Aninformationbooththatiswellattendedtendstoattractvisitorswhowouldnototherwisehaveattendedthebooth.

D. MostofVitacorp’sbestcustomersalsohavebusinessdealingswithVitacorp’scompetitors.

E. Vitacorphasfewernewproductsandservicesavailablethisyearthanithadinpreviousyears.

142. Budgetconstraintshavemadepoliceofficialsconsiderreassigningaconsiderablenumberofofficersfromtrafficenforcementtoworkonhigher-priority,seriouscrimes.Reducingtrafficenforcementforthisreasonwouldbecounterproductive,however,inlightofthetendencyofcriminalstousecarswhenengagedinthecommissionofseriouscrimes.Anofficerstoppingacarforatrafficviolationcanmakeasearchthatturnsupevidenceofseriouscrime.

Whichofthefollowing,iftrue,moststrengthenstheargumentgiven?

A. Anofficerwhostopsacarcontainingevidenceofthecommissionofaseriouscrimerisksaviolentconfrontation,evenifthevehiclewasstoppedonlyforatrafficviolation.

B. Whenthepublicbecomesawarethattrafficenforcementhaslessened,ittypicallybecomeslaxinobeyingtrafficrules.

C. Thosewillingtobreakthelawtocommitseriouscrimesareoftenincommittingsuchcrimesunwillingtoobservewhattheyregardasthelesserconstraintsoftrafficlaw.

D. Theoffenderscommittingseriouscrimeswhowouldbecaughtbecauseoftrafficviolationsarenotthesamegroupofindividualsasthosewhowouldbecaughtifthearrestingofficerswerereassignedfromtrafficenforcement.

E. Thegreatmajorityofpersonswhoarestoppedbyofficersfortrafficviolationsarenotguiltyofanyseriouscrimes.

143. Pro-TectInsuranceCompanyhasrecentlybeenpayingoutmoreoncar-theftclaimsthanitexpected.Carswithspecialantitheftdevicesoralarmsystemsaremuchlesslikelytobestolenthanareothercars.ConsequentlyPro-Tect,aspartofanefforttoreduceitsannualpayouts,willofferadiscounttoholdersofcar-theftpoliciesiftheircarshaveantitheftdevicesoralarmsystems.

Whichofthefollowing,iftrue,providesthestrongestindicationthattheplanislikelytoachieveitsgoal?

A. Thedecreaseintheriskofcartheftconferredbyhavingacaralarmisgreatestwhenonlyafewcarshavesuchalarms.

B. ThenumberofpolicyholderswhohavefiledaclaiminthepastyearishigherforPro-Tectthanforotherinsurancecompanies.

C. Inoneortwoyears,thediscountthatPro-Tectisofferingwillamounttomorethanthecostofbuyingcertainhighlyeffectiveantitheftdevices.

D. Currently,Pro-Tectcannotlegallyraisethepremiumsitchargesforagivenamountofinsuranceagainstcartheft.

E. TheamountPro-Tecthasbeenpayingoutoncar-theftclaimshasbeengreaterforsomemodelsofcarthanforothers.

144. Start-upcompaniesfinancedbyventurecapitalistshaveamuchlowerfailureratethancompaniesfinancedbyothermeans.Sourceoffinancing,therefore,mustbeamoreimportantcausativefactorinthesuccessofastart-upcompanythanaresuchfactorsasthepersonalcharacteristicsoftheentrepreneur,thequalityofstrategicplanning,orthemanagementstructureofthecompany.


A. Venturecapitaliststendtobemoreresponsivethanothersourcesoffinancingtochangesinastart-upcompany’sfinancialneeds.

B. Thestrategicplanningofastart-upcompanyisalessimportantfactorinthelong-termsuccessofthecompanythanarethepersonalcharacteristicsoftheentrepreneur.

C. Morethanhalfofallnewcompaniesfailwithinfiveyears.

D. Themanagementstructuresofstart-upcompaniesaregenerallylessformalthanthemanagementstructuresofongoingbusinesses.

E. Venturecapitalistsbasetheirdecisionstofundstart-upcompaniesonsuchfactorsasthecharacteristicsoftheentrepreneurandqualityofstrategicplanningofthecompany.

145. ArtrestorerswhohavebeenstudyingthefactorsthatcauseRenaissanceoilpaintingstodeterioratephysicallywhensubjecttoclimaticchangeshavefoundthattheoilpaintusedinthesepaintingsactuallyadjuststothesechangeswell.Therestorersthereforehypothesizethatitisalayerofmaterialcalledgesso,whichisunderthepaint,thatcausesthedeterioration.

Whichofthefollowing,iftrue,moststronglysupportstherestorers’hypothesis?

A. Renaissanceoilpaintingswithathinlayerofgessoarelesslikelytoshowdeteriorationinresponsetoclimaticchangesthanthosewithathickerlayer.

B. Renaissanceoilpaintingsareoftenpaintedonwoodenpanels,whichswellwhenhumidityincreasesandcontractwhenitdeclines.

C. Oilpaintexpandsandcontractsreadilyinresponsetochangesintemperature,butitabsorbslittlewaterandsoislittleaffectedbychangesinhumidity.

D. AnespeciallyhardandnonabsorbenttypeofgessowastherawmaterialformoldingsontheframesofRenaissanceoilpaintings.

E. GessolayersappliedbyRenaissancepainterstypicallyconsistedofacoarsebaselayerontowhichseveralincreasinglyfine-grainedlayerswereapplied.


Leafbeetlesdamagewillowtreesbystrippingawaytheirleaves,butacombinationofparasitesandpredatorsgenerallykeepspopulationsof

thesebeetlesincheck.Researchershavefoundthatsevereairpollutionresultsinreducedpredatorpopulations.Theparasites,bycontrast,arenotadverselyaffectedbypollution;nevertheless,theresearchers’discoveryprobablydoesexplainwhyleafbeetlescauseparticularlyseveredamagetowillowsinareaswithsevereairpollution,since__________.

A. neitherthepredatorsnortheparasitesofleafbeetlesthemselvesattackwillowtrees

B. theparasitesthatattackleafbeetlesactuallytendtobemoreprevalentinareaswithsevereairpollutionthantheyareelsewhere

C. thedamagecausedbyleafbeetlesisusuallynotenoughtokillawillowtreeoutright

D. whereairpollutionisnotespeciallysevere,predatorshavemuchmoreimpactonleaf-beetlepopulationsthanparasitesdo

E. willowsoftengrowinareaswhereairpollutionisespeciallysevere

147. AutomobileDealer’sAdvertisement:TheHighwayTrafficSafetyInstitutereportsthatthePZ1000hasthefewestinjuriesperaccidentofanycarinitsclass.ThisshowsthatthePZ1000isoneofthesafestcarsavailabletoday.

Whichofthefollowing,iftrue,mostseriouslyweakenstheargumentintheadvertisement?

A. TheHighwayTrafficSafetyInstitutereportlistedmanycarsinotherclassesthathadmoreinjuriesperaccidentthandidthePZ1000.

B. InrecentyearsmanymorePZ1000shavebeensoldthanhaveanyotherkindofcarinitsclass.

C. CarsintheclasstowhichthePZ1000belongsaremorelikelytobeinvolvedinaccidentsthanareothertypesofcars.

D. ThedifferencebetweenthenumberofinjuriesperaccidentforthePZ1000andthatforothercarsinitsclassisquitepronounced.

E. TheHighwayTrafficSafetyInstituteissuesreportsonlyonceayear.


Itisgenerallybelievedthatpeoplereceivingfrequentmedicalcheckupsarelikelytoneedhospitalizationlessfrequentlythantheywouldotherwise;afterall,manythingscanbedonefollowingacheckupto

preventproblemsthat,ifignored,mightbecomeacuteandthenrequirehospitalization.Butforpeoplewithchronicillnesses,frequentmedicalcheckupsarelikelytoleadtomorefrequenthospitalizationsince__________.

A. therecommendedtreatmentsforcomplicationsofmanychronicillnessesinvolvehospitalizationevenifthosecomplicationsaredetectedwhilebarelynoticeable

B. medicalcheckupssometimesdonotrevealearlysymptomsofthosechronicillnessesthatarebesttreatedinahospital

C. theaveragelengthofahospitalstayisthesameforthosewhoreceivefrequentcheckupsasforthosewhodonot

D. peoplewithchronicillnessesgenerallyreceivemedicalcheckupsmorefrequentlythanpeoplewhoarenotchronicallyill

E. theaveragelengthofahospitalstayforpeoplewithachronicillnesstendstoincreaseastheillnessprogresses

149. TwodecadesaftertheEmeraldRiverDamwasbuilt,noneoftheeightfishspeciesnativetotheEmeraldRiverwasstillreproducingadequatelyintheriverbelowthedam.Sincethedamreducedtheannualrangeofwatertemperatureintheriverbelowthedamfrom50degreesto6degrees,scientistshavehypothesizedthatsharplyrisingwatertemperaturesmustbeinvolvedinsignalingthenativespeciestobeginthereproductivecycle.

Whichofthefollowingstatements,iftrue,wouldmoststrengthenthescientists’hypothesis?

A. Thenativefishspecieswerestillabletoreproduceonlyinsidestreamsoftheriverbelowthedamwheretheannualtemperaturerangeremainsapproximately50degrees.

B. Beforethedamwasbuilt,theEmeraldRiverannuallyoverfloweditsbanks,creatingbackwatersthatwerecriticalbreedingareasforthenativespeciesoffish.

C. ThelowestrecordedtemperatureoftheEmeraldRiverbeforethedamwasbuiltwas34degrees,whereasthelowestrecordedtemperatureoftheriverafterthedamwasbuilthasbeen43degrees.

D. Nonnativespeciesoffish,introducedintotheEmeraldRiverafterthedamwasbuilt,havebeguncompetingwiththedecliningnative

fishspeciesforfoodandspace.

E. FiveofthefishspeciesnativetotheEmeraldRiverarenotnativetoanyotherriverinNorthAmerica.

150. Meatfromchickenscontaminatedwithsalmonellabacteriacancauseseriousfoodpoisoning.Capsaicin,thechemicalthatgiveschilipepperstheirhotflavor,hasantibacterialproperties.Chickensdonothavetastereceptorsforcapsaicinandwillreadilyeatfeedlacedwithcapsaicin.Whenchickenswerefedsuchfeedandthenexposedtosalmonellabacteria,relativelyfewofthembecamecontaminatedwithsalmonella.

Indecidingwhetherthefeedwouldbeusefulinraisingsalmonella-freechickenforretailsale,itwouldbemosthelpfultodeterminewhichofthefollowing?

A. Whetherfeedingcapsaicintochickensaffectsthetasteoftheirmeat

B. Whethereatingcapsaicinreducestheriskofsalmonellapoisoningforhumans

C. Whetherchickenismorepronetosalmonellacontaminationthanotherkindsofmeat

D. Whetherappropriatecookingofchickencontaminatedwithsalmonellacanalwayspreventfoodpoisoning

E. Whethercapsaicincanbeobtainedonlyfromchilipeppers

151. Lawsrequiringtheuseofheadlightsduringdaylighthourscanpreventautomobilecollisions.However,sincedaylightvisibilityisworseincountriesfartherfromtheequator,anysuchlawswouldobviouslybemoreeffectiveinpreventingcollisionsinthosecountries.Infact,theonlycountriesthatactuallyhavesuchlawsarefartherfromtheequatorthanisthecontinentalUnitedStates.

Whichofthefollowingconclusionscouldbemostproperlydrawnfromtheinformationgivenabove?

A. DriversinthecontinentalUnitedStateswhousedtheirheadlightsduringthedaywouldbejustaslikelytobecomeinvolvedinacollisionaswoulddriverswhodidnotusetheirheadlights.

B. InmanycountriesthatarefartherfromtheequatorthanisthecontinentalUnitedStates,poordaylightvisibilityisthesinglemostimportantfactorinautomobilecollisions.

C. Theproportionofautomobilecollisionsthatoccurinthedaytimeis

greaterinthecontinentalUnitedStatesthaninthecountriesthathavedaytimeheadlightlaws.

D. FewerautomobilecollisionsprobablyoccureachyearincountriesthathavedaytimeheadlightlawsthanoccurwithinthecontinentalUnitedStates.

E. DaytimeheadlightlawswouldprobablydolesstopreventautomobilecollisionsinthecontinentalUnitedStatesthantheydointhecountriesthathavethelaws.

152. Inthepastmostairlinecompaniesminimizedaircraftweighttominimizefuelcosts.Thesafestairlineseatswereheavy,andairlinesequippedtheirplaneswithfewoftheseseats.Thisyeartheseatthathassoldbesttoairlineshasbeenthesafestone—aclearindicationthatairlinesareassigningahigherprioritytosafeseatingthantominimizingfuelcosts.


A. Lastyear’sbest-sellingairlineseatwasnotthesafestairlineseatonthemarket.

B. Noairlinecompanyhasannouncedthatitwouldbemakingsafeseatingahigherprioritythisyear.

C. Thepriceoffuelwashigherthisyearthanithadbeeninmostoftheyearswhenthesafestairlineseatssoldpoorly.

D. Becauseofincreasesinthecostofmaterials,allairlineseatsweremoreexpensivetomanufacturethisyearthaninanypreviousyear.

E. Becauseoftechnologicalinnovations,thesafestairlineseatonthemarketthisyearweighedlessthanmostotherairlineseatsonthemarket.

153. Insettingenvironmentalstandardsforindustryandotherstomeet,itisinadvisabletorequirethebestresultsthatstate-of-the-arttechnologycanachieve.Currenttechnologyisabletodetectandeliminateevenextremelyminuteamountsofcontaminants,butatacostthatisexorbitantrelativetotheimprovementachieved.Soitwouldbereasonableinsteadtosetstandardsbytakingintoaccountallofthecurrentandfuturerisksinvolved.

Theargumentgivenconcerningthereasonablewaytosetstandardspresupposesthat

A. industrycurrentlymeetsthestandardsthathavebeensetbyenvironmentalauthorities

B. thereareeffectivewaystotakeintoaccountalloftherelevantrisksposedbyallowingdifferentlevelsofcontaminants

C. theonlycontaminantsworthmeasuringaregeneratedbyindustry

D. itisnotcostlytopreventlargeamountsofcontaminantsfromenteringtheenvironment

E. minuteamountsofsomecontaminantscanbepoisonous


Whenmercury-vaporstreetlightsareusedinareasinhabitedbyinsect-eatingbats,thebatsfeedalmostexclusivelyaroundthelights,becausethelightsattractflyinginsects.InGreenville,themercury-vaporstreetlightsareabouttobereplacedwithenergy-savingsodiumstreetlights,whichdonotattractinsects.Thischangeislikelytoresultinadropinthepopulationofinsect-eatingbatsinGreenville,since__________.

A. thebatsdonotbegintohuntuntilaftersundown

B. thebatsareunlikelytofeedoninsectsthatdonotfly

C. thehighwaydepartmentwillbeabletoreplacemercury-vaporstreetlightswithsodiumstreetlightswithinarelativelyshorttimeandwithoutdisruptingthecontinuityoflightingatthelocationsofthestreetlights

D. intheabsenceoflocalconcentrationsoftheflyinginsectsonwhichbatsfeed,thebatsexpendmuchmoreenergyonhuntingforfood,requiringmuchlargerquantitiesofinsectstosustaineachbat

E. batsuseecholocationtocatchinsectsandthereforegainnoadvantagefromthefactthatinsectsflyinginthevicinityofstreetlightsarevisibleatnight

155. Ratsinjectedwithmorphineexhibitdecreasedactivityoftheimmunesystem,thebodilysystemthatfightsoffinfections.Thesesameratsexhibitedheightenedbloodlevelsofcorticosteroids,chemicalssecretedbytheadrenalglands.Sincecorticosteroidscaninterferewithimmune-systemactivity,scientistshypothesizedthatthewaymorphinereducesimmuneresponsesinratsisbystimulatingtheadrenalglandstosecreteadditionalcorticosteroidsintothebloodstream.

Whichofthefollowingexperimentswouldyieldthemostusefulresultsforevaluatingthescientists’hypothesis?

A. Injectingmorphineintoratsthatalreadyhaveheightenedbloodlevelsofcorticosteroidsandthenobservingtheirnewbloodlevelsofcorticosteroids

B. Testingthelevelofimmune-systemactivityofrats,removingtheiradrenalglands,andthentestingtherats’immune-systemactivitylevelsagain

C. Injectingratswithcorticosteroidsandthenobservinghowmanyoftheratscontractedinfections

D. Removingtheadrenalglandsofrats,injectingtheratswithmorphine,andthentestingtheleveloftherats’immune-systemresponses

E. Injectingratswithadrugthatstimulatesimmune-systemactivityandthenobservingthelevelofcorticosteroidsintheirbloodstreams

156. Curator:IfourmuseumlendsVenustotheHartInstitutefortheirshowthisspring,theywilllendustheirRembrandtetchingsforourprintexhibitionnextfall.Havingthoseetchingswillincreaseattendancetotheexhibitionandhenceincreaserevenuefromourgeneraladmissionfee.

MuseumAdministrator:ButVenusisourbiggestattraction.MoreovertheHart’sshowwillrunfortwiceaslongasourexhibition.Soonbalancethenumberofpatronsmaydecrease.

Thepointoftheadministrator’sresponsetothecuratoristoquestion

A. whethergettingtheRembrandtetchingsfromtheHartInstituteislikelytoincreaseattendanceattheprintexhibition

B. whethertheHartInstitute’sRembrandtetchingswillbeappreciatedbythosepatronsofthecurator’smuseumforwhomthemuseum’sbiggestattractionisVenus

C. whetherthenumberofpatronsattractedbytheHartInstitute’sRembrandtetchingswillbelargerthanthenumberofpatronswhodonotcomeinthespringbecauseVenusisonloan

D. whether,ifVenusislent,themuseum’srevenuefromgeneraladmissionfeesduringtheprintexhibitionwillexceeditsrevenuefromgeneraladmissionfeesduringtheHartInstitute’sexhibition

E. whethertheHartInstituteorthecurator’smuseumwillhavethegreaterfinancialgainfromtheproposedexchangeofartworks


AtarecentconferenceonenvironmentalthreatstotheNorthSea,mostparticipatingcountriesfavoreduniformcontrolsonthequalityofeffluents,whetherornotspecificenvironmentaldamagecouldbeattributedtoaparticularsourceofeffluent.Whatmust,ofcourse,beshown,inordertoavoidexcessivelyrestrictivecontrols,isthat__________.

A. anyuniformcontrolsthatareadoptedarelikelytobeimplementedwithoutdelay

B. anysubstancetobemadesubjecttocontrolscanactuallycauseenvironmentaldamage

C. thecountriesfavoringuniformcontrolsarethosegeneratingthelargestquantitiesofeffluents

D. allofanygivenpollutantthatistobecontrolledactuallyreachestheNorthSeaatpresent

E. environmentaldamagealreadyinflictedontheNorthSeaisreversible

158. MostscholarsagreethatKingAlfred(A.D.849–899)personallytranslatedanumberofLatintextsintoOldEnglish.OnehistoriancontendsthatAlfredalsopersonallypennedhisownlawcode,arguingthatthenumerousdifferencesbetweenthelanguageofthelawcodeandAlfred’stranslationsofLatintextsareoutweighedbytheevenmorenumeroussimilarities.Linguisticsimilarities,however,arewhatoneexpectsintextsfromthesamelanguage,thesametime,andthesameregion.ApartfromAlfred’ssurvivingtranslationsandlawcode,thereareonlytwootherextantworksfromthesamedialectandmilieu,soitisriskytoassumeherethatlinguisticsimilaritiespointtocommonauthorship.

Thepassageaboveproceedsby

A. providingexamplesthatunderscoreanotherargument’sconclusion

B. questioningtheplausibilityofanassumptiononwhichanotherargumentdepends

C. showingthataprincipleifgenerallyappliedwouldhaveanomalous

consequences

D. showingthatthepremisesofanotherargumentaremutuallyinconsistent

E. usingargumentbyanalogytoundermineaprincipleimplicitinanotherargument

159. OnMayfirst,inordertoreducethenumberofoverduebooks,achildren’slibraryinstitutedapolicyofforgivingfinesandgivingbookmarkstochildrenreturningalloftheiroverduebooks.OnJulyfirstthereweretwiceasmanyoverduebooksastherehadbeenonMayfirst,althougharecordnumberofbookshadbeenreturnedduringtheinterim.

Whichofthefollowing,iftrue,mosthelpstoexplaintheapparentinconsistencyintheresultsofthelibrary’spolicy?

A. Thelibrariansdidnotkeepaccuraterecordsofhowmanychildrentookadvantageofthegraceperiod,andsomeofthechildrenreturningoverduebooksdidnotreturnalloftheiroverduebooks.

B. Althoughthegraceperiodenticedsomechildrentoreturnalloftheiroverduebooks,itdidnotconvinceallofthechildrenwithoverduebookstoreturnalloftheirbooks.

C. Thebookmarksbecamepopularamongthechildren,soinordertocollectthebookmarks,manychildrenborrowedmanymorebooksthantheyusuallydidandkeptthempasttheirduedate.

D. Thechildrenwereallowedtoborrowamaximumoffivebooksforatwo-weekperiod,andhenceeachchildcouldkeepamaximumoffifteenbooksbeyondtheirduedatewithinatwo-monthperiod.

E. Althoughthelibraryforgaveoverduefinesduringthegraceperiod,theamountpreviouslychargedthechildrenwasminimal;hence,theforgivenessofthefinesdidnotprovideenoughincentiveforthemtoreturntheiroverduebooks.

160. Oftenpatientswithanklefracturesthatarestable,andthusdonotrequiresurgery,aregivenfollow-upx-raysbecausetheirorthopedistsareconcernedaboutpossiblyhavingmisjudgedthestabilityofthefracture.Whenanumberoffollow-upx-rayswerereviewed,however,allthefracturesthathadinitiallybeenjudgedstablewerefoundtohavehealedcorrectly.Therefore,itisawasteofmoneytoorderfollow-upx-raysofanklefracturesinitiallyjudgedstable.

Whichofthefollowing,iftrue,moststrengthenstheargument?

A. Doctorswhoaregeneralpractitionersratherthanorthopedistsarelesslikelythanorthopediststojudgethestabilityofananklefracturecorrectly.

B. Manyankleinjuriesforwhichaninitialx-rayisorderedarerevealedbythex-raynottoinvolveanyfractureoftheankle.

C. X-raysofpatientsofmanydifferentorthopedistsworkinginseveralhospitalswerereviewed.

D. Thehealingofanklefracturesthathavebeensurgicallyrepairedisalwayscheckedbymeansofafollow-upx-ray.

E. Orthopedistsroutinelyorderfollow-upx-raysforfracturesofbonesotherthananklebones.

161. Traditionally,decisionmakingbymanagersthatisreasonedstep-by-stephasbeenconsideredpreferabletointuitivedecisionmaking.However,arecentstudyfoundthattopmanagersusedintuitionsignificantlymorethandidmostmiddle-orlower-levelmanagers.Thisconfirmsthealternativeviewthatintuitionisactuallymoreeffectivethancareful,methodicalreasoning.

Theconclusionaboveisbasedonwhichofthefollowingassumptions?

A. Methodical,step-by-stepreasoningisinappropriateformakingmanyreal-lifemanagementdecisions.

B. Topmanagershavetheabilitytouseeitherintuitivereasoningormethodical,step-by-stepreasoninginmakingdecisions.

C. Thedecisionsmadebymiddle-andlower-levelmanagerscanbemadeaseasilybyusingmethodicalreasoningasbyusingintuitivereasoning.

D. Topmanagersuseintuitivereasoninginmakingthemajorityoftheirdecisions.

E. Topmanagersaremoreeffectiveatdecisionmakingthanmiddle-orlower-levelmanagers.

162. Acompanyplanstodevelopaprototypeweedingmachinethatusescuttingbladeswithopticalsensorsandmicroprocessorsthatdistinguishweedsfromcropplantsbydifferencesinshadeofcolor.Theinventorofthemachineclaimsthatitwillreducelaborcostsbyvirtuallyeliminatingtheneedformanualweeding.

Whichofthefollowingisaconsiderationinfavorofthecompany’simplementingitsplantodeveloptheprototype?

A. Thereisaconsiderabledegreeofvariationinshadeofcolorbetweenweedsofdifferentspecies.

B. Theshadeofcolorofsomeplantstendstochangeappreciablyoverthecourseoftheirgrowingseason.

C. Whencropsareweededmanually,overallsizeandleafshapearetakenintoaccountindistinguishingcropplantsfromweeds.

D. Selectionandgeneticmanipulationallowplantsofvirtuallyanyspeciestobeeconomicallybredtohaveadistinctiveshadeofcolorwithoutalteringtheirothercharacteristics.

E. Farmlaborerswhoareresponsibleforthemanualweedingofcropscarryoutotheragriculturaldutiesattimesinthegrowingseasonwhenextensiveweedingisnotnecessary.

163. Acertainmayorhasproposedafeeoffivedollarsperdayonprivatevehiclesenteringthecity,claimingthatthefeewillalleviatethecity’strafficcongestion.Themayorreasonsthat,sincethefeewillexceedthecostofround-tripbusfarefrommanynearbypoints,manypeoplewillswitchfromusingtheircarstousingthebus.

Whichofthefollowingstatements,iftrue,providesthebestevidencethatthemayor’sreasoningisflawed?

A. Projectedincreasesinthepriceofgasolinewillincreasethecostoftakingaprivatevehicleintothecity.

B. Thecostofparkingfeesalreadymakesitconsiderablymoreexpensiveformostpeopletotakeaprivatevehicleintothecitythantotakeabus.

C. Mostofthepeoplecurrentlyridingthebusdonotownprivatevehicles.

D. Manycommutersopposingthemayor’splanhaveindicatedthattheywouldratherenduretrafficcongestionthanpayafive-dollar-per-dayfee.

E. Duringtheaverageworkday,privatevehiclesownedandoperatedbypeoplelivingwithinthecityaccountfor20percentofthecity’strafficcongestion.

164. ArocaCitycurrentlyfundsitspublicschoolsthroughtaxesonproperty.

Inplaceofthissystem,thecityplanstointroduceasalestaxofthreepercentonallretailsalesinthecity.Criticsprotestthat3percentofcurrentretailsalesfallsshortoftheamountraisedforschoolsbypropertytaxes.Thecriticsarecorrectonthispoint.Nevertheless,implementingtheplanwillprobablynotreducethemoneygoingtoAroca’sschools.SeverallargeretailershaveselectedArocaCityasthesiteforhugenewstores,andthesearecertaintodrawlargenumbersofshoppersfromneighboringmunicipalities,wheresalesaretaxedatratesofsixpercentandmore.Inconsequence,retailsalesinArocaCityareboundtoincreasesubstantially.

Intheargumentgiven,thetwoportionsinboldfaceplaywhichofthefollowingroles?

A. Thefirstpresentsaplanthattheargumentconcludesisunlikelytoachieveitsgoal;thesecondexpressesthatconclusion.

B. Thefirstpresentsaplanthattheargumentconcludesisunlikelytoachieveitsgoal;thesecondpresentsevidenceinsupportofthatconclusion.

C. Thefirstpresentsaplanthattheargumentcontendsisthebestavailable;thesecondisaconclusiondrawnbytheargumenttojustifythatcontention.

D. Thefirstpresentsaplanoneofwhoseconsequencesisatissueintheargument;thesecondistheargument’sconclusionaboutthatconsequence.

E. Thefirstpresentsaplanthattheargumentseekstodefendagainstacertaincriticism;thesecondisthatcriticism.

165. Tanco,aleathermanufacturer,useslargequantitiesofcommonsalttopreserveanimalhides.Newenvironmentalregulationshavesignificantlyincreasedthecostofdisposingofsaltwaterthatresultsfromthisuse,and,inconsequence,Tancoisconsideringaplantousepotassiumchlorideinplaceofcommonsalt.ResearchhasshownthatTancocouldreprocesstheby-productofpotassiumchlorideusetoyieldacropfertilizer,leavingarelativelysmallvolumeofwastefordisposal.

Indeterminingtheimpactoncompanyprofitsofusingpotassiumchlorideinplaceofcommonsalt,itwouldbeimportantforTancotoresearchallofthefollowingEXCEPT:

A. Whatdifference,ifany,istherebetweenthecostofthecommonsaltneededtopreserveagivenquantityofanimalhidesandthecost

ofthepotassiumchlorideneededtopreservethesamequantityofhides?

B. Towhatextentistheequipmentinvolvedinpreservinganimalhidesusingcommonsaltsuitableforpreservinganimalhidesusingpotassiumchloride?

C. Whatenvironmentalregulations,ifany,constrainthedisposalofthewastegeneratedinreprocessingtheby-productofpotassiumchloride?

D. Howcloselydoesleatherthatresultswhencommonsaltisusedtopreservehidesresemblethatwhichresultswhenpotassiumchlorideisused?

E. Arethechemicalpropertiesthatmakepotassiumchlorideaneffectivemeansforpreservinganimalhidesthesameasthosethatmakecommonsaltaneffectivemeansfordoingso?

166. TheSumptontowncouncilrecentlyvotedtopayaprominentartisttocreateanabstractsculptureforthetownsquare.Criticsofthisdecisionprotestedthattownresidentstendtodislikemostabstractart,andanyartinthetownsquareshouldreflecttheirtastes.Butatowncouncilspokespersondismissedthiscriticism,pointingoutthatotherpublicabstractsculpturesthatthesamesculptorhasinstalledinothercitieshavebeenextremelypopularwiththosecities’localresidents.

Thestatementsabovemoststronglysuggestthatthemainpointofdisagreementbetweenthecriticsandthespokespersoniswhether

A. itwouldhavebeenreasonabletoconsulttownresidentsonthedecision

B. mostSumptonresidentswillfindthenewsculpturetotheirtaste

C. abstractsculpturesbythesamesculptorhavetrulybeenpopularinothercities

D. amoretraditionalsculptureinthetownsquarewouldbepopularamonglocalresidents

E. publicartthattheresidentsofSumptonwouldfinddesirablewouldprobablybefounddesirablebytheresidentsofothercities

167. Colorlessdiamondscancommandhighpricesasgemstones.Atypeoflessvaluablediamondscanbetreatedtoremoveallcolor.Onlysophisticatedtestscandistinguishsuchtreateddiamondsfromnaturally

colorlessones.However,only2percentofdiamondsminedareofthecoloredtypethatcanbesuccessfullytreated,andmanyofthoseareofinsufficientqualitytomakethetreatmentworthwhile.Surely,therefore,thevastmajorityofcolorlessdiamondssoldbyjewelersarenaturallycolorless.

Aseriousflawinthereasoningoftheargumentisthat

A. comparisonsbetweenthepricediamondscommandasgemstonesandtheirvalueforotherusesareomitted

B. informationabouttherarityoftreateddiamondsisnotcombinedwithinformationabouttherarityofnaturallycolorless,gemstonediamonds

C. thepossibilitythatcoloreddiamondsmightbeusedasgemstones,evenwithouthavingbeentreated,isignored

D. thecurrentlyavailablemethodformakingcolorlessdiamondsfromcoloredonesistreatedasthoughitweretheonlypossiblemethodfordoingso

E. thedifficultythatacustomerofajewelerwouldhaveindistinguishinganaturallycolorlessdiamondfromatreatedoneisnottakenintoaccount

168. Borealowlsrangeoveramuchlargerareathandootherowlsofsimilarsize.Thereasonforthisbehaviorisprobablythatthesmallmammalsonwhichowlsfeedareespeciallyscarceintheforestswhereborealowlslive,andtherelativescarcityofpreyrequirestheowlstorangemoreextensivelytofindsufficientfood.

Whichofthefollowing,iftrue,mosthelpstoconfirmtheexplanationabove?

A. Someborealowlsrangeoveranareaeighttimeslargerthantheareaoverwhichanyotherowlofsimilarsizeranges.

B. Borealowlsrangeoverlargerareasinregionswherefoodofthesorteatenbysmallmammalsissparsethantheydoinregionswheresuchfoodisabundant.

C. Aftertheiryounghatch,borealowlsmusthuntmoreoftenthanbeforeinordertofeedboththemselvesandtheirnewlyhatchedyoung.

D. Sometimesindividualborealowlshuntnearasinglelocationfor

manyweeksatatimeanddonotrangefartherthanafewhundredyards.

E. Theborealowlrequireslessfood,relativetoitsweight,thanisrequiredbymembersofotherowlspecies.

169. Historian:Newtondevelopedmathematicalconceptsandtechniquesthatarefundamentaltomoderncalculus.Leibnizdevelopedcloselyanalogousconceptsandtechniques.Ithastraditionallybeenthoughtthatthesediscoverieswereindependent.Researchershave,however,recentlydiscoverednotesofLeibniz’sthatdiscussoneofNewton’sbooksonmathematics.SeveralscholarshavearguedthatsincethebookincludesapresentationofNewton’scalculusconceptsandtechniques,andsincethenoteswerewrittenbeforeLeibniz’sowndevelopmentofcalculusconceptsandtechniques,itisvirtuallycertainthatthetraditionalviewisfalse.Amorecautiousconclusionthanthisiscalledfor,however.Leibniz’snotesarelimitedtoearlysectionsofNewton’sbook,sectionsthatprecedetheonesinwhichNewton’scalculusconceptsandtechniquesarepresented.

Inthehistorian’sreasoning,thetwoportionsinboldfaceplaywhichofthefollowingroles?

A. Thefirstisaclaimthatthehistorianrejects;thesecondisapositionthatthatclaimhasbeenusedtosupport.

B. Thefirstisevidencethathasbeenusedtosupportaconclusionaboutwhichthehistorianexpressesreservations;thesecondisthatconclusion.

C. Thefirstprovidesevidenceinsupportofapositionthatthehistoriandefends;thesecondisthatposition.

D. Thefirstandthesecondeachprovideevidenceinsupportofapositionthatthehistoriandefends.

E. Thefirsthasbeenusedinsupportofapositionthatthehistorianrejects;thesecondisaconclusionthatthehistoriandrawsfromthatposition.

170. Amilepostonthetowpathread“21”onthesidefacingthehikerassheapproacheditand“23”onitsback.Shereasonedthatthenextmilepostforwardonthepathwouldindicatethatshewashalfwaybetweenoneendofthepathandtheother.However,themilepostonemilefurtheronread“20”facingherand“24”behind.

Whichofthefollowing,iftrue,wouldexplainthediscrepancydescribedabove?

A. Thenumbersonthenextmileposthadbeenreversed.

B. Thenumbersonthemilepostsindicatekilometers,notmiles.

C. Thefacingnumbersindicatemilestotheendofthepath,notmilesfromthebeginning.

D. Amilepostwasmissingbetweenthetwothehikerencountered.

E. Themilepostshadoriginallybeenputinplacefortheuseofmountainbikers,notforhikers.

171. Forovertwocenturies,noonehadbeenabletomakeDamascusblades—bladeswithadistinctiveserpentinesurfacepattern—butacontemporaryswordmakermayjusthaverediscoveredhow.UsingironwithtraceimpuritiesthatpreciselymatchedthosepresentintheironusedinhistoricDamascusblades,thiscontemporaryswordmakerseemstohavefinallyhitonanintricateprocessbywhichhecanproduceabladeindistinguishablefromatrueDamascusblade.

Whichofthefollowing,iftrue,providesthestrongestsupportforthehypothesisthattraceimpuritiesintheironareessentialfortheproductionofDamascusblades?

A. TherearesurfacefeaturesofeveryDamascusblade—includingthebladesproducedbythecontemporaryswordmaker—thatareuniquetothatblade.

B. TheironwithwhichthecontemporaryswordmakermadeDamascusbladescamefromasourceofironthatwasunknowntwocenturiesago.

C. Almostallthetoolsusedbythecontemporaryswordmakerwereupdatedversionsoftoolsthatwereusedbyswordmakersovertwocenturiesago.

D. ProductionofDamascusbladesbyswordmakersofthepastceasedabruptlyafterthoseswordmakers’originalsourceofironbecameexhausted.

E. AlthoughDamascusbladeswererenownedformaintainingasharpedge,theblademadebythecontemporaryswordmakersuggeststhattheymayhavemaintainedtheiredgelesswellthanbladesmadeusingwhatisnowthestandardprocessformakingblades.

172. Microbiologist:AlethalstrainofsalmonellarecentlyshowedupinaEuropeancountry,causinganoutbreakofillnessthatkilledtwopeopleandinfectedtwenty-sevenothers.Investigatorsblametheseverityoftheoutbreakontheoveruseofantibiotics,sincethesalmonellabacteriatestedwereshowntobedrug-resistant.Butthisisunlikelybecausepatientsinthecountrywheretheoutbreakoccurredcannotobtainantibioticstotreatillnesswithoutaprescription,andthecountry’sdoctorsprescribeantibioticslessreadilythandodoctorsinanyotherEuropeancountry.

Whichofthefollowing,iftrue,wouldmostweakenthemicrobiologist’sreasoning?

A. Physiciansinthecountrywheretheoutbreakoccurredhavebecomehesitanttoprescribeantibioticssincetheyarefrequentlyinshortsupply.

B. Peopleinthecountrywheretheoutbreakoccurredoftenconsumefoodsproducedfromanimalsthateatantibiotics-ladenlivestockfeed.

C. Useofantibioticsintwocountriesthatneighborthecountrywheretheoutbreakoccurredhasrisenoverthepastdecade.

D. Drug-resistantstrainsofsalmonellahavenotbeenfoundincountriesinwhichantibioticsarenotgenerallyavailable.

E. Salmonellahasbeenshowntospreadeasilyalongthedistributionchainsofcertainvegetables,suchasrawtomatoes.

173. Imagesfromground-basedtelescopesareinvariablydistortedbytheEarth’satmosphere.Orbitingspacetelescopes,however,operatingaboveEarth’satmosphere,shouldprovidesuperblydetailedimages.Therefore,ground-basedtelescopeswillsoonbecomeobsoleteforadvancedastronomicalresearchpurposes.

Whichofthefollowingstatements,iftrue,wouldcastthemostdoubtontheconclusiondrawnabove?

A. Anorbitingspacetelescopeduetobelaunchedthisyearisfarbehindscheduleandoverbudget,whereasthelargestground-basedtelescopewasbothwithinbudgetandonschedule.

B. Ground-basedtelescopeslocatedonmountainsummitsarenotsubjecttothekindsofatmosphericdistortionwhich,atlowaltitudes,makestarsappeartotwinkle.

C. Bycarefulchoiceofobservatorylocation,itispossibleforlarge-aperturetelescopestoavoidmostofthekindofwindturbulencethatcandistortimagequality.

D. Whenlarge-aperturetelescopesarelocatedathighaltitudesneartheequator,theypermitthebestEarth-basedobservationsofthecenteroftheMilkyWayGalaxy,aprimetargetofastronomicalresearch.

E. Detailedspectralanalyses,uponwhichastronomersrelyfordeterminingthechemicalcompositionandevolutionaryhistoryofstars,requiretelescopeswithmorelight-gatheringcapacitythanspacetelescopescanprovide.

174. Generallyscientistsentertheirfieldwiththegoalofdoingimportantnewresearchandacceptastheircolleaguesthosewithsimilarmotivation.Therefore,whenanyscientistwinsrenownasanexpounderofsciencetogeneralaudiences,mostotherscientistsconcludethatthispopularizershouldnolongerberegardedasatruecolleague.

Theexplanationofferedaboveforthelowesteeminwhichscientificpopularizersareheldbyresearchscientistsassumesthat

A. seriousscientificresearchisnotasolitaryactivity,butreliesonactivecooperationamongagroupofcolleagues

B. researchscientiststendnottoregardascolleaguesthosescientistswhoserenowntheyenvy

C. ascientistcanbecomeafamouspopularizerwithouthavingcompletedanyimportantresearch

D. researchscientistsbelievethatthosewhoarewellknownaspopularizersofsciencearenotmotivatedtodoimportantnewresearch

E. noimportantnewresearchcanbeaccessibletooraccuratelyassessedbythosewhoarenotthemselvesscientists


Utraniawasformerlyamajorpetroleumexporter,butinrecentdecadeseconomicstagnationandrestrictiveregulationsinhibitedinvestmentinnewoilfields.Inconsequence,Utranianoilexportsdroppedsteadilyasoldfieldsbecamedepleted.Utrania’scurrentlyimprovingeconomicsituation,togetherwithless-restrictiveregulations,willundoubtedlyresultintherapiddevelopmentofnewfields.However,itwouldbe

prematuretoconcludethattherapiddevelopmentofnewfieldswillresultinhigheroilexports,because__________.

A. thepriceofoilisexpectedtoremainrelativelystableoverthenextseveralyears

B. theimprovementintheeconomicsituationinUtraniaisexpectedtoresultinadramaticincreaseintheproportionofUtranianswhoownautomobiles

C. mostoftheinvestmentinnewoilfieldsinUtraniaisexpectedtocomefromforeignsources

D. newtechnologyisavailabletorecoveroilfromoldoilfieldsformerlyregardedasdepleted

E. manyofthenewoilfieldsinUtraniaarelikelytobeasproductiveasthosethatweredevelopedduringtheperiodwhenUtraniawasamajoroilexporter

176. Whichofthefollowing,iftrue,mostlogicallycompletestheargument?

SomedairyfarmersintheprovinceofTakandiawanttogivetheircowsasynthetichormonethatincreasesmilkproduction.ManyTakandians,however,donotwanttobuymilkfromcowsgiventhesynthetichormone.ForthisreasonTakandia’slegislatureisconsideringameasurerequiringmilkfromcowsgiventhehormonetobelabeledassuch.Evenifthemeasureisdefeated,dairyfarmerswhousethehormonewillprobablylosecustomers,since__________.

A. ithasnotbeenproventhatanytraceofthesynthetichormoneexistsinthemilkofcowsgiventhehormone

B. somefarmersinTakandiawhoplantousethesynthetichormonewillprobablynotdosoifthemeasurewerepassed

C. milkfromcowsthathavenotbeengiventhesynthetichormonecanbelabeledassuchwithoutanylegislativeaction

D. thelegislature’sconsiderationofthebillhasbeenwidelypublicized

E. milkthatcomesfromcowsgiventhesynthetichormonelooksandtastesthesameasmilkfromcowsthathavenotreceivedthehormone

177. Inordertoreducedependenceonimportedoil,thegovernmentofJalicahasimposedminimumfuel-efficiencyrequirementsonallnewcars,beginningthisyear.Themorefuel-efficientacar,thelesspollutionit

producespermiledriven.AsJalicansreplacetheiroldcarswithcarsthatmeetthenewrequirements,annualpollutionfromcartrafficislikelytodecreaseinJalica.

Whichofthefollowing,iftrue,mostseriouslyweakenstheargument?

A. InJalica,domesticallyproducedoilismoreexpensivethanimportedoil.

B. TheJalicangovernmentdidnotintendthenewfuel-efficiencyrequirementtobeapollution-reductionmeasure.

C. Somepollution-controldevicesmandatedinJalicamakecarslessfuel-efficientthantheywouldbewithoutthosedevices.

D. ThenewregulationrequiresnochangeinthechemicalformulationoffuelforcarsinJalica.

E. Jalicanswhogetcarsthataremorefuel-efficienttendtodomoredrivingthanbefore.

178. Plantingsofcottonbioengineeredtoproduceitsowninsecticideagainstbollworms,amajorcauseofcropfailure,sustainedlittlebollwormdamageuntilthisyear.Thisyeartheplantingsarebeingseriouslydamagedbybollworms.Bollworms,however,arenotnecessarilydevelopingresistancetothecotton’sinsecticide.Bollwormsbreedoncorn,andlastyearmorecornthanusualwasplantedthroughoutcotton-growingregions.Soitislikelythatthecottonissimplybeingoverwhelmedbycorn-bredbollworms.

Inevaluatingtheargument,whichofthefollowingwoulditbemostusefultoestablish?

A. Whethercorncouldbebioengineeredtoproducetheinsecticide

B. Whetherplantingsofcottonthatdoesnotproducetheinsecticidearesufferingunusuallyextensivedamagefrombollwormsthisyear

C. Whetherothercropsthathavebeenbioengineeredtoproducetheirowninsecticidesuccessfullyresistthepestsagainstwhichtheinsecticidewastoprotectthem

D. Whetherplantingsofbioengineeredcottonarefrequentlydamagedbyinsectpestsotherthanbollworms

E. Whetherthereareinsecticidesthatcanbeusedagainstbollwormsthathavedevelopedresistancetotheinsecticideproducedbythebioengineeredcotton

179. Manufacturerssometimesdiscountthepriceofaproducttoretailersforapromotionperiodwhentheproductisadvertisedtoconsumers.Suchpromotionsoftenresultinadramaticincreaseinamountofproductsoldbythemanufacturerstoretailers.Nevertheless,themanufacturerscouldoftenmakemoreprofitbynotholdingthepromotions.

Whichofthefollowing,iftrue,moststronglysupportstheclaimaboveaboutthemanufacturers’profit?

A. Theamountofdiscountgenerallyofferedbymanufacturerstoretailersiscarefullycalculatedtorepresenttheminimumneededtodrawconsumers’attentiontotheproduct.

B. Formanyconsumerproductstheperiodofadvertisingdiscountedpricestoconsumersisaboutaweek,notsufficientlylongforconsumerstobecomeusedtothesaleprice.

C. Forproductsthatarenotnewlyintroduced,thepurposeofsuchpromotionsistokeeptheproductsinthemindsofconsumersandtoattractconsumerswhoarecurrentlyusingcompetingproducts.

D. Duringsuchapromotionretailerstendtoaccumulateintheirwarehousesinventoryboughtatdiscount;theythensellmuchofitlaterattheirregularprice.

E. Ifamanufacturerfailstooffersuchpromotionsbutitscompetitoroffersthem,thatcompetitorwilltendtoattractconsumersawayfromthemanufacturer’sproduct.

180. Inanexperiment,volunteerswalkedindividuallythroughadark,abandonedtheater.Halfofthevolunteershadbeentoldthatthetheaterwashauntedandtheotherhalfthatitwasunderrenovation.Thefirsthalfreportedsignificantlymoreunusualexperiencesthantheseconddid.Theresearchersconcludedthatreportsofencounterswithghostsandothersupernaturalentitiesgenerallyresultfrompriorexpectationsofsuchexperiences.

Whichofthefollowing,iftrue,wouldmostseriouslyweakentheresearchers’reasoning?

A. Noneofthevolunteersinthesecondhalfbelievedthattheunusualexperiencestheyreportedweresupernatural.

B. Allofthevolunteersinthefirsthalfbelievedthattheresearchers’statementthatthetheaterwashauntedwasalie.

C. Beforebeingtoldaboutthetheater,thevolunteerswithineach

groupvariedconsiderablyintheirpriorbeliefsaboutsupernaturalexperiences.

D. Eachunusualexperiencereportedbythevolunteershadacausethatdidnotinvolvethesupernatural.

E. Theresearchersdidnotbelievethatthetheaterwashaunted.

181. ManygardenersbelievethatthevarietyofclematisvinethatismostpopularamonggardenersinNorthAmericaisjackmanii.Thisbeliefisapparentlycorrectsince,oftheonemillionclematisplantssoldperyearbythelargestclematisnurseryinNorthAmerica,tenpercentarejackmanii.

Whichofthefollowingisanassumptiononwhichtheargumentdepends?

A. Thenurserysellsmorethantendifferentvarietiesofclematis.

B. ThelargestclematisnurseryinNorthAmericasellsnothingbutclematisplants.

C. SomeofthejackmaniisoldbythenurseryaresoldtogardenersoutsideNorthAmerica.

D. MostNorthAmericangardenersgrowclematisintheirgardens.

E. ForallnurseriesinNorthAmericathatspecializeinclematis,atleasttenpercentoftheclematisplantstheysellarejackmanii.

182. Since1990thepercentageofbacterialsinusinfectionsinAqadestanthatareresistanttotheantibioticperxicillinhasincreasedsubstantially.Bacteriacanquicklydevelopresistancetoanantibioticwhenitisprescribedindiscriminatelyorwhenpatientsfailtotakeitasprescribed.Sinceperxicillinhasnotbeenindiscriminatelyprescribed,healthofficialshypothesizethattheincreaseinperxicillin-resistantsinusinfectionsislargelyduetopatients’failuretotakethismedicationasprescribed.

Whichofthefollowing,iftrueofAqadestan,providesmostsupportforthehealthofficials’hypothesis?

A. Resistancetoseveralothercommonlyprescribedantibioticshasnotincreasedsince1990inAqadestan.

B. AlargenumberofAqadestanisneverseekmedicalhelpwhentheyhaveasinusinfection.

C. Whenitfirstbecameavailable,perxicillinwasmuchmoreeffectiveintreatingbacterialsinusinfectionsthananyotherantibioticusedforsuchinfectionsatthetime.

D. Manypatientswhotakeperxicillinexperienceseveresideeffectswithinthefirstfewdaysoftheirprescribedregimen.

E. Aqadestanihealthclinicsprovideantibioticstotheirpatientsatcost.

183. Aproductthatrepresentsacleartechnologicaladvanceovercompetingproductscangenerallycommandahighprice.Becausetechnologicaladvancestendtobequicklysurpassedandcompanieswanttomakelargeprofitswhiletheystillcan,manycompanieschargethemaximumpossiblepriceforsuchaproduct.Butlargeprofitsonthenewproductwillgivecompetitorsastrongincentivetoquicklymatchthenewproduct’scapabilities.Consequently,thestrategytomaximizeoverallprofitfromanewproductistochargelessthanthegreatestpossibleprice.

Intheargumentabove,thetwoportionsinboldfaceplaywhichofthefollowingroles?

A. Thefirstisaconsiderationraisedtoarguethatacertainstrategyiscounterproductive;thesecondpresentsthatstrategy.

B. Thefirstisaconsiderationraisedtosupportthestrategythattheargumentrecommends;thesecondpresentsthatstrategy.

C. Thefirstisaconsiderationraisedtohelpexplainthepopularityofacertainstrategy;thesecondpresentsthatstrategy.

D. Thefirstisanassumption,rejectedbytheargument,thathasbeenusedtojustifyacourseofaction;thesecondpresentsthatcourseofaction.

E. Thefirstisaconsiderationthathasbeenusedtojustifyadoptingacertainstrategy;thesecondpresentstheintendedoutcomeofthatstrategy.

184. Gortlandhaslongbeennarrowlyself-sufficientinbothgrainandmeat.However,aspercapitaincomeinGortlandhasrisentowardtheworldaverage,percapitaconsumptionofmeathasalsorisentowardtheworldaverage,andittakesseveralpoundsofgraintoproduceonepoundofmeat.Therefore,sincepercapitaincomecontinuestorise,whereasdomesticgrainproductionwillnotincrease,Gortlandwillsoonhavetoimporteithergrainormeatorboth.


A. ThetotalacreagedevotedtograinproductioninGortlandwillnotdecreasesubstantially.

B. ThepopulationofGortlandhasremainedrelativelyconstantduringthecountry’syearsofgrowingprosperity.

C. ThepercapitaconsumptionofmeatinGortlandisroughlythesameacrossallincomelevels.

D. InGortland,neithermeatnorgrainissubjecttogovernmentpricecontrols.

E. PeopleinGortlandwhoincreasetheirconsumptionofmeatwillnotradicallydecreasetheirconsumptionofgrain.


ThefiguresinportraitsbytheSpanishpainterElGreco(1541–1614)aresystematicallyelongated.InElGreco’stime,theintentionaldistortionofhumanfigureswasunprecedentedinEuropeanpainting.Consequently,somecriticshavesuggestedthatElGrecohadanastigmatism,atypeofvisualimpairment,thatresultedinpeopleappearingtohiminthedistortedwaythatischaracteristicofhispaintings.However,thissuggestioncannotbetheexplanation,because__________.

A. severaltwentieth-centuryartistshaveconsciouslyadoptedfromElGreco’spaintingsthesystematicelongationofthehumanform

B. somepeopledohaveelongatedbodiessomewhatlikethosedepictedinElGreco’sportraits

C. ifElGrecohadanastigmatism,then,relativetohowpeoplelookedtohim,theelongatedfiguresinhispaintingswouldhaveappearedtohimtobedistorted

D. evenifElGrecohadanastigmatism,therewouldhavebeennocorrectionforitavailableintheperiodinwhichhelived

E. therewerenon-Europeanartists,eveninElGreco’stime,whoincludedintheirworkshumanfiguresthatwereintentionallydistorted

186. PoliticalAdvertisement:

MayorDelmont’scriticscomplainaboutthejobsthatwerelostinthe

cityunderDelmont’sleadership.Yetthefactisthatnotonlyweremorejobscreatedthanwereeliminated,buteachyearsinceDelmonttookofficetheaveragepayforthenewjobscreatedhasbeenhigherthanthatyear’saveragepayforjobscitywide.SoitstandstoreasonthatthroughoutDelmont’stenuretheaveragepaycheckinthiscityhasbeengettingsteadilybigger.


A. TheunemploymentrateinthecityishighertodaythanitwaswhenMayorDelmonttookoffice.

B. Theaveragepayforjobsinthecitywasataten-yearlowwhenMayorDelmonttookoffice.

C. EachyearduringMayorDelmont’stenure,theaveragepayforjobsthatwereeliminatedhasbeenhigherthantheaveragepayforjobscitywide.

D. MostofthejobseliminatedduringMayorDelmont’stenurewereindecliningindustries.

E. Theaveragepayforjobsinthecityiscurrentlylowerthanitisforjobsinthesuburbssurroundingthecity.

187. TopreventanewlybuiltdamontheChiffRiverfromblockingtherouteoffishmigratingtobreedinggroundsupstream,thedamincludesafishpass,amechanismdesignedtoallowfishthroughthedam.Beforetheconstructionofthedamandfishpass,severalthousandfishadayswamupriverduringspawningseason.Butinthefirstseasonaftertheproject’scompletion,only300perdaymadethejourney.Clearly,thefishpassisdefective.


A. FishthathavemigratedtotheupstreambreedinggroundsdonotreturndowntheChiffRiveragain.

B. Onotherriversintheregion,theconstructionofdamswithfishpasseshasledtoonlysmalldecreasesinthenumberoffishmigratingupstream.

C. Theconstructionofthedamstirreduppotentiallytoxicriversedimentsthatwerecarrieddownstream.

D. PopulationsofmigratoryfishintheChiffRiverhavebeendeclining

slightlyoverthelast20years.

E. Duringspawningseason,thedamreleasessufficientwaterformigratoryfishbelowthedamtoswimupstream.

188. CommemorativeplaquescastfrombrassareacharacteristicartformoftheBenincultureofWestAfrica.Somescholars,notingthattheoldestsurvivingplaquesdatetothe1400s,hypothesizethatbrass-castingtechniqueswereintroducedbythePortuguese,whocametoBeninin1485A.D.ButPortugueserecordsofthatexpeditionmentioncast-brassjewelrysenttoBenin’skingfromneighboringIfe.SoitisunlikelythatBenin’sknowledgeofbrasscastingderivedfromthePortuguese.


A. ThePortugueserecordsdonotindicatewhethertheirexpeditionof1485includedmetalworkers.

B. ThePortuguesehadnocontactwithIfeuntilthe1500s.

C. Inthe1400sthePortuguesedidnotusecastbrassforcommemorativeplaques.

D. Asearlyas1500A.D.,BeninartistsweremakingbrassplaquesincorporatingdepictionsofEuropeans.

E. Copper,whichisrequiredformakingbrass,canbefoundthroughoutBeninterritory.

4.5AnswerKey106. C

107. B

108. B

109. A

110. D

111. C

112. D

113. B

114. C

115. A

116. A

117. E

118. C

119. A

120. D

121. C

122. C

123. A

124. A

125. A

126. D

127. D

128. C

129. B

130. B

131. E

132. A

133. C

134. B

135. A

136. A

137. B

138. C

139. B

140. E

141. C

142. C

143. C

144. E

145. A

146. D

147. C

148. A

149. A

150. A

151. E

152. E

153. B

154. D

155. D

156. C

157. B

158. B

159. C

160. C

161. E

162. D

163. B

164. D

165. E

166. B

167. B

168. B

169. B

170. C

171. D

172. B

173. E

174. D

175. B

176. C

177. E

178. B

179. D

180. B

181. A

182. D

183. C

184. E

185. C

186. C

187. C

188. B

4.6AnswerExplanationsThefollowingdiscussionisintendedtofamiliarizeyouwiththemostefficientandeffectiveapproachestocriticalreasoningquestions.TheparticularquestionsinthischapteraregenerallyrepresentativeofthekindsofcriticalreasoningquestionsyouwillencounterontheGMAT.Rememberthatitistheproblemsolvingstrategythatisimportant,notthespecificdetailsofaparticularquestion.

106. PhishCorunsanumberoffarmsinthearidprovinceofNufa,dependinglargelyonirrigation.Now,aspartofaplantoefficientlyincreasethefarms’totalproduction,itplanstodrilldowntoanaquifercontainingwarm,slightlysaltywaterthatwillbeusedtoraisefishinponds.Thewaterfromthepondswilllaterbeusedtosupplementpiped-inirrigationwaterforPhishCo’svegetablefields,andthepondsandaccompanyingvegetationshouldhelpreducetheheatintheareaofthefarms.

Whichofthefollowingwould,iftrue,moststronglysuggestthattheplan,ifimplemented,wouldincreasetheoverallefficiencyofPhishCo’sfarms?

A. MostofthevegetationtobeplacedaroundthepondsisnativetoNufa.

B. FishraisedonPhishCo’sfarmsarelikelytobesaleableinthenearesturbanareas.

C. Organicwastefromfishinthepondwaterwillhelptofertilizefieldswhereitisusedforirrigation.

D. ThegovernmentofNufawillhelptoarrangeloanfinancingtopartiallycoverthecostsofdrilling.

E. Pondswillbelocatedonlow-lyinglandnowpartiallyoccupiedbygraincrops.

EvaluationofaPlanSituationAcompanyplanstoincreasethetotalefficiencyofitsfarmsinanaridregionbydrillingdowntoanaquiferwhosewaterwillbeusedtoraisefishinpondsandtohelpirrigatethefarms’vegetablefields.Thepondsandaccompanyingvegetationshouldhelpreducetheheataroundthefarms.

ReasoningWhatwouldmakeitmostlikelythatimplementingtheplanwouldincreasethefarms’overallefficiency?Thefarmswillbecomemoreefficientiftheplansignificantlyincreasestheirproductionforlittleornoaddedcost.

A. Vegetationnativetoanaridregionmaybenomorelikelytothrivearoundpondsthannon-nativevegetationwouldbe,andinanycasewouldnotclearlyincreasethefarms’totalcropproductionorefficiency.

B. Thismakesitslightlymorelikelythattheplanwouldincreasethe

farms’profitability,nottheirefficiencyorproductivity.

C. Correct.Fertilizingthefieldswiththewastewhileirrigatingthecropsmightsignificantlyimprovecropproduction.Butitwouldcostlittleornothingextra,sincethewastewouldalreadybeintheirrigationwater.Thus,thisfeatureoftheplanwouldlikelyenhancethefarms’efficiencybyincreasingtheirproductivityfornosignificantextracost.

D. Thisgovernmentassistancemightslightlyreducetheworkthecompanyhastodotoprocurealoan.Butprobablyitwouldneitherincreasethefarms’productionnorreducetheoverallexpenseofimplementingtheplan(includingtheexpenseincurredbythegovernment).

E. Ifanything,thissuggeststhattheplanmightreducethefarms’efficiencybyeliminatingproductivecropland.


107. Thesustainedmassiveuseofpesticidesinfarminghastwoeffectsthatareespeciallypernicious.First,itoftenkillsoffthepests’naturalenemiesinthearea.Second,itoftenunintentionallygivesrisetoinsecticide-resistantpests,sincethoseinsectsthatsurviveaparticularinsecticidewillbetheonesmostresistanttoit,andtheyaretheoneslefttobreed.

Fromthepassageabove,itcanbeproperlyinferredthattheeffectivenessofthesustainedmassiveuseofpesticidescanbeextendedbydoingwhichofthefollowing,assumingthateachisarealisticpossibility?

A. Usingonlychemicallystableinsecticides

B. Periodicallyswitchingthetypeofinsecticideused

C. Graduallyincreasingthequantitiesofpesticidesused

D. Leavingafewfieldsfalloweveryyear

E. Breedinghigher-yieldingvarietiesofcropplants

EvaluationofaPlanSituationContinuedhigh-levelpesticideuseoftenkillsoffthetargetedpests’naturalenemies.Inaddition,thepeststhatsurvivetheapplicationofthepesticidemaybecomeresistanttoit,andthesepesticide-resistantpestswillcontinuebreeding.

ReasoningWhatcanbedonetoprolongtheeffectivenessofpesticideuse?Itcanbeinferredthattheongoinguseofaparticularpesticidewillnotcontinuetobeeffectiveagainstthefuturegenerationsofpestswithaninherentresistancetothatpesticide.Whatwouldbeeffectiveagainstthesefuturegenerations?Iffarmersperiodicallychangetheparticularpesticidetheyuse,thenpestsresistanttoonekindofpesticidemightbekilledbyanother.Thiswouldcontinue,withpestsbeingkilledoffincyclesasthepesticidesarechanged.Itisalsopossiblethatthisrotationmightallowsomeofthepests’naturalenemiestosurvive,atleastuntilthenextcycle.

A. Notenoughinformationaboutchemicallystableinsecticidesisgiventomakeasoundinference.

B. Correct.Thisstatementproperlyidentifiesanactionthatcouldextendtheeffectivenessofpesticideuse.

C. Graduallyincreasingtheamountofthepesticidesbeingusedwillnothelpthesituationsincethepestsarealreadyresistanttoit.

D. Continueduseofpesticidesisassumedaspartoftheargument.Sincepesticideswouldbeunnecessaryforfallowfields,thissuggestionisirrelevant.

E. Breedinghigher-yieldingvarietiesofcropsdoesnothingtoextendtheeffectivenessoftheuseofpesticides.


108. Whichofthefollowing,iftrue,mostlogicallycompletestheargumentbelow?

Manufacturersarenowrequiredtomakeallcigarettelighterschild-resistantbyequippingthemwithsafetylevers.Butthischangeisunlikelytoresultinasignificantreductioninthenumberoffirescausedbychildrenplayingwithlighters,becausechildrengiventheopportunitycanfigureouthowtoworkthesafetyleversand________.

A. theadditionofthesafetylevershasmadelightersmoreexpensivethantheywerebeforetherequirementwasinstituted

B. adultsaremorelikelytoleavechild-resistantlightersthannon-child-resistantlightersinplacesthatareaccessibletochildren

C. manyofthefiresstartedbyyoungchildrenarequicklydetectedandextinguishedbytheirparents

D. unlikechild-resistantlighters,lightersthatarenotchild-resistantcanbeoperatedbychildrenasyoungastwoyearsold

E. approximately5,000firesperyearhavebeenattributedtochildrenplayingwithlightersbeforethesafetyleverswererequired.

ArgumentConstructionSituationManufacturersmustequipallcigarettelighterswithchild-resistantsafetylevers,butchildrencanfigureouthowtocircumventthesafetyleversandtherebyoftenstartfires.

ReasoningWhatpointwouldmostlogicallycompletetheargument?Whatwouldmakeitlikelythatthenumberoffirescausedbychildrenplayingwithlighterswouldremainthesame?Inorderforchildrentostartfiresusinglightersequippedwithsafetylevers,theymustbegiventheopportunitytofigureouthowthesafetyleversworkandthentousethem.Theymust,thatis,haveaccesstothelighters.

A. Ifsafety-lever-equippedlightersaremoreexpensivethanlightersthatarenotsoequipped,fewerlightersmightbesold.Thiswouldmostlikelyaffordchildrenlessaccesstolighters,thusgivingthemlessopportunitytostartfireswiththem.

B. Correct.Thisstatementproperlyidentifiesapointthatlogicallycompletestheargument:itexplainswhychildrenarelikelytohaveaccesstolightersequippedwithsafetylevers.

C. Thespeedwithwhichfiresareextinguisheddoesnothaveanybearingonthenumberoffiresthatarestarted.

D. Thisprovidesareasontobelievethatthenumberoffiresstartedbychildrenwillmostlikelydecrease,ratherthanstaythesame:fewerchildrenwillbeabletooperatethelighters,andthusfewerfiresarelikelytobestarted.

E. Thisinformationabouthowmanyfireswerestartedbychildrenbeforesafetyleverswererequireddoesnothaveanybearingonthequestionofhowmanyfiresarelikelytobestartedbychildrennowthatthesafetyleversarerequired.



AbusinessanalysisoftheAppenianrailroadsystemdivideditslong-

distancepassengerroutesintotwocategories:ruralroutesandinterurbanroutes.Theanalysisfoundthat,unliketheinterurbanroutes,fewruralroutescarriedahighenoughpassengervolumetobeprofitable.Closingunprofitableruralroutes,however,willnotnecessarilyenhancetheprofitabilityofthewholesystem,since________.

A. alargepartofthepassengervolumeoninterurbanroutesisaccountedforbypassengerswhobeginorendtheirjourneysonruralroutes

B. withinthelasttwodecadesseveraloftheleastusedruralrouteshavebeenclosedandtheirpassengerserviceshavebeenreplacedbybuses

C. theruralrouteswerealloriginallyconstructedatleastonehundredyearsago,whereassomeoftheinterurbanrouteswereconstructedrecentlyfornewhigh-speedexpresstrains

D. notallofAppenia’slargecitiesareequallywellservedbyinterurbanrailroadservices

E. thegreatestpassengervolume,relativetotheroutes’capacity,isnotoneithercategoryoflong-distanceroutesbutisonsuburbancommuterroutes

ArgumentConstructionSituationIntheAppenianrailroadsystem,interurbanroutesgenerallycarryenoughpassengerstobeprofitable,butfewruralroutesdo.

ReasoningWhatwouldsuggestthatclosingunprofitableruralrouteswouldnotenhancetherailroadsystem’sprofitability?Anyevidencethatclosingtheunprofitableruralrouteswouldindirectlyreducetheprofitabilityofothercomponentsoftherailroadsystemwouldsupporttheconclusionthatclosingthoseruralrouteswillnotenhancethesystem’sprofitability.Thus,astatementprovidingsuchevidencewouldlogicallycompletethepassage.

A. Correct.Thissuggeststhatclosingtheruralroutescoulddiscouragemanypassengersfromtravelingontheprofitableinterurbanroutesaswell,thusreducingtheprofitabilityoftherailroadsystemasawhole.

B. Evenifsomeoftheleastusedruralrouteshavealreadybeenclosed,

itremainstruethatmostoftheremainingruralroutesaretoolittleusedtobeprofitable.

C. Closingveryoldrouteswouldbeatleastaslikelytoenhancetherailroadsystem’sprofitabilityasclosingnewerrouteswouldbe.

D. Evenifthereisbetterrailroadservicetosomelargecitiesthanothers,closingunprofitableruralroutescouldstillenhancethesystem’sprofitability.

E. Evenifsuburbanroutesarethemostheavilyusedandprofitable,closingunderused,unprofitableruralroutescouldstillenhancethesystem’sprofitability.


110. Therateatwhicharoadwearsdependsonvariousfactors,includingclimate,amountoftraffic,andthesizeandweightofthevehiclesusingit.TheonlylandtransportationtoRittland’sseaportisviaadividedhighway,onesidecarryingtraffictotheseaportandonecarryingtrafficawayfromit.Thesideleadingtotheseaporthaswornfaster,eventhougheachsidehascarriedvirtuallythesameamountoftraffic,consistingmainlyoflargetrucks.

Whichofthefollowing,iftrue,mosthelpstoexplainthedifferenceintherateofwear?

A. ThevolumeoftraffictoandfromRittland’sseaporthasincreasedbeyondtheintendedcapacityofthehighwaythatservesit.

B. WearonthehighwaythatservesRittland’sseaportisconsiderablygreaterduringthecoldwintermonths.

C. WearonthesideofthehighwaythatleadstoRittland’sseaporthasencouragedpeopletotakebusestotheseaportratherthandrivingthereintheirownautomobiles.

D. AgreatertonnageofgoodsisexportedfromRittland’sseaportthanisimportedthroughit.

E. AllofRittland’sautomobilesareimportedbyship.

ArgumentConstructionSituationThesideofadividedhighwayleadingtoaseaporthaswornfasterthanthesideleadingawayfromtheseaport.Bothsidescarryroughlythesameamountoftraffic,mainlyconsistingoflarge

trucks.

ReasoningWhatcouldexplainwhythesideofthehighwayleadingtotheseaporthaswornfasterthantheotherside?Wearetoldthatclimate,amountoftraffic,andthesizeandweightofvehiclesonaroadaffecthowquicklytheroadwears.Wearealsotoldthattheamountsoftrafficonthetwosidesofthehighwayarealmostidentical.Probablytheclimateonthetwosidesisalsoalmostidentical.Thus,themostlikelyexplanationforthedifferentratesofwearisthatthesizeorweightofthevehiclesdrivingonthetwosidesdifferssignificantly.Soanyfactorthatwouldmakethevehicles’sizeorweightgreateronthesideleadingtotheseaportthanontheothersidecouldhelpexplainthedifferenceinwearing.

A. Theincreasedtrafficvolumeaffectsbothsidesofthehighway,soitdoesnothelpexplainwhyonesideiswearingfasterthantheother.

B. Thewinterweatheraffectsbothsidesofthehighway,soitdoesnothelpexplainwhyonesideiswearingfasterthantheother.

C. Thebusesmaycontributetowearonthesideofthehighwayleadingtotheseaport,butnotnecessarilymorethanthecartraffictheyarereplacingwould(thoughtheincreaseduseofbusesinsteadofcarsmaydecreasetheamountoftraffic,buseswouldbeheavierthancarsandthusmayresultinanequalorgreateramountofwear).Furthermore,thebuseshavetocomebackontheotherside,probablycarryingthereturningtravelerswhohavenotlefttheircarsattheairport.

D. Correct.Thissuggeststhatthemanytrucksvisitingtheseaporttendtobemoreheavilyladenwithgoodswhentravelingonthesideofthehighwayleadingtotheseaportthanwhenreturningontheotherside.Theresultingdifferenceinthetrucks’weightwhentravelingonthetwosidescouldexplainthedifferentratesofwear.

E. Theseautomobileswouldbetransportedalongthesideofthehighwayleadingfromtheseaport,butnotalongthesideleadingtoit.Thiswouldlikelycreateapatternofwearoppositetotheoneobserved.


111. Sincethemayor’spublicitycampaignforGreenville’sbusservicebegansixmonthsago,morningautomobiletrafficintothemidtownareaofthecityhasdecreased7percent.Duringthesameperiod,therehasbeenan

equivalentriseinthenumberofpersonsridingbusesintothemidtownarea.Obviously,themayor’spublicitycampaignhasconvincedmanypeopletoleavetheircarsathomeandridethebustowork.

Whichofthefollowing,iftrue,caststhemostseriousdoubtontheconclusiondrawnabove?

A. FaresforallbusroutesinGreenvillehaverisenanaverageof5percentduringthepastsixmonths.

B. ThemayorofGreenvilleridesthebustoCityHallinthecity’smidtownarea.

C. Roadreconstructionhasgreatlyreducedthenumberoflanesavailabletocommutersinmajorstreetsleadingtothemidtownareaduringthepastsixmonths.

D. ThenumberofbusesenteringthemidtownareaofGreenvilleduringthemorninghoursisexactlythesamenowasitwasoneyearago.

E. SurveysshowthatlongtimebusridersarenomoresatisfiedwiththeGreenvillebusservicethantheywerebeforethemayor’spublicitycampaignbegan.

ArgumentEvaluationSituationTrafficintomidtownhasdecreasedby7percent,andbusridershiphasincreasedbyanequivalentamount.Themayor’spublicitycampaignisresponsibleforthischange.

ReasoningWhatcastsdoubtonthisconclusion?Anotherreasonableexplanationofwhatcausedthedecreaseinautomobiletrafficandtheincreaseinbusridershipwouldmakethisconclusionsuspect.Roadconstructionimpedingaccesstomidtownoverthesameperiodoftimeisareasonablealternativeexplanation.Theroadconstructionprojectswouldlikelyhavediscouragedpeoplefromdrivingtomidtown;manyofthesepeoplehaveprobablytakenthebus.

A. Anincreaseinfaresmightbeareasonableexplanationforadecreaseinridership,butnotforanincrease.

B. Themayor’sdecisiontoridethebussetsagoodexampleforcitizens,sothiswouldtendtostrengthenratherthanweakensupportfortheconclusion.

C. Correct.Thisstatementproperlyidentifiesanexplanationthatweakenssupportfortheconclusion.

D. Ifmorebuseswererunning,thenmoreseatswouldbeavailableforpeopletravelingintomidtown.Rulingoutthisscenariohelpsstrengthen,notweaken,supportfortheconclusion.

E. Passengersperceivebusservicetobethesame,sobetterservicecanbeeliminatedasapossiblecauseoftheincreasedridership.


112. AlthoughAckerburg’ssubwaysystemiscurrentlyoperatingatadeficit,thetransitauthoritywilllowersubwayfaresnextyear.Theauthorityprojectsthatthelowerfareswillresultinatenpercentincreaseinthenumberofsubwayriders.Sincetheadditionalincomefromthelargerridershipwillmorethanoffsetthedecreaseduetolowerfares,thetransitauthorityactuallyexpectsthefarereductiontoreduceoreliminatethesubwaysystem’soperatingdeficitfornextyear.

Whichofthefollowing,iftrue,providesthemostsupportforthetransitauthority’sexpectationofreducingthesubwaysystem’soperatingdeficit?

A. Throughouttheyearsthatthesubwaysystemhasoperated,fareshaveneverbeforebeenreduced.

B. Theplannedfarereductionwillnotapplytostudents,whocanalreadyridethesubwayforareducedfare.

C. Nextyear,thetransitauthoritywillhavetoundertakeseverallarge-scaletrackmaintenanceprojects.

D. Thesubwaysystemcanaccommodateatenpercentincreaseinridershipwithoutincreasingthenumberoftrainsitrunseachday.

E. ThecurrentsubwayfaresinAckerburgarehigherthansubwayfaresinothercitiesintheregion.

ArgumentEvaluationSituationAckerburg’stransitauthorityplanstolowersubwayfares,projectingthatthiswillincreaseridershipby10percentandtherebyreduceoreliminatethesubwaysystem’soperatingdeficit.

ReasoningWhatevidencewouldsupporttheexpectationthatloweringsubwayfareswillreducetheoperatingdeficit?Thepassage

saystheadditionalincomefromtheprojectedincreaseinridershipwillmorethanoffsetthedecreaseduetotheloweredfares.Theclaimthatloweringfareswillreducetheoperatingdeficitcouldbesupportedeitherbyadditionalevidencethatloweringthefareswillincreaseridershipatleastasmuchasprojectedorbyevidencethattheplanwillnotincreaseoveralloperatingexpenses.

A. Thefactthatfareshaveneverbeenreducedprovidesnoevidenceaboutwhatwouldhappeniftheywerereduced.

B. Thissuggeststhattheplannedfarereductionwouldnotaffectrevenuefromstudentriders,butitdoesnotsuggesthowitwouldaffectrevenuefromallotherriders.

C. Thesemaintenanceprojectswillprobablyincreasetheoperatingdeficit,makingitlesslikelythatthefarereductionwillreduceoreliminatethatdeficit.

D. Correct.Thisindicatesthattheplanwillnotinvolveextraoperatingexpensesforrunningtrainsandthusincreasesthelikelihoodthattheplanwillreducetheoperatingdeficit.

E. AckerburgmaydifferfromothercitiesintheregioninwaysthatmakethehigherfaresoptimalforAckerburg’ssubwaysystem.


113. Patrickusuallyprovideschildcareforsixchildren.ParentsleavetheirchildrenatPatrick’shouseinthemorningandpickthemupafterwork.Attheendofeachworkweek,theparentspayPatrickatanhourlyrateforthechildcareprovidedthatweek.TheweeklyincomePatrickreceivesisusuallyadequatebutnotalwaysuniform,particularlyinthewinter,whenchildrenarelikelytogetsickandbeunpredictablyabsent.

Whichofthefollowingplans,ifputintoeffect,hasthebestprospectofmakingPatrick’sweeklyincomebothuniformandadequate?

A. Poolresourceswithaneighborwhoprovideschildcareundersimilararrangements,sothatthetwoofthemcooperateincaringfortwiceasmanychildrenasPatrickcurrentlydoes.

B. ReplacepaymentbyactualhoursofchildcareprovidedwithafixedweeklyfeebaseduponthenumberofhoursofchildcarethatPatrickwouldtypicallybeexpectedtoprovide.

C. Hireafull-timehelperandinvestinfacilitiesforprovidingchildcaretosickchildren.

D. IncreasethehourlyratetoalevelthatwouldprovideadequateincomeeveninaweekwhenhalfofthechildrenPatrickusuallycaresforareabsent.

E. Increasethenumberofhoursmadeavailableforchildcareeachday,sothatparentscanleavetheirchildreninPatrick’scareforalongerperiodeachdayatthecurrenthourlyrate.

EvaluationofaPlanSituationAttheendoftheworkweek,Patrickispaidacertainamountforeachhourofchildcarehehasprovided.Patrickusuallyreceivesadequateweeklyincomeunderthisarrangement,butinthewinterPatrick’sincomefluctuates,becausechildrenareunpredictablyabsentduetoillness.

ReasoningWhichplanwouldbemostlikelytomeetthetwogoalsofuniformweeklyincomeandadequateweeklyincome?Patrickmustfindawaytoensurethathisweeklyincomeisbothadequate—thatis,notreducedsignificantlyfromcurrentlevels—anduniform—thatis,notsubjecttoseasonalorotherfluctuations.AsuccessfulplanwouldthusmostlikelybeonethatdoesnotincreasePatrick’scosts.Further,theplanneednotincreasePatrick’sweeklyincome;itmustmerelyensurethatthatincomeismorereliable.Itshouldthereforealsoprovidesomewaytomitigatetheunexpectedlossofincomefromchildren’sabsences.

A. ThisplanmightraisePatrick’sincomeslightly,becauseheandtheneighbormightpayoutlessincostsiftheypooltheirresources.ButthisplanwouldhavenoeffectontheproblemthatunpredictableabsencesposeforPatrick’sweeklyincome.

B. Correct.ThisstatementproperlyidentifiesaplanthatwouldmostlikelykeepPatrick’sincomeadequate(hewouldprobablyreceiveapproximatelythesameamountofmoneyperchildashedoesnow)anduniform(hewouldreceivethemoneyregardlessofwhetherachildwaspresentorabsent).

C. WhilethisplanmightsomewhatmitigatetheunpredictabilityinPatrick’sincomethatresultsfromsickchildren’sabsences—becauseparentswouldbelesslikelytokeepsickchildrenathome—itwouldincreasePatrick’scosts.PayingahelperandinvestingindifferentfacilitieswouldreducePatrick’sincomeandmightthusresultinthatincomebeinginadequate.

D. Underthisplan,ifweassumethatparentsdidnotbalkattheincreaseinPatrick’shourlyrateandfindalternativechildcare,Patrick’sincomewouldmostlikelybeadequate.ButthisplanwouldnothelpmakePatrick’sweeklyincomeuniform.Hisincomewouldcontinuetofluctuatewhenchildrenareabsent.Remember,therearetwogoalswithregardtoPatrick’sincome:adequacyanduniformity.

E. ThisplanmightincreasePatrick’sincome,inthathemightbepaidformorehoursofchildcareeachweek.Thegoalshere,however,aretomakePatrick’sweeklyincomebothadequateanduniform,andthisplandoesnotaddresstheissueofuniformity.


114. Acomputerequippedwithsignature-recognitionsoftware,whichrestrictsaccesstoacomputertothosepeoplewhosesignaturesareonfile,identifiesaperson’ssignaturebyanalyzingnotonlytheformofthesignaturebutalsosuchcharacteristicsaspenpressureandsigningspeed.Eventhemostadeptforgerscannotduplicateallofthecharacteristicstheprogramanalyzes.

Whichofthefollowingcanbelogicallyconcludedfromthepassageabove?

A. Thetimeittakestorecordandanalyzeasignaturemakesthesoftwareimpracticalforeverydayuse.

B. Computersequippedwiththesoftwarewillsoonbeinstalledinmostbanks.

C. Nobodycangainaccesstoacomputerequippedwiththesoftwaresolelybyvirtueofskillatforgingsignatures.

D. Signature-recognitionsoftwarehastakenmanyyearstodevelopandperfect.

E. Inmanycasesevenauthorizedusersaredeniedlegitimateaccesstocomputersequippedwiththesoftware.

ArgumentConstructionSituationForgerscannotduplicateallthecharacteristicsthatsignature-recognitionsoftwareanalyzes,includingtheformofasignature,penpressure,andsigningspeed.Computersequippedwiththissoftwarerestrictaccesstothosewhosesignaturesareonfile.

ReasoningWhatconclusioncanbereachedaboutcomputersequippedwiththissoftware?Thepassagestatesthatthesoftwaredetectsmorecharacteristicsinasignaturethanthemostaccomplishedforgercanpossiblyreproduce.Thus,skillatforgingsignaturesisnotenoughtoallowsomeonetogainaccesstoacomputerequippedwiththesoftware.

A. Noinformationaboutthespeedoftheanalysisisgiven,sonosuchconclusioncanbedrawn.

B. Althoughthesoftwarewouldlikelybeofbenefittobanks,wecannotconcludethatitwillbeinstalledinmostbanksbecausethepassagedoesn’truleout,e.g.,thatthesoftwaremaybetoocostlyorthattheremaybeproprietaryconstraints.

C. Correct.Thisstatementproperlyidentifiesaconclusionthatcanbedrawnfromthepassage.

D. Althoughitseemsreasonabletothinkthatthesoftwaretookalongtimetodevelop,nothinginthepassagejustifiestheclaimthatittookyears.

E. Nothinginthepassagerulesoutthepossibilitythatthesoftwarefunctionssowellthatauthorizeduserswillneverbedeniedlegitimateaccesstocomputersequippedwiththesoftware.


115. Extinctionisaprocessthatcandependonavarietyofecological,geographical,andphysiologicalvariables.Thesevariablesaffectdifferentspeciesoforganismsindifferentways,andshould,therefore,yieldarandompatternofextinctions.However,thefossilrecordshowsthatextinctionoccursinasurprisinglydefinitepattern,withmanyspeciesvanishingatthesametime.

Whichofthefollowing,iftrue,formsthebestbasisforatleastapartialexplanationofthepatternedextinctionsrevealedbythefossilrecord?

A. Majorepisodesofextinctioncanresultfromwidespreadenvironmentaldisturbancesthataffectnumerousdifferentspecies.

B. Certainextinctionepisodesselectivelyaffectorganismswithparticularsetsofcharacteristicsuniquetotheirspecies.

C. Somespeciesbecomeextinctbecauseofaccumulatedgradualchangesintheirlocalenvironments.

D. Ingeologicallyrecenttimes,forwhichthereisnofossilrecord,humaninterventionhaschangedthepatternofextinctions.

E. Speciesthatarewidelydispersedaretheleastlikelytobecomeextinct.

ArgumentConstructionSituationThefossilrecordrevealsthatspeciesbecomeextinctinasurprisinglydefinitepattern,withmultiplespeciesvanishingsimultaneously.

ReasoningWhichpointprovidesabasisforexplainingthepattern?Thepassagestatesthattheprocessofextinctiondependsonsomanyvariables—intheecologyandgeographyoftheenvironmentandinthephysiologyofthespecies—thattheexpectedoutcomewouldbearandompatternofextinctions.Yetadefinitepatternisfoundinstead.Whatcouldexplainthedisappearanceofmultiplespeciesatthesametime?Ifthereweresignificantwidespreadchangesintheenvironment,multiplespeciescouldbeaffectedsimultaneously,causingtheirextinction.

A. Correct.Thisstatementproperlyidentifiesabasisforexplainingthepatternofmanyspeciesbecomingextinctsimultaneously.

B. Thisexplanationofselectiveextinctiondoesnotexplainhowmanyspeciesbecomeextinctatthesametime.

C. Thisexplanationaddressesonlysomespecies,notmanyspecies.

D. Thepassageisbasedonwhatthefossilrecordsuggests;morerecenttimes,havingnofossilrecord,areoutsidetheconsiderationofthepassage.

E. Indicatingwhichspeciesareleastlikelytobecomeextinctdoesnotexplainapatternofsimultaneousextinctionofmanyspecies.


116. InpartsofSouthAmerica,vitamin-Adeficiencyisaserioushealthproblem,especiallyamongchildren.Inoneregion,agriculturistsareattemptingtoimprovenutritionbyencouragingfarmerstoplantanewvarietyofsweetpotatocalledSPK004thatisrichinbeta-carotene,whichthebodyconvertsintovitaminA.Theplanhasgoodchancesofsuccess,sincesweetpotatoisastapleoftheregion’sdietandagriculture,andthevarietiescurrentlygrowncontainlittlebeta-carotene.

Whichofthefollowing,iftrue,moststronglysupportsthepredictionthattheplanwillsucceed?

A. ThegrowingconditionsrequiredbythevarietiesofsweetpotatocurrentlycultivatedintheregionareconditionsinwhichSPK004canflourish.

B. ThefleshofSPK004differsfromthatofthecurrentlycultivatedsweetpotatoesincolorandtexture,sotraditionalfoodswouldlooksomewhatdifferentwhenpreparedfromSPK004.

C. Therearenoothervarietiesofsweetpotatothataresignificantlyricherinbeta-carotenethanSPK004is.

D. ThevarietiesofsweetpotatocurrentlycultivatedintheregioncontainsomeimportantnutrientsthatarelackinginSPK004.

E. Thereareothervegetablescurrentlygrownintheregionthatcontainmorebeta-carotenethanthecurrentlycultivatedvarietiesofsweetpotatodo.

EvaluationofaPlanSituationAgriculturistsbelievethatiffarmersinaparticularSouthAmericanregionplantanewbeta-carotene-richvarietyofsweetpotato,SPK004,thevitamin-Adeficiencysufferedinthatregioncanbealleviated.Eventhoughsweetpotatoesareastapleoftheregionandthebodycanconvertasweetpotato’sbeta-caroteneintovitaminA,thevarietiescurrentlygrowntherecontainlittlebeta-carotene.

ReasoningWhatwouldmostsupportthesuccessoftheplantoimprovenutritionbyencouragingfarmerstoplantSPK004?What,thatis,wouldmakefarmersrespondpositivelytoencouragementtoplantSPK004?FarmersintheregionwouldprobablybeinclinedtosubstituteSPK004forthevarietiesofsweetpotatotheycurrentlygrowiftheycouldbeassuredthatSPK004wouldgrowaswellasthoseothervarietiesdo.ThiswouldinturnmostlikelyleadtoSPK004beingsubstitutedforcurrentvarietiesofsweetpotatoinstapledishes,andthustoanimprovementinnutritionintheregion.

A. Correct.Thisstatementproperlyidentifiesafactorthatwouldsupportapredictionoftheplan’ssuccess.

B. IfdishesmadewithSPK004lookdifferentthantraditionalsweetpotatodishesintheregiondo,peoplemightbelesslikelytoeat

thosedishes;insuchasituation,theplan’ssuccesswouldbelesslikely,ratherthanmorelikely.

C. ItisSPK004’sbeta-carotenecontentrelativetothebeta-carotenecontentofthesweetpotatoescurrentlygrownintheregionthatisrelevanthere,soitdoesnotmatterifthereareothervarietiesofsweetpotatothatarericherinbeta-carotenethanSPK004is.

D. ThissuggeststhatswitchingfromcurrentlygrownsweetpotatoestoSPK004couldnegativelyaffectnutritionintheregion;thisundermines,ratherthansupports,thepredictionthattheplantoimprovenutritionwillsucceed.

E. Theseothervegetables,despitetheirbeta-carotenecontentbeinghigherthanthatofthecurrentlycultivatedvarietiesofsweetpotato,areclearlynotsufficienttopreventavitamin-Adeficiencyintheregion.ThisinformationdoesnothingtosupportthepredictionthatencouragingfarmerstoplantSPK004willhelptomeetthosebeta-caroteneneeds.


117. Manyleadershiptheorieshaveprovidedevidencethatleadersaffectgroupsuccessratherthanthesuccessofparticularindividuals.Soitisirrelevanttoanalyzetheeffectsofsupervisortraitsontheattitudesofindividualswhomtheysupervise.Instead,assessmentofleadershipeffectivenessshouldoccuronlyatthegrouplevel.

Whichofthefollowingwoulditbemostusefultoestablishinordertoevaluatetheargument?

A. Whethersupervisors’documentationofindividualsupervisees’attitudestowardthemisusuallyaccurate

B. Whetheritispossibletoassessindividualsupervisees’attitudestowardtheirsupervisorswithouttherebychangingthoseattitudes

C. Whetheranyoftheleadershiptheoriesinquestionholdthatleadersshouldassessotherleaders’attitudes

D. Whethersometypesofgroupsdonotneedsupervisioninordertobesuccessfulintheirendeavors

E. Whetherindividuals’attitudestowardsupervisorsaffectgroupsuccess

ArgumentEvaluation

SituationManyleadershiptheorieshaveprovidedevidencethatleadersaffectthesuccessofgroupsbutnotofindividuals.

ReasoningWhatwouldbemosthelpfultoknowinordertoevaluatehowwellthestatedfactsupportstheconclusionthatleadershipeffectivenessshouldbeassessedonlyatthegrouplevelwithoutconsideringsupervisors’influenceontheattitudesoftheindividualstheysupervise?Evenifleadersdonotaffectthesuccessoftheindividualstheylead,theymightstillaffectthoseindividuals’attitudes.Andthoseattitudesinturnmightaffectgroupsuccess.Ifso,theargumentwouldbeweak.Soanyevidenceabouttheexistenceorstrengthofthesepossibleeffectsintherelationshipbetweensupervisorsandtheirsuperviseeswouldbehelpfulinevaluatingtheargument.

A. Howaccuratelysupervisorsdocumenttheirsupervisees’attitudesisnotclearlyrelevanttohowmuchthesupervisorsaffectthoseattitudes,nortohowmuchtheattitudesaffectgroupsuccess.

B. Evenifassessingsupervisees’attitudeswouldinitselfchangethoseattitudes,thepersondoingtheassessmentmightbeabletopredictthischangeandtakeitintoaccount.Thus,consideringindividualsupervisees’attitudesmightstillbeworthwhile.

C. Theargumentisnotaboutinteractionsamongleaders,butratheraboutinteractionsbetweensupervisorsandsupervisees.

D. Theargumentisnotaboutgroupswithoutsupervisors,orwhethercertaingroupsmightbeeffectivewithoutasupervisor,butratherabouthowtoassesstheeffectivenessofsupervisorsingroupsthatdohavethem.

E. Correct.Asexplainedabove,ifindividualsupervisees’attitudesaffectgroupsuccess,theargumentwouldbeweak.Andprobablyindividualsupervisees’attitudestowardtheirsupervisorsareinfluencedbythosesupervisors.Soknowingwhetherindividualattitudestowardsupervisorsaffectgroupsuccesswouldbehelpfulinevaluatingtheargument



Thelastmembersofanow-extinctspeciesofaEuropeanwilddeercalledthegiantdeerlivedinIrelandabout16,000yearsago.PrehistoriccavepaintingsinFrancedepictthisanimalashavingalargehumponits

back.Fossilsofthisanimal,however,donotshowanyhump.Nevertheless,thereisnoreasontoconcludethatthecavepaintingsarethereforeinaccurateinthisregard,since__________.

A. someprehistoriccavepaintingsinFrancealsodepictotheranimalsashavingahump

B. fossilsofthegiantdeeraremuchmorecommoninIrelandthaninFrance

C. animalhumpsarecomposedoffattytissue,whichdoesnotfossilize

D. thecavepaintingsofthegiantdeerwerepaintedwellbefore16,000yearsago

E. onlyonecurrentlyexistingspeciesofdeerhasanyanatomicalfeaturethatevenremotelyresembles

ahump

ArgumentConstructionSituationRepresentationsfoundinprehistoriccavepaintingsinFranceofthenow-extinctgiantdeerspecies—thelastmembersofwhichlivedinIrelandabout16,000yearsago—depictthedeerashavingahumponitsback.Fossilsofthedeer,however,donotfeatureahump.

ReasoningWhatpointwouldmostlogicallycompletetheargument?Thatis,whatwouldshowthatthecavepaintingsarenotinaccurateeventhoughfossilsofthegiantdeershownohump?Howcoulditbethecasethatthepaintingsshowahumpwhilethefossilsdonot?Onewayinwhichthiscouldbesoisifthehumpsarenotpartofthefossils—thatis,ifthereissomereasonwhyahumpwouldnotbepreservedwiththerestofananimal’sremains.

A. Wedonotknowwhethertheseothercavepaintingsaccuratelydepicttheanimalsashavinghumps,sothisprovidesnoreasontothinkthatthedepictionsofgiantdeerareaccurate.

B. Wheregiantdeerfossilsarefoundhasnobearingonwhethercavepaintingsofgiantdeerthatshowahumpontheanimal’sbackareinaccurate.Itcouldbethatthissuggeststhatthepaintersresponsiblefortherepresentationswouldnotbeveryfamiliarwiththespecies;ifthiswereso,itwouldgivesomereasontoconcludethattherepresentationswereinaccurate.

C. Correct.Thisstatementproperlyidentifiesapointthatlogicallycompletestheargument.Ahumpwouldnotbefoundaspartofagiantdeer’sfossilizedremainsifthehumpswerefattytissuethatwouldnotbefossilized.

D. Thatthecavepaintingswerepaintedwellbefore16,000yearsagoshowsthattheywereexecutedbeforethegiantdeerbecameextinct,butthisdoesnothelptoexplainthediscrepancybetweenthepaintings’depictionofahumponthedeer’sbackandthefossilrecord’slackofsuchahump.Itcouldbethateventhoughthecavepainterscoexistedwiththegiantdeer,theywerenotsufficientlyfamiliarwiththemtodepictthemaccurately.

E. Thatcurrentlyexistingspeciesofdeerlackhumps,oreventhatonespeciesdoeshaveafeatureresemblingahump,haslittlebearingonwhethercavepaintingsinFranceaccuratelydepictthegiantdeerashavingahump.


119. Highlevelsoffertilizerandpesticides,neededwhenfarmerstrytoproducehighyieldsofthesamecropyearafteryear,pollutewatersupplies.Expertsthereforeurgefarmerstodiversifytheircropsandtorotatetheirplantingsyearly.

Toreceivegovernmentalprice-supportbenefitsforacrop,farmersmusthaveproducedthatsamecropforthepastseveralyears.

Thestatementsabove,iftrue,bestsupportwhichofthefollowingconclusions?

A. Therulesforgovernmentalsupportoffarmpricesworkagainsteffortstoreducewaterpollution.

B. Theonlysolutiontotheproblemofwaterpollutionfromfertilizersandpesticidesistotakefarmlandoutofproduction.

C. Farmerscancontinuetomakeaprofitbyrotatingdiversecrops,thusreducingcostsforchemicals,butnotbyplantingthesamecropeachyear.

D. Newfarmingtechniqueswillbedevelopedtomakeitpossibleforfarmerstoreducetheapplicationoffertilizersandpesticides.

E. Governmentalpricesupportsforfarmproductsaresetatlevelsthatarenothighenoughtoallowfarmerstogetoutofdebt.

ArgumentConstructionSituationFarmersareurgedtorotatecropsannuallybecausethechemicalstheymustusewhencontinuingtoproducethesamecropspollutewatersupplies.Ontheotherhand,farmersmayreceivefederalprice-supportbenefitsonlyiftheyhavebeenproducingthesamecropforthepastseveralyears.

ReasoningWhatconclusioncanbedrawnfromthisinformation?Farmerswishtoreceivetheprice-supportbenefitsofferedbythegovernment,sotheygrowthesamecropforseveralyears.Inordertocontinuegettinggoodyields,theyusethehighlevelsofchemicalsnecessarywhenthesamecropisgrownfromyeartoyear.Theresultiswaterpollution.Thegovernment’srulesforprice-supportbenefitsworkagainsttheeffortstoreducewaterpollution.

A. Correct.Thisstatementproperlyidentifiestheconclusionsupportedbytheevidence.

B. Theexpertscitedinthepassagebelievethattherotationofcropsisthesolution,nottheremovaloffarmlandfromproduction.

C. Theconclusionthatfarmerscannotmakeaprofitbyproducingthesamecropyearafteryearisnotjustifiedbytheinformationgiveninthepremises.Theinformationgivensuggeststhatthisconclusionwouldactuallybefalse,sincethesefarmerswouldbenefitbyprice-supportmeasuresforsuchacrop.

D. Noinformationinthepassagesupportsaconclusionaboutfarmingtechniquesotherthancropdiversificationandrotation,whichareclearlyexistingfarmingtechniquesandnotneworyettobedeveloped.

E. Thisconclusionisunwarrantedbecausethereisnoinformationinthetwostatementsaboutthelevelsofthepricesupportsandofthefarmers’debts.


120. TenyearsagothenumberoftaxpayersinGreenspaceCountywasslightlygreaterthanthenumberofregisteredvoters.Thenumberoftaxpayershasdoubledoverthelasttenyears,whilethenumberofregisteredvotershasincreased,butatalowerratethanhasthenumberoftaxpayers.

WhichofthefollowingmustbetrueinGreenspaceCountyifthe

statementsabovearetrue?

A. Thenumberoftaxpayersisnowsmallerthanthenumberofregisteredvoters.

B. Everyonewhoisaregisteredvoterisalsoataxpayer.

C. Theproportionofregisteredvoterstotaxpayershasincreasedoverthelasttenyears.

D. Theproportionofregisteredvoterstotaxpayershasdecreasedoverthelasttenyears.

E. Theproportionofregisteredvoterstotaxpayershasremainedunchangedoverthelasttenyears.

ArgumentEvaluationSituationTenyearsagoacountyhadslightlymoretaxpayersthanregisteredvoters.Sincethenthenumberoftaxpayershasdoubled,whilethenumberofregisteredvotershasincreasedless.

ReasoningWhatcanbededucedfromtheinformationaboutthechangingnumbersoftaxpayersandregisteredvoters?Therewerealreadyslightlymoretaxpayersthanregisteredvoterstenyearsago,butsincethenthenumberoftaxpayershasincreasedmorethanproportionatelytothenumberofregisteredvoters.Itfollowsthattheremuststillbemoretaxpayersthanregisteredvoters,thattheabsolutenumberoftaxpayersmusthaveincreasedmorethantheabsolutenumberofregisteredvotershas,andthattheratiooftaxpayerstoregisteredvotersmusthaveincreased.

A. Sincetherewerealreadymoretaxpayersthanregisteredvoterstenyearsago,andsincethenumberoftaxpayershasincreasedmorethanthenumberofregisteredvoters,theremuststillbemoretaxpayersthanregisteredvoters.

B. Althoughtherearemoretaxpayersthanregisteredvotersoverall,therecouldstillbemanyindividualregisteredvoterswhoarenottaxpayers.

C. Sincethenumberoftaxpayershasdoubledwhilethenumberofregisteredvotershaslessthandoubled,theproportionofregisteredvoterstotaxpayersmusthavedecreased,notincreasedasthisoptionclaims.

D. Correct.Sincethenumberoftaxpayershasdoubledwhilethe

numberofregisteredvotershaslessthandoubled,theproportionofregisteredvoterstotaxpayersmusthavedecreased.

E. Sincethenumberoftaxpayershasdoubledwhilethenumberofregisteredvotershaslessthandoubled,theproportionofregisteredvoterstotaxpayersmusthavedecreased,notremainedunchanged.


121. Theinterviewisanessentialpartofasuccessfulhiringprogrambecause,withit,jobapplicantswhohavepersonalitiesthatareunsuitedtotherequirementsofthejobwillbeeliminatedfromconsideration.

Theargumentabovelogicallydependsonwhichofthefollowingassumptions?

A. Ahiringprogramwillbesuccessfulifitincludesinterviews.

B. Theinterviewisamoreimportantpartofasuccessfulhiringprogramthanisthedevelopmentofajobdescription.

C. Interviewerscanaccuratelyidentifyapplicantswhosepersonalitiesareunsuitedtotherequirementsofthejob.

D. Theonlypurposeofaninterviewistoevaluatewhetherjobapplicants’personalitiesaresuitedtotherequirementsofthejob.

E. Thefitofjobapplicants’personalitiestotherequirementsofthejobwasoncethemostimportantfactorinmakinghiringdecisions.

ArgumentConstructionSituationTheinterviewisanecessarypartofhiringbecausecandidateswithunsuitablepersonalitiesareeliminatedfromconsideration.

ReasoningWhatisbeingassumedinthisargument?Theargumentputsforthonereasonthattheinterviewisimportant:iteliminatescandidateswithunsuitablepersonalities.Thispresupposesthatinterviewerscan,withafairdegreeofaccuracy,ruleoutthosecandidateswhosepersonalitiesdonotfittheneedsofthejob.

A. Theargumentdoesnotgosofarastosaythatinterviewsguaranteeasuccessfulhiringprogram.

B. Theargumentdoesnotprioritizethepartsofahiringprogram.

C. Correct.Thisstatementproperlyidentifiestheassumption

underlyingtheargument.

D. Theargumentgivesonereasonthattheinterviewisimportant,butitdoesnotsayitistheonlyreason.

E. Thisconcernspastpracticesinhiring,andisirrelevanttotheargument.


122. AmajorhealthinsurancecompanyinLagoliapaysforspecialproceduresprescribedbyphysiciansonlyiftheprocedureisfirstapprovedas“medicallynecessary”byacompany-appointedreviewpanel.Theruleisintendedtosavethecompanythemoneyitmightotherwisespendonmedicallyunnecessaryprocedures.Thecompanyhasrecentlyannouncedthatinordertoreduceitscosts,itwillabandonthisrule.

Whichofthefollowing,iftrue,providesthestrongestjustificationforthecompany’sdecision?

A. Patientsoftenregisterdissatisfactionwithphysicianswhoprescribenothingfortheirailments.

B. Physiciansoftenprescribespecialproceduresthatarehelpfulbutnotaltogethernecessaryforthehealthofthepatient.

C. Thereviewprocessisexpensiveandpracticallyalwaysresultsinapprovaloftheprescribedprocedure.

D. Thecompany’sreviewprocessdoesnotinterferewiththeprerogativeofphysicians,incaseswheremorethanoneeffectiveprocedureisavailable,toselecttheonetheypersonallyprefer.

E. Thenumberofmembersofthecompany-appointedreviewpanelwhoreviewagivenproceduredependsonthecostoftheprocedure.

EvaluationofaPlanSituationInordertocutcosts,amajorhealthinsurancecompanyisabandoningarulestatingthatitwillpayforspecialproceduresonlyiftheprocedureisapprovedasmedicallynecessarybyareviewpanel.

ReasoningWhatpieceofinformationwouldmosthelptojustifythecompany’sdecision?Forthecompanytosavemoney,itwouldneedtobeinsomewaycuttingitscostsbyabandoningtherule.Underwhatcircumstancesmighttherulecost,ratherthansave,the

companymoney?Thepanelitselfmightbeexpensivetoconvene,forexample.Further,thecostsavingsachievedbythepanelmightbeminimalifthepaneldidnotdenysignificantnumbersofprocedures.

A. Thissuggeststhatpatientsmightbepressuringtheirphysicianstoprescribecertainunnecessaryproceduresfortheirailments,whichinturnsuggeststhatthepanelisreviewingtheseproceduresanddenyingthem.Butifso,thenthepanelisprobablysavingtheinsurancecompanymoney,soabandoningthepanel’sreviewwouldnotreducethecompany’scosts.

B. Thissuggeststhatcertainproceduresthatarebeingprescribedbyphysiciansarenotmedicallynecessary,whichinturnsuggeststhatthepanelreviewingtheseproceduresmaybedenyingthem.Ifthisisthecase,thenthepanelisprobablysavingtheinsurancecompanyasignificantamountofmoney,soabandoningthepanel’sreviewmaywellincreaseratherthandecreasethecompany’scosts.

C. Correct.Thisstatementproperlyidentifiesinformationthatwouldhelptojustifythecompany’sdecision.

D. Evenifthepaneldoesnotinterferewithphysicians’choiceswhenmorethanonemedicallyeffectiveprocedureisavailable,thepanelmaystillbedenyingpayformanyproceduresthatarenotmedicallynecessary.Insuchcasesthepanelmaybesavingtheinsurancecompanymoney,andabandoningthereviewprocesswouldnotreducethecompany’scosts.

E. Thissuggeststhatthemoreexpensivetheprocedureunderreview,themoreexpensivethepanelitselfis.Evenso,ifthepaneldeniespaymentforveryexpensiveprocedures,itmaynonethelesssavethecompanysignificantlymorethanthecompanyhastopaytoconvenethepanel,soabandoningthereviewprocesswouldnotreducethecompany’scosts.


123. Toevaluateaplantosavemoneyonoffice-spaceexpendituresbyhavingitsemployeesworkathome,XYZCompanyaskedvolunteersfromitsstafftotrythearrangementforsixmonths.Duringthisperiod,theproductivityoftheseemployeeswasashighasorhigherthanbefore.

Whichofthefollowing,iftrue,wouldarguemoststronglyagainstdeciding,onthebasisofthetrialresults,toimplementthecompany’splan?

A. Theemployeeswhoagreedtoparticipateinthetestoftheplanwereamongthecompany’smostself-motivatedandindependentworkers.

B. Thesavingsthatwouldaccruefromreducedoffice-spaceexpendituresalonewouldbesufficienttojustifythearrangementforthecompany,apartfromanyproductivityincreases.

C. Othercompaniesthathaveachievedsuccessfulresultsfromwork-at-homeplanshaveworkforcesthataresubstantiallylargerthanthatofXYZ.

D. Thevolunteerswhoworkedathomewereabletocommunicatewithotheremployeesasnecessaryforperformingthework.

E. MinorchangesinthewayofficeworkisorganizedatXYZwouldyieldincreasesinemployeeproductivitysimilartothoseachievedinthetrial.

EvaluationofaPlanSituationTosavemoneyonofficespaceexpenditures,acompanyconsidershavingemployeesworkathome.Asix-monthtrialwithemployeeswhohavevolunteeredtotesttheplanshowstheirproductivitytobeashighasorhigherthanbefore.

ReasoningWhywouldthetrialresultsNOTprovideagoodreasontoimplementtheplan?Generalizingfromasmallsampletothegroupdependsonhavingasamplethatisrepresentative.Inthiscase,theemployeeswhoparticipatedinthetrialarenotrepresentativeofallemployees.Theemployeeswhovolunteeredforthetrialmaybethetypeofemployeeswhowouldbemostlikelytoworksuccessfullyathome.Itwouldnotbewisetobaseageneralizationaboutallemployeesonthissample.

A. Correct.Thisstatementproperlyidentifiesaflawinthetrialthatisthebasisfortheplan.

B. Thisstatementsupportstheimplementationoftheplan.Moreover,itisnotbasedonthetrialresults,soitdoesnotanswerthequestion.

C. Thepassagegivesnoinformationabouthowcompanysizemightaffecttheimplementationoftheplanorthereliabilityofthetrialresults.

D. Ifanything,thiswouldtendtosupporttheplan.

E. Thegoaloftheplanistosavemoneyonofficespace,nottoincreaseproductivity,soanalternativeplantoincreaseproductivityisirrelevant.


124. Newsletter:Acondominiumgenerallyoffersmorevalueforitscostthananindividualhousebecauseofeconomiesofscale.Thehomeownersinacondominiumassociationcancollectivelybuyproductsandservicesthattheycouldnotaffordontheirown.Andsinceaprofessionalmanagementcompanyhandlesmaintenanceofcommonareas,condominiumownersspendlesstimeandmoneyonmaintenancethanindividualhomeownersdo.

Thetwoportionsinboldfaceplaywhichofthefollowingrolesinthenewsletter’sargument?

A. Thefirstistheargument’smainconclusion;thesecondisanotherconclusionsupportingthefirst.

B. Thefirstisapremise,forwhichnoevidenceisprovided;thesecondistheargument’sonlyconclusion.

C. Thefirstisaconclusionsupportingthesecond;thesecondistheargument’smainconclusion.

D. Thefirstistheargument’sonlyconclusion;thesecondisapremise,forwhichnoevidenceisprovided.

E. Botharepremises,forwhichnoevidenceisprovided,andbothsupporttheargument’sonlyconclusion.

ArgumentConstructionSituationHomeownersinacondominiumassociationcanbuyproductsandservicescollectively.Amanagementcompanyhandlesmaintenanceofcondominiumcommonareas.

ReasoningWhatrolesareplayedintheargumentbythestatementthatacondominiumgenerallyoffersmorevalueforitscostthanahousebecauseofeconomiesofscaleandbythestatementthatcondominiumownersspendlesstimeandmoneyonmaintenancethanownersofindividualhomesdo?Inthepassage,thefirstsentence(thefirstboldfacestatement)isageneralization.Thesecondsentenceprovidesanexampleoftheeconomiesofscale

mentionedinthefirstsentence,soithelpssupportthefirstsentenceasaconclusion.Inthethirdsentence,thewordsinceindicatesthatthefirstclauseisapremisesupportingthesecondclause(thesecondboldfacestatement)asaconclusion.Thatconclusionitselfprovidesanotherexampleoftheeconomiesofscalementionedinthefirstsentence,soitalsohelpssupportthatfirstsentenceasaconclusion.

A. Correct.Asexplainedabove,thefirstboldfacestatementissupportedbytherestofthestatementsintheargument,soitisthemainconclusion.Thesecondboldfacestatementsupportsthefirst,butisitselfaconclusionsupportedbythesinceclauseprecedingit.

B. Thesecondandthirdsentencesintheargumentprovideexamplesofeconomiesofscale.Theseexamplesareevidencesupportingthefirstboldfacestatementasaconclusion.

C. Sincethesecondboldfacestatementprovidesevidenceoftheeconomiesofscaledescribedbythefirst,itsupportsthefirstasaconclusion.

D. Thesinceclauseimmediatelyprecedingthesecondboldfacestatementprovidesevidencethatsupportsit,sothesecondboldfacestatementisaconclusion.

E. Boththesecondandthethirdsentencesoftheargumentsupportthefirstboldfacestatementasaconclusion.Andthesinceclauseimmediatelyprecedingthesecondboldfacestatementsupportsitasaconclusion.


125. Consumerhealthadvocate:Yourcandycompanyaddscaffeinetoyourchocolatecandybarssothateachonedeliversaspecifiedamountofcaffeine.Sincecaffeineishighlyaddictive,thisindicatesthatyouintendtokeepyourcustomersaddicted.

Candymanufacturer:Ourmanufacturingprocessresultsintherebeinglesscaffeineineachchocolatecandybarthanintheunprocessedcacaobeansfromwhichthechocolateismade.

Thecandymanufacturer’sresponseisflawedasarefutationoftheconsumerhealthadvocate’sargumentbecauseit

A. failstoaddresstheissueofwhetherthelevelofcaffeineinthecandybarssoldbythemanufacturerisenoughtokeeppeopleaddicted

B. assumeswithoutwarrantthatallunprocessedcacaobeanscontainauniformamountofcaffeine

C. doesnotspecifyexactlyhowcaffeineislostinthemanufacturingprocess

D. treatstheconsumerhealthadvocate’sargumentasthoughitwereabouteachcandybarratherthanaboutthemanufacturer’scandyingeneral

E. merelycontradictstheconsumerhealthadvocate’sconclusionwithoutgivinganyreasontobelievethattheadvocate’sreasoningisunsound

ArgumentEvaluationSituationAcandymanufacturerisaccusedofaddingcaffeine,anaddictivesubstance,toitschocolatecandybarswiththeintentofkeepingitscustomersaddicted.Thecandymanufacturerrespondstothisaccusationbysayingthatthereislesscaffeineineachchocolatecandybarthanintheunprocessedcacaobeansfromwhichthechocolateismade.

ReasoningWhatistheflawinthecandymanufacturer’sresponse?Firstconsiderwhethertheresponseindeedrefutestheadvocate’scharge.Inactuality,insteadoffocusingonthedetailsoftheaccusation—addingcaffeinetoitschocolatebarstokeepcustomersaddicted—themanufacturersubstitutesanentirelydifferentsubject,theamountofcaffeineincacaobeans.Themanufacturer’sresponseisadiversion,notananswer.

A. Correct.Thisstatementproperlyidentifiestheflawintheresponse.Thecandymanufacturerdoesnotanswerthequestionwhetheraddingcaffeinetocandybarsisdesignedtomakethemaddictive.

B. Evenifthemanufacturerdidmakethisassumption,theinformationisnotrelevanttotheaccusation,whichisnotconcernedwithnaturallyoccurringcaffeineincacaobeans.

C. Thepreciseamountofcaffeinelostinthemanufacturingprocessisnotatissue.

D. Themanufacturerdoesnottreatthehealthadvocate’sargumentthisway.

E. Themanufacturerdoesnotcontradicttheaccusation,butratheravoidsit.


126. Nutritionistsareadvisingpeopletoeatmorefish,sincetheomega-3fattyacidsinfishhelpcombatmanydiseases.Ifeveryonetookthisadvice,however,therewouldnotbeenoughfishinoceans,rivers,andlakestosupplythedemand;theoceansarealreadybeingoverfished.Theobviousmethodtoeasethepressureonwildfishpopulationsisforpeopletoincreasetheirconsumptionoffarmedfish.

Whichofthefollowing,iftrue,raisesthemostseriousdoubtconcerningtheprospectsforsuccessofthesolutionproposedabove?

A. Aquaculture,orfishfarming,raisesmorefishinagivenvolumeofwaterthanaregenerallypresentinthewild.

B. Somefishfarming,particularlyofshrimpandothershellfish,takesplaceinenclosuresintheocean.

C. Therearelargeexpansesofoceanwatersthatdonotcontainenoughnutrientstosupportsubstantialfishpopulations.

D. Thefeedforfarmedoceanfishislargelymadefromsmallwild-caughtfish,includingtheyoungofmanypopularfoodspecies.

E. Someofthespeciesthatarenowfarmedextensivelywerenotcommonlyeatenwhentheywereonlyavailableinthewild.

ArgumentEvaluationSituationNutritionistsadvisepeopletoeatfishfortheomega-3fattyacids,buttherewouldnotbeenoughfishtomeetthedemandifeveryonefollowedthisadvice.Therefore,peopleshouldincreasetheirconsumptionoffarmedfishtoeasepressureofwildfishpopulations.

ReasoningWhatevidencewouldsuggestthatincreasingconsumptionoffarmedfishwouldnoteasepressureonwildfishpopulations?Anyevidencesuggestingthatsignificantlyincreasingconsumptionoffarmedfishwoulddiminishthehabitatorfoodavailableforwildfishwouldalsosuggestthatincreasingconsumptionoffarmedfishwouldnoteasepressureonwildfishpopulations.

A. Probablythelessspacefishfarmingrequires,thelesspressureit

createsonwildfishhabitatsandpopulations,otherthingsbeingequal.

B. Whetheranyfishfarmingtakesplaceinenclosuresintheoceanisnotclearlyrelevanttowhetheriteasespressureonwildfishpopulations.

C. Substantialfishpopulationsmaythriveinotherlargeexpansesofoceanwaterthatcontainmorenutrients,andinriversandlakes.

D. Correct.Thissuggeststhatincreasingconsumptionoffarmedfishwouldrequireincreaseduseofwildfishasfeedforfarmedfishandthereforewouldnoteasepressureonwildfishpopulations.

E. Evenifsomefarmedfisharedifferentspeciesfromthewildfishthatarecommonlyeaten,increasedconsumptionofthefarmedfishcouldreducedemandforthewildfishandtherebyeasepressureonwildfishpopulations.


127. Cropscanbetradedonthefuturesmarketbeforetheyareharvested.Ifapoorcornharvestispredicted,pricesofcornfuturesrise;ifabountifulcornharvestispredicted,pricesofcornfuturesfall.Thismorningmeteorologistsarepredictingmuch-neededrainforthecorn-growingregionstartingtomorrow.Therefore,sinceadequatemoistureisessentialforthecurrentcrop’ssurvival,pricesofcornfutureswillfallsharplytoday.

Whichofthefollowing,iftrue,mostweakenstheargumentabove?

A. Cornthatdoesnotreceiveadequatemoistureduringitscriticalpollinationstagewillnotproduceabountifulharvest.

B. Futurespricesforcornhavebeenfluctuatingmoredramaticallythisseasonthanlastseason.

C. Therainthatmeteorologistspredictedfortomorrowisexpectedtoextendwellbeyondthecorn-growingregion.

D. Agricultureexpertsannouncedtodaythatadiseasethathasdevastatedsomeofthecorncropwillspreadwidelybeforetheendofthegrowingseason.

E. Mostpeoplewhotradeincornfuturesrarelytakephysicalpossessionofthecorntheytrade.

ArgumentEvaluationSituationCropfuturesrisewhenaharvestisexpectedtobesmallanddropwhenaharvestisexpectedtobelarge.Today’sweatherforecastforthecorn-growingareapredictsmuch-neededrain,socornfutureswillfalltoday.

ReasoningWhatinformationweakenstheargumentthatcornfutureswillfall?Thepredictionthatcornfutureswilldropsharplytodayismadesolelyonthebasisoftheforecastofrain,whichwouldleadfuturesbuyerstoexpectanabundantcrop.However,ifitbecomesknownthatsomeharmfulcircumstancesuchasadevastatingdiseasewillseverelyaffectthecorncropbeforetheendofthegrowingseason,thisknowledgemayleadbuyersoffuturestoexpectasmallerharvest,causingpricesoffuturestoriseratherthanfall.

A. Thisstatementtellsatwhatexactpointinthegrowingcyclerainiscriticaltoagoodharvest,butitgivesnoinformationaboutthisyear’sharvest.

B. Thiscomparisonofpastpricefluctuationsdoesnotaffectwhatwillhappentotoday’scornfuturesonaccountofthepredictedrain.Theargumentisnotweakened.

C. Theonlyrainthatmattersistherainthataffectsthecorn-growingregion,notareasbeyondit;thisstatementisirrelevanttotheprediction.

D. Correct.Thisstatementproperlyidentifiesinformationthatweakenstheargument.

E. Physicalpossessionofthecornisirrelevanttothepriceofcornfutures.


128. Largenationalbudgetdeficitsdonotcauselargetradedeficits.Iftheydid,countrieswiththelargestbudgetdeficitswouldalsohavethelargesttradedeficits.Infact,whendeficitfiguresareadjustedsothatdifferentcountriesarereliablycomparabletoeachother,thereisnosuchcorrelation.

Ifthestatementsabovearealltrue,whichofthefollowingcanproperlybeinferredonthebasisofthem?

A. Countrieswithlargenationalbudgetdeficitstendtorestrictforeigntrade.

B. Reliablecomparisonsofthedeficitfiguresofonecountrywiththoseofanotherareimpossible.

C. Reducingacountry’snationalbudgetdeficitwillnotnecessarilyresultinaloweringofanytradedeficitthatcountrymayhave.

D. Whencountriesareorderedfromlargesttosmallestintermsofpopulation,thesmallestcountriesgenerallyhavethesmallestbudgetandtradedeficits.

E. Countrieswiththelargesttradedeficitsneverhavesimilarlylargenationalbudgetdeficits.

ArgumentConstructionSituationNocorrelationisfoundbetweenlargenationalbudgetdeficitsandlargetradedeficits.

ReasoningWhatinferencecanbedrawnfromthisinformation?Sincethepassagestatesthatnationalbudgetdeficitsdonotcorrelatewithtradedeficits,itislogicaltoanticipateaninferenceabouttheindependentnatureoftherelationshipbetweenthetwokindsofdeficits.Onepossibleinferenceisthatreducingonedeficitneednotresultinareductionoftheother.

A. Thiswouldreceivesomesupportiftherewereinformationindicatingthattherewasacorrelationbetweenlargebudgetdeficitsandsmalltradedeficits,butnosuchinformationisgiven.

B. Thepassagestatesthatreliablecomparisonshavebeendeveloped.

C. Correct.Thisstatementproperlyidentifiesaninferencethatcanbedrawnfromthegiveninformation.

D. Thepassagegivesnoindicationastowhethereithertypeofdeficitcorrelatesinanywaywiththepopulationsizeofacountry.

E. Thoughthereisnogeneralcorrelationbetweenthetwokindsofdeficits,itcannotbeinferredthattherearenocountriesinwhichbothkindsofdeficitsarelarge.



Themoreworriedinvestorsareaboutlosingtheirmoney,themorethey

willdemandahighpotentialreturnontheirinvestment;greatrisksmustbeoffsetbythechanceofgreatrewards.Thisprincipleisthefundamentaloneindetermininginterestrates,anditisillustratedbythefactthat

A. successfulinvestorsaredistinguishedbyanabilitytomakeveryriskyinvestmentswithoutworryingabouttheirmoney

B. lendersreceivehigherinterestratesonunsecuredloansthanonloansbackedbycollateral

C. intimesofhighinflation,theinterestpaidtodepositorsbybankscanactuallybebelowtherateofinflation

D. atanyonetime,acommercialbankwillhaveasinglerateofinterestthatitwillexpectallofitsindividualborrowerstopay

E. thepotentialreturnoninvestmentinanewcompanyistypicallylowerthanthepotentialreturnoninvestmentinawell-establishedcompany

ArgumentConstructionSituationTheprincipleofdetermininginterestratesisrelatedtotheriskinvolvedinmakingtheinvestmentofaloan.Potentiallygreaterrewardswillleadlenders(investors)toacceptgreaterrisks.

ReasoningWhichexampleillustratestheprinciplethatgreaterrisksshouldproducegreaterrewards?Theexamplemustbeabouttherelationshipofrisktobenefit.Lenderstakeagreaterriskwhenloansareunsecured(notbackedbycollateral)becausethereisachancetheycouldlosetheirmoneyentirely.Theprincipleindicatesthatthelenders—whobydefinitionareinvestors—woulddemandtherewardofhigherinterestrates.

A. Thefreedomfromanxietyenjoyedbysomeinvestorsisnotrelevant.Whileriskyinvestmentsarementioned,thisstatementdoesnotmentiontheirreturn.

B. Correct.Thisstatementproperlyidentifiesanexamplethatshowsthatriskierloans—thosenotbackedbycollateral—receivethebenefitofhigherinterestrates.

C. Thisdiscussionofinterestratesintimesofinflationdoesnotmentionpotentialriskorpotentialbenefit.

D. Asinglerateofinterestforallinvestments,nomatterthelevelof

risk,contradictstheprincipleandsocannotpossiblybeanexampleofit.

E. Newcompaniesaregenerallyriskierthanestablishedones.Alowerrateofreturnforsuchriskiernewcompaniescontradictstheprinciple.


130. Itisoftensaidthathighratesofinflationtendtodiminishpeople’sincentivetosaveandinvest.Thisviewmustbeincorrect,however,becausepeoplegenerallysavedandinvestedmoreoftheirincomeinthe1970’swheninflationrateswerehighthantheydidinthe1980’swheninflationrateswerelow.

Ofthefollowing,thebestcriticismoftheargumentaboveisthatitoverlooksthepossibilitythat

A. allpeopledonotrespondinthesamewaytoagiveneconomicstimulus

B. certainfactorsoperatinginthe1980’sbutnotinthe1970’sdiminishedpeople’sincentivetosaveandinvest

C. thepopulationwaslargerinthe1980’sthanitwasinthe1970’s

D. theproponentsoftheviewcitedwouldstandtogainifinflationratesbecomelower

E. afactorthataffectspeople’ssavingsbehaviorinacertainwaycouldaffectpeople’sinvestmentbehaviorquitedifferently

ArgumentEvaluationSituationPeoplegenerallysavedandinvestedmoreinthe1970’swheninflationwashighthaninthe1980swheninflationwaslow,despitethefactthatitiscommonlybelievedthathighinflationdiscouragessavingsandinvestment.

ReasoningWhydoestheobservationaboutsavings,investment,andinflationratesinthe1970’sand1980’snotjustifytheconclusionthathighinflationdoesnotgenerallydiminishpeople’sincentivetosaveandinvest?Theargumentobservesthatoverthecourseoftwodecadestherewasapositiveratherthananegativecorrelationbetweeninflationontheonehandandsavingsandinvestmentontheother.Itinfersfromthisthathighratesofinflationdonottendtodiminishpeople’sincentivetosaveandinvest.Isthisinference

justified?Notethattheclaimthatthisargumentistryingtodiscreditisnotthathighratesofinflationalwaysdiminishedpeople’sincentivetosaveandinvest.Rather,theclaimismerelythathighratesofinflationtendtodothis.Theargumentoverlooksthepossibilitythatduringthetwodecadesinquestionotherfactorsmayhavecausedapositivecorrelationtobrieflyappearevenifingeneralthecorrelationisnegative.

A. Theargumentiscompatiblewiththehypothesisthatsomepeoplerespondtoinflationbysavingandinvestingmore,whileothersdonot.

B. Correct.Iftheseotherfactors,unrelatedtotheinflationrate,thatoperatedinthe1980’sbutnotthe1970’s,createdanevengreaterdisincentivetosavingsandinvestmentthanhighinflationratesprovide,thenthosetrendsdonotprovideevidenceaboutthegeneralrelationshipamongsavings,investment,andinflation.

C. Theargumentappearstoconcernsavingsandinvestmentpercapita,sototalpopulationsizeshouldbeirrelevant.Butincreasingpopulationwouldnotexplaindecliningtotalamountsofsavingsandinvestment,either.

D. Ifanything,thepossibilitythattheproponents’ulteriormotivesdistortedtheirreasoningwouldhelptosupporttheargument’sconclusionthattheproponents’viewisincorrect.

E. Theargumentaddressesthispossibilitybypresentingevidencethatinflationwaspositivelycorrelatedwithbothsavingsandinvestmentduringthe1970’sand1980’s.


131. Aproposedordinancerequirestheinstallationinnewhomesofsprinklersautomaticallytriggeredbythepresenceofafire.However,ahomebuilderarguedthatbecausemorethan90percentofresidentialfiresareextinguishedbyahouseholdmember,residentialsprinklerswouldonlymarginallydecreasepropertydamagecausedbyresidentialfires.

Whichofthefollowing,iftrue,wouldmostseriouslyweakenthehomebuilder’sargument?

A. Mostindividualshavenoformaltraininginhowtoextinguishfires.

B. Sincenewhomesareonlyatinypercentageofavailablehousingin

thecity,thenewordinancewouldbeextremelynarrowinscope.

C. Theinstallationofsmokedetectorsinnewresidencescostssignificantlylessthantheinstallationofsprinklers.

D. Inthecitywheretheordinancewasproposed,theaveragetimerequiredbythefiredepartmenttorespondtoafirewaslessthanthenationalaverage.

E. Thelargestproportionofpropertydamagethatresultsfromresidentialfiresiscausedbyfiresthatstartwhennohouseholdmemberispresent.

ArgumentEvaluationSituationAhomebuilderclaimsthatrequiringautomaticsprinklersinnewhomeswillnotsignificantlydecreasepropertydamagefromresidentialfiresbecausemorethan90percentofhomefiresareputoutbyahouseholdmember.

ReasoningWhichpointweakenstheargument?Thehomebuilder’sargumentimplicitlyrecognizesthattherearesomeresidentialfiresthatarenotextinguishedbyhouseholdmembers.Forinstance,firesmayoccurwhennooneishometoputoutthefire—asituationthatautomaticsprinklerswouldremedy.Ifsuchfiresleadtoconsiderabledamage,thenthehomebuilder’sconclusionisnotjustified.

A. Ifmorethan90percentofresidentialfiresaresuccessfullyextinguishedbytheindividualswholivethere,thennoformaltrainingappearstobenecessary.

B. Thesmallpercentageofnewhomessupportsthebuilder’sposition;itdoesnotweakentheargument.

C. Theargumentisaboutsprinklersystems,notsmokedetectiondevices.

D. Theargumentisnotaboutacomparisonbetweenfiredepartmentsandsprinklersystems.

E. Correct.Thisstatementproperlyidentifiesaweaknessinthehomebuilder’sargumentbyshowingthatthemostdamageoccurswhennohouseholdmemberispresenttoputoutthefire.



Withintheearth’score,whichisiron,pressureincreaseswithdepth.Becausethetemperatureatwhichironmeltsincreaseswithpressure,theinnercoreissolidandtheoutercoreismolten.Physicistscandeterminethemeltingtemperatureofironatanygivenpressureandthepressureforanygivendepthintheearth.Therefore,theactualtemperatureattheboundaryoftheearth’souterandinnercores—themeltingtemperatureofironthere—canbedetermined,since__________.

A. thedepthbeneaththeearth’ssurfaceoftheboundarybetweentheouterandinnercoresisknown

B. someoftheheatfromtheearth’scoreflowstothesurfaceoftheearth

C. pressureswithintheearth’soutercorearemuchgreaterthanpressuresabovetheoutercore

D. nowhereintheearth’scorecanthetemperaturebemeasureddirectly

E. thetemperatureswithintheearth’sinnercorearehigherthanintheoutercore

ArgumentConstructionSituationPressurewithintheearth’sironcoreincreaseswithdepth.Becausethemeltingtemperatureofironincreaseswithpressure,theinnercoreissolidandtheoutercoremolten.Physicistscandetermineiron’smeltingtemperatureatanypressureandthepressureitisunderatanydepth.

ReasoningWhatfurtherpremise,combinedwiththeinformationprovided,wouldsupporttheconclusionthatphysicistscandeterminethetemperatureattheboundarybetweentheouterandinnercores?Sincephysicistscandetermineiron’smeltingtemperatureatanypressureandthepressureitisunderatanydepth,theymustbeabletodetermineitsmeltingtemperatureatanydepth.Thetemperatureattheboundarybetweentheinnerandoutercoresmustexactlyequalthemeltingtemperaturethere,sincethatistheboundarybetweenthemoltenandsolidpartsofthecore.Todeterminethetemperatureattheboundary,therefore,itwouldsufficetoknowthedepthoftheboundary.

A. Correct.Ifphysicistsknowthedepthoftheboundarybetweentheinnerandoutercores,theycandeterminethetemperatureattheboundary.

B. Thefactthatsomeheatflowsfromthecoretothesurfaceistoovaguetohelpindeterminingexacttemperaturesanywhere.

C. Thedifferenceinpressuresbetweentheoutercoreandtheregionaboveitisonlyvaguelydescribedhereandisnotclearlyrelevanttothetemperatureattheboundarybetweentheoutercoreandtheinnercorebelowit.

D. Anabsenceofinformationwouldnotbehelpfulindeterminingthetemperatureattheboundarybetweentheouterandinnercores.

E. Thisinformationisnotsufficientlyspecifictoshowthatthetemperatureattheboundarybetweentheouterandinnercorescanbedetermined.



WhenofficialsinTannersburgreleasedtheirplantowidenthecity’smainroads,environmentalistsprotestedthatwidenedroadswouldattractmoretrafficandleadtoincreasedairpollution.Inresponse,cityofficialspointedoutthattoday’spollution-controldevicesareattheirmosteffectiveinvehiclestravelingathigherspeedsandthatwideningroadswouldincreasetheaveragespeedoftraffic.However,thiseffectcanhardlybeexpectedtooffsettheeffectpointedoutbyenvironmentalists,since__________.

A. increasesintrafficvolumegenerallyproducedecreasesintheaveragespeedoftrafficunlessroadsarewidened

B. severaloftheroadsthatareslatedforwideningwillhavetobeclosedtemporarilywhileconstructionisunderway

C. mostoftheairpollutiongeneratedbyurbantrafficcomesfromvehiclesthatdonothavefunctioningpollution-controldevices

D. thenewlywidenedroadswillnothaveincreasedtrafficvolumeiftheroadsthatmustbeusedtoreachthemareinadequate

E. avehicletravelingonaroutethatgoesthroughTannersburgwillspendlesstimeonTannersburg’sroadsoncetheroadsarewidened

ArgumentEvaluationSituationEnvironmentalistsprotestedaplantowidenacity’smainroadsonthegroundsthatitwouldincreasetrafficandairpollution.Cityofficialsrepliedthatwideningtheroadswouldincreaseaveragetrafficspeeds,whichwouldimprovetheeffectivenessofvehicles’pollution-controldevices.

ReasoningWhatwouldmostsupporttheconclusionthattheimprovedeffectivenessofthepollution-controldeviceswouldbeinsufficienttopreventtheincreasedtrafficfromincreasingairpollution?Thewordsinceprecedingtheblankspaceattheendoftheargumentindicatesthatthespaceshouldbefilledwithapremisesupportingtheconclusionstatedimmediatelybeforethesince.Tosupportthisconclusion,wewouldneedevidencethatwideningtheroadsandincreasingtrafficspeedswouldnotimprovethepollution-controldevices’effectivenessenoughtocompensatefortheamountofaddedairpollutiongeneratedbytheadditionaltrafficonthewidenedroads.

A. Itisunclearwhethertrafficvolumewouldincreaseiftheroadswerenotwidened.Butifitdid,thiswouldcastdoubtontheconclusionbysuggestingthatacombinationofhighertrafficvolumeandlowerspeedscouldmakeairpollutionworseiftheroadswerenotwidenedthaniftheywerewidened.

B. Theargumentisaboutthelong-termeffectsofwideningtheroads,notaboutthetemporaryeffectsofclosingthemduringconstruction.

C. Correct.Ifmostvehiclesinthearealackair-pollutiondevicesaltogetherorhaveonesthatdonotwork,thenitishighlyquestionablewhetherthegreaterefficiencyofthefewfunctioningdeviceswouldbesufficienttocompensatefortheincreaseinairpollutionthatwouldresultfromincreasedtraffic.

D. Ifanything,thiscastsdoubtontheconclusionbysuggestingthatwideningtheroadsmaynotincreasetrafficvolumeorairpollutionatall.

E. Ifanything,thiscastsdoubtontheconclusionbysuggestingthatwideningtheroadswilldecreasetheamountoftimeeachvehiclespendsgeneratingairpollutiononthoseroads.


134. Whichofthefollowingmostlogicallycompletesthereasoning?

Eitherfoodscarcityorexcessivehuntingcanthreatenapopulationofanimals.Ifthegroupfacesfoodscarcity,individualsinthegroupwillreachreproductivematuritylaterthanotherwise.Ifthegroupfacesexcessivehunting,individualsthatreachreproductivematurityearlierwillcometopredominate.Therefore,itshouldbepossibletodeterminewhetherprehistoricmastodonsbecameextinctbecauseoffoodscarcityorhumanhunting,sincetherearefossilizedmastodonremainsfrombothbeforeandaftermastodonpopulationsdeclined,and__________.

A. therearemorefossilizedmastodonremainsfromtheperiodbeforemastodonpopulationsbegantodeclinethanfromafterthatperiod

B. theaverageageatwhichmastodonsfromagivenperiodreachedreproductivematuritycanbeestablishedfromtheirfossilizedremains

C. itcanbeaccuratelyestimatedfromfossilizedremainswhenmastodonsbecameextinct

D. itisnotknownwhenhumansfirstbeganhuntingmastodons

E. climatechangesmayhavegraduallyreducedthefoodavailabletomastodons

ArgumentConstructionSituationInapopulationofanimals,foodscarcitycauseslaterreproductivematurity;ifthatpopulationishuntedexcessively,earlier-maturinganimalswillbemorenumerousinthepopulation.

ReasoningWhatpointwouldmostlogicallycompletetheargument?Fortheinformationgiventobeofuseindeterminingwhatcausedmastodons’extinction,mastodonfossilswouldneedtoindicatetheageatwhichmastodonsreachedreproductivematurity,sincethatiswhattheargumentsuggestscanindicatecauseofextinction.Iffossilizedremainsexistfrombeforeandaftermastodonpopulationsbegantodecline,andiftheageatwhichthosefossilizedmastodonsreachedreproductivematuritycanbedetermined,thenwewillhaveagoodideaofwhatcausedtheirextinction:iftheyreachedreproductivematuritylate,itwasprobablyfoodscarcity,butiftheymaturedearlier,itwasmostlikelyhunting.

A. Thisfactonlyhelpsindicatethattherewasadecline;ittellsus

nothingaboutwhatcausedthedecline.

B. Correct.Thisstatementproperlyidentifiesapointthatlogicallycompletestheargument:itexplainshowthefossilizedmastodonremainscouldbeusedtohelpdeterminewhatcausedmastodons’extinction.

C. Thepointatwhichmastodonsbecameextinctisnotpartofthisargument,whichisconcernedwiththecauseoftheirextinction.Theonlywayinwhichthiscouldberelevanttotheissueathandisifmastodonsbecameextinctbeforehumanstookuphuntingmastodons—buttheargumentincludesnoinformationonwhetherthiswasso.

D. Notknowingwhenhumansbeganhuntingmastodonswouldhavenoeffectontheargument,whichisconcernedwithhowmastodonfossils,combinedwithknowledgeabouthowfoodscarcityandhuntingaffectmastodonreproductivematurity,canhelpdeterminehowmastodonsbecameextinct.

E. Thisfactonlyshowsthatfoodscarcitymayhaveledtomastodon’sdecline.Ittellsusnothingaboutwhetherfossilizedremainscanhelpdeterminewhetheritwasfoodscarcityorhumanhuntingthatactuallyledtothedecline.


135. Unlikethewholesalepriceofrawwool,thewholesalepriceofrawcottonhasfallenconsiderablyinthelastyear.Thus,althoughtheretailpriceofcottonclothingatretailclothingstoreshasnotyetfallen,itwillinevitablyfall.


A. Thecostofprocessingrawcottonforclothhasincreasedduringthelastyear.

B. Thewholesalepriceofrawwoolistypicallyhigherthanthatofthesamevolumeofrawcotton.

C. Theoperatingcostsoftheaverageretailclothingstorehaveremainedconstantduringthelastyear.

D. Changesinretailpricesalwayslagbehindchangesinwholesaleprices.

E. Thecostofharvestingrawcottonhasincreasedinthelastyear.

ArgumentEvaluationSituationSincethewholesalepriceofrawcottonhasfallensignificantly,theretailpriceofcottonclothinginstoreswillinevitablyfall.

ReasoningWhatpointweakensthisargument?Considercarefullythedifferencebetweenthetwoproductsforwhichcostsarebeingcompared:cottonandcloth.Thisargumentassumesthatlowerwholesalepricesforarawproductmustnecessarilyresultinlowerretailpricesforaprocessedproduct.Whatotherfactorscouldhaveanimpactonthefinalretailpricesofcottonclothing?Ifanyofthecostsoftransformingtherawproductintoaprocessedproductincrease,thentheretailpricesofcottonclothingwillnotnecessarilyfall.

A. Correct.Thisstatementproperlyidentifiesaweaknessintheargument.

B. Therelativepricesofrawwoolandrawcottonareirrelevanttopricechangesinrawcottonandprocessedcotton.

C. Onestepbetweenwholesaleandretailpricesistheoperatingcostoftheretailstore.Ifthatoperatingcosthasbeenconstantratherthanrising,itispossiblethattheretailpricescouldfollowthelowerwholesaleprices.Thustheargumentisnotweakened.

D. Theargumentnotesthatthewholesalepricehasfalleninthelastyearandthatthoughtheretailpricehasnotyetfallen,itwillinevitablyfall.Theargumenthasalreadytakenthelagintoaccountandisnotweakenedbythisstatement.

E. Harvestingcostsarepartoftheassumedincreasedpriceofrawcottonanddonotaffectcurrentretailprices.


136. Manyofficebuildingsdesignedtopreventoutsideairfromenteringhavebeenshowntohaveelevatedlevelsofvarioustoxicsubstancescirculatingthroughtheairinside,aphenomenonknownassickbuildingsyndrome.Yettheairinotherofficebuildingsdoesnothaveelevatedlevelsofthesesubstances,eventhoughthosebuildingsarethesameageasthe“sick”buildingsandhavesimilardesignsandventilationsystems.

Whichofthefollowing,iftrue,mosthelpstoexplainwhynotallofficebuildingsdesignedtopreventoutsideairfromenteringhaveairthatcontainselevatedlevelsoftoxicsubstances?

A. Certainadhesivesanddryingagentsusedinparticulartypesoffurniture,carpets,andpaintcontributethebulkofthetoxicsubstancesthatcirculateintheairofofficebuildings.

B. Mostofficebuildingswithsickbuildingsyndromewerebuiltbetween1950and1990.

C. Amongbuildingsdesignedtopreventoutsideairfromentering,housesarenolesslikelythanofficebuildingstohaveairthatcontainselevatedlevelsoftoxicsubstances.

D. Thetoxicsubstancesthatarefoundintheairof“sick”officebuildingsaresubstancesthatarefoundinatleastsmallquantitiesinnearlyeverybuilding.

E. Officebuildingswithwindowsthatcanreadilybeopenedareunlikelytosufferfromsickbuildingsyndrome.

ArgumentEvaluationSituationManyofficebuildingsdesignedtopreventoutsideairfromenteringhaveelevatedlevelsoftoxicsubstancesintheirinteriorair,butothersuchbuildingssimilarinage,design,andventilationdonot.

ReasoningWhatwouldhelptoexplainthedifferenceinairqualityamongbuildingssimilarinage,design,andventilation?Ifofficebuildingsaredesignedtopreventoutsideairfromentering,toxicsubstancesemittedintotheinteriorairmightnotbeventilatedoutquickly,andthusmightbecomemoreconcentratedinsidethebuilding.Butifsuchtoxicsubstancesarenotemittedintoabuilding’sinteriorairinthefirstplace,theywillnotbecomeconcentratedthere,evenifthebuildingispoorlyventilated.Soanyfactorthatsuggestswhytoxicsubstancesareemittedintotheinteriorairofsomebuildingsbutnotothersofsimilarageanddesignwouldhelptoexplainthedifferenceinthebuildings’airquality.

A. Correct.Somebuildingsmayhavethesetypesoffurniture,carpets,andpaint,whileotherbuildingssimilarinage,design,andventilationdonot.

B. Sinceallthesebuildingswerebuiltduringthesameperiod,this

doesnothelptoexplainthedifferenceinairqualityamongbuildingssimilarinage.

C. Thepassageconcernsairqualityinofficebuildingsonly,notinhouses.

D. Thisdoesnothelptoexplainwhythesetoxicsubstancesaremoreconcentratedinsomeofficebuildingsthaninothers.

E. Thepassageconcernsthedifferencesinairqualityonlyamongofficebuildingsthatweredesignedtopreventoutsideairfromentering.


137. Adiscountretailerofbasichouseholdnecessitiesemploysthousandsofpeopleandpaysmostofthemattheminimumwagerate.Yetfollowingafederallymandatedincreaseoftheminimumwageratethatincreasedtheretailer’soperatingcostsconsiderably,theretailer’sprofitsincreasedmarkedly.

Whichofthefollowing,iftrue,mosthelpstoresolvetheapparentparadox?

A. Overhalfoftheretailer’soperatingcostsconsistofpayrollexpenditures;yetonlyasmallpercentageofthoseexpendituresgotopaymanagementsalaries.

B. Theretailer’scustomerbaseismadeupprimarilyofpeoplewhoearn,orwhodependontheearningsofotherswhoearn,theminimumwage.

C. Theretailer’soperatingcosts,otherthanwages,increasedsubstantiallyaftertheincreaseintheminimumwageratewentintoeffect.

D. Whentheincreaseintheminimumwageratewentintoeffect,theretaileralsoraisedthewagerateforemployeeswhohadbeenearningjustaboveminimumwage.

E. Themajorityoftheretailer’semployeesworkascashiers,andmostcashiersarepaidtheminimumwage.

ArgumentEvaluationSituationAdiscountretailerofhouseholdnecessitiespaystheminimumwagetomostofitsemployees.Whentheminimumwage

ratewentup,theretailer’soperatingcostsrose.However,itsprofitsalsorose.

ReasoningWhatinformationhelpsexplaintheparadoxicalsituationthattheretailer’sprofitsroseeventhoughitscostsrose?Considerthenatureofthecostincrease:wageshavegoneup.Iftheretailer’scustomerbaseincludesmanypeoplewhoearnminimumwage,theirbuyingpowerhasrisenwiththeminimumwageandtheycanspendmore.Thiswouldexplaintheriseinprofits.

A. Thisstatementhelpsexplaintheimpactofthewage-rateincreaseoncostsbutdoesnotexplainhowrisingcostscouldleadtoprofits.

B. Correct.Thisstatementproperlyexplainsthesurprisingimpactofthewage-rateincreaseonprofits.

C. Iftheretailer’sothercostsalsorose,thentheparadoxoftheretailer’sprofitsisevenmoremysterious.

D. Increasingotherwagescontributestoevenhigheroperatingcosts;thereisnoinformationtoexplainhowhighercostscouldleadtoprofits.

E. Thisdetailaboutminimum-wagejobsdoesnotexplainhowtheretailercouldbegainingprofitswhencostsarerising.


138. Prematurebabieswhoreceiveregularmassagesaremoreactivethanprematurebabieswhodonot.Evenwhenallthebabiesdrinkthesameamountofmilk,themassagedbabiesgainmoreweightthandotheunmassagedbabies.Thisispuzzlingbecauseamoreactivepersongenerallyrequiresagreaterfoodintaketomaintainorgainweight.

Whichofthefollowing,iftrue,bestreconcilestheapparentdiscrepancydescribedabove?

A. Increasedactivityleadstoincreasedlevelsofhunger,especiallywhenfoodintakeisnotalsoincreased.

B. Massageincreasesprematurebabies’curiosityabouttheirenvironment,andcuriosityleadstoincreasedactivity.

C. Increasedactivitycausestheintestinesofprematurebabiestomaturemorequickly,enablingthebabiestodigestandabsorbmoreofthenutrientsinthemilktheydrink.

D. Massagedoesnotincreasethegrowthrateofbabiesoveroneyear

old,ifthebabieshadnotbeenpreviouslymassaged.

E. Prematurebabiesrequireadailyintakeofnutrientsthatissignificantlyhigherthanthatrequiredbybabieswhowerenotbornprematurely.

ArgumentConstructionSituationPrematurebabieswhoreceiveregularmassagesaremoreactiveandgainmoreweightthanunmassagedprematurebabiesdo,evenwhentheydrinkthesameamountofmilk.

ReasoningWhatwouldhelptoexplainhowthemassagedbabiescouldbemoreactivethantheunmassagedbabiesandyetstillgainmoreweightwithoutconsumingmoremilk?Ifthemassagedbabiesareburningmorecaloriesthanunmassagedbabiesthroughtheirextraactivity,butarenotconsumingmorecaloriesintheformofmilk,thenhowaretheygainingmoreweightthantheunmassagedbabies?Possibleexplanationscouldcitefactorssuggestinghowthemassagedbabiesmightnotactuallyburnmorecaloriesdespitetheirgreateractivity;howtheymightconsumeorabsorbmorecaloriesevenwithoutconsumingmoremilk;orhowtheymightgainmoreweightwithoutextracalorieintake.

A. Increasedhungerwithoutincreasedfoodintakewouldnothelptoexplainwhythemassagedbabiesaregainingmoreweight.

B. Thisonlyhelpstoexplainwhythemassagedbabiesaremoreactive,notwhytheyaregainingmoreweightwithoutconsumingmoremilk.

C. Correct.Thissuggeststhattheincreasedactivityofthemassagedbabiescouldincreasetheircalorieandnutrientintakefromagivenamountofmilk,therebyexplaininghowtheycouldgainextraweightwithoutdrinkingmoremilk.

D. Thissuggeststhattheapparentdiscrepancyisonlypresentinprematurebabiesunderoneyearold,butitdoesnotexplainwhythatdiscrepancyexists.

E. Thepassagedoesnotcompareprematurebabiestobabiesthatwerenotbornprematurely,butratheronlycomparesprematurebabiesthataremassagedtoprematurebabiesthatarenotmassaged.


139. Conventionalwisdomsuggestsvaccinatingelderlypeoplefirstinfluseason,becausetheyareatgreatestriskofdyingiftheycontractthevirus.Thisyear’sfluvirusposesparticularrisktoelderlypeopleandalmostnoneatalltoyoungerpeople,particularlychildren.Nevertheless,healthprofessionalsarerecommendingvaccinatingchildrenfirstagainstthevirusratherthanelderlypeople.

Whichofthefollowing,iftrue,providesthestrongestreasonforthehealthprofessionals’recommendation?

A. Childrenarevulnerabletodangerousinfectionswhentheirimmunesystemsareseverelyweakenedbyotherdiseases.

B. Childrenareparticularlyunconcernedwithhygieneandthereforearethegroupmostresponsibleforspreadingthefluvirustoothers.

C. Thevaccinationsreceivedlastyearwillconfernoimmunitytothisyear’sfluvirus.

D. Childrenwhocatchonestrainofthefluvirusandthenrecoverarelikelytodevelopimmunitytoatleastsomestrainswithwhichtheyhavenotyetcomeincontact.

E. Childrenarenomorelikelythanadultstohaveimmunitytoaparticularfluvirusiftheyhaveneverlivedthroughapreviousepidemicofthesamevirus.

ArgumentConstructionSituationAlthoughthisyear’sfluvirusposesparticularrisktoelderlypeopleandalmostnorisktochildren,healthprofessionalsarerecommendingvaccinatingchildrenbeforeelderlypeople,contrarytowhatconventionalwisdomrecommends.

ReasoningWhatwouldhelpjustifythehealthprofessionals’recommendation?Sincechildrenwillexperiencealmostnoriskfromthevirus,vaccinatingthemfirstfortheirownsakeappearsunnecessary.However,individualsatnopersonalriskfromaviruscanstilltransmitittomore-vulnerableindividuals.Ifchildrenareespeciallylikelytotransmitthevirus,itcouldbereasonabletovaccinatethemfirstinordertoprotectothers,includingelderlypeople,bypreventingthevirusfromspreading.

A. Thismightbeareasontovaccinatecertainchildrenwithseverelyweakenedimmunesystems,iftheirweakimmunesystemswouldevenrespondeffectivelytothevaccine.However,itisnotclearlya

reasontovaccinatethevastmajorityofchildren.

B. Correct.Thissuggeststhatchildrenareespeciallylikelytotransmitthevirusevenifitdoesnotendangerthem.Soasexplainedabove,itprovidesagoodreasonforthehealthprofessionals’recommendation.

C. Thismightbeagoodreasontovaccinateeveryone,butitisnotclearlyareasontovaccinatechildrenbeforevaccinatingelderlypeople.

D. Ifanything,thiswouldsuggestthattheremightbeareasonnottovaccinatechildrenagainstthisyear’sstrainatall:unvaccinatedchildrenwhocatchthisyear’sstrain,whichtheargumentclaimsisrelativelyharmlesstochildren,maydevelopimmunitytomoredangerousstrainsthatmightariseinthefuture.

E. Theargumentclaimsthatthisyear’svirusposesalmostnorisktochildren.Soeveniftheyarenottechnicallyimmunetoit,itdoesnotaffectthemsignificantlyenoughtojustifyvaccinatingthembeforevaccinatingelderlypeople.


140. Aneyeglassmanufacturertriedtoboostsalesforthesummerquarterbyofferingitsdistributorsaspecialdiscountiftheirordersforthatquarterexceededthoseforlastyear’ssummerquarterbyatleast20percent.Manydistributorsqualifiedforthisdiscount.Evenwithmuchmerchandisediscounted,salesincreasedenoughtoproduceahealthygaininnetprofits.Themanufacturerplanstorepeatthissuccessbyofferingthesamesortofdiscountforthefallquarter.

Whichofthefollowing,iftrue,mostclearlypointstoaflawinthemanufacturer’splantorepeatthesuccessfulperformanceofthesummerquarter?

A. Ingeneral,adistributor’sordersforthesummerquarterarenohigherthanthoseforthespringquarter.

B. Alongwithofferingspecialdiscountstoqualifyingdistributors,themanufacturerincreasednewspaperandradioadvertisinginthosedistributors’salesareas.

C. Thedistributorsmostlikelytoqualifyforthemanufacturer’sspecialdiscountarethosewhoseorderswereunusuallylowayearearlier.

D. Thedistributorswhoqualifiedforthemanufacturer’sspecial

discountwerefreetodecidehowmuchofthatdiscounttopassontotheirowncustomers.

E. Thedistributors’orderingmoregoodsinthesummerquarterleftthemoverstockedforthefallquarter.

EvaluationofaPlanSituationAmanufacturersuccessfullyboostedsalesandgainednetprofitsforthesummerquarterbygivingdistributorsadiscountiftheirordersexceededtheprevioussummer’sordersby20percent.Themanufacturerplanstorepeatthesuccessbyofferingthediscountagaininthefallquarter.

ReasoningWhatistheflawinthemanufacturer’splan?Theplanassumesthatanactionthatsucceededoncewillworkasecondtime.Whymighttheplannotworkthistime?Ifthedistributorsincreasedtheirordersduringthesummersimplybecausetheywereeagertotakeadvantageofthediscount,theresultmaybethattheyarenowoverstockedforthefallquarter.Ifso,theywillnotneedtoplaceordersformoregoods,andtheplanofcontinuingthediscountwillhavelesschanceofsuccessnow.

A. Thisisirrelevanttotheplansincerelevantquarters—fallandsummer—arenotbeingcompared.

B. Increasedadvertisingshouldcontinuetocontributetotheplan’ssuccess.

C. Evenifthequalifyingdistributorsreachedonlynormallevelsofsales,theremaybeotherdistributorswhowillqualifyinthefallbecausetheyhadlowsalesoneyearearlier.

D. Thedistributors’freedomtodecidehowmuchofthediscounttopassontocustomersisequallytrueinbothsummerandfallquartersandshouldnotaffectthesuccessoftheplan.

E. Correct.Thisstatementproperlyidentifiesaflawintheplan.


141. Vitacorp,amanufacturer,wishestomakeitsinformationboothatanindustryconventionmoreproductiveintermsofboostingsales.Theboothoffersinformationintroducingthecompany’snewproductsandservices.Toachievethedesiredresult,Vitacorp’smarketingdepartmentwillattempttoattractmorepeopletothebooth.Themarketing

director’sfirstmeasurewastoinstructeachsalespersontocallhisorherfivebestcustomersandpersonallyinvitethemtovisitthebooth.

Whichofthefollowing,iftrue,moststronglysupportsthepredictionthatthemarketingdirector’sfirstmeasurewillcontributetomeetingthegoalofboostingsales?

A. Vitacorp’ssalespeopleroutinelyinformeachimportantcustomeraboutnewproductsandservicesassoonasthedecisiontolaunchthemhasbeenmade.

B. ManyofVitacorp’scompetitorshavemadeplansformakingtheirowninformationboothsmoreproductiveinincreasingsales.

C. Aninformationbooththatiswellattendedtendstoattractvisitorswhowouldnototherwisehaveattendedthebooth.

D. MostofVitacorp’sbestcustomersalsohavebusinessdealingswithVitacorp’scompetitors.

E. Vitacorphasfewernewproductsandservicesavailablethisyearthanithadinpreviousyears.

EvaluationofaPlanSituationAmanufacturerwantsincreasedsalesfromitsinformationboothatanindustryconvention.Toboostsales,themarketingdepartmentseekstoattractmorepeopletothebooth,andthemarketingdirectortellsthesalespeopletoinvitetheirbestcustomerstovisitthebooth.

ReasoningWhichpointbestsupportsthemarketingdirector’splan?Firstaskwhatwouldbeavalidreasonforinvitingfaithfulcustomerstovisitthebooth.Suchinvitationsshouldassurethattheboothwillgenerallybebusywithvisitors.Ifpeoplearemoreattractedtoawell-attendedbooththantoanemptyone,thenmorepotentialcustomersarelikelytovisitthebusybooth,andmorevisitorsshouldproducemoresales.Themarketingdirectorisoperatingontheprinciplethatsuccessbreedssuccess.MakingsurethattheboothiswellattendedbyVitacorp’scurrentcustomersislikelytoattractmorepotentialcustomersandthusboostsales.

A. Ifthebestcustomersalreadyhaveallavailablenewproductandserviceinformation,theyareunlikelytorespondtotheinvitationtovisitthebooth;thispointisaweaknessintheplan.

B. Competitors’effortstowardthesamegoalmayhurtVitacorp’sefforts,sothispointdoesnotsupporttheplan.

C. Correct.Thisstatementproperlyidentifiesapointsupportingthemarketingdirector’splan.

D. TheplansimplyaimstoattractmorevisitorstoVitacorp’sboothtoencouragemoresalesanddoesnotaddressthefactthatVitacorpsharesitscustomerswithitscompetitors.

E. Thisinformation,ifanything,wouldsuggestthattheplanwouldbelesssuccessful.


142. Budgetconstraintshavemadepoliceofficialsconsiderreassigningaconsiderablenumberofofficersfromtrafficenforcementtoworkonhigher-priority,seriouscrimes.Reducingtrafficenforcementforthisreasonwouldbecounterproductive,however,inlightofthetendencyofcriminalstousecarswhenengagedinthecommissionofseriouscrimes.Anofficerstoppingacarforatrafficviolationcanmakeasearchthatturnsupevidenceofseriouscrime.

Whichofthefollowing,iftrue,moststrengthenstheargumentgiven?

A. Anofficerwhostopsacarcontainingevidenceofthecommissionofaseriouscrimerisksaviolentconfrontation,evenifthevehiclewasstoppedonlyforatrafficviolation.

B. Whenthepublicbecomesawarethattrafficenforcementhaslessened,ittypicallybecomeslaxinobeyingtrafficrules.

C. Thosewillingtobreakthelawtocommitseriouscrimesareoftenincommittingsuchcrimesunwillingtoobservewhattheyregardasthelesserconstraintsoftrafficlaw.

D. Theoffenderscommittingseriouscrimeswhowouldbecaughtbecauseoftrafficviolationsarenotthesamegroupofindividualsasthosewhowouldbecaughtifthearrestingofficerswerereassignedfromtrafficenforcement.

E. Thegreatmajorityofpersonswhoarestoppedbyofficersfortrafficviolationsarenotguiltyofanyseriouscrimes.

ArgumentConstructionSituationBudgetconstraintshavemadepoliceofficialsconsider

reassigningmanyofficersfromtrafficenforcementtoworkonseriouscrimes.Butcriminalsoftendrivewhencommittingseriouscrimes,andpolicewhostopcarsfortrafficviolationscanfindevidenceofthosecrimes.

ReasoningWhatadditionalinformation,whencombinedwiththeargumentprovided,wouldsuggestthatitwouldbecounterproductivetoreassignofficersfromtrafficenforcementtoworkonseriouscrimes?Theargumentimplicitlyreasonsthatbecauseofficersworkingontrafficenforcementcanturnupevidenceofseriouscrimesbysearchingcarsthatcommittrafficviolations,reassigningthoseofficerswouldhinderpoliceeffortstopreventseriouscrime,eveniftheofficerswerereassignedtoworkdirectlyonseriouscrime.Theargumentcouldbestrengthenedbyinformationsuggestingthattrafficenforcementmayincreasetheprobabilitythatevidencerelatingtoseriouscrimeswillbediscovered.

A. Ifanything,thisriskofviolencemightdiscouragetrafficenforcementofficersfromstoppingandsearchingasmanycars,thusreducingtheireffectivenessatpreventingseriouscrimes.

B. Thissuggeststhatreassigningofficersfromtrafficenforcementtoworkonseriouscrimeswouldincreasethenumberofunpunishedminortrafficviolations,notthenumberofunpunishedseriouscrimes.

C. Correct.Thissuggeststhatpeoplecommittingseriouscrimesoftencommittrafficviolationsaswell,increasingthelikelihoodthattrafficenforcementofficerswillstopandsearchtheircarsandfindevidenceofthosecrimes.

D. Thequestionatissueisnotwhetherthesameoffenderswouldbecaughtiftheofficerswerereassigned,butratherwhethermoreorfeweroffenderswouldbecaught.

E. Thisweakenstheargumentbysuggestingthatmostworkbytrafficenforcementofficersisunrelatedtopreventingseriouscrimes.


143. Pro-TectInsuranceCompanyhasrecentlybeenpayingoutmoreoncar-theftclaimsthanitexpected.Carswithspecialantitheftdevicesoralarmsystemsaremuchlesslikelytobestolenthanareothercars.ConsequentlyPro-Tect,aspartofanefforttoreduceitsannualpayouts,willofferadiscounttoholdersofcar-theftpoliciesiftheircarshave

antitheftdevicesoralarmsystems.

Whichofthefollowing,iftrue,providesthestrongestindicationthattheplanislikelytoachieveitsgoal?

A. Thedecreaseintheriskofcartheftconferredbyhavingacaralarmisgreatestwhenonlyafewcarshavesuchalarms.

B. ThenumberofpolicyholderswhohavefiledaclaiminthepastyearishigherforPro-Tectthanforotherinsurancecompanies.

C. Inoneortwoyears,thediscountthatPro-Tectisofferingwillamounttomorethanthecostofbuyingcertainhighlyeffectiveantitheftdevices.

D. Currently,Pro-Tectcannotlegallyraisethepremiumsitchargesforagivenamountofinsuranceagainstcartheft.

E. TheamountPro-Tecthasbeenpayingoutoncar-theftclaimshasbeengreaterforsomemodelsofcarthanforothers.

EvaluationofaPlanSituationAninsurancecompanyispayingmoremoneyoncar-theftclaimsthananticipated.Toreducethesepayments,thecompanyisplanningtoofferdiscountstocustomerswhosecarshaveantitheftdevicesoralarmsystems,becausesuchcarsarelesslikelytobestolen.

ReasoningWhatpieceofinformationwouldindicatethattheplanislikelytosucceed?Pro-Tectwishestoreduceitsannualpayouts,andonewayforthattohappenisforfewercarsinsuredbyPro-Tecttobestolen.Tohelpaccomplishthis,Pro-Tectisofferingdiscountstopolicyholderswhosecarsaresoequipped,becausecarsequippedwithantitheftdevicesoralarmsystemsarelesslikelytobestolenthanarecarswithoutsuchdevices.WhatwouldinterferewiththesuccessofPro-Tect’splan?Carownerswouldprobablyresistinvestinginantitheftdevicesoralarmsystemsifthecostofsuchsystemsishigherthanthediscounttheywillreceive.SoifPro-Tectsetsthediscountatalevelthatmakesinstallingantitheftdevicesseemlikeabargaintocarowners,theplanwillmostlikelysucceed.

A. Pro-Tect’splanisdesignedtoincreasethenumberofcarsequippedwithcaralarms.Ifhavingmorecarsequippedwithcaralarmsreducesthosealarms’effectivityinpreventingthefts,thenPro-Tect’splanisunlikelytoachieveitsgoal.

B. Pro-Tect’sclaimsinrelationtothoseofotherinsurancecompaniesarenotrelevanttowhetherPro-Tect’splantoreduceitsowncar-theftclaimswillachieveitsgoal.

C. Correct.ThisstatementsuggeststhatPro-Tect’splanwillprovideaneffectiveincentiveforcarownerstoinstallantitheftdevices;thisstatementthereforeproperlyidentifiesinformationthatindicatestheplanislikelytoachieveitsgoal.

D. BecausePro-Tect’splandoesnotinvolveraisingthepremiumsitcharges,restrictionsonitsabilitytodosoareirrelevanttowhetherthatplanwillachieveitsgoal.

E. Pro-Tect’splandoesnotdistinguishamongdifferentmodelsofcar,sothisstatementindicatesnothingaboutwhethertheproposedplanwillsucceed.


144. Start-upcompaniesfinancedbyventurecapitalistshaveamuchlowerfailureratethancompaniesfinancedbyothermeans.Sourceoffinancing,therefore,mustbeamoreimportantcausativefactorinthesuccessofastart-upcompanythanaresuchfactorsasthepersonalcharacteristicsoftheentrepreneur,thequalityofstrategicplanning,orthemanagementstructureofthecompany.


A. Venturecapitaliststendtobemoreresponsivethanothersourcesoffinancingtochangesinastart-upcompany’sfinancialneeds.

B. Thestrategicplanningofastart-upcompanyisalessimportantfactorinthelong-termsuccessofthecompanythanarethepersonalcharacteristicsoftheentrepreneur.

C. Morethanhalfofallnewcompaniesfailwithinfiveyears.

D. Themanagementstructuresofstart-upcompaniesaregenerallylessformalthanthemanagementstructuresofongoingbusinesses.

E. Venturecapitalistsbasetheirdecisionstofundstart-upcompaniesonsuchfactorsasthecharacteristicsoftheentrepreneurandqualityofstrategicplanningofthecompany.

ArgumentEvaluation

SituationWhenventurecapitalistsfundstart-upcompanies,thefailurerateismuchlowerthanwhenthecompaniesarefundedbyothermeans.Thesuccessofstart-upcompanies,then,maybeattributedmoretotheirsourceoffundingthantoanyotherfactor.

ReasoningWhatpointweakenstheargument?Theargumentconcludesthatthesourceoffundingisthesinglemostimportantfactorindeterminingthesuccessofastart-upcompany.Butwhatifthesourceofthatfunding,venturecapitalists,considersotherfactorsbeforemakingitsinvestment?Venturecapitalistsmayevaluatethecharacteristicsoftheentrepreneuraswellasthecompany’sstrategicplanandmanagementstructurebeforedecidingtofundthestart-upcompany.Ifthisisthecase,thenthemostimportantcausativefactorinthesuccessofthecompanycannotbesaidtobethesourceofthefunding.

A. Theresponsivenessofventurecapitalistsisapointinfavoroftheargument,notagainstit.

B. Thisstatementabouttherelativeimportanceofstrategicplanningandthepersonalityoftheentrepreneurdoesnotweakentheargumentbecauseitdoesnotaddresstheimportanceofthesefactorsinrelationtofinancialbacking.

C. Theargumentconcernsonlysuccessfulstart-upcompanies,sohighfailureratesareirrelevant.

D. Theargumentdealswiththesuccessratesofstart-upcompaniesbasedontheirsourcesoffunding.Acomparisonofstart-upcompaniesingeneralwithongoingbusinesseshasnobearingontheargument.

E. Correct.Thisstatementproperlyidentifiesevidencethatweakenstheargument.


145. ArtrestorerswhohavebeenstudyingthefactorsthatcauseRenaissanceoilpaintingstodeterioratephysicallywhensubjecttoclimaticchangeshavefoundthattheoilpaintusedinthesepaintingsactuallyadjuststothesechangeswell.Therestorersthereforehypothesizethatitisalayerofmaterialcalledgesso,whichisunderthepaint,thatcausesthedeterioration.

Whichofthefollowing,iftrue,moststronglysupportstherestorers’hypothesis?

A. Renaissanceoilpaintingswithathinlayerofgessoarelesslikelytoshowdeteriorationinresponsetoclimaticchangesthanthosewithathickerlayer.

B. Renaissanceoilpaintingsareoftenpaintedonwoodenpanels,whichswellwhenhumidityincreasesandcontractwhenitdeclines.

C. Oilpaintexpandsandcontractsreadilyinresponsetochangesintemperature,butitabsorbslittlewaterandsoislittleaffectedbychangesinhumidity.

D. AnespeciallyhardandnonabsorbenttypeofgessowastherawmaterialformoldingsontheframesofRenaissanceoilpaintings.

E. GessolayersappliedbyRenaissancepainterstypicallyconsistedofacoarsebaselayerontowhichseveralincreasinglyfine-grainedlayerswereapplied.

ArgumentEvaluationSituationRenaissancepaintingsaresubjecttodeteriorationduetochangesinclimate,buttheiractualpaintisnotafactorinthisdeterioration.Instead,restorershypothesize,itisgesso,thematerialunderthepaint,thatcausesproblemsforthepaintings.

ReasoningWhatwouldmoststronglysupportthehypothesisthatgessoiscausingthedeterioration?Anindicationthatgessoisaffectedbyclimaticchangeswouldbemosthelpfulinsupportingthehypothesis.Whatcouldshowthatgessoisaffectedinthisway?Iftheextentofapainting’sdeteriorationisdirectlyrelatedtotheamountofgessousedunderthatpainting,thenthegessoclearlyplayssomepartinthatdeterioration.

A. Correct.Thisstatementproperlyidentifiesapointsupportingthehypothesis.

B. Thissuggeststhatanotherfactor—thewoodofthepanels—hasaroleinthepaintings’deterioration.Thusitweakensthehypothesisthatgessocausesthedeterioration.

C. Thismerelyreinforcesgiveninformation,thatthepaintitselfisnotresponsibleforthepaintings’deterioration.

D. BecausethisgivesnoinformationaboutanyconnectionbetweenthisespeciallyhardandnonabsorbenttypeofgessoandthetypeofgessousedunderthepaintinRenaissancepaintings,theproperties

andusageoftheformertypeofgessoareirrelevanttothequestionofwhethergessoisresponsibleforthepaintings’deterioration.

E. Becausewearetoldnothingaboutwhetherthistechniqueofgessoapplicationincreasesordecreasesthelikelihoodthatgessowillbeaffectedbyclimaticchange,itdoesnotsupporttherestorers’hypothesis.



Leafbeetlesdamagewillowtreesbystrippingawaytheirleaves,butacombinationofparasitesandpredatorsgenerallykeepspopulationsofthesebeetlesincheck.Researchershavefoundthatsevereairpollutionresultsinreducedpredatorpopulations.Theparasites,bycontrast,arenotadverselyaffectedbypollution;nevertheless,theresearchers’discoveryprobablydoesexplainwhyleafbeetlescauseparticularlyseveredamagetowillowsinareaswithsevereairpollution,since__________.

A. neitherthepredatorsnortheparasitesofleafbeetlesthemselvesattackwillowtrees

B. theparasitesthatattackleafbeetlesactuallytendtobemoreprevalentinareaswithsevereairpollutionthantheyareelsewhere

C. thedamagecausedbyleafbeetlesisusuallynotenoughtokillawillowtreeoutright

D. whereairpollutionisnotespeciallysevere,predatorshavemuchmoreimpactonleaf-beetlepopulationsthanparasitesdo

E. willowsoftengrowinareaswhereairpollutionisespeciallysevere

ArgumentConstructionSituationLeafbeetlesdamagewillowtrees,butpredatorsandparasiteskeepleafbeetlepopulationsincheck.Airpollutionreducespopulationsofpredatorsbutnotofparasites.Leafbeetlesdamagewillowsespeciallyseverelyinareaswithsevereairpollution.

ReasoningWhatwouldsupporttheconclusionthatairpollution’seffectsonthepredatorpopulations(butnotontheparasitepopulations)explainswhyleafbeetlesdamagewillowsthemostinareaswithsevereairpollution?Thewordsinceprecedingtheblankspaceattheendofthepassageindicatesthatthespaceshouldbe

filledwithapremisesupportingtheconclusionstatedimmediatelybeforethesince.Tosupportthisconclusion,itwouldhelptohaveevidencethatpredatorsplayapredominantroleinkeepingleafbeetlepopulationsincheck,andthusthatthereductionofpredatorpopulationsbyairpollutioncouldbesufficienttoenableleafbeetlepopulationstogrowandcauseespeciallyseveredamage.

A. Thefactthatneitherthepredatorsnortheparasitesdirectlycontributetoharmingthetreesoffersnoreasontoconcludethatadifferenceinhowtheyareaffectedbypollutionwouldcontributetotheharmthatthebeetlescausetothetrees.

B. Iftheparasitesaremoreprevalentinareaswithsevereairpollution,thentheyaremorelikelytokeepleafbeetlepopulationsincheckinthoseareas,despitethereducedpredatorpopulations.Thus,thedeclineinpredatorpopulationswouldmorelikelybeinsufficienttoexplainwhytheleafbeetlescausemoredamageinthoseareas.

C. Thisobservationisirrelevanttowhetherthedeclineinpredatorpopulationsexplainswhyleafbeetlesdamagewillowtreesmoreseverelyinareaswithsevereairpollution.

D. Correct.Thisindicatesthatpredatorsplayapredominantroleinkeepingleafbeetlepopulationsincheck,so,asexplainedabove,itsupportstheargument’sconclusion.

E. Thisisnotclearlyrelevanttowhetherthedeclineinpredatorpopulationsexplainswhyleafbeetlesdamagewillowtreesmoreseverelyinareaswithsevereairpollution.Theargument’sconclusioncouldjustaseasilybetrueregardlessofwhetherwillowsgrowinsuchpollutedareasfrequentlyorinfrequently.


147. AutomobileDealer’sAdvertisement:

TheHighwayTrafficSafetyInstitutereportsthatthePZ1000hasthefewestinjuriesperaccidentofanycarinitsclass.ThisshowsthatthePZ1000isoneofthesafestcarsavailabletoday.


A. TheHighwayTrafficSafetyInstitutereportlistedmanycarsinotherclassesthathadmoreinjuriesperaccidentthandidthePZ1000.

B. InrecentyearsmanymorePZ1000shavebeensoldthanhaveany

otherkindofcarinitsclass.

C. CarsintheclasstowhichthePZ1000belongsaremorelikelytobeinvolvedinaccidentsthanareothertypesofcars.

D. ThedifferencebetweenthenumberofinjuriesperaccidentforthePZ1000andthatforothercarsinitsclassisquitepronounced.

E. TheHighwayTrafficSafetyInstituteissuesreportsonlyonceayear.

ArgumentEvaluationSituationAnadvertisementclaimsthatthePZ1000isoneofthesafestcarsavailable;itbasesthisclaimontheHighwayTrafficSafetyInstitute’sreportthatthismodelhadthefewestinjuriesperaccidentofanycarinitsclass.

ReasoningWhatpointweakenstheadvertisement’sclaim?Examinecloselythedifferencebetweenthereportandtheconclusiontheadvertisementdrawsfromit.WhiletheHighwayTrafficSafetyInstitutecomparesthePZ1000toothercarsinitsclass,theadvertisementcomparesthePZ1000toallcarsavailabletoday.WhatiftheclassofcarstowhichthePZ1000belongsisamoredangerousclassofcars?Inthatcase,whilethePZ1000maythesafestcarofadangerousclass,itcannotbesaidtobeoneofthesafestcarsavailable.

A. Thehigherincidenceofinjuriesperaccidentinotherclassesofcarssupportsratherthanweakenstheadvertisement’sargument.

B. ThefactthatthePZ1000isthebestsellingcarinitsclassmightbeexplainedbythefactthatitisthesafestcarinitsclass,butifthishasanyeffectontheargumentatall,itwouldbetostrengthenratherthanweakenit.

C. Correct.Thisstatementproperlyidentifiesaweaknessintheadvertisement’sargument.

D. Thisslightlystrengthens,ratherthanweakens,theargument.

E. Thefrequencyofthereportsisirrelevanttotheadvertisement’sclaim.



Itisgenerallybelievedthatpeoplereceivingfrequentmedicalcheckups

arelikelytoneedhospitalizationlessfrequentlythantheywouldotherwise;afterall,manythingscanbedonefollowingacheckuptopreventproblemsthat,ifignored,mightbecomeacuteandthenrequirehospitalization.Butforpeoplewithchronicillnesses,frequentmedicalcheckupsarelikelytoleadtomorefrequenthospitalizationsince__________.

A. therecommendedtreatmentsforcomplicationsofmanychronicillnessesinvolvehospitalizationevenifthosecomplicationsaredetectedwhilebarelynoticeable

B. medicalcheckupssometimesdonotrevealearlysymptomsofthosechronicillnessesthatarebesttreatedinahospital

C. theaveragelengthofahospitalstayisthesameforthosewhoreceivefrequentcheckupsasforthosewhodonot

D. peoplewithchronicillnessesgenerallyreceivemedicalcheckupsmorefrequentlythanpeoplewhoarenotchronicallyill

E. theaveragelengthofahospitalstayforpeoplewithachronicillnesstendstoincreaseastheillnessprogresses

ArgumentConstructionSituationActionstakenaftermedicalcheckupscanpreventproblemsthatmightotherwisebecomeacuteandrequirehospitalization.Butforpeoplewithchronicillnesses,frequentmedicalcheckupstendtoleadtomorefrequenthospitalizations.

ReasoningWhatwouldhelptoexplainwhymorefrequentmedicalcheckupstendtoleadtomorefrequenthospitalizationsforpeoplewithchronicillnesses?Thefirstsentenceofthepassagesuggeststhatmedicalcheckupsshouldmakehospitalizationlessfrequentbycatchingmedicalproblemsbeforetheybecomesevereenoughtorequirehospitalization.Butifthemedicalproblemsthatcheckupstypicallycatchinpeoplewithchronicillnessesalreadyrequirehospitalizationwhentheyarecaught,thecheckupsmightresultinsuchpeoplebeinghospitalizedmorefrequentlyratherthanlessfrequently.

A. Correct.Thissuggeststhatinpeoplewithchronicillnesses,checkupsmaymoreoftenresultintreatmentsthatrequirehospitalizationthanintreatmentsthatcouldpreventhospitalization.

B. Thefactthatoccasionallyacheckupfailstorevealearlysymptomsofachronicillnessbesttreatedinahospitaldoesnotindicatethatfrequentcheckupsofpeoplewithchronicillnesseswouldleadtomorefrequenthospitalizationthanlessfrequentcheckupswould.

C. Thequestionatissuesconcernsthefrequencyofhospitalization,nottheaveragelengthofhospitalstays.

D. Thequestionatissueiswhypeoplewithchronicillnesseswhohavemorefrequentcheckupstendtobehospitalizedmorefrequentlythanotherchronicallyillpeople,notwhytheytendtobehospitalizedmorefrequentlythanpeoplewhoarenotchronicallyill.

E. Again,thequestionatissueconcernsthefrequencyofhospitalization,nottheaveragelengthofhospitalstays.Inanycase,wearenottoldwhetherpeoplewithchronicillnessestendtohavecheckupsmoreorlessfrequentlyastheirillnessesprogress.


149. TwodecadesaftertheEmeraldRiverDamwasbuilt,noneoftheeightfishspeciesnativetotheEmeraldRiverwasstillreproducingadequatelyintheriverbelowthedam.Sincethedamreducedtheannualrangeofwatertemperatureintheriverbelowthedamfrom50degreesto6degrees,scientistshavehypothesizedthatsharplyrisingwatertemperaturesmustbeinvolvedinsignalingthenativespeciestobeginthereproductivecycle.

Whichofthefollowingstatements,iftrue,wouldmoststrengthenthescientists’hypothesis?

A. Thenativefishspecieswerestillabletoreproduceonlyinsidestreamsoftheriverbelowthedamwheretheannualtemperaturerangeremainsapproximately50degrees.

B. Beforethedamwasbuilt,theEmeraldRiverannuallyoverfloweditsbanks,creatingbackwatersthatwerecriticalbreedingareasforthenativespeciesoffish.

C. ThelowestrecordedtemperatureoftheEmeraldRiverbeforethedamwasbuiltwas34degrees,whereasthelowestrecordedtemperatureoftheriverafterthedamwasbuilthasbeen43degrees.

D. Nonnativespeciesoffish,introducedintotheEmeraldRiverafterthedamwasbuilt,havebeguncompetingwiththedecliningnative

fishspeciesforfoodandspace.

E. FiveofthefishspeciesnativetotheEmeraldRiverarenotnativetoanyotherriverinNorthAmerica.

ArgumentEvaluationSituationTheconstructionofadamhassignificantlyreducedtherangeofwatertemperaturesintheriverbelowthedam.Scientistshaveimplicatedthischangeinthefailureofnativefishspeciestoreproduceadequately.

ReasoningWhatevidencewouldstrengthenthehypothesis?Totestthehypothesis,scientistsneedtostudythesamefishinthesameriver,butwithonlyonevariablechanged:thetemperaturerangeofthewater.Ifthesamespeciesoffishsuccessfullyreproduceinwaterthatretainsthesametemperaturerangethattheriverhadhadbeforethedamwasbuilt,thenthescientistshavelikelyfoundthecauseoftheproblem.

A. Correct.Thisstatementproperlyidentifiesevidencethatstrengthensthescientists’hypothesis.

B. Theoverflow’screationofbreedingareasoffersanalternativehypothesis;itrivalsratherthanstrengthensthehypothesisabouttemperaturerange.

C. Thesedifferencesinlowestrecordedtemperaturesaresimplyspecificdatapointsrelatedtotheproposedcause;theydonothingtosupportthehypothesis.

D. Theintroductionofnonnativespeciescompetingforfoodandspaceisanadditionalvariable,andthusoffersanalternativehypothesis.

E. Therarenessofcertainspeciespointstotheseverityoftheproblem,nottoitscause.


150. Meatfromchickenscontaminatedwithsalmonellabacteriacancauseseriousfoodpoisoning.Capsaicin,thechemicalthatgiveschilipepperstheirhotflavor,hasantibacterialproperties.Chickensdonothavetastereceptorsforcapsaicinandwillreadilyeatfeedlacedwithcapsaicin.Whenchickenswerefedsuchfeedandthenexposedtosalmonellabacteria,relativelyfewofthembecamecontaminatedwithsalmonella.

Indecidingwhetherthefeedwouldbeusefulinraisingsalmonella-free

chickenforretailsale,itwouldbemosthelpfultodeterminewhichofthefollowing?

A. Whetherfeedingcapsaicintochickensaffectsthetasteoftheirmeat

B. Whethereatingcapsaicinreducestheriskofsalmonellapoisoningforhumans

C. Whetherchickenismorepronetosalmonellacontaminationthanotherkindsofmeat

D. Whetherappropriatecookingofchickencontaminatedwithsalmonellacanalwayspreventfoodpoisoning

E. Whethercapsaicincanbeobtainedonlyfromchilipeppers

ArgumentEvaluationSituationChickenswillreadilyeatfeedlacedwithcapsaicin,whichappearstoprotectthemfromcontaminationwithsalmonellabacteriathatcancausefoodpoisoning.

ReasoningWhatinformationwouldhelpdeterminewhetherusingthefeedwouldbeaneffectivestrategyforraisingsalmonella-freechickenforretailsale?Inorderforthestrategytobeeffective,itmustbeeconomicallyfeasibleforfarmerstoraisechickensusingthefeed,andtheremustbeenoughconsumerdemandforchickensraisedthisway.Soanyinformationaboutfactorslikelytoaffecteithertheeconomicfeasibilityofraisingthechickensorconsumerdemandforthemcouldbehelpfulindetermininghowusefulthefeedwouldbe.

A. Correct.Ifchickenproducerstriedtomarketmeatfromcapsaicin-fedchickenswithoutknowingwhetherthetasteisaffected,theywouldriskalienatingconsumers.Ofcourse,iftheyfoundthatthetasteisaffected,theywouldthenneedtodofurtherinvestigationstodeterminehowconsumerswouldlikelyrespondtothedifference.Ifconsumersdidnotlikethetaste,thiscouldnegativelyaffectdemandforthechickens.Inthatcase,usingthefeedwouldnotbeaneffectivewaytoraisechickensforretailsale.

B. Therearetwowaysthismightbeconsideredrelevant.First,itmightbethoughtthatbecausecapsaicinreducestheriskofsalmonellapoisoninginhumans,itwillalsodosoinchickens;butwealreadyhavegoodevidenceofthatintheargument.Second,itmightbethoughtthat,ifthecapsaicindoesnotproducechickensthatare

totallysalmonellafree,thenifanycapsaicinremainsinthechickens,itwillhelppreventanyhumanswhoconsumethechickenfromgettingsalmonellapoisoning.Buttherelevantissueiswhetherthecapsaicinwillmakethechickenssalmonellafree,notwhetherhumanswillbeprotectedwhetherthechickensaresalmonellafreeornot.

C. Thesusceptibilityofothertypesofmeattosalmonellacontaminationwouldnotaffecttheusefulnessofthefeedforpreventingsuchcontaminationinchicken.

D. Presumablymanypeopledonotcookcontaminatedchickenappropriately,soconsumerscouldstillbenefitfromsalmonella-freechickenwhetherornotappropriatecookingmethodscouldpreventfoodpoisoning.

E. Regardlessofwhethercapsaicincanbeobtainedfromothersources,chilipeppersmaybeaperfectlyviablesource.


151. Lawsrequiringtheuseofheadlightsduringdaylighthourscanpreventautomobilecollisions.However,sincedaylightvisibilityisworseincountriesfartherfromtheequator,anysuchlawswouldobviouslybemoreeffectiveinpreventingcollisionsinthosecountries.Infact,theonlycountriesthatactuallyhavesuchlawsarefartherfromtheequatorthanisthecontinentalUnitedStates.

Whichofthefollowingconclusionscouldbemostproperlydrawnfromtheinformationgivenabove?

A. DriversinthecontinentalUnitedStateswhousedtheirheadlightsduringthedaywouldbejustaslikelytobecomeinvolvedinacollisionaswoulddriverswhodidnotusetheirheadlights.

B. InmanycountriesthatarefartherfromtheequatorthanisthecontinentalUnitedStates,poordaylightvisibilityisthesinglemostimportantfactorinautomobilecollisions.

C. TheproportionofautomobilecollisionsthatoccurinthedaytimeisgreaterinthecontinentalUnitedStatesthaninthecountriesthathavedaytimeheadlightlaws.

D. FewerautomobilecollisionsprobablyoccureachyearincountriesthathavedaytimeheadlightlawsthanoccurwithinthecontinentalUnitedStates.

E. DaytimeheadlightlawswouldprobablydolesstopreventautomobilecollisionsinthecontinentalUnitedStatesthantheydointhecountriesthathavethelaws.

ArgumentConstructionSituationLawsrequiringtheuseofheadlightsduringthedaytimearemoreeffectiveatpreventingcarcollisionsincountrieswithlowerdaylightvisibility,thatis,incountriesatgreaterdistancesfromtheequator.TheonlycountrieshavingtheselawsarethoselocatedfartherfromtheequatorthanisthecontinentalUnitedStates.

ReasoningWhatconclusioncanbedrawnfromthisinformation?CountrieswithdaytimeheadlightlawsareallfartherfromtheequatorthanisthecontinentalUnitedStates.ThelocationissignificantbecausedaytimevisibilityisworseinthosecountriesthanitisinthecontinentalUnitedStates.HoweffectiveatpreventingcollisionswouldsuchlawsbeinthecontinentalUnitedStateswithitsgreaterproximitytotheequator?Itisreasonabletoconcludethatsuchlawswouldbelesseffectiveatpreventingcollisionstherethantheyareinthecountriesfartherfromtheequator.

A. Althoughdaytimeheadlightusemaybelesseffectiveincountrieswithmoredaylight,itcannotbeconcludedthatU.S.driversusingdaytimeheadlightswouldgainnobenefitfromthemandwouldbejustaslikelytohavecollisionsasthosewhodonotusethem.

B. Thepassageoffersnoevidencefortheconclusionthatpoorvisibilityisthegreatestcauseforcollisionsinthesecountries.

C. Manyfactorsbesidesuseofheadlightsduringdaylighthoursinfluenceaccidentrates,andthesefactorsmayvarywidelyfromonecountrytoanother.Wearegivennoinformationabouttheseotherfactorsorabouttheirrelativeimpactinvariouscountries.

D. Withoutspecificdata,noconclusioncanbedrawnabouttherelativenumberofaccidentsthatoccur.

E. Correct.Thisstatementproperlyidentifiesaconclusiontobedrawnfromthegiveninformation.


152. Inthepastmostairlinecompaniesminimizedaircraftweighttominimizefuelcosts.Thesafestairlineseatswereheavy,andairlinesequippedtheirplaneswithfewoftheseseats.Thisyeartheseatthathas

soldbesttoairlineshasbeenthesafestone—aclearindicationthatairlinesareassigningahigherprioritytosafeseatingthantominimizingfuelcosts.


A. Lastyear’sbest-sellingairlineseatwasnotthesafestairlineseatonthemarket.

B. Noairlinecompanyhasannouncedthatitwouldbemakingsafeseatingahigherprioritythisyear.

C. Thepriceoffuelwashigherthisyearthanithadbeeninmostoftheyearswhenthesafestairlineseatssoldpoorly.

D. Becauseofincreasesinthecostofmaterials,allairlineseatsweremoreexpensivetomanufacturethisyearthaninanypreviousyear.

E. Becauseoftechnologicalinnovations,thesafestairlineseatonthemarketthisyearweighedlessthanmostotherairlineseatsonthemarket.

ArgumentEvaluationSituationThesafestairlineseatswereheavy,butsinceadditionalweightmeanthigherfuelcosts,airlineshadboughtfewoftheseseats.Becausethebest-sellingseatsthisyeararethesafestones,theairlineshaveclearlyresettheirpriorities,choosingsafeseatingoverminimizingfuelcosts.

ReasoningWhatinformationweakensthisargument?Previously,thesafestseatswereheavy,sotheairlinespurchasedlighter—andlesssafe—seatstominimizefuelcosts.Butifthesafestseatthisyearisamongthelightest,theairlinesmaysimplybepursuingtheirpreviouspriorityofminimizingfuelcostsbyreducingweight.

A. Thenewinformationdoeslittlemorethancorroborateinformationalreadyprovidedinthepremises.

B. Thisweakenstheargumentonlyiftheargumentassumesthatifsuchachangeinprioritieshadoccurred,itwouldhavebeenannounced.Butthisisnotassumed.

C. Thistendstostrengthenratherthanweakentheargument.Inatimeofhighfuelcosts,ifanairlinechoosesthesafestseat

regardlessofweight,thatchoicesuggeststhattheairlineismakingsafetyagreaterprioritythanfueleconomy.

D. Thisinformationdoesnotweakentheargument,sinceitsuggestsnoreasonforpurchasingonetypeofseatasopposedtoanother.

E. Correct.Thisstatementdisconfirmsacriticallyimportantassumptionmadebytheargument—namelythatthecurrentlysafestseatwouldalsobeheavierthanthelesssafeseats.


153. Insettingenvironmentalstandardsforindustryandotherstomeet,itisinadvisabletorequirethebestresultsthatstate-of-the-arttechnologycanachieve.Currenttechnologyisabletodetectandeliminateevenextremelyminuteamountsofcontaminants,butatacostthatisexorbitantrelativetotheimprovementachieved.Soitwouldbereasonableinsteadtosetstandardsbytakingintoaccountallofthecurrentandfuturerisksinvolved.

Theargumentgivenconcerningthereasonablewaytosetstandardspresupposesthat

A. industrycurrentlymeetsthestandardsthathavebeensetbyenvironmentalauthorities

B. thereareeffectivewaystotakeintoaccountalloftherelevantrisksposedbyallowingdifferentlevelsofcontaminants

C. theonlycontaminantsworthmeasuringaregeneratedbyindustry

D. itisnotcostlytopreventlargeamountsofcontaminantsfromenteringtheenvironment

E. minuteamountsofsomecontaminantscanbepoisonous

ArgumentConstructionSituationState-of-the-arttechnologycandetectandeliminateeventinyamountsofenvironmentalcontaminants,butatacostthatisexorbitantrelativetoitsbenefits.

ReasoningWhatmustbetrueinorderfortheargument’spremisestosupportitsconclusion?Theargumentisthatenvironmentalstandardsrequiringthebestresultsthatstate-of-the-arttechnologycanprovideareunreasonablyexpensiverelativetotheirbenefits,soitwouldbereasonableinsteadtosetenvironmental

standardsthattakeintoaccountallpresentandfuturerisksfromcontaminants.Inorderforthepremisetosupporttheconclusion,theenvironmentalstandardsbasedonpresentandfutureriskswouldhavetobelessexpensiverelativetotheirbenefitsthanthebestresultsenvironmentalstandardsare.Furthermore,settingthecurrentandfuturerisksenvironmentalstandardscannotbereasonableunlessitisfeasibletoassesspresentandfuturerisksasthosestandardsrequire.

A. Theargumentdoesnotsaywhichstandards,ifany,environmentalauthoritieshaveset.Inanycase,suchstandardscouldbereasonableorunreasonableregardlessofwhetherindustrycurrentlymeetsthem.

B. Correct.Iftakingfuturerisksintoaccountwereinfeasible,thenapplyingthecurrentandfuturerisksstandardswouldalsobeinfeasible.Andsettingthosestandardswouldbeunreasonableiftheycouldnotfeasiblybeapplied.

C. Accordingtothestimulus,theproposedcurrentandfuturerisksstandardswouldapplytoindustryandothers.Sothosestandardscouldbereasonableeveniftheunspecifiedothersalsogeneratedcontaminantsworthmeasuring,andevenifthestandardsrequiredmeasuringthosecontaminants.

D. Evenifitwerecostlytopreventlargeamountsofcontaminantsfromenteringtheenvironment,thebenefitsofdoingsotopreventpresentandfuturerisksmightoutweighthecosts.

E. Thecurrentandfuturerisksstandardscouldtakeintoaccountanypoisoningrisksposedbyminuteamountsofcontaminants.



Whenmercury-vaporstreetlightsareusedinareasinhabitedbyinsect-eatingbats,thebatsfeedalmostexclusivelyaroundthelights,becausethelightsattractflyinginsects.InGreenville,themercury-vaporstreetlightsareabouttobereplacedwithenergy-savingsodiumstreetlights,whichdonotattractinsects.Thischangeislikelytoresultinadropinthepopulationofinsect-eatingbatsinGreenville,since__________.

A. thebatsdonotbegintohuntuntilaftersundown

B. thebatsareunlikelytofeedoninsectsthatdonotfly

C. thehighwaydepartmentwillbeabletoreplacemercury-vaporstreetlightswithsodiumstreetlightswithinarelativelyshorttimeandwithoutdisruptingthecontinuityoflightingatthelocationsofthestreetlights

D. intheabsenceoflocalconcentrationsoftheflyinginsectsonwhichbatsfeed,thebatsexpendmuchmoreenergyonhuntingforfood,requiringmuchlargerquantitiesofinsectstosustaineachbat

E. batsuseecholocationtocatchinsectsandthereforegainnoadvantagefromthefactthatinsectsflyinginthevicinityofstreetlightsarevisibleatnight

ArgumentConstructionSituationInareaswithmercury-vaporstreetlights,anyinsect-eatingbatsfeedalmostexclusivelyaroundthelights,whichattractflyinginsects.InGreenville,mercury-vaporstreetlightswillsoonbereplacedwithsodiumstreetlightsthatdonotattractinsects.

ReasoningWhatevidencewouldsuggestthatthechangeinstreetlightswillreduceGreenville’spopulationofinsect-eatingbats?Sincethesodiumstreetlightswillnotattractflyinginsects,thebatswillprobablystopfocusingtheirfeedingaroundGreenville’sstreetlightsafterthelightsarechanged.AstatementprovidingevidencethatthiswillmakeitharderforthebatstogetenoughfoodtosustainthemselveswouldsupporttheconclusionthatthechangeislikelytoreduceGreenville’sbatpopulationandthuswouldlogicallycompletetheargument.

A. Insect-eatingbatsexistedlongbeforestreetlightsdid,sotheycanprobablyfindinsectsawayfromstreetlightseveniftheyhuntonlyaftersundown.

B. Greenvillewillalmostcertainlystillhaveflyinginsectsforthebatstoeatafterthechange,evenifthoseinsectsnolongergatheraroundthestreetlights.

C. Ifanything,suchasmoothtransitionwouldbelesslikelytodisturbthebatsandthereforelesslikelytoreducetheirpopulation.

D. Correct.SincetherewillbenolocalconcentrationsofflyinginsectsaroundGreenvillestreetlightsafterthechange,thebatswillmostlikelyhavemoretroublegettingenoughtoeat,andthattheirlocal

populationwillthereforefall.

E. Theadvantagethatthebatsgainfrommercury-vaporstreetlightscomesfromthehighconcentrationofinsects.Thefactthatthebatsgetnoadditionaladvantagefromtheinsects’visibilitytellsusnothingaboutwhataffectthechangetoadifferenttypeoflightmighthave.


155. Ratsinjectedwithmorphineexhibitdecreasedactivityoftheimmunesystem,thebodilysystemthatfightsoffinfections.Thesesameratsexhibitedheightenedbloodlevelsofcorticosteroids,chemicalssecretedbytheadrenalglands.Sincecorticosteroidscaninterferewithimmune-systemactivity,scientistshypothesizedthatthewaymorphinereducesimmuneresponsesinratsisbystimulatingtheadrenalglandstosecreteadditionalcorticosteroidsintothebloodstream.

Whichofthefollowingexperimentswouldyieldthemostusefulresultsforevaluatingthescientists’hypothesis?

A. Injectingmorphineintoratsthatalreadyhaveheightenedbloodlevelsofcorticosteroidsandthenobservingtheirnewbloodlevelsofcorticosteroids

B. Testingthelevelofimmune-systemactivityofrats,removingtheiradrenalglands,andthentestingtherats’immune-systemactivitylevelsagain

C. Injectingratswithcorticosteroidsandthenobservinghowmanyoftheratscontractedinfections

D. Removingtheadrenalglandsofrats,injectingtheratswithmorphine,andthentestingtheleveloftherats’immune-systemresponses

E. Injectingratswithadrugthatstimulatesimmune-systemactivityandthenobservingthelevelofcorticosteroidsintheirbloodstreams

ArgumentEvaluationSituationRatsinjectedwithmorphineexhibitdecreasedimmune-systemactivityandincreasedlevelsofcorticosteroids,whicharesecretedbytheadrenalglandsandcaninterferewithimmune-systemactivity.

ReasoningWhatfurtherexperimentwouldhelpdetermine

whethermorphinereducesimmuneresponsesinratsbystimulatingtheadrenalglandstoreleasemorecorticosteroids?Contrarytothescientists’hypothesis,theexperimentalresultsmighthaveoccurredbecausethemorphineinjectionsdirectlyreducedimmune-systemactivity.Ortheinjectionsmighthaveblockedsomemechanismthatreducescorticosteroidlevelsintheblood,evenifthemorphinedidnotstimulatetheadrenalglandstoproducemorecorticosteroids.Toevaluatewhetherthescientists’hypothesisismoreplausiblethantheserivalhypotheses,itwouldbehelpfultoknowwhethersimilarexperimentalresultswouldoccuraftermorphineinjectionsevenifadrenalglandactivitydidnotchange.

A. Morphinecouldstimulatetheadrenalglandsofratswithnormalcorticosteroidlevelstoproducemorecorticosteroids,whetherornotitdoessoinratswhosecorticosteroidlevelsarealreadyheightened.

B. Suchanexperimentwouldnotinvolvemorphineandthuswouldnothelptodeterminehowmorphineaffectsimmune-systemactivityinrats.

C. Whetherornotratscontractinfectionsmaynotreliablyindicatetheirlevelsofimmune-systemactivity.

D. Correct.Iftheimmunesystemresponsesdecreasedafterthemorphineinjectionsinthisexperiment,thehypothesisthatitwasbystimulationoftheadrenalglandsthatmorphinereducedimmune-systemactivitywouldbeundermined.Butifnodecreaseinimmune-systemresponsesoccurred,thehypothesiswouldbeconfirmed.

E. Evenifthemechanismbywhichadrugotherthanmorphineincreasesimmune-systemactivitywerediscovered,thisdiscoverywouldnotnecessarilyrevealthemechanismbywhichmorphinereducesimmune-systemactivity.


156. Curator:IfourmuseumlendsVenustotheHartInstitutefortheirshowthisspring,theywilllendustheirRembrandtetchingsforourprintexhibitionnextfall.Havingthoseetchingswillincreaseattendancetotheexhibitionandhenceincreaserevenuefromourgeneraladmissionfee.

MuseumAdministrator:ButVenusisourbiggestattraction.MoreovertheHart’sshowwillrunfortwiceaslongasourexhibition.Soon

balancethenumberofpatronsmaydecrease.

Thepointoftheadministrator’sresponsetothecuratoristoquestion

A. whethergettingtheRembrandtetchingsfromtheHartInstituteislikelytoincreaseattendanceattheprintexhibition

B. whethertheHartInstitute’sRembrandtetchingswillbeappreciatedbythosepatronsofthecurator’smuseumforwhomthemuseum’sbiggestattractionisVenus

C. whetherthenumberofpatronsattractedbytheHartInstitute’sRembrandtetchingswillbelargerthanthenumberofpatronswhodonotcomeinthespringbecauseVenusisonloan

D. whether,ifVenusislent,themuseum’srevenuefromgeneraladmissionfeesduringtheprintexhibitionwillexceeditsrevenuefromgeneraladmissionfeesduringtheHartInstitute’sexhibition

E. whethertheHartInstituteorthecurator’smuseumwillhavethegreaterfinancialgainfromtheproposedexchangeofartworks

ArgumentConstructionSituationAcuratorandamuseumadministratordebatewhetherlendingaparticularartworktotheHartInstituteinexchangeforaloanofsomeoftheHartInstitute’sartworkswouldincreaseordecreaseattendanceandrevenueatthemuseum.

ReasoningWhichofthecurator’sexplicitorimplicitclaimsisthemuseumadministratorquestioning?Theadministrator’sstatementsthatVenusisthemuseum’sbiggestattractionandthattheHartInstitute’sshowwillruntwiceaslongasthemuseum’sexhibitiondonotdirectlyconflictwithanystatementorassumptionmadebythecurator.However,theadministrator’sconclusionisthatonbalancethenumberofpatronsatthemuseummaydecreaseifthecurator’sproposalisfollowed.Thisconclusioncallsintoquestionthecurator’sclaimthattheproposalwillincreaserevenuefromthegeneraladmissionfee,sincethatclaimpresupposesthatonbalancetheproposalwillincreasethenumberofvisitorstothemuseum.(Thecontextsuggeststhattheadministratorisusingthetermpatronstomeanvisitorsratherthandonors.)

A. TheadministratordoesnotdisputethattheRembrandtetchingswouldprobablyincreaseattendanceattheprintexhibitionbutrathersuggeststhatthisincreasewouldbeexceededbythelossof

visitorstothemuseumwhiletheHartInstituteborrowsVenus.

B. NeitherthecuratornortheadministratorcommentsonwhetherthepatronsattractedtotheRembrandtetchingswouldbethesamepeopleattractedtoVenus.

C. Correct.Thecuratorimplicitlyinfersthattheformernumberwillbelargerthanthelatter,whereastheadministratorquestionsthisbyassertingthatthelatternumbermaybelargerthantheformer.

D. TheadministratordoesnotquestionwhethertherevenueduringtheprintexhibitionwillexceedtherevenueduringtheHartInstitute’sexhibition,butratherwhetheritwillexceedthelossofrevenueduringtheHartInstitute’sexhibition.

E. NeitherthecuratornortheadministratorcommentsonwhetherthemuseumwouldgainmoreorlessfromtheexchangethantheHartInstitutewould.



AtarecentconferenceonenvironmentalthreatstotheNorthSea,mostparticipatingcountriesfavoreduniformcontrolsonthequalityofeffluents,whetherornotspecificenvironmentaldamagecouldbeattributedtoaparticularsourceofeffluent.Whatmust,ofcourse,beshown,inordertoavoidexcessivelyrestrictivecontrols,isthat__________.

A. anyuniformcontrolsthatareadoptedarelikelytobeimplementedwithoutdelay

B. anysubstancetobemadesubjecttocontrolscanactuallycauseenvironmentaldamage

C. thecountriesfavoringuniformcontrolsarethosegeneratingthelargestquantitiesofeffluents

D. allofanygivenpollutantthatistobecontrolledactuallyreachestheNorthSeaatpresent

E. environmentaldamagealreadyinflictedontheNorthSeaisreversible

ArgumentConstructionSituationInthefaceofenvironmentalthreatstotheNorthSea,

restrictionsoneffluentsareconsidered.

ReasoningHowcanexcessivelyrestrictivecontrolsbeavoided?TopreventpollutantsfromenteringtheNorthSea,countriesdecidetocontrolthequalityofeffluents.Theyneedtocontrolonlythoseeffluentsthatcauseenvironmentaldamage.Thereisnoneedtorestrictharmlesseffluents.

A. Theimmediacyofadoptingcontrolsdoesnotpreventthecontrolsfrombeingoverlyrestrictive.

B. Correct.Thisstatementproperlyidentifiesthefactthatcontrolsonharmlesseffluentswouldbeexcessivelyrestrictiveandsoshouldbeavoided.

C. Avoidingunnecessaryrestrictionsinvolvesanalyzingthequalityoftheeffluents,notthecompositionofthecountriesfavoringtherestrictions.

D. ItisnotnecessarytoprovethatallofapollutantreachestheNorthSea.Itisnecessarytoproveonlythatsomeofitdoes.

E. Theenvironmentaldamagethathasalreadybeencausedisoutsidethescopeoftherestrictions.Findingthatthedamageisreversiblewilldonothingtopreventunnecessaryrestrictions.


158. MostscholarsagreethatKingAlfred(A.D.849–899)personallytranslatedanumberofLatintextsintoOldEnglish.OnehistoriancontendsthatAlfredalsopersonallypennedhisownlawcode,arguingthatthenumerousdifferencesbetweenthelanguageofthelawcodeandAlfred’stranslationsofLatintextsareoutweighedbytheevenmorenumeroussimilarities.Linguisticsimilarities,however,arewhatoneexpectsintextsfromthesamelanguage,thesametime,andthesameregion.ApartfromAlfred’ssurvivingtranslationsandlawcode,thereareonlytwootherextantworksfromthesamedialectandmilieu,soitisriskytoassumeherethatlinguisticsimilaritiespointtocommonauthorship.

Thepassageaboveproceedsby

A. providingexamplesthatunderscoreanotherargument’sconclusion

B. questioningtheplausibilityofanassumptiononwhichanotherargumentdepends

C. showingthataprincipleifgenerallyappliedwouldhaveanomalousconsequences

D. showingthatthepremisesofanotherargumentaremutuallyinconsistent

E. usingargumentbyanalogytoundermineaprincipleimplicitinanotherargument

ArgumentEvaluationSituationAhistorianarguesthatKingAlfredmusthavewrittenhisownlawcode,sincetherearemoresimilaritiesthandifferencesbetweenthelanguageinthelawcodeandthatinAlfred’stranslationsofLatintexts.ApartfromAlfred’stranslationsandlawcode,thereareonlytwootherextantworksinthesamedialectandfromthesamemilieu.

ReasoningHowdoesthereasoninginthepassageproceed?Thefirstsentencepresentsaclaimthatisnotdisputedinthepassage.Thesecondsentencepresentsahistorian’sargument.Implicitlycitingtheundisputedclaiminthepassage’sfirstsentenceasevidence,thehistorianproposesananalogybetweenthelawcodeandAlfred’stranslations,arguingonthebasisofthisanalogythatAlfredwrotethelawcode.Thethirdsentenceofthepassagecastsdoubtonthisanalogy,pointingoutthatitcouldplausiblyapplytotextsthatAlfreddidnotwrite.Thefourthsentencesuggeststhattoofewextanttextsareavailableasevidencetoruleoutthepossibilityraisedinthethirdsentence.Thus,thethirdandfourthsentencesareintendedtounderminethehistorian’sargument.

A. Asexplainedabove,thepassageisintendedtounderminetheconclusionofthehistorian’sargument,nottounderscore(emphasize)it.

B. Correct.Thepassage’sthirdandfourthsentencesquestiontheplausibilityofthehistorian’sassumptionthatnoonebutAlfredwouldhavebeenlikelytowriteatextwhoselanguagehasmoresimilaritiestothandifferencesfromthelanguageinAlfred’stranslations.

C. Althoughtheremightwellbeanomalousconsequencesfromgeneralizingtheassumptiononwhichthehistorian’sargumentrelies,thepassagedoesnotmentionoralludetoanysuchconsequences.

D. Thepassagedoesnotmention,orsuggesttheexistenceof,anyinconsistenciesamongthepremisesofthehistorian’sargument.

E. Althoughthehistorianarguesbyanalogy,thepassagedoesnotitselfarguebyanalogy;itdoesnotsuggestanyspecificcounteranalogytounderminethehistorian’sargument.


159. OnMayfirst,inordertoreducethenumberofoverduebooks,achildren’slibraryinstitutedapolicyofforgivingfinesandgivingbookmarkstochildrenreturningalloftheiroverduebooks.OnJulyfirstthereweretwiceasmanyoverduebooksastherehadbeenonMayfirst,althougharecordnumberofbookshadbeenreturnedduringtheinterim.

Whichofthefollowing,iftrue,mosthelpstoexplaintheapparentinconsistencyintheresultsofthelibrary’spolicy?

A. Thelibrariansdidnotkeepaccuraterecordsofhowmanychildrentookadvantageofthegraceperiod,andsomeofthechildrenreturningoverduebooksdidnotreturnalloftheiroverduebooks.

B. Althoughthegraceperiodenticedsomechildrentoreturnalloftheiroverduebooks,itdidnotconvinceallofthechildrenwithoverduebookstoreturnalloftheirbooks.

C. Thebookmarksbecamepopularamongthechildren,soinordertocollectthebookmarks,manychildrenborrowedmanymorebooksthantheyusuallydidandkeptthempasttheirduedate.

D. Thechildrenwereallowedtoborrowamaximumoffivebooksforatwo-weekperiod,andhenceeachchildcouldkeepamaximumoffifteenbooksbeyondtheirduedatewithinatwo-monthperiod.

E. Althoughthelibraryforgaveoverduefinesduringthegraceperiod,theamountpreviouslychargedthechildrenwasminimal;hence,theforgivenessofthefinesdidnotprovideenoughincentiveforthemtoreturntheiroverduebooks.

ArgumentConstructionSituationAfteralibrarystartedforgivingfinesandgivingbookmarkstochildrenwhoreturnedalltheiroverduebooks,thenumberofbooksreturnedgreatlyincreased,butsodidthenumberofoverduebooks.

ReasoningWhymightthepolicyhavesimultaneouslyincreasedthenumberofoverduebooksandthenumberofbooksbeingreturned?Inordertoincreaseboththesenumbers,thepolicymusthaveresultedinmorebooksbeingcheckedout,keptpasttheirduedates,andthenreturned.Butwhywouldthepolicyhavepromotedthatbehavior?Onepossibilityisthatitrewardedthebehavior.Thepolicyinvolvedgivingchildrenbookmarksasrewardsforreturningoverduebooks,whileremovingthefinesthatpenalizedthechildrenfordoingso.Ifthechildrenlikedthebookmarks,theymighthavetriedtogetmoreofthembydeliberatelycheckingbooksoutinordertokeepthempasttheirduedatesbeforereturningthemtogetthebookmarks.

A. Failingtokeepaccuraterecordsofthenumberofchildrenwouldnotclearlyincreasethenumberofbooksbeingreturned.Andthepolicychangedidnotapplytochildrenwhoreturnedonlysomeoftheiroverduebooks.

B. Thissuggeststhatthepolicyhadlimitedeffects,butdoesnothelptoexplainwhyithadapparentlyinconsistenteffects.

C. Correct.Thisexplainshowthepolicygavethechildrenamotivetocheckoutandreturnmorebookswhilealsoallowingthemtokeepmoreofthebookspasttheduedates.

D. Thisrestrictionwouldhavelimitedthenumberofoverduebooksandthuswouldnothelptoexplainwhythatnumberincreased.

E. Thissuggeststhatthepolicyhadlittleeffectbutdoesnothelptoexplainwhyithadapparentlyinconsistenteffects.


160. Oftenpatientswithanklefracturesthatarestable,andthusdonotrequiresurgery,aregivenfollow-upx-raysbecausetheirorthopedistsareconcernedaboutpossiblyhavingmisjudgedthestabilityofthefracture.Whenanumberoffollow-upx-rayswerereviewed,however,allthefracturesthathadinitiallybeenjudgedstablewerefoundtohavehealedcorrectly.Therefore,itisawasteofmoneytoorderfollow-upx-raysofanklefracturesinitiallyjudgedstable.


A. Doctorswhoaregeneralpractitionersratherthanorthopedistsarelesslikelythanorthopediststojudgethestabilityofananklefracturecorrectly.

B. Manyankleinjuriesforwhichaninitialx-rayisorderedarerevealedbythex-raynottoinvolveanyfractureoftheankle.

C. X-raysofpatientsofmanydifferentorthopedistsworkinginseveralhospitalswerereviewed.

D. Thehealingofanklefracturesthathavebeensurgicallyrepairedisalwayscheckedbymeansofafollow-upx-ray.

E. Orthopedistsroutinelyorderfollow-upx-raysforfracturesofbonesotherthananklebones.

ArgumentEvaluationSituationOftenpatientswithanklefracturesthattheirorthopedistshavejudgednottorequiresurgeryaregivenfollow-upx-raystocheckwhetherthefracturehealedcorrectly.Anexaminationofasampleofthosex-raysfoundthattheanklehad,ineachcase,healedproperly.

ReasoningThequestioniswhichoftheoptions,iftrue,wouldmoststrengthentheargument.Theargumentisbasedondataconcerningfollow-upx-rays,eachofwhichrevealednoproblemwiththeorthopedist’sinitialjudgmentthattheanklefracturewasstable(andwouldhealwithoutsurgery).Thisinvitesthequestionwhetherthefollow-upx-raysarereallyneeded.Theargumentconcludesthattheyareawasteofmoney.Butwasthex-raydatatrulyrepresentativeoforthopedistsgenerally?Afterall,someorthopedists—perhapsmoreexperienced,better-trained,oremployedatafacilitywithbetterstafforfacilities—maybemuchbetterthanothersatjudginganklefractures.Ifweaddtheinformationthatthedatafortheconclusioncomesfrommanyorthopedistsworkingatmanydifferenthospitals,wehavegreaterassurancethatthex-raydataisrepresentative,andtheargumentwillbemademuchstronger.

A. Neitherthestudynortheconclusionthatisdrawnfromitconcernsgeneralpractitioners,sothispointisirrelevant.

B. Naturallymanyankleinjuriesdonotinvolvefractures—x-raysmaysometimesbeusedtodeterminethis—buttheargumentconcernsonlycaseswheretherehavebeenanklefractures.

C. Correct.Thisshowsthatthesampleofx-raydataexaminedwasprobablysufficientlyrepresentativeofcasesofanklefracturejudgedtobestablebyorthopedists.

D. Theargumentdoesnotconcerncasesofanklefracturethathavebeensurgicallyrepaired.

E. Theargumentconcernsonlyx-raysofankles.Fromtheinformationgivenhere,wecannotinferthatorthopedistsaregenerallywastefulinroutinelyorderingfollow-upx-rays.


161. Traditionally,decisionmakingbymanagersthatisreasonedstep-by-stephasbeenconsideredpreferabletointuitivedecisionmaking.However,arecentstudyfoundthattopmanagersusedintuitionsignificantlymorethandidmostmiddle-orlower-levelmanagers.Thisconfirmsthealternativeviewthatintuitionisactuallymoreeffectivethancareful,methodicalreasoning.

Theconclusionaboveisbasedonwhichofthefollowingassumptions?

A. Methodical,step-by-stepreasoningisinappropriateformakingmanyreal-lifemanagementdecisions.

B. Topmanagershavetheabilitytouseeitherintuitivereasoningormethodical,step-by-stepreasoninginmakingdecisions.

C. Thedecisionsmadebymiddle-andlower-levelmanagerscanbemadeaseasilybyusingmethodicalreasoningasbyusingintuitivereasoning.

D. Topmanagersuseintuitivereasoninginmakingthemajorityoftheirdecisions.

E. Topmanagersaremoreeffectiveatdecisionmakingthanmiddle-orlower-levelmanagers.

ArgumentConstructionSituationIntuition,usedsignificantlymorebytopmanagersthanbymiddle-orlower-levelmanagers,isfoundtobemoreeffectivethanstep-by-stepreasoninginmakingdecisions.

ReasoningWhatassumptiondoestheargumentmake?Thestudyshowsthattopmanagersuseintuitionmoreindecisionmakingthantheothermanagersdo.Theconclusionisthendrawnthatintuitionismoreeffective.Butthestatedpremisesontheirownprovideinadequatesupportfortheconclusion,soitisreasonabletothinkthattheargumentmustbebasedonanunstatedassumption,suchastheassumptionthattopmanagers,whenemployingintuitive

decisionmaking,makemoreeffectivedecisionsthanmiddle-andlower-levelmanagers.Withoutsomesuchassumption,theargumentfails.

A. Whiletheargumentisconsistentwiththisidea,theinappropriatenessofstep-by-stepreasoningisnotassumed.

B. Topmanagers’abilitytoswitchdecisionmethodsdoesnothelptoshowthatonemethodisbetterthantheother.

C. Theeffectivenessofdecision-makingmethods,nottheeasewithwhichthemethodsareapplied,isthesubjectoftheargument.

D. Theargumentwouldnotnecessarilyfailifsomethingincompatiblewiththisstatementwereassumed—forexample,ifitwereassumedthattopmanagersuseintuitiononlyinhalfoftheirdecisions.Thusthisstatementdoesnothavetobeassumed.Moreover,evenifthisstatementweretobeaddedasanassumptiontothestatedpremises,thesupportfortheconclusionwouldstillbeinadequateunlesssomeadditionalassumptionweremade.

E. Correct.Thisisthebestchoiceforthemissingassumption.Withoutsomesuchassumption,theargumentwouldfail.


162. Acompanyplanstodevelopaprototypeweedingmachinethatusescuttingbladeswithopticalsensorsandmicroprocessorsthatdistinguishweedsfromcropplantsbydifferencesinshadeofcolor.Theinventorofthemachineclaimsthatitwillreducelaborcostsbyvirtuallyeliminatingtheneedformanualweeding.

Whichofthefollowingisaconsiderationinfavorofthecompany’simplementingitsplantodeveloptheprototype?

A. Thereisaconsiderabledegreeofvariationinshadeofcolorbetweenweedsofdifferentspecies.

B. Theshadeofcolorofsomeplantstendstochangeappreciablyoverthecourseoftheirgrowingseason.

C. Whencropsareweededmanually,overallsizeandleafshapearetakenintoaccountindistinguishingcropplantsfromweeds.

D. Selectionandgeneticmanipulationallowplantsofvirtuallyanyspeciestobeeconomicallybredtohaveadistinctiveshadeofcolorwithoutalteringtheirothercharacteristics.

E. Farmlaborerswhoareresponsibleforthemanualweedingofcropscarryoutotheragriculturaldutiesattimesinthegrowingseasonwhenextensiveweedingisnotnecessary.

EvaluationofaPlanSituationAcompanyplanstodevelopanautomatedweedingmachinethatwoulddistinguishweedsfromcropplantsbydifferencesinshadeofcolor.Itissupposedtoreducelaborcostsbyeliminatingtheneedformanualweeding.

ReasoningWhichoptiondescribesaconsiderationthatwouldfavorthecompany’splan?Thepassagesupportstheplanbyclaimingthatthemachinewouldreducelaborcostsbyvirtuallyeliminatingweedingbyhand.Thecorrectoptionwillbeonethataddstothissupport.Laborcostswillbereducedonlyifthemachineworkswell.Themachinereliesonshadeofcolortodistinguishbetweenweedsandcropplants.Ifcropplantscanbebredtohavedistinctivecolorwithoutsacrificingotherqualities,itwouldbemorelikelythatthemachinecouldbeusedeffectively.

A. Greatervariationamongweedplantswouldmakeitmoredifficultforthemachinetodistinguishbetweenweedsandcropplants,andthiswouldmakeitlesslikelythatthemachinewouldbeeffective.

B. Thisoptiontendstodisfavortheeffectivenessofthemachine.Themorechangeablethecolorsoftheplantstobedistinguished,themorecomplexthetaskofdistinguishingbetweenweedsandcropplantsbasedontheircolor.

C. Thisoptiontendstodisfavorthelikelybenefitsofthemachinebecauseitindicatesthatmanualweedingdistinguishesweedsfromcropplantsbyusingcriteriathatthemachinedoesnottakeintoaccount.Ifthemachinedoesnotdistinguishweedsfromcropplantsasaccuratelyandreliablyasmanualweedingdoes,thenthemachineislessapttomakemanualweedingunnecessary.

D. Correct.Makingcropplantseasilydistinguishablefromweedswouldfacilitatetheeffectiveuseoftheweedingmachine.

E. Thisdoesnotfavorthecompany’simplementingtheplantodevelopthemachine.Therewouldstillbetasksotherthanweedingthatwouldrequirehiringstaff.Thustherewouldstillbelaborcostseveniftheneedformanualweedingwereeliminated.


163. Acertainmayorhasproposedafeeoffivedollarsperdayonprivatevehiclesenteringthecity,claimingthatthefeewillalleviatethecity’strafficcongestion.Themayorreasonsthat,sincethefeewillexceedthecostofround-tripbusfarefrommanynearbypoints,manypeoplewillswitchfromusingtheircarstousingthebus.

Whichofthefollowingstatements,iftrue,providesthebestevidencethatthemayor’sreasoningisflawed?

A. Projectedincreasesinthepriceofgasolinewillincreasethecostoftakingaprivatevehicleintothecity.

B. Thecostofparkingfeesalreadymakesitconsiderablymoreexpensiveformostpeopletotakeaprivatevehicleintothecitythantotakeabus.

C. Mostofthepeoplecurrentlyridingthebusdonotownprivatevehicles.

D. Manycommutersopposingthemayor’splanhaveindicatedthattheywouldratherenduretrafficcongestionthanpayafive-dollar-per-dayfee.

E. Duringtheaverageworkday,privatevehiclesownedandoperatedbypeoplelivingwithinthecityaccountfor20percentofthecity’strafficcongestion.

EvaluationofaPlanSituationInordertoalleviatetrafficcongestion,themayorproposesafive-dollardailyfeeonprivatevehiclesenteringthecity.Sincethefeeismorethantheround-tripbusfare,themayorbelievesmanydriverswillswitchtobuses.

ReasoningWhatflawexistsinthemayor’sreasoning?Themayorapparentlybelievesthatsavingmoneyisthedecisiveissuefordrivers.If,however,driversarealreadypayingconsiderablymoreinparkingfeesthantheywouldinfaresasbuscommuters,thensavingmoneyisnottheprimaryreasontheyarechoosingtodrivetheircarsratherthantakethebus.Thissuggeststhatdriversmaynotchangetheirbehaviorsimplytosavemoney.

A. Thisstatementdoesnotindicatewhethertheincreasedcostwilldissuadepeoplefromtakingprivatevehiclesintothecity,and

thereforedoesnotindicatewhetherthemayor’sreasoningisflawed.

B. Correct.Thisstatementproperlyidentifiesaflawinthemayor’sreasoning.

C. Currentbusridersarenotrelevanttothemayor’splan,whichanticipatesonlythatpeoplecurrentlydrivingprivatevehiclesintothecitywillbecomebusriders.

D. Manydriversmaycontinuetocommuteintheirprivatevehicles,butothersmightswitchtobuses.Themayor’splandoesnotanticipateaswitchbyalldrivers.

E. The20percentfigureshowsthatmostcongestioniscausedbyvehiclesenteringfromoutsidethecity;thisdoesnotpointoutaweaknessinthemayor’splan.


164. ArocaCitycurrentlyfundsitspublicschoolsthroughtaxesonproperty.Inplaceofthissystem,thecityplanstointroduceasalestaxofthreepercentonallretailsalesinthecity.Criticsprotestthat3percentofcurrentretailsalesfallsshortoftheamountraisedforschoolsbypropertytaxes.Thecriticsarecorrectonthispoint.Nevertheless,implementingtheplanwillprobablynotreducethemoneygoingtoAroca’sschools.SeverallargeretailershaveselectedArocaCityasthesiteforhugenewstores,andthesearecertaintodrawlargenumbersofshoppersfromneighboringmunicipalities,wheresalesaretaxedatratesofsixpercentandmore.Inconsequence,retailsalesinArocaCityareboundtoincreasesubstantially.

Intheargumentgiven,thetwoportionsinboldfaceplaywhichofthefollowingroles?

A. Thefirstpresentsaplanthattheargumentconcludesisunlikelytoachieveitsgoal;thesecondexpressesthatconclusion.

B. Thefirstpresentsaplanthattheargumentconcludesisunlikelytoachieveitsgoal;thesecondpresentsevidenceinsupportofthatconclusion.

C. Thefirstpresentsaplanthattheargumentcontendsisthebestavailable;thesecondisaconclusiondrawnbytheargumenttojustifythatcontention.

D. Thefirstpresentsaplanoneofwhoseconsequencesisatissueintheargument;thesecondistheargument’sconclusionaboutthat

consequence.

E. Thefirstpresentsaplanthattheargumentseekstodefendagainstacertaincriticism;thesecondisthatcriticism.

ArgumentEvaluationSituationArocaCityplanstoswitchthesourceofitspublicschoolfundingfrompropertytaxestoanewlocalsalestax.

ReasoningWhatargumentativerolesdothetwoportionsinboldfaceplayinthepassage?Thefirstboldfaceportionsimplydescribesthecity’splan.Thenexttwosentencesinthepassagedescribeanobservationsomecriticshavemadeinobjectingtotheplanandsaythattheobservationiscorrect.Butthenthesecondboldfaceportionrejectsthecritics’implicitconclusionthattheplanwillreduceschoolfunding.Thefinaltwosentencesinthepassagepresentreasonstoacceptthestatementinthesecondboldfaceportion,sotheyarepremisessupportingitasaconclusion.

A. Theargumentconcludesthattheplanisunlikelytoreducefundingfortheschools.Thepassagedoesnotmentiontheplan’sgoal,butpresumablythatgoalisnottoreduceschoolfunding.

B. Thesecondboldfaceportionpresentstheargument’sconclusion,notevidencetosupporttheconclusion.Thepassagedoesnotmentiontheplan’sgoal,butpresumablythatgoalisnottoreduceschoolfunding.

C. Thepassagedoesnotsaywhethertheplanisbetterthananyotherpossibleschoolfundingplans.

D. Correct.Theplan’slikelyeffectontheamountofschoolfundingisatissueintheargument,whoseconclusionisthattheplanprobablywillnotreducethatfunding.

E. Thesecondboldfaceportiondoesnotcriticizetheplan,butratherrejectsacriticismoftheplanbystatingthattheplanwillprobablynotreduceschoolfunding.


165. Tanco,aleathermanufacturer,useslargequantitiesofcommonsalttopreserveanimalhides.Newenvironmentalregulationshavesignificantlyincreasedthecostofdisposingofsaltwaterthatresultsfromthisuse,and,inconsequence,Tancoisconsideringaplantousepotassium

chlorideinplaceofcommonsalt.ResearchhasshownthatTancocouldreprocesstheby-productofpotassiumchlorideusetoyieldacropfertilizer,leavingarelativelysmallvolumeofwastefordisposal.

Indeterminingtheimpactoncompanyprofitsofusingpotassiumchlorideinplaceofcommonsalt,itwouldbeimportantforTancotoresearchallofthefollowingEXCEPT:

A. Whatdifference,ifany,istherebetweenthecostofthecommonsaltneededtopreserveagivenquantityofanimalhidesandthecostofthepotassiumchlorideneededtopreservethesamequantityofhides?

B. Towhatextentistheequipmentinvolvedinpreservinganimalhidesusingcommonsaltsuitableforpreservinganimalhidesusingpotassiumchloride?

C. Whatenvironmentalregulations,ifany,constrainthedisposalofthewastegeneratedinreprocessingtheby-productofpotassiumchloride?

D. Howcloselydoesleatherthatresultswhencommonsaltisusedtopreservehidesresemblethatwhichresultswhenpotassiumchlorideisused?

E. Arethechemicalpropertiesthatmakepotassiumchlorideaneffectivemeansforpreservinganimalhidesthesameasthosethatmakecommonsaltaneffectivemeansfordoingso?

EvaluationofaPlanSituationNewenvironmentalregulationswillincreasethecostsofdisposingofthesaltwaterthatresultsfromtheuseoflargeamountsofcommonsaltinleathermanufacturing.Themanufacturerisconsideringswitchingfromcommonsalttopotassiumchloride,becausetheby-productofthelattercouldbereprocessedtoyieldacropfertilizer,withlittlewasteleftovertobedisposed.

ReasoningInordertodeterminewhetheritwouldbeprofitabletoswitchfromusingcommonsalttousingpotassiumchloride,whichofthefivequestionsdoesthemanufacturerNOTneedtoanswer?Thechemicalpropertiesmakingpotassiumchlorideaneffectivemeansofpreservinganimalhidesmightbequitedifferentfromthosethatmakecommonsalteffective,butthereisnoparticularreasonfor

thinkingthatthiswouldimpacttheprofitabilityofswitchingtopotassiumchloride.Therelevanteffectsonthepreservedhidesmightbethesameevenifthepropertiesthatbroughtaboutthoseeffectswerequitedifferent.Thus,withoutmoreinformationthanisprovidedinthepassage,thisquestionisirrelevant.

A. Thesavingsinwastedisposalcoststhatwouldbegainedbyswitchingtopotassiumchloridecouldbecancelledoutifthecostofpotassiumchlorideneededfarexceededthatforcommonsalt.

B. Ifswitchingtopotassiumchloridewouldforcethemanufacturertoreplacetheequipmentitusesforpreservinghides,thenitmightbelessprofitabletoswitch.

C. Eventhoughthereissaidtoberelativelylittlewasteassociatedwithusingpotassiumchlorideintheprocess,ifthecostsofthisdisposalareveryhighduetoenvironmentalregulations,itmightbelessprofitabletoswitch.

D. Iftheleatherthatresultsfromtheuseofpotassiumchloridelookssubstantiallydifferentfromthatwhichresultswhencommonsalthasbeenused,thentheleathermightbelessattractivetoconsumers,whichwouldadverselyaffecttheeconomicsofswitchingtopotassiumchloride.

E. Correct.Notethatthequestionasstatedherepresupposesthatpotassiumchlorideandsaltarebotheffectivemeansforpreservinganimalhides—soitdoesnotraiseanyissueastowhetherpotassiumchlorideisadequatelyeffectiveoraseffectiveassalt(clearly,anissueofeffectivenesswouldberelevanttoprofitability).


166. TheSumptontowncouncilrecentlyvotedtopayaprominentartisttocreateanabstractsculptureforthetownsquare.Criticsofthisdecisionprotestedthattownresidentstendtodislikemostabstractart,andanyartinthetownsquareshouldreflecttheirtastes.Butatowncouncilspokespersondismissedthiscriticism,pointingoutthatotherpublicabstractsculpturesthatthesamesculptorhasinstalledinothercitieshavebeenextremelypopularwiththosecities’localresidents.

Thestatementsabovemoststronglysuggestthatthemainpointofdisagreementbetweenthecriticsandthespokespersoniswhether

A. itwouldhavebeenreasonabletoconsulttownresidentsonthedecision

B. mostSumptonresidentswillfindthenewsculpturetotheirtaste

C. abstractsculpturesbythesamesculptorhavetrulybeenpopularinothercities

D. amoretraditionalsculptureinthetownsquarewouldbepopularamonglocalresidents

E. publicartthattheresidentsofSumptonwouldfinddesirablewouldprobablybefounddesirablebytheresidentsofothercities

ArgumentConstructionSituationAftertheSumptontowncouncilvotedtopayaprominentsculptortocreateanabstractsculptureforthetownsquare,criticsprotestedthedecision.Atowncouncilspokespersonrespondedtothecritics.

ReasoningWhatdothecriticsandthespokespersonmainlydisagreeabout?ThecriticsarguethatSumptonresidentsdislikemostabstractartandthatartinthetownsquareshouldreflecttheirtaste.Sincethecriticsareprotestingthetowncouncil’sdecision,theyareclearlyinferringfromtheresidents’generalattitudetowardabstractartthattheresidentswilldislikethespecificsculpturetheprominentsculptorwillcreate.Thespokespersonrepliesbyarguingthatinothercities,sculpturesbythesamesculptorhavebeenverypopularwithlocalresidents.ThespokespersonimplicitlyinfersfromthisthatthesculpturetheprominentsculptorwillcreateforSumptonwillbepopularwithSumptonresidents—andthereforethatthecriticsaremistaken.

A. Neitherthecriticsnorthespokespersonmentionsconsultationwiththetownresidentsonthedecision.

B. Correct.Asexplainedabove,thecriticsraisepointsimplicitlysuggestingthattheresidentswilldislikethesculpture,whereasthespokespersonrespondswithapointimplicitlysupportingtheoppositeconclusion.

C. Thecriticscouldconcedethatthesculptor’sworkhasbeenpopularinothercities,butnonethelessholdthatSumptonresidentshavedifferenttastesfromthoseoftheothercities’residents.

D. ThespokespersongivesnoindicationregardingtheattitudesofSumptonresidentsregardingtraditionalsculpture.

E. Itmaybethatneitherthecriticsnorthespokespersonholdsthisview.ThespokespersonmayholdthatSumptonresidentsareeasiertopleasethanresidentsofmostothercities,whereasthecriticsmayholdthatSumptonresidentsarefarmoretraditionalintheirtastesthanothercities’residents.


167. Colorlessdiamondscancommandhighpricesasgemstones.Atypeoflessvaluablediamondscanbetreatedtoremoveallcolor.Onlysophisticatedtestscandistinguishsuchtreateddiamondsfromnaturallycolorlessones.However,only2percentofdiamondsminedareofthecoloredtypethatcanbesuccessfullytreated,andmanyofthoseareofinsufficientqualitytomakethetreatmentworthwhile.Surely,therefore,thevastmajorityofcolorlessdiamondssoldbyjewelersarenaturallycolorless.

Aseriousflawinthereasoningoftheargumentisthat

A. comparisonsbetweenthepricediamondscommandasgemstonesandtheirvalueforotherusesareomitted

B. informationabouttherarityoftreateddiamondsisnotcombinedwithinformationabouttherarityofnaturallycolorless,gemstonediamonds

C. thepossibilitythatcoloreddiamondsmightbeusedasgemstones,evenwithouthavingbeentreated,isignored

D. thecurrentlyavailablemethodformakingcolorlessdiamondsfromcoloredonesistreatedasthoughitweretheonlypossiblemethodfordoingso

E. thedifficultythatacustomerofajewelerwouldhaveindistinguishinganaturallycolorlessdiamondfromatreatedoneisnottakenintoaccount

ArgumentEvaluationSituationColoreddiamondsofatypethatcomprises2percentofallmineddiamondscanbetreatedsothattheyarenoteasilydistinguishablefrommorevaluable,naturallycolorlessdiamonds,butmanyaretoolowinqualityforthetreatmenttobeworthwhile.

ReasoningWhydotheargument’spremisesnotjustifytheconclusionthatthevastmajorityofcolorlessdiamondssoldby

jewelersarenaturallycolorless?Sincethetypeofcoloreddiamondsthatcanbetreatedmakeuponly2percentofallmineddiamonds,andmanydiamondsofthattypearetoolowinqualityfortreatmenttobeworthwhile,thevastmajorityofmineddiamondsmustnotbetreatedtohavetheircolorremoved.However,wearenottoldwhatproportionofallmineddiamondsarenaturallycolorless.Naturallycolorlessdiamondsmaybefarrarereventhantheuncommondiamondsthathavebeentreatedtohavetheircolorremoved.Thus,forallwecantellfromthepassage,itcouldwellbethatmostcolorlessdiamondssoldbyjewelershavebeentreatedtoremoveallcolor.

A. Evenifsometypesofdiamondscommandhigherpricesforusesotherthanasgemstones,thetypesdiscussedinthepassageevidentlycommandhighenoughpricesasgemstonestobesoldassuchbyjewelers.

B. Correct.Theargumentdoesnotworkifnaturallycolorlessdiamondsarerarerthantreateddiamonds,astheymaybeforallwecantellfromtheinformationprovided.

C. Theargument’sconclusionisonlythatjewelerssellmorenaturallycolorlessdiamondsthandiamondstreatedtobecolorless.Whetherjewelerssellanycoloreddiamondsorothergemstonesisirrelevant.

D. Theargumentonlyconcernsthetypesofcolorlessdiamondssoldnow,notthetypesthatmaybesoldinthefutureifothertreatmentmethodsarediscovered.

E. Theargumentdoessuggestthisdifficultybutimpliesthatevensotherearetoofewtreateddiamondsavailableforjewelerstosellinplaceofnaturallycolorlessones.


168. Borealowlsrangeoveramuchlargerareathandootherowlsofsimilarsize.Thereasonforthisbehaviorisprobablythatthesmallmammalsonwhichowlsfeedareespeciallyscarceintheforestswhereborealowlslive,andtherelativescarcityofpreyrequirestheowlstorangemoreextensivelytofindsufficientfood.

Whichofthefollowing,iftrue,mosthelpstoconfirmtheexplanationabove?

A. Someborealowlsrangeoveranareaeighttimeslargerthantheareaoverwhichanyotherowlofsimilarsizeranges.

B. Borealowlsrangeoverlargerareasinregionswherefoodofthesorteatenbysmallmammalsissparsethantheydoinregionswheresuchfoodisabundant.

C. Aftertheiryounghatch,borealowlsmusthuntmoreoftenthanbeforeinordertofeedboththemselvesandtheirnewlyhatchedyoung.

D. Sometimesindividualborealowlshuntnearasinglelocationformanyweeksatatimeanddonotrangefartherthanafewhundredyards.

E. Theborealowlrequireslessfood,relativetoitsweight,thanisrequiredbymembersofotherowlspecies.

ArgumentEvaluationSituationThesmallmammalsonwhichowlspreyarerelativelyscarceintheforestswhereborealowlslive.Thatiswhyborealowlsrangemoreextensivelythandoother,similarlysizedowlsinsearchoffood.

ReasoningWhichchoice,iftrue,wouldmosthelpconfirmtheproposedexplanation?Onewaytoconfirmanexplanationisbyfindingfurtherinformationthatonewouldexpecttobetrueiftheexplanationisvalid.Iftheexplanationinthepassageisvalid,thenonewouldexpectthatvariationsinthepopulationdensityofavailablesmall-animalpreyforborealowlswouldbeaccompaniedbyvariationsintherangesoftheborealowls.Naturallythepopulationdensityofavailablesmall-animalpreyislikelytobeaffectedbyhowplentifulfoodisforthosesmallanimals.

A. Thecomparisonbetweendifferentgroupsofborealowlsisnotrelevanttothecomparisonbetweenborealowlsandotherowls.

B. Correct.Thisindicatesthatabundanceoffoodfortheborealowls’small-animalpreyinanarea(andthereforeabundanceofsmallanimalsinthatarea)correlateswithasmallerrangefortheborealowlsthere.Thisstrengthenstheproposedexplanation.

C. Thisoptionconcernsacorrelationbetweenowls’needforfoodandthefrequencywithwhichowlshunt,whereasthephenomenondescribedinthepassageandtheproposedexplanationhavetodowiththerangeoverwhichowlshunt.

D. Ifoneweretoassumethatborealowlsneverhuntnearasingle

locationforweeks,thatwouldinnowayunderminetheproposedexplanation.

E. Ifanything,thisoptiontendstounderminetheproposedexplanation,becauseitsuggeststhepossibilitythatborealowlsneednotmakeupfortherelativescarcityofpreyintheirhabitatsbyrangingoverlargerareas.


169. Historian:Newtondevelopedmathematicalconceptsandtechniquesthatarefundamentaltomoderncalculus.Leibnizdevelopedcloselyanalogousconceptsandtechniques.Ithastraditionallybeenthoughtthatthesediscoverieswereindependent.Researchershave,however,recentlydiscoverednotesofLeibniz’sthatdiscussoneofNewton’sbooksonmathematics.SeveralscholarshavearguedthatsincethebookincludesapresentationofNewton’scalculusconceptsandtechniques,andsincethenoteswerewrittenbeforeLeibniz’sowndevelopmentofcalculusconceptsandtechniques,itisvirtuallycertainthatthetraditionalviewisfalse.Amorecautiousconclusionthanthisiscalledfor,however.Leibniz’snotesarelimitedtoearlysectionsofNewton’sbook,sectionsthatprecedetheonesinwhichNewton’scalculusconceptsandtechniquesarepresented.

Inthehistorian’sreasoning,thetwoportionsinboldfaceplaywhichofthefollowingroles?

A. Thefirstisaclaimthatthehistorianrejects;thesecondisapositionthatthatclaimhasbeenusedtosupport.

B. Thefirstisevidencethathasbeenusedtosupportaconclusionaboutwhichthehistorianexpressesreservations;thesecondisthatconclusion.

C. Thefirstprovidesevidenceinsupportofapositionthatthehistoriandefends;thesecondisthatposition.

D. Thefirstandthesecondeachprovideevidenceinsupportofapositionthatthehistoriandefends.

E. Thefirsthasbeenusedinsupportofapositionthatthehistorianrejects;thesecondisaconclusionthatthehistoriandrawsfromthatposition.

ArgumentConstruction

SituationAhistoriandiscussesacontroversyaboutwhetherornotLeibnizdevelopedcalculusconceptsandtechniquesindependentlyofNewton.

ReasoningWhatargumentativerolesdothetwoportionsinboldfaceplayinthepassage?Thefirstfoursentencesofthepassagesimplyprovidebackgroundinformation.Bothboldfacesectionsarewithinthefifthsentence,whichreportsanargumentbyseveralscholars.Thekeywordsinceindicatesthatthefirstboldfacesectionisapremiseinthescholars’argument.Asecondpremiseprecededbyanothersincefollowsinthenextclause.Thefinalclauseofthefifthsentencerevealsthatthesecondboldfacesectionistheconclusionofthescholars’argument.Inthesixthsentence,thehistorianexpressesmisgivingsaboutthescholars’conclusion,forreasonspresentedintheseventhandfinalsentence.

A. ThehistoriandoesnotrejecttheclaimthatNewton’sbookincludesapresentationofNewton’scalculusconceptsandtechniques.Instead,thehistorianmerelypointsoutthatLeibniz’snotesdonotcoverthosesectionsofNewton’sbook.

B. Correct.Thefirstboldfacesectionisoneoftwopremisesinthescholars’argument,andthesecondboldfacesectionisthatargument’sconclusion.Inthefollowingsentencethehistorianexpressesreservationsaboutthatconclusion.

C. Thehistoriandoesnotdefendthescholars’conclusionbutratherexpressesmisgivingsaboutit.

D. Thesecondboldfacesectionisthescholars’conclusionanddoesnotpresentanyevidence.Nordoesitsupportthehistorian’spositionthatamorecautiousconclusioniscalledfor.

E. Thesecondboldfacesectionpresentsnotthehistorian’sconclusionbutratherthescholars’conclusion,aboutwhichthehistorianexpressesmisgivings.


170. Amilepostonthetowpathread“21”onthesidefacingthehikerassheapproacheditand“23”onitsback.Shereasonedthatthenextmilepostforwardonthepathwouldindicatethatshewashalfwaybetweenoneendofthepathandtheother.However,themilepostonemilefurtheronread“20”facingherand“24”behind.

Whichofthefollowing,iftrue,wouldexplainthediscrepancydescribed

above?

A. Thenumbersonthenextmileposthadbeenreversed.

B. Thenumbersonthemilepostsindicatekilometers,notmiles.

C. Thefacingnumbersindicatemilestotheendofthepath,notmilesfromthebeginning.

D. Amilepostwasmissingbetweenthetwothehikerencountered.

E. Themilepostshadoriginallybeenputinplacefortheuseofmountainbikers,notforhikers.

ArgumentConstructionSituationAhikerseesamilepostmarked21ononesideand23ontheother.Sheexpectsthenextmileposttoread22onbothsides.However,theactualsignsays20and24.

ReasoningWhatexplainsthediscrepancy?Thehikerassumesthatthenumberfacingheristhedistanceshehastraveledfromherjourney’sbeginningandthattheothernumberisthedistancetoherjourney’send.Thatis,atthefirstmilepostshebelievesshehascome21milesandhas23mileslefttogo.Infact,thenumbersareactuallythereverseofherreasoning.Atthesecondmilepostshehas20mileslefttogoandhascome24miles.

A. Reversingthenumberswouldnotmakeanydifference;accordingtothehiker’s(incorrect)reasoning,bothnumberswouldbe22.

B. Whatunitofmeasurementisusedisirrelevanttothehiker’smisinterpretationofthemileposts.

C. Correct.Thisstatementresolvesthediscrepancybetweenthetruemeaningofthemilepostsandthehiker’sexpectationaboutthembyshowinghowthehikermisinterpretedthemileposts.

D. Amissingmilepostwouldnotexplainthediscrepancy.Iftherehadbeenamissingmilepostwith22oneachside,itsdiscrepancywiththe20/24milepostwouldalsoneedexplanation.

E. Thenumbersaremeasuresofdistance,nottime,sothemodeoftransportationisirrelevant.


171. Forovertwocenturies,noonehadbeenabletomakeDamascusblades—bladeswithadistinctiveserpentinesurfacepattern—buta

contemporaryswordmakermayjusthaverediscoveredhow.UsingironwithtraceimpuritiesthatpreciselymatchedthosepresentintheironusedinhistoricDamascusblades,thiscontemporaryswordmakerseemstohavefinallyhitonanintricateprocessbywhichhecanproduceabladeindistinguishablefromatrueDamascusblade.

Whichofthefollowing,iftrue,providesthestrongestsupportforthehypothesisthattraceimpuritiesintheironareessentialfortheproductionofDamascusblades?

A. TherearesurfacefeaturesofeveryDamascusblade—includingthebladesproducedbythecontemporaryswordmaker—thatareuniquetothatblade.

B. TheironwithwhichthecontemporaryswordmakermadeDamascusbladescamefromasourceofironthatwasunknowntwocenturiesago.

C. Almostallthetoolsusedbythecontemporaryswordmakerwereupdatedversionsoftoolsthatwereusedbyswordmakersovertwocenturiesago.

D. ProductionofDamascusbladesbyswordmakersofthepastceasedabruptlyafterthoseswordmakers’originalsourceofironbecameexhausted.

E. AlthoughDamascusbladeswererenownedformaintainingasharpedge,theblademadebythecontemporaryswordmakersuggeststhattheymayhavemaintainedtheiredgelesswellthanbladesmadeusingwhatisnowthestandardprocessformakingblades.

ArgumentEvaluationSituationAswordmakermayhaverecentlyrediscoveredhowtomakeDamascusbladesusingironwithtraceimpuritiesmatchingthoseintheironfromwhichhistoricDamascusbladeswerewrought.

ReasoningWhatevidencewouldsuggestthatthetraceimpuritiesareessentialforproducingDamascusblades?ThepassagesaystheswordmakerseemstohavecreatedbladesindistinguishablefromhistoricDamascusbladesbyusingironwiththesametraceimpuritiesfoundinthoseblades.Butthatdoesnotprovethetraceimpuritiesareessentialtotheprocess.EvidencesuggestingthatDamascusbladeshaveneverbeenmadefromironwithoutthetraceimpuritieswouldsupportthehypothesisthatthetraceimpuritiesare

essentialtotheirmanufacture.

A. Damascusbladescouldvaryintheirsurfacefeatureswhetherornottraceimpuritiesareessentialfortheirmanufacture.

B. Whateverthesourceoftheironthecontemporaryswordmakerused,itcontainsthesametraceimpuritiesastheironhistoricallyusedtomakeDamascusblades,whichiswhatthehypothesis

isabout.

C. Ifanything,thismightcastdoubtonthehypothesisbysuggestingthatthespecialtoolsratherthanthetraceimpuritiescouldaccountforthedistinctivefeaturesofDamascusblades.

D. Correct.Thissuggeststhatwhenthehistoricswordmakerslostaccesstothespecialironwithitstraceimpurities,theycouldnolongermakeDamascusblades.Thus,itsupportsthehypothesisthatthetraceimpuritiesarenecessaryformanufacturingDamascusblades.

E. EvenifDamascusbladesmaintainedtheiredgeslesswellthanmostcontemporarybladesdo,thetraceimpuritiesmaynothavebeenessentialformanufacturingthem.


172. Microbiologist:AlethalstrainofsalmonellarecentlyshowedupinaEuropeancountry,causinganoutbreakofillnessthatkilledtwopeopleandinfectedtwenty-sevenothers.Investigatorsblametheseverityoftheoutbreakontheoveruseofantibiotics,sincethesalmonellabacteriatestedwereshowntobedrug-resistant.Butthisisunlikelybecausepatientsinthecountrywheretheoutbreakoccurredcannotobtainantibioticstotreatillnesswithoutaprescription,andthecountry’sdoctorsprescribeantibioticslessreadilythandodoctorsinanyotherEuropeancountry.

Whichofthefollowing,iftrue,wouldmostweakenthemicrobiologist’sreasoning?

A. Physiciansinthecountrywheretheoutbreakoccurredhavebecomehesitanttoprescribeantibioticssincetheyarefrequentlyinshortsupply.

B. Peopleinthecountrywheretheoutbreakoccurredoftenconsumefoodsproducedfromanimalsthateatantibiotics-ladenlivestockfeed.

C. Useofantibioticsintwocountriesthatneighborthecountrywheretheoutbreakoccurredhasrisenoverthepastdecade.

D. Drug-resistantstrainsofsalmonellahavenotbeenfoundincountriesinwhichantibioticsarenotgenerallyavailable.

E. Salmonellahasbeenshowntospreadeasilyalongthedistributionchainsofcertainvegetables,suchasrawtomatoes.

ArgumentEvaluationSituationAntibiotic-resistantsalmonellacausedanoutbreakofillnessinaEuropeancountrywherepatientsneedprescriptionstoobtainantibioticsandwheredoctorsdispensesuchprescriptionslessreadilythaninotherEuropeancountries.

ReasoningWhatevidencewouldmoststronglysuggestthatoveruseofantibioticswaslikelyresponsiblefortheoutbreak,despitethecitedfacts?Themicrobiologistreasonsthatbecausepatientsneedprescriptionstoobtainantibioticsinthecountrywheretheoutbreakoccurred,andthecountry’sdoctorsdispensesuchprescriptionslessreadilythandoctorsinotherEuropeancountriesdo,antibioticsareprobablynotbeingoverusedinthecountry—soantibioticoverusewasprobablynotresponsiblefortheoutbreak.Implicitinthemicrobiologist’sreasoningistheassumptionthatoveruseofantibiotics,ifithadoccurred,couldprobablyhaveresultedonlyfromoverprescribingofantibioticsbyphysicianstotreatillnessinpeopleinthecountryinquestion.Anyevidencecastingdoubtonthiscomplexassumptionwouldsuggestaweaknessinthemicrobiologist’sreasoning.

A. Thisstrengthenstheargumentbyprovidingadditionalevidencethatantibioticsarenotbeingoverprescribedinthecountry.

B. Correct.Thisweakensthemicrobiologist’sargumentbyindicatingthatanassumptionimplicitintheargumentmaybefalse:thesalmonellaoutbreakcouldeasilybyexplainedbyoveruseofantibioticsinlivestockfeed(perhapsimportedfromothercountries).

C. Evenifantibioticusehasriseninthetwoneighboringcountries,antibioticsstillmightbeunderusedinbothcountries.

D. Thissuggeststhatantibiotic-resistantsalmonellaarisesonlyincountrieswhereantibioticsareused;evenifthisweretrueitwould

bequitecompatiblewiththemicrobiologist’sargumentanddoesnotweakenthatargument.

E. Thisdescribesonemechanismbywhichsalmonellacanspreadinapopulation;itsaysnothingaboutwhetheranoutbreakofantibiotic-resistantstrainsofsalmonellamighthavebeencausedbyantibioticoveruse.


173. Imagesfromground-basedtelescopesareinvariablydistortedbytheEarth’satmosphere.Orbitingspacetelescopes,however,operatingaboveEarth’satmosphere,shouldprovidesuperblydetailedimages.Therefore,ground-basedtelescopeswillsoonbecomeobsoleteforadvancedastronomicalresearchpurposes.

Whichofthefollowingstatements,iftrue,wouldcastthemostdoubtontheconclusiondrawnabove?

A. Anorbitingspacetelescopeduetobelaunchedthisyearisfarbehindscheduleandoverbudget,whereasthelargestground-basedtelescopewasbothwithinbudgetandonschedule.

B. Ground-basedtelescopeslocatedonmountainsummitsarenotsubjecttothekindsofatmosphericdistortionwhich,atlowaltitudes,makestarsappeartotwinkle.

C. Bycarefulchoiceofobservatorylocation,itispossibleforlarge-aperturetelescopestoavoidmostofthekindofwindturbulencethatcandistortimagequality.

D. Whenlarge-aperturetelescopesarelocatedathighaltitudesneartheequator,theypermitthebestEarth-basedobservationsofthecenteroftheMilkyWayGalaxy,aprimetargetofastronomicalresearch.

E. Detailedspectralanalyses,uponwhichastronomersrelyfordeterminingthechemicalcompositionandevolutionaryhistoryofstars,requiretelescopeswithmorelight-gatheringcapacitythanspacetelescopescanprovide.

ArgumentEvaluationSituationEarth’satmospheredistortsimagesfromground-basedtelescopes,whereasspacetelescopesorbitingabovetheatmosphereshouldprovidesuperblydetailedimages.

ReasoningWhatevidencewouldunderminetheclaimthatground-basedtelescopeswillsoonbecomeobsoleteforadvancedastronomicalresearch?Theargumentimplicitlyassumesthatadvancedastronomicalresearchcanbeaccomplishedmoreeffectivelywiththemoredetailed,lessdistortedimagesproducedbyspacetelescopesandthatthereforealmostalladvancedastronomicalresearchwillsoonbeconductedwithspacetelescopes.Thisreasoningwouldbeunderminedbyevidencethatground-basedtelescopeshavesubstantialadvantagesforadvancedastronomicalresearchdespitetheirdistortedimagesorbyevidencethatspacetelescopeswillnotsoonbecomecommonoraffordableenoughtosupportmostadvancedastronomicalresearch.

A. Evenifthisistrue,theremaybeseveralorbitingspacetelescopesthatwillbe,orhavebeen,launchedonscheduleandwithinbudget,sothisoptiondoesnotcastdoubtontheconclusionoftheargument.

B. Ground-basedtelescopesonmountainsummitsarestillsubjecttomoreatmosphericdistortionthanarespacetelescopesorbitingabovetheatmosphere.

C. Atmosphericdistortionoftelescopicimagesmayresultmainlyfromfactorsotherthanwindturbulence.

D. EventhebestEarth-basedobservationsofthecenteroftheMilkyWayGalaxymaybevastlyinferiortospace-basedobservations.

E. Correct.Thisindicatesaninherentlimitationofspace-basedtelescopes:unlikeEarth-basedtelescopes,theylackthelight-gatheringcapacitythatastronomersneedtoperformoneoftheirprimarytasks,i.e.,detailedspectralanalyses.SoEarth-basedtelescopesareunlikelytosoonbecomeobsolete.


174. Generallyscientistsentertheirfieldwiththegoalofdoingimportantnewresearchandacceptastheircolleaguesthosewithsimilarmotivation.Therefore,whenanyscientistwinsrenownasanexpounderofsciencetogeneralaudiences,mostotherscientistsconcludethatthispopularizershouldnolongerberegardedasatruecolleague.

Theexplanationofferedaboveforthelowesteeminwhichscientificpopularizersareheldbyresearchscientistsassumesthat

A. seriousscientificresearchisnotasolitaryactivity,butrelieson

activecooperationamongagroupofcolleagues

B. researchscientiststendnottoregardascolleaguesthosescientistswhoserenowntheyenvy

C. ascientistcanbecomeafamouspopularizerwithouthavingcompletedanyimportantresearch

D. researchscientistsbelievethatthosewhoarewellknownaspopularizersofsciencearenotmotivatedtodoimportantnewresearch

E. noimportantnewresearchcanbeaccessibletooraccuratelyassessedbythosewhoarenotthemselvesscientists

ArgumentConstructionSituationResearchscientistsdesiretodoimportantnewresearchandtreatascolleaguesjustthosewhohaveasimilardesire.Whenascientistbecomespopularamongageneralaudienceforexplainingprinciplesofscience,otherscientistshavelessesteemforthispopularizer,nolongerregardingsuchascientistasaseriouscolleague.

ReasoningWhatassumptiondoresearchscientistsmakeaboutscientistswhobecomepopularizers?Thecommunityofscientistssharesacommongoal:todoimportantnewresearch.Whatwouldcausethiscommunitytodisapproveofapopularizerandtoceasetoregardthepopularizerasacolleague?Itmustbebecausemanyscientistsbelievethatbecomingapopularizerisincompatiblewithdesiringtodoimportantnewresearch.

A. Manyscientistsmakethisassumption,ofcourse—butitisnotanassumptiononwhichtheexplanationspecificallydepends.Theexplanationconcernsthescientists’motivation,nottheirstyleofdoingresearch.

B. Thisstatementgivesanotherreasonthatscientistsmayrejectapopularizer,butbecauseitisnotthereasonimpliedinthepassage,itisnotassumed.

C. Evenifthisistrue,itdoesnotaddressthecoreissueoftheargument:whatscientistsbelieveaboutthemotivationofpopularizers.

D. Correct.Thisstatementproperlyidentifiesanassumptionon

whichtheexplanationforscientists’rejectionofpopularizersdepends.

E. Thepassageisnotconcernedwithwhethernonscientistscanunderstandnewresearch,butratherwiththebeliefsandmotivationsofscientistswhorejectpopularizersascolleagues.



Utraniawasformerlyamajorpetroleumexporter,butinrecentdecadeseconomicstagnationandrestrictiveregulationsinhibitedinvestmentinnewoilfields.Inconsequence,Utranianoilexportsdroppedsteadilyasoldfieldsbecamedepleted.Utrania’scurrentlyimprovingeconomicsituation,togetherwithless-restrictiveregulations,willundoubtedlyresultintherapiddevelopmentofnewfields.However,itwouldbeprematuretoconcludethattherapiddevelopmentofnewfieldswillresultinhigheroilexports,because__________.

A. thepriceofoilisexpectedtoremainrelativelystableoverthenextseveralyears

B. theimprovementintheeconomicsituationinUtraniaisexpectedtoresultinadramaticincreaseintheproportionofUtranianswhoownautomobiles

C. mostoftheinvestmentinnewoilfieldsinUtraniaisexpectedtocomefromforeignsources

D. newtechnologyisavailabletorecoveroilfromoldoilfieldsformerlyregardedasdepleted

E. manyofthenewoilfieldsinUtraniaarelikelytobeasproductiveasthosethatweredevelopedduringtheperiodwhenUtraniawasamajoroilexporter

ArgumentConstructionSituationAcountrythathadbeenamajoroilexporterhasseenitsexportsdeclineinrecentdecadesduetoeconomicstagnation,afailuretoinvestinnewfields,andthesteadydepletionofitsoldfields.Butlooserregulationsandanimprovingeconomywillbringrapiddevelopmentofnewoilfieldsinthecountry.

ReasoningWhichoftheoptionswouldmostlogicallycompletetheargument?Thepassagedescribestheconditionsthatledto

Utrania’snolongerbeingamajoroilexporter:alackofinvestmentinnewoilfieldsduetoastagnanteconomyandrestrictiveregulations.Thepassagethensaysthatduetochangedregulatoryandeconomicconditions,therewillnowberapiddevelopmentofnewoilfields.Nonetheless,thismightnotbringaboutanincreaseinUtrania’soilexports.Tologicallycompletetheargument,onemustexplainhowoilexportsmightnotincreaseevenwhentheconditionthatledtodecreasedoilexportshasbeenremoved.Supposetherewereanincreaseindomesticoilconsumption.AdramaticincreaseintherateofcarownershipinUtraniacouldreasonablybeexpectedtosignificantlyincreasedomesticoilconsumption,whichcouldeatuptheaddedoilproductionfromthenewfields.

A. Thischoiceisincorrect.ThereisnoreasonwhystableoilpricesshouldpreventUtrania’soilexportsfromincreasing.

B. Correct.AnincreaseincarownershipwouldincreaseUtrania’soilconsumption—andthissupportstheclaimthatoilexportsmightnotincrease.

C. Ifanything,thissuggeststhatoilexportsshouldincrease.Soitwouldnotbeagoodchoiceforcompletionoftheargument.

D. TheadventofnewtechnologyallowingoiltobeextractedfromfieldspreviouslythoughttobedepletedwouldmeanthatthereisevenmorereasontothinkthatUtrania’soilexportswillincrease.

E. Thisdoesnothelptoexplainwhyexportswouldnotincrease.Onthecontrary,itsuggeststhatthenewfieldswillleadtoincreasedexports.


176. Whichofthefollowing,iftrue,mostlogicallycompletestheargument?

SomedairyfarmersintheprovinceofTakandiawanttogivetheircowsasynthetichormonethatincreasesmilkproduction.ManyTakandians,however,donotwanttobuymilkfromcowsgiventhesynthetichormone.ForthisreasonTakandia’slegislatureisconsideringameasurerequiringmilkfromcowsgiventhehormonetobelabeledassuch.Evenifthemeasureisdefeated,dairyfarmerswhousethehormonewillprobablylosecustomers,since__________.

A. ithasnotbeenproventhatanytraceofthesynthetichormoneexistsinthemilkofcowsgiventhehormone

B. somefarmersinTakandiawhoplantousethesynthetichormonewillprobablynotdosoifthemeasurewerepassed

C. milkfromcowsthathavenotbeengiventhesynthetichormonecanbelabeledassuchwithoutanylegislativeaction

D. thelegislature’sconsiderationofthebillhasbeenwidelypublicized

E. milkthatcomesfromcowsgiventhesynthetichormonelooksandtastesthesameasmilkfromcowsthathavenotreceivedthehormone

ArgumentConstructionSituationSomedairyfarmersinaprovincewanttogivetheirdairycowsasynthetichormone,butmanypeopleintheprovincedonotwanttobuymilkthatisfromcowsgiventhehormone.Theprovinciallegislatureisconsideringameasurerequiringmilkfromcowsgiventhehormonetobelabeledassuch.

ReasoningWhatwouldbeareasontobelievethatdairyfarmerswhousethehormonewilllosecustomersevenifthemeasureisdefeated?Ifthemeasurepasses,thedairyfarmerswhogivecowsthehormonemaylosethemanycustomerswhodonotwanttobuysuchmilk.Ifthemeasureisdefeated,thenmilkproducedwiththehormonewillnothavetobelabeled—sowhatwouldleadonetobelievethathormone-usingfarmerswouldneverthelesslosecustomers?Astatementthatprovidesananswertothisquestionwouldlogicallycompletetheargument.

A. Atbest,thislackofproofmightmitigatehormone-usingfarmers’lossofcustomers,whatevertheoutcomeofthelegislature’sconsiderationofthemeasure.

B. Theargument’sconclusionismainlyaboutwhatwillhappenifthemeasureisdefeated,notwhatwillhappenifitpasses.

C. Correct.Ifthemeasureisdefeated,themilkproducedbyfarmerswhoavoidusingthehormonewouldlikelygainamarketadvantageifthemilkwaslabeledasproducedwithoutuseofthehormone.Asaresult,dairyfarmerswhousethehormonewouldprobablylosecustomers.

D. Publicitycouldaffectconsumers’attitudesabouthormone-producedmilk,butifthemeasureisdefeatedandlabelingpracticesdonotchange,customerswouldhavenowayofknowingwhich

milkwasproducedbyuseofthehormone.

E. Thissuggeststhat,intheabsenceoflabeling,consumerswouldbeunabletodecidewhichmilkwasproducedbyuseofthehormone,sodairyfarmerswhousedthehormonewouldbeunlikelytolosecustomersifthelabelingmeasureisdefeated.


177. Inordertoreducedependenceonimportedoil,thegovernmentofJalicahasimposedminimumfuel-efficiencyrequirementsonallnewcars,beginningthisyear.Themorefuel-efficientacar,thelesspollutionitproducespermiledriven.AsJalicansreplacetheiroldcarswithcarsthatmeetthenewrequirements,annualpollutionfromcartrafficislikelytodecreaseinJalica.


A. InJalica,domesticallyproducedoilismoreexpensivethanimportedoil.

B. TheJalicangovernmentdidnotintendthenewfuel-efficiencyrequirementtobeapollution-reductionmeasure.

C. Somepollution-controldevicesmandatedinJalicamakecarslessfuel-efficientthantheywouldbewithoutthosedevices.

D. ThenewregulationrequiresnochangeinthechemicalformulationoffuelforcarsinJalica.

E. Jalicanswhogetcarsthataremorefuel-efficienttendtodomoredrivingthanbefore.

ArgumentEvaluationSituationTheJalicangovernmentisrequiringallnewcarstomeetminimumfuel-efficiencyrequirementsstartingthisyear.Carsthataremorefuelefficientproducelesspollutionpermiledriven.

ReasoningWhatevidencewouldsuggestthatannualpollutionfromcartrafficwillnotdecreaseinJalica,despitethenewpolicy?Airpollutionfromcartrafficisunlikelytodecreaseifthenewstandardswillresultinmorecarsontheroadormoremilesdrivenpercar;orifairpollutionfromcartrafficinJalicaisincreasingbecauseofunrelatedfactorssuchasgrowingnumbersofJalicanswhocanaffordcars,constructionofmoreroads,etc.Evidencethatanyofthesefactorsispresentwouldcastdoubtontheargument’s

conclusionandthusweakentheargument.

A. Thequestionatissueisnotwhetherthenewpolicywillreducedependenceonimportedoilasthegovernmentintends,butratherwhetheritwillreduceairpollutionfromcartraffic.

B. Agovernmentpolicymayhaveconsequencesthatthegovernmentdidnotintendittohave.

C. Evenifthesepollution-controldevicesmakecarslessfuelefficient,thenewfuel-efficiencystandardsmaystillimprovecars’averagefuelefficiencyandtherebyreduceairpollution.

D. Evenifthefuelisunchanged,thenewfuel-efficiencystandardsmaystillresultincarsusinglessfuelandmaytherebyreduceairpollution.

E. Correct.Ifthenewfuel-efficientcarsaredrivenmoremilesperyearthanoldercarsare,theymayproduceasmuchormorepollutionperyearthanoldercarsdoeventhoughtheyproducelesspollutionpermiledriven.


178. Plantingsofcottonbioengineeredtoproduceitsowninsecticideagainstbollworms,amajorcauseofcropfailure,sustainedlittlebollwormdamageuntilthisyear.Thisyeartheplantingsarebeingseriouslydamagedbybollworms.Bollworms,however,arenotnecessarilydevelopingresistancetothecotton’sinsecticide.Bollwormsbreedoncorn,andlastyearmorecornthanusualwasplantedthroughoutcotton-growingregions.Soitislikelythatthecottonissimplybeingoverwhelmedbycorn-bredbollworms.

Inevaluatingtheargument,whichofthefollowingwoulditbemostusefultoestablish?

A. Whethercorncouldbebioengineeredtoproducetheinsecticide

B. Whetherplantingsofcottonthatdoesnotproducetheinsecticidearesufferingunusuallyextensivedamagefrombollwormsthisyear

C. Whetherothercropsthathavebeenbioengineeredtoproducetheirowninsecticidesuccessfullyresistthepestsagainstwhichtheinsecticidewastoprotectthem

D. Whetherplantingsofbioengineeredcottonarefrequentlydamagedbyinsectpestsotherthanbollworms

E. Whetherthereareinsecticidesthatcanbeusedagainstbollwormsthathavedevelopedresistancetotheinsecticideproducedbythebioengineeredcotton

ArgumentEvaluationSituationAlthoughplantingsofcottonbioengineeredtoproduceaninsecticidetocombatbollwormswerelittledamagedbythepestsinpreviousyears,theyarebeingseverelydamagedthisyear.Sincethebollwormsbreedoncorn,andtherehasbeenmorecornplantedthisyearincotton-growingareas,thecottonisprobablybeingoverwhelmedbythecorn-bredbollworms.

ReasoningInevaluatingtheargument,whichquestionwoulditbemostusefultohaveanswered?Theargumentstatesthatthebioengineeredcottoncropfailuresthisyear(1)havelikelybeenduetotheincreasedcornplantingsand(2)notduetothepestshavingdevelopedaresistancetotheinsecticide.Thisalsoimplies(3)thatthefailuresarenotduetosomethirdfactor.

Itwouldbeusefultoknowhowthebioengineeredcottonisfaringincomparisontotherestofthisyear’scottoncrop.Ifthebioengineeredcottonisfaringbetteragainstthebollworms,thatfactwouldsupporttheargumentbecauseitwouldsuggestthattheinsecticideisstillcombatingbollworms.If,ontheotherhand,thebioengineeredcottonisbeingmoreseverelyravagedbybollwormsthanisothercotton,thatsuggeststhatthereissomethirdcausethatisprimarilyatfault.

A. Thiswouldprobablybeusefulinformationtothosetryingtoalleviatethebollwormprobleminbioengineeredcotton.Butwhethersuchcorncouldbedevelopedhasnobearingonwhatiscausingthebioengineeredcottontobedamagedbybollwormsthisyear.

B. Correct.Ifbollwormdamageonnon-bioengineeredcottonisworsethanusualthisyear,thenbollworminfestationingeneralissimplyworsethanusual,sopesticideresistancedoesnotneedtobeinvokedtoexplainthebollwormattacksonthebioengineeredcotton.

C. Evenifothercropsthathavebeenbioengineeredtoresistpestshavenotsuccessfullyresistedthem,thatfactwouldnotmeanthatthesameistrueofthiscotton.Furthermore,thefactsalreadysuggestthatthebioengineeredcottonhasresistedbollworms.

D. Whetherothertypesofpestsoftendamagebioengineeredcottonhasnobearingonwhybollwormsaredamagingthistypeofcottonmorethisyearthaninthepast.

E. This,too,mightbeusefulinformationtothosetryingtoalleviatethebollwormprobleminbioengineeredcotton,butitisnotparticularlyusefulinevaluatingtheargument.Eveniftherearepesticidesthatcouldbeusedagainstbollwormsthathavedevelopedresistancetotheinsecticideofthebioengineeredcotton,thatdoesnotmeanthatsuchpesticidesarebeingusedthisyear.


179. Manufacturerssometimesdiscountthepriceofaproducttoretailersforapromotionperiodwhentheproductisadvertisedtoconsumers.Suchpromotionsoftenresultinadramaticincreaseinamountofproductsoldbythemanufacturerstoretailers.Nevertheless,themanufacturerscouldoftenmakemoreprofitbynotholdingthepromotions.

Whichofthefollowing,iftrue,moststronglysupportstheclaimaboveaboutthemanufacturers’profit?

A. Theamountofdiscountgenerallyofferedbymanufacturerstoretailersiscarefullycalculatedtorepresenttheminimumneededtodrawconsumers’attentiontotheproduct.

B. Formanyconsumerproductstheperiodofadvertisingdiscountedpricestoconsumersisaboutaweek,notsufficientlylongforconsumerstobecomeusedtothesaleprice.

C. Forproductsthatarenotnewlyintroduced,thepurposeofsuchpromotionsistokeeptheproductsinthemindsofconsumersandtoattractconsumerswhoarecurrentlyusingcompetingproducts.

D. Duringsuchapromotionretailerstendtoaccumulateintheirwarehousesinventoryboughtatdiscount;theythensellmuchofitlaterattheirregularprice.

E. Ifamanufacturerfailstooffersuchpromotionsbutitscompetitoroffersthem,thatcompetitorwilltendtoattractconsumersawayfromthemanufacturer’sproduct.

ArgumentConstructionSituationDuringpromotionperiods,manufacturersdiscountpricesanddramaticallyincreasetheamountofproductsoldto

retailers.However,manufacturersmightmakemoreprofitwithoutthepromotions.

ReasoningHowcouldpromotionperiodscutprofits?Itisstatedthatpromotionperiodsresultinincreasedproductsalestoretailers.Howcouldsuchsalesdecreasethemanufacturers’potentialprofits?Ifretailersbuymorethantheycansellduringthepromotionperiod,theywillstorethesurplusinwarehousesandsellitlaterattheregularprice.Manufacturerslosetheirnormalprofitsonthesesales;moreover,themanufacturerwillnotbefillingorderswhilethesurplusexists.Theresultinglossesmaybegreaterthananygainsfromincreasingsalesorwinningnewcustomersduringthebriefpromotionperiod.

A. Calculatingtheminimumamountofdiscountshouldleadtogreaterprofitformanufacturers,sothisstatementdoesnotexplainthepotentiallossofprofit.

B. Thebrevityofthepromotionperiodfavorsmanufacturersbecauseconsumersdonotbecomeaccustomedtothelowerprice.

C. Attractingcustomers’attentionshouldcontributetohigher,notlower,profit.

D. Correct.Thisstatementproperlyidentifiesafactorthatstrengthenstheargument.

E. Sincethefailuretoofferpromotionsresultsinlossofcustomerstocompetitors,thisstatementshowsthatmanufacturersgainbypromotions.


180. Inanexperiment,volunteerswalkedindividuallythroughadark,abandonedtheater.Halfofthevolunteershadbeentoldthatthetheaterwashauntedandtheotherhalfthatitwasunderrenovation.Thefirsthalfreportedsignificantlymoreunusualexperiencesthantheseconddid.Theresearchersconcludedthatreportsofencounterswithghostsandothersupernaturalentitiesgenerallyresultfrompriorexpectationsofsuchexperiences.

Whichofthefollowing,iftrue,wouldmostseriouslyweakentheresearchers’reasoning?

A. Noneofthevolunteersinthesecondhalfbelievedthattheunusualexperiencestheyreportedweresupernatural.

B. Allofthevolunteersinthefirsthalfbelievedthattheresearchers’statementthatthetheaterwashauntedwasalie.

C. Beforebeingtoldaboutthetheater,thevolunteerswithineachgroupvariedconsiderablyintheirpriorbeliefsaboutsupernaturalexperiences.

D. Eachunusualexperiencereportedbythevolunteershadacausethatdidnotinvolvethesupernatural.

E. Theresearchersdidnotbelievethatthetheaterwashaunted.

ArgumentEvaluationSituationVolunteersinanexperimentwalkedthroughadark,abandonedtheater.Thosewhohadbeentoldthetheaterwashauntedreportedmoreunusualexperiencesthanthosewhohadbeentolditwasunderrenovation.

ReasoningWhatevidencewouldmoststronglysuggestthattheexperimentalresultsdonotindicatethatreportsofsupernaturalencountersresultfrompriorexpectationsofsuchexperiences?Theresearcherassumesthatthehalfofthevolunteerswhohadbeentoldthetheaterwashauntedweremoreinclinedtoexpectsupernaturalexperiencesinthetheaterthanweretheotherhalfofthevolunteers.Basedonthisassumptionandthegreaterincidenceofreportsofunusualexperiencesamongthefirsthalfofthevolunteers,theresearcherconcludesthatpriorexpectationofsupernaturalexperiencesmakespeoplemorelikelytoreportsuchexperiences.Theresearchers’reasoningwouldbeweakenedbyevidencethatthevolunteersdidnotactuallyhavetheexpectationstheresearchersassumedthemtohave,orbyevidencethatanysuchexpectationsdidnotinfluencetheirreports.

A. Thisstrengthenstheargumentbyindicatingthatthevolunteerswhomtheresearchersdidnotleadtoexpectsupernaturalexperiencesreportednosuchexperiences.

B. Correct.Ifnoneofthevolunteersbelievedtheresearchers’claimthatthetheaterwashaunted,thentheimplicitassumptionthatseveralofthosevolunteersexpectedsupernaturalexperiencesinthetheaterisflawed,andsotheinferencethattheirpriorexpectationsprobablyaccountfortheirreportsofsupernaturalexperiencesisflawed.

C. Thisiscompatiblewiththeresearchers’inferenceanddoesnotundermineit.Evenifthevolunteers’initialbeliefsaboutsupernaturalexperiencesvaried,theresearchers’claimsaboutthetheatermighthavestronglyinfluencedhowmanyvolunteersineachgroupexpectedtohavesuchexperiencesinthetheaterspecifically.

D. Theresearchersarguethatthevolunteers’priorexpectationsaccountforallthereportsofunusualexperiences,andthisiscompatiblewiththerebeingnogenuinesupernaturaloccurrencesinthetheater.

E. Whatevertheresearcherspersonallybelievedaboutthetheater,theymightstillhavesuccessfullyinfluencedthevolunteers’beliefsaboutit.


181. ManygardenersbelievethatthevarietyofclematisvinethatismostpopularamonggardenersinNorthAmericaisjackmanii.Thisbeliefisapparentlycorrectsince,oftheonemillionclematisplantssoldperyearbythelargestclematisnurseryinNorthAmerica,tenpercentarejackmanii.


A. Thenurserysellsmorethantendifferentvarietiesofclematis.

B. ThelargestclematisnurseryinNorthAmericasellsnothingbutclematisplants.

C. SomeofthejackmaniisoldbythenurseryaresoldtogardenersoutsideNorthAmerica.

D. MostNorthAmericangardenersgrowclematisintheirgardens.

E. ForallnurseriesinNorthAmericathatspecializeinclematis,atleasttenpercentoftheclematisplantstheysellarejackmanii.

ArgumentConstructionSituationOftheclematisplantssoldbythelargestclematisnurseryinNorthAmerica,10percentarejackmanii,whichmanygardenersbelievetobethemostpopularvarietyofclematisinNorthAmerica.

ReasoningWhatmustbetrueinorderforthefactthat10percentoftheclematissoldatthenurseryarejackmaniitoprovideevidencethatjackmaniiisthemostpopularvarietyofclematisinNorthAmerica?TheargumentassumesthatsalesofdifferentvarietiesofclematisatthenurseryreflecttherelativelevelsofpopularityofthosevarietiesamongNorthAmericangardeners.Italsoassumesthatjackmaniiisthebest-sellingclematisvarietyatthenursery,anassumptionwhichrequiresthatlessthan10percentofthenursery’sclematissalesareofanyonevarietyotherthanjackmanii.

A. Correct.Supposethenurserysoldtenorfewervarietiesofclematis.Thenatleastonevarietyotherthanjackmaniiwouldhavetoaccountforatleast10percentofthenursery’sclematissales,sojackmaniiwouldnotbethebest-sellingclematisvarietyatthenurseryastheargumentassumes.

B. Theargumentonlyconcernshowpopularjackmaniiisrelativetoothervarietiesofclematis,notrelativetoanyplantsotherthanclematisthatthenurserymaysell.

C. Ifanything,thiswouldweakentheargumentbysuggestingthatthenursery’sjackmaniisalesmightreflectjackmanii’spopularityoutsideNorthAmericamorethanitspopularitywithinNorthAmerica.

D. ThiswouldindicatethatclematisisapopularplantamongNorthAmericangardeners,notthatjackmaniiisthemostpopularvarietyofclematis.

E. Evenifjackmaniiaccountsforlessthan10percentofclematissalesatafewindividualnurseries,itmaystillaccountfor10percentormoreofNorthAmericanclematissalesoverall.


182. Since1990thepercentageofbacterialsinusinfectionsinAqadestanthatareresistanttotheantibioticperxicillinhasincreasedsubstantially.Bacteriacanquicklydevelopresistancetoanantibioticwhenitisprescribedindiscriminatelyorwhenpatientsfailtotakeitasprescribed.Sinceperxicillinhasnotbeenindiscriminatelyprescribed,healthofficialshypothesizethattheincreaseinperxicillin-resistantsinusinfectionsislargelyduetopatients’failuretotakethismedicationasprescribed.

Whichofthefollowing,iftrueofAqadestan,providesmostsupportfor

thehealthofficials’hypothesis?

A. Resistancetoseveralothercommonlyprescribedantibioticshasnotincreasedsince1990inAqadestan.

B. AlargenumberofAqadestanisneverseekmedicalhelpwhentheyhaveasinusinfection.

C. Whenitfirstbecameavailable,perxicillinwasmuchmoreeffectiveintreatingbacterialsinusinfectionsthananyotherantibioticusedforsuchinfectionsatthetime.

D. Manypatientswhotakeperxicillinexperienceseveresideeffectswithinthefirstfewdaysoftheirprescribedregimen.

E. Aqadestanihealthclinicsprovideantibioticstotheirpatientsatcost.

ArgumentConstructionSituationInAqadestanthepercentageofbacterialsinusinfectionsresistanttotheantibioticperxicillinhasbeenincreasingeventhoughperxicillinhasnotbeenindiscriminatelyprescribed.

ReasoningWhatevidencemoststronglysuggeststhatthemainreasonperxicillin-resistantsinusinfectionsarebecomingmorecommonisthatpatientsarefailingtotakeperxicillinasprescribed?Anyevidencesuggestingthatpatientshaveinfactbeenfailingtotakeperxicillinasprescribedwouldsupportthehypothesis,aswouldanyevidencecastingdoubtonotherpossibleexplanationsfortheincreasingproportionofperxicillin-resistantsinusinfections.

A. Thissuggeststhatsomefactorspecifictoperxicillinisincreasingbacterialresistancetoit,butthatcouldbetruewhetherornotthefactorispatients’failuretotakeperxicillinasprescribed.

B. Ifanything,thisweakenstheargumentbysuggestingthatmostpeoplewithsinusinfectionsareneverprescribedperxicillin,andthatthereforerelativelyfewpeoplearegettingprescriptionsandthenfailingtofollowthem.

C. Therelativeeffectivenessofperxicillinwhenitfirstbecameavailabledoesnotsuggestthatthereasonitisnowbecominglesseffectiveisthatmanypatientsarefailingtotakeitasprescribed.

D. Correct.Thesesideeffectswoulddiscouragepatientsfromtakingperxicillinasprescribed,sotheirexistenceprovidesevidencethatmanypatientsarenottakingitasprescribed.

E. Iftheclinicsdonotchargeextraforperxicillin,thatwouldmakeitmoreaffordableandhenceeasierformanypatientstotakeasprescribed.


183. Aproductthatrepresentsacleartechnologicaladvanceovercompetingproductscangenerallycommandahighprice.Becausetechnologicaladvancestendtobequicklysurpassedandcompanieswanttomakelargeprofitswhiletheystillcan,manycompanieschargethemaximumpossiblepriceforsuchaproduct.Butlargeprofitsonthenewproductwillgivecompetitorsastrongincentivetoquicklymatchthenewproduct’scapabilities.Consequently,thestrategytomaximizeoverallprofitfromanewproductistochargelessthanthegreatestpossibleprice.

Intheargumentabove,thetwoportionsinboldfaceplaywhichofthefollowingroles?

A. Thefirstisaconsiderationraisedtoarguethatacertainstrategyiscounterproductive;thesecondpresentsthatstrategy.

B. Thefirstisaconsiderationraisedtosupportthestrategythattheargumentrecommends;thesecondpresentsthatstrategy.

C. Thefirstisaconsiderationraisedtohelpexplainthepopularityofacertainstrategy;thesecondpresentsthatstrategy.

D. Thefirstisanassumption,rejectedbytheargument,thathasbeenusedtojustifyacourseofaction;thesecondpresentsthatcourseofaction.

E. Thefirstisaconsiderationthathasbeenusedtojustifyadoptingacertainstrategy;thesecondpresentstheintendedoutcomeofthatstrategy.

ArgumentConstructionSituationOften,whenacompanycomesoutwithaninnovativeproduct,itwillpricetheproductashighasitcantomaximizeprofitsbeforethecompetitorsquicklycatchup.Butthisisnotagoodstrategybecausetheveryhighpriceofthenewproductonlyencouragescompetitorstomatchthetechnologicaladvancemorequickly.

ReasoningWhichoptionbestdescribestherolesthattheboldface

portionsplayintheargument?Thistypeofitemconcernsonlytheargument’sstructure—thewayitisintendedtowork,notthequalityoftheargumentorwhatmightstrengthenorweakentheargument.Soevenifaboldfaceportioncouldbeusedbytheargumentinacertainway,allthatmattersisitsactualintendedrole.Thefactthattechnologicaladvancestendtobequicklysurpassedservestopartlyexplainwhymanycompanieschargethemaximumpossiblepriceforsuchaproduct.Inotherwords,thefirstboldfaceportionhelpsexplainthepopularityofthestrategypresentedinthesecondboldfaceportion.Theconclusionoftheargument,however,isthatthestrategyexemplifiedinthislatterboldfaceportionisunwise,sotheargumentasawholeopposesthatstrategy.

A. Althoughthefirstboldfaceportioncouldbeusedaspartofanargumentthatthestrategypresentedinthesecondboldfaceportioniscounterproductive,thatisnothowitisusedhere.Rather,itimmediatelyfollowsthewordbecauseandservestoexplaintheoccurrenceofwhatisdescribedinthesecondboldfaceportion.

B. Thisisclearlywrongbecausethesecondboldfaceportionpresentsthestrategythattheargumentopposes.

C. Correct.Itistheonlychoicethatisconsistentwiththeanalysisofthereasoningpresentedabove.

D. Thefirstboldfaceportionisnotanassumptionrejectedbytheargument;rather,itisaffirmedintheargument.

E. Theargumentdoesnotexpresslyclaimthatthefirstboldfaceportionhasbeenusedtojustifythestrategyofsettingthepriceashighaspossible,althoughitimpliesthatthisispartofthejustificationthatthoseadoptingthestrategywouldgive.Moreclearly,thesecondboldfaceportiondoesnotdescribetheintendedoutcomeofthestrategy,butratherthemeansofbringingaboutthatintendedoutcome(maximizingprofits,bymeansofhighprices).


184. Gortlandhaslongbeennarrowlyself-sufficientinbothgrainandmeat.However,aspercapitaincomeinGortlandhasrisentowardtheworldaverage,percapitaconsumptionofmeathasalsorisentowardtheworldaverage,andittakesseveralpoundsofgraintoproduceonepoundofmeat.Therefore,sincepercapitaincomecontinuestorise,whereasdomesticgrainproductionwillnotincrease,Gortlandwillsoonhaveto

importeithergrainormeatorboth.


A. ThetotalacreagedevotedtograinproductioninGortlandwillnotdecreasesubstantially.

B. ThepopulationofGortlandhasremainedrelativelyconstantduringthecountry’syearsofgrowingprosperity.

C. ThepercapitaconsumptionofmeatinGortlandisroughlythesameacrossallincomelevels.

D. InGortland,neithermeatnorgrainissubjecttogovernmentpricecontrols.

E. PeopleinGortlandwhoincreasetheirconsumptionofmeatwillnotradicallydecreasetheirconsumptionofgrain.

ArgumentConstructionSituationAcountrypreviouslyself-sufficientingrainandmeatwillsoonhavetoimportoneortheotherorbothbecauseitsconsumptionofmeathasrisenaspercapitaincomehasrisen.Ittakesseveralpoundsofgraintoproduceonepoundofmeat.

ReasoningWhatconditionsmustbetruefortheconclusiontobetrue?Meatconsumptionisrising.Whataboutgrainconsumption?Asharpreductionintheamountofgraindirectlyconsumedbymeateaterscouldcompensateforincreasedmeatconsumption,makingtheconclusionfalse.Ifpeopledidradicallydecreasetheirgrainconsumption,itmightnotbenecessarytoimportgrainormeat.Sincetheargumentconcludesthattheimportsarenecessary,itassumesthatdirectconsumptionofgrainbythosewhobegintoeatmeatwillnotplunge.

A. Theargumentmakesnoassumptionsabouttheacreagedevotedtograin;itassumesonlythatthedemandforgrainwillrise.

B. Theargumentisbasedonrisingpercapitaincome,notpopulationlevels.

C. Theargumentinvolvesonlymeatconsumptioningeneral,notitsdistributionbyincomelevel.

D. Sincetheargumentdoesnotrefertopricecontrols,itcannotdepend

onanassumption

aboutthem.

E. Correct.Thisstatementproperlyidentifiestheassumptionthatthosewhobegintoeatmeatdonotthengreatlydecreasetheirdirectconsumptionofgrains.



ThefiguresinportraitsbytheSpanishpainterElGreco(1541–1614)aresystematicallyelongated.InElGreco’stime,theintentionaldistortionofhumanfigureswasunprecedentedinEuropeanpainting.Consequently,somecriticshavesuggestedthatElGrecohadanastigmatism,atypeofvisualimpairment,thatresultedinpeopleappearingtohiminthedistortedwaythatischaracteristicofhispaintings.However,thissuggestioncannotbetheexplanation,because__________.

A. severaltwentieth-centuryartistshaveconsciouslyadoptedfromElGreco’spaintingsthesystematicelongationofthehumanform

B. somepeopledohaveelongatedbodiessomewhatlikethosedepictedinElGreco’sportraits

C. ifElGrecohadanastigmatism,then,relativetohowpeoplelookedtohim,theelongatedfiguresinhispaintingswouldhaveappearedtohimtobedistorted

D. evenifElGrecohadanastigmatism,therewouldhavebeennocorrectionforitavailableintheperiodinwhichhelived

E. therewerenon-Europeanartists,eveninElGreco’stime,whoincludedintheirworkshumanfiguresthatwereintentionallydistorted

ArgumentConstructionSituationFiguresinportraitsbytheSpanishpainterElGrecoareelongated.SomecriticsinferthatthiswasbecauseElGrecosufferedfromanastigmatismthatmadepeopleappearelongatedtohim.Butthisexplanationcannotbecorrect.

ReasoningWhichoptionwouldmostlogicallycompletetheargument?Weneedsomethingthatprovidesthebestreasonforthinkingthattheexplanationsuggestedbycritics—astigmatism—

cannotberight.Thecritics’explanationmightseemtoworkbecauseordinarilyanartistwouldtrytopaintanimageofapersonsothattheimagewouldhavethesameproportionsastheperceivedperson.SoifpeopleseemedtoElGrecotohavelongerarmsandlegsthantheyactuallyhad,thearmsandlegsofthepaintedfiguresshouldappeartootherstobelongerthanpeople’sarmsandlegsnormallyare.Thisishowtheexplanationseemstomakesense.Butifastigmatismweretheexplanation,thentheelongatedimagesinhispicturesshouldhaveappearedtoElGrecotobetoolong:hewouldhaveperceivedtheimagesaslongerthantheyactuallyare—andthereforeasinaccuraterepresentationsofwhatheperceived.Soastigmatismcannotbeasufficientexplanationfortheelongatedfiguresinhispaintings.

A. Evenifsubsequentartistsintentionallydepictedhumanformsasmoreelongatedthanhumanfiguresactuallyare,andtheydidsotomimicElGreco’spaintedfigures,thatdoesnotmeanthatElGreco’sfigureswereintentionallyelongated.

B. AlthoughthisoptionprovidesanotherpossibleexplanationforElGreco’selongatedfigures,itprovidesnoevidencethatthepeopleElGrecopaintedhadsuchelongatedfigures.

C. Correct.ElGrecowouldhaveperceivedtheimagesofpeopleinhispaintingsastoolong,relativetohisperceptionofthepeoplethemselves.ThismeansthatevenifElGrecodidhaveastigmatism,thatfactorwouldnotprovideananswertothequestion:WhydidElGrecopaintimagesthatheknewweredistorted?

D. TheabsenceofanabilitytocorrectastigmatisminElGreco’sdaydoesnotunderminethehypothesisthatitwasastigmatismthatcausedElGrecotopaintelongatedfigures.

E. Again,thissuggestsanotherpossibleexplanationforthedistortion—namely,thatElGrecodiditdeliberately—butitdoesnotprovideanyreasontothinkthatthisisthecorrectexplanation(andthatthecritics’explanationisactuallyincorrect).


186. PoliticalAdvertisement:

MayorDelmont’scriticscomplainaboutthejobsthatwerelostinthecityunderDelmont’sleadership.Yetthefactisthatnotonlyweremorejobscreatedthanwereeliminated,buteachyearsinceDelmonttook

officetheaveragepayforthenewjobscreatedhasbeenhigherthanthatyear’saveragepayforjobscitywide.SoitstandstoreasonthatthroughoutDelmont’stenuretheaveragepaycheckinthiscityhasbeengettingsteadilybigger.


A. TheunemploymentrateinthecityishighertodaythanitwaswhenMayorDelmonttookoffice.

B. Theaveragepayforjobsinthecitywasataten-yearlowwhenMayorDelmonttookoffice.

C. EachyearduringMayorDelmont’stenure,theaveragepayforjobsthatwereeliminatedhasbeenhigherthantheaveragepayforjobscitywide.

D. MostofthejobseliminatedduringMayorDelmont’stenurewereindecliningindustries.

E. Theaveragepayforjobsinthecityiscurrentlylowerthanitisforjobsinthesuburbssurroundingthecity.

ArgumentEvaluationSituationEveryyearsinceMayorDelmonttookoffice,averagepayfornewjobshasexceededaveragepayforjobscitywide.So,theaveragepaycheckinthecityhasbeenincreasingsinceDelmonttookoffice.

ReasoningWhichoption,iftrue,wouldmostseriouslyweakentheargument?Ifaveragepayfornewjobscontinuallyexceedsthatforjobsgenerally,newjobspaybetter(onaverage)thanoldjobsthatstillexist.Butsupposethefollowingoccurred.Everyyearallofthehighestpayingjobsareeliminatedandreplacedwithsomewhatlower-payingjobsthatstillpaymorethantheaveragejob.Theresultwouldbethateveryyeartheaveragepayforanewjobwouldbegreaterthanthatforexistingjobs,buttheaveragepayforalljobswouldnonethelessdecrease.Thus,ifeveryyearduringthemayor’stenurethejobsthatwereeliminatedpaidbetteronaveragethanjobscitywide,thatwouldseriouslyweakentheargument:theconclusioncouldbefalseeveniftheinformationonwhichitisbasedistrue.

A. Thepercentageofpeopleinthecitywhohaveajobhasnodirectbearingonwhethertheaveragepayforjobscitywideisincreasingor

decreasing.

B. Whethertheaveragepaywaslowwhenthemayortookofficeincomparisontothetenprecedingyearsisimmaterialtothecomparisonaddressedintheargument’sconclusion.

C. Correct.ThisinformationweakenstheargumentbecauseitopensupthepossibilitythatthejobseliminatedhadhigheraveragepaythanthejobscreatedduringMayorDelmont’stenure.ThisinturnwouldmeanthattheaveragepaywasnotincreasingduringMayorDelmont’stenure.

D. This,too,hasnobearingontheargument,becausewehavenoinformationabouttheaveragepayforjobsinthosedecliningindustries.

E. Thisisalsoirrelevant.Nocomparisonismade(orimplied)intheargumentbetweenjobsinthecityandjobsinthesuburbs.


187. TopreventanewlybuiltdamontheChiffRiverfromblockingtherouteoffishmigratingtobreedinggroundsupstream,thedamincludesafishpass,amechanismdesignedtoallowfishthroughthedam.Beforetheconstructionofthedamandfishpass,severalthousandfishadayswamupriverduringspawningseason.Butinthefirstseasonaftertheproject’scompletion,only300perdaymadethejourney.Clearly,thefishpassisdefective.


A. FishthathavemigratedtotheupstreambreedinggroundsdonotreturndowntheChiffRiveragain.

B. Onotherriversintheregion,theconstructionofdamswithfishpasseshasledtoonlysmalldecreasesinthenumberoffishmigratingupstream.

C. Theconstructionofthedamstirreduppotentiallytoxicriversedimentsthatwerecarrieddownstream.

D. PopulationsofmigratoryfishintheChiffRiverhavebeendecliningslightlyoverthelast20years.

E. Duringspawningseason,thedamreleasessufficientwaterformigratoryfishbelowthedamtoswimupstream.

ArgumentEvaluationSituationAnewdamincludesamechanismcalledafishpassdesignedtoallowfishtomigrateupstreampastthedamtotheirbreedinggrounds.Thenumberofmigratingfishfellfromseveralthousandperdaybeforethedamwasbuilttothreehundredperdayinthefirstseasonafteritwasbuilt,indicating—accordingtotheargument—thatthefishpassisdefective.

ReasoningWhatevidencewouldsuggestthatthefishpassisnotdefective?Theargumentimplicitlyreasonsthatadefectivefishpasswouldmakeitdifficultforthefishtomigrate,whichwouldexplainwhythenumberofmigratingfishfellwhenthedamwascompleted.Anyevidencesuggestinganalternativeexplanationforthereducednumberofmigratingfish,suchasanenvironmentalchangethatoccurredwhenthedamwasbuilt,wouldcastdoubtontheargument’sreasoning.

A. Adefectivefishpasscouldpreventmostofthefishfrommigratingupstreamregardlessofwhetherthosethatsucceedeverreturndownstream.

B. Thiswouldsuggestthatdamswithproperlyfunctioningfishpassesdonotgreatlyreducethenumberofmigratingfish,soitwouldprovidefurtherevidencethatthefishpassinthisparticulardamisdefective.

C. Correct.Thissuggeststhatthetoxicsedimentsmayhavepoisonedthefishandreducedtheirpopulation.Asmallerfishpopulationcouldbesufficienttoexplainthereducednumberoffishmigrating,whichcastsdoubtontheargument’sassumptionthattheexplanationfortheirdecliningnumbersinvolvesthefishpass.

D. Aslightandgradualongoingdeclineinmigratoryfishpopulationswouldnotexplainanabruptandextremedeclinerightafterthedamwasbuilt.

E. Thissupportstheargument’sproposedexplanationforthedecliningfishpopulationbyrulingoutthealternativeexplanationthatthedamdoesnotreleaseenoughwaterforthefishtomigrate.


188. CommemorativeplaquescastfrombrassareacharacteristicartformoftheBenincultureofWestAfrica.Somescholars,notingthattheoldest

survivingplaquesdatetothe1400s,hypothesizethatbrass-castingtechniqueswereintroducedbythePortuguese,whocametoBeninin1485A.D.ButPortugueserecordsofthatexpeditionmentioncast-brassjewelrysenttoBenin’skingfromneighboringIfe.SoitisunlikelythatBenin’sknowledgeofbrasscastingderivedfromthePortuguese.


A. ThePortugueserecordsdonotindicatewhethertheirexpeditionof1485includedmetalworkers.

B. ThePortuguesehadnocontactwithIfeuntilthe1500s.

C. Inthe1400sthePortuguesedidnotusecastbrassforcommemorativeplaques.

D. Asearlyas1500A.D.,BeninartistsweremakingbrassplaquesincorporatingdepictionsofEuropeans.

E. Copper,whichisrequiredformakingbrass,canbefoundthroughoutBeninterritory.

ArgumentConstructionSituationTheoldestsurvivingcast-brassplaquesfromtheBeninculturedatetothe1400s.RecordsofaPortugueseexpeditiontoBeninin1485mentioncast-brassjewelrysenttoBenin’skingfromneighboringIfe.

ReasoningWhatadditionalevidence,whencombinedwiththeargument’spremises,wouldmosthelpsupporttheconclusionthatBenin’sknowledgeofbrasscastingdidnotderivefromthePortuguese?Theargumentisthatsincetheexpeditionrecordsindicatethatcast-brassjewelryfromIfewasalreadyknowninBeninwhenthePortuguesefirstcamethere,Benin’sknowledgeofbrasscastingprobablydidnotderivefromthePortuguese.Thisargumentassumesthatreceivingthebrass-castjewelryfromIfecouldhavetransmittedknowledgeofbrasscastingtoBenin,andalsothatknowledgeofbrasscastinginIfedidnotitselfderivefromthePortuguese.Anyevidencesupportingeitheroftheseassumptionswouldstrengthentheargument.

A. ThisiscompatiblewithaPortugueseoriginforbrass-castinginBenin.Theexpeditionmightwellhaveincludedmetalworkerseveniftherecordsdonotmentionwhetheritdid.Furthermore,otherPortugueseexpeditionswithmetalworkersmighthavequickly

followedtheinitialexpedition.

B. Correct.IfthePortuguesehadnocontactwithIfebefore1500,thenIfe’searlierknowledgeofbrasscastingdidnotderivedirectlyfromthePortuguese.Thisincreasesthelikelihoodthatknowledgeofbrass-castinginBenindidnotderivefromthePortuguese,evenifitderivedfromIfe.

C. ThisiscompatiblewithaPortugueseoriginforbrass-castinginBenin.EvenifthePortuguesedidnotusecastbrassforcommemorativeplaques,theycouldhaveuseditforjewelryorotheritemstheybroughttoBeninormanufacturedthere,andthustheycouldhavetransmittedtheknowledgetotheBeninculture.

D. ThisleavesopenthepossibilitythattheBeninculturelearnedaboutbrasscastingfromthePortuguesein1485andstartedusingittoproduceplaquesofthistypeby1500.

E. EvenifcopperhasalwaysbeencommonintheBeninterritory,brass-castingtechniquescouldhavebeenintroducedbythePortuguese.


5.0SentenceCorrectionSentencecorrectionquestionsappearintheVerbalsectionoftheGMAT®

exam.TheVerbalsectionusesmultiple-choicequestionstomeasureyourabilitytoreadandcomprehendwrittenmaterial,toreasonandevaluatearguments,andtocorrectwrittenmaterialtoconformtostandardwrittenEnglish.BecausetheVerbalsectionincludespassagesfromseveraldifferentcontentareas,youmaybegenerallyfamiliarwithsomeofthematerial;however,neitherthepassagesnorthequestionsassumedetailedknowledgeofthetopicsdiscussed.SentencecorrectionquestionsareintermingledwithcriticalreasoningandreadingcomprehensionquestionsthroughouttheVerbalsectionofthetest.Youwillhave75minutestocompletetheVerbalsection,orabout1¾minutestoanswereachquestion.

Sentencecorrectionquestionspresentastatementinwhichwordsareunderlined.Thequestionsaskyoutoselectfromtheansweroptionsthebestexpressionoftheideaorrelationshipdescribedintheunderlinedsection.Thefirstanswerchoicealwaysrepeatstheoriginalphrasing,whereastheotherfourprovidealternatives.Insomecases,theoriginalphrasingisthebestchoice.Inothercases,theunderlinedsectionhasobviousorsubtleerrorsthatrequirecorrection.ThesequestionsrequireyoutobefamiliarwiththestylisticconventionsandgrammaticalrulesofstandardwrittenEnglishandtodemonstrateyourabilitytoimproveincorrectorineffectiveexpressions.

Youshouldbeginthesequestionsbyreadingthesentencecarefully.Notewhetherthereareanyobviousgrammaticalerrorsasyoureadtheunderlinedsection.Thenreadthefiveanswerchoicescarefully.Iftherewasasubtleerroryoudidnotrecognizethefirsttimeyoureadthesentence,itmaybecomeapparentafteryouhavereadtheanswerchoices.Iftheerrorisstillunclear,seewhetheryoucaneliminatesomeoftheanswersasbeingincorrect.Rememberthatinsomecases,theoriginalselectionmaybethebestanswer.

5.1BasicEnglishGrammarRulesSentencecorrectionquestionsaskyoutorecognizeandpotentiallycorrectatleastoneofthefollowinggrammarrules.However,theserulesarenotexhaustive.IfyouareinterestedinlearningmoreaboutEnglishgrammarasawaytopreparefortheGMATexam,thereareseveralresourcesavailableontheWeb.

AgreementStandardEnglishrequireselementswithinasentencetobeconsistent.Therearetwotypesofagreement:noun-verbandpronoun.

Noun-verbagreement:Singularsubjectstakesingularverbs,whereaspluralsubjectstakepluralverbs.Examples:Correct:“Iwalktothestore.”Incorrect:“Iwalkstothestore.”Correct:“Wegotoschool.”Incorrect:“Wegoestoschool.”Correct:“Thenumberofresidentshasgrown.”Incorrect:“Thenumberofresidentshavegrown.”Correct:“Themasseshavespoken.”Incorrect:“Themasseshasspoken.”

Pronounagreement:Apronounmustagreewiththenounorpronounitreferstoinperson,number,andgender.Examples:Correct:“Whenyoudream,youareusuallyasleep.”Incorrect:“Whenonedreams,youareusuallyasleep.”Correct:“Whenthekidswenttosleep,theysleptlikelogs.”Incorrect:“Whenthekidswenttosleep,hesleptlikealog.”

DictionWordsshouldbechosentoreflectcorrectlyandeffectivelytheappropriatepartofspeech.Thereareseveralwordsthatarecommonlyusedincorrectly.Whenansweringsentencecorrectionquestions,payattentiontothefollowingconventions.

Among/between:Amongisusedtorefertorelationshipsinvolvingmorethantwoobjects.Betweenisusedtorefertorelationshipsinvolvingonlytwoobjects.Examples:Correct:“Wedividedourwinningsamongthethreeofus.”Incorrect:“Wedividedourwinningsbetweenthethreeofus.”

Correct:“SheandIdividedthecakebetweenus.”Incorrect:“SheandIdividedthecakeamongus.”

As/like:Ascanbeaprepositionmeaning“inthecapacityof,”butmoreoftenisaconjunctionofmannerandisfollowedbyaverb.Likeisgenerallyusedasaprepositionandthereforeisfollowedbyanoun,anobjectpronoun,oraverbendingining.Examples:Correct:“Iworkasalibrarian.”Incorrect:“Iworklikealibrarian.”Correct:“DoasIsay,notasIdo.”Incorrect:“DolikeIsay,notlikeIdo.”Correct:“Itfeltlikeadream.”Incorrect:“Itfeltasadream.”Correct:“Peoplelikeyouinspireme.”Incorrect:“Peopleasyouinspireme.”Correct:“There’snothinglikebikingonawarm,autumnday.”Incorrect:“There’snothingasbikingonawarmautumnday.”

Massandcountwords:Masswordsarenounsquantifiedbyanamountratherthanbyanumber.Countnounscanbequantifiedbyanumber.Examples:Correct:“Weboughtaloafofbread.”Incorrect:“Weboughtonebread.”Correct:“Hewishedmemuchhappiness.”Incorrect:“Hewishedmemanyhappinesses.”Correct:“Wepassedmanybuildings.”Incorrect:“Wepassedmuchbuildings.”

Pronouns:MyselfshouldnotbeusedasasubstituteforIorme.Examples:Correct:“MomandIhadtogotothestore.”Incorrect:“Momandmyselfhadtogotothestore.”Correct:“HegavethepresenttoDadandme.”Incorrect:“HegavethepresenttoDadandmyself.”

GrammaticalConstructionGoodgrammarrequirescompletesentences.Beonthelookoutforimproperlyformedconstructions.

Fragments:Partsofasentencethataredisconnectedfromthemainclausearecalledfragments.Example:

Correct:“Wesawthedoctorandhisnurseattheparty.”Incorrect:“Wesawthedoctorattheparty.Andhisnurse.”

Run-onsentences:Arun-onsentenceistwoindependentclausesthatrun

togetherwithoutproperpunctuation.Examples:

Correct:“JoseCansecoisstillafearedbatter;mostpitchersdon’twanttofacehim.”Incorrect:“JoseCansecoisstillafearedbattermostpitchersdon’twanttofacehim.”

Constructions:Avoidwordy,redundantconstructions.Example:

Correct:“Wecouldnotcometothemeetingbecauseofaconflict.”Incorrect:“Thereasonwecouldnotcometothemeetingisbecauseofaconflict.”

IdiomItisimportanttoavoidnonstandardexpressions,althoughEnglishidiomssometimesdonotfollowconventionalgrammaticalrules.Becarefultousethecorrectidiomwhenusingtheconstructionsandpartsofspeech.

Prepositions:Specificprepositionshavespecificpurposes.Examples:Correct:“Shelikestojoginthemorning.”Incorrect:“Shelikestojogonthemorning.”Correct:“Theyrangedinagefrom10to15.”Incorrect:“Theyrangedinagefrom10upto15.”

Correlatives:Wordcombinationssuchas“notonly...butalso”shouldbefollowedbyanelementofthesamegrammaticaltype.Examples:Correct:“Ihavecallednotonlytothankherbutalsototellheraboutthenextmeeting.”Incorrect:“IhavecallednotonlytothankherbutalsoItoldheraboutthenextmeeting.”

Formsofcomparison:Manyformsfollowpreciseconstructions.Fewerreferstoaspecificnumber,whereaslessthanreferstoacontinuousquantity.Between...andisthecorrectformtodesignateachoice.Fartherreferstodistance,whereasfurtherreferstodegree.Examples:Correct:“Therewerefewerchildreninmyclassthisyear.”Incorrect:“Therewerelesschildreninmyclassthisyear.”Correct:“TherewaslessdevastationthanIwastold.”Incorrect:“TherewasfewerdevastationthanIwastold.”

Correct:“Wehadtochoosebetweenchocolateandvanilla.”Incorrect:“Wehadtochoosebetweenchocolateorvanilla.”(Itisalsocorrecttosay,“Wehadtochoosechocolateorvanilla.”)Correct:“IranfartherthanJohn,buthetookhisweighttrainingfurtherthanIdid.”Incorrect:“IranfurtherthanJohn,buthetookhisweighttrainingfartherthanIdid.”

LogicalPredicationWatchoutforphrasesthatdetractfromthelogicalargument.Modificationproblems:Modifiersshouldbepositionedsoitisclearwhatwordorwordstheyaremeanttomodify.Ifmodifiersarenotpositionedclearly,theycancauseillogicalreferencesorcomparisonsordistortthemeaningofthestatement.

Examples:Correct:“IputthecakethatIbakedbythedoor.”Incorrect:“IputthecakebythedoorthatIbaked.”Correct:“Readingmymind,shegavemethedeliciouscookie.”Incorrect:“Readingmymind,thecookieshegavemewasdelicious.”Correct:“IntheMiddleAges,theworldwasbelievedtobeflat.”Incorrect:“IntheMiddleAges,theworldwasflat.”

ParallelismConstructingasentencethatisparallelinstructuredependsonmakingsurethatthedifferentelementsinthesentencebalanceeachother;thisisalittlebitlikemakingsurethatthetwosidesofamathematicalequationarebalanced.Tomakesurethatasentenceisgrammaticallycorrect,checktoseethatphrases,clauses,verbs,andothersentenceelementsparalleleachother.

Examples:Correct:“Itookabath,wenttosleep,andwokeuprefreshed.”Incorrect:“Itookabath,sleeping,andwakinguprefreshed.”Correct:“Theonlywaytoknowistotaketheplunge.”Incorrect:“Theonlywaytoknowistakingtheplunge.”

RhetoricalConstructionGoodsentencestructureavoidsconstructionsthatareawkward,wordy,redundant,imprecise,orunclear,evenwhentheyarefreeofgrammaticalerrors.

Example:

Correct:“Beforeweleftonvacation,wewateredtheplants,checkedtoseethatthestovewasoff,andsettheburglaralarm.”Incorrect:“Beforewelefttogoonourvacation,wewatered,checkedtobesurethatthestovehadbeenturnedoff,andsetit.”

VerbFormInadditiontowatchingforproblemsofagreementorparallelism,makesurethatverbsareusedinthecorrecttense.Bealerttowhetheraverbshouldreflectpast,present,orfuturetense.

Example:Correct:“Iwenttoschoolyesterday.”“Igotoschooleveryweekday.”“Iwillgotoschooltomorrow.”

Eachtensealsohasaperfectform(usedwiththepastparticiple—e.g.,walked,ran),aprogressiveform(usedwiththepresentparticiple—e.g.,walking,running),andaperfectprogressiveform(alsousedwiththepresentparticiple—e.g.,walking,running).

Presentperfect:Usedwithhasorhave,thepresentperfecttensedescribesanactionthatoccurredatanindefinitetimeinthepastorthatbeganinthepastandcontinuesintothepresent.

Examples:Correct:“Ihavetraveledallovertheworld.”(atanindefinitetime)Correct:“Hehasgonetoschoolsincehewasfiveyearsold.”(continuesintothepresent)

Pastperfect:Thisverbformisusedwithhadtoshowtheorderoftwoeventsthattookplaceinthepast.Example:Correct:“BythetimeIleftforschool,thecakehadbeenbaked.”

Futureperfect:Usedwithwillhave,thisverbformdescribesaneventinthefuturethatwillprecedeanotherevent.Example:Correct:“Bytheendoftheday,Iwillhavestudiedforallmytests.”

Presentprogressive:Usedwitham,is,orare,thisverbformdescribesanongoingactionthatishappeningnow.Example:Correct:“Iamstudyingforexams.”“Thestudentisstudyingforexams.”“Wearestudyingforexams.”

Pastprogressive:Usedwithwasorwere,thisverbformdescribessomethingthatwashappeningwhenanotheractionoccurred.Example:Correct:“Thestudentwasstudyingwhenthefirealarmrang.”“Theywerestudyingwhenthefirebrokeout.”

Futureprogressive:Usedwithwillbeorshallbe,thisverbtensedescribesanongoingactionthatwillcontinueintothefuture.Example:Correct:“ThestudentswillbestudyingforexamsthroughoutthemonthofDecember.”

Presentperfectprogressive:Usedwithhavebeenorhasbeen,thisverbtensedescribessomethingthatbeganinthepast,continuesintothepresent,andmaycontinueintothefuture.Example:Correct:“Thestudenthasbeenstudyinghardinthehopeofacingthetest.”

Pastperfectprogressive:Usedwithhadbeen,thisverbformdescribesanactionofsomedurationthatwascompletedbeforeanotherpastactionoccurred.Example:Correct:“Beforethefirealarmrang,thestudenthadbeenstudying.”

Futureperfectprogressive:Usedwithwillhavebeen,thisverbformdescribesafuture,ongoingactionthatwilloccurbeforeaspecifiedtime.Example:Correct:“Bytheendofnextyear,thestudentswillhavebeenstudyingmathforfiveyears.”

5.2StudySuggestionsTherearetwobasicwaysyoucanstudyforsentencecorrectionquestions:

Readmaterialthatreflectsstandardusage.

OnewaytogainfamiliaritywiththebasicconventionsofstandardwrittenEnglishissimplytoread.Suitablematerialwillusuallybefoundingoodmagazinesandnonfictionbooks,editorialsinoutstandingnewspapers,andthecollectionsofessaysusedbymanycollegeanduniversitywritingcourses.

Reviewbasicrulesofgrammarandpracticewithwritingexercises.

Beginbyreviewingthegrammarruleslaidoutinthischapter.Then,ifyouhaveschoolassignments(suchasessaysandresearchpapers)thathavebeencarefullyevaluatedforgrammaticalerrors,itmaybehelpfultoreviewthecommentsandcorrections.

5.3WhatIsMeasuredSentencecorrectionquestionstestthreebroadaspectsoflanguageproficiency:

Correctexpression

Acorrectsentenceisgrammaticallyandstructurallysound.ItconformstoalltherulesofstandardwrittenEnglish,includingnoun-verbagreement,noun-pronounagreement,pronounconsistency,pronouncase,andverbtensesequence.Acorrectsentencewillnothavedangling,misplaced,orimproperlyformedmodifiers;unidiomaticorinconsistentexpressions;orfaultsinparallelconstruction.

Effectiveexpression

Aneffectivesentenceexpressesanideaorrelationshipclearlyandconciselyaswellasgrammatically.Thisdoesnotmeanthatthechoicewiththefewestandsimplestwordsisnecessarilythebestanswer.Itmeansthattherearenosuperfluouswordsorneedlesslycomplicatedexpressionsinthebestchoice.

Properdiction

Aneffectivesentencealsousesproperdiction.(Dictionreferstothestandarddictionarymeaningsofwordsandtheappropriatenessofwordsincontext.)Inevaluatingthedictionofasentence,youmustbeabletorecognizewhetherthewordsarewellchosen,accurate,andsuitableforthecontext.

5.4Test-TakingStrategies1. Readtheentiresentencecarefully.

Trytounderstandthespecificideaorrelationshipthatthesentenceshouldexpress.

2. Evaluatetheunderlinedpassageforerrorsandpossiblecorrectionsbeforereadingtheanswerchoices.

Thisstrategywillhelpyoudiscriminateamongtheanswerchoices.Remember,insomecasestheunderlinedpassageiscorrect.

3. Readeachanswerchoicecarefully

Thefirstanswerchoicealwaysrepeatstheunderlinedportionoftheoriginalsentence.Choosethisanswerifyouthinkthatthesentenceisbestasoriginallywritten,butdosoonlyafterexaminingalltheotherchoices.

4. Trytodeterminehowtocorrectwhatyouconsidertobewrongwiththeoriginalsentence.

Someoftheanswerchoicesmaychangethingsthatarenotwrong,whereasothersmaynotchangeeverythingthatiswrong.

5. Makesurethatyouevaluatethesentenceandthechoicesthoroughly.

Payattentiontogeneralclarity,grammaticalandidiomaticusage,economyandprecisionoflanguage,andappropriatenessofdiction.

6. Readthewholesentence,substitutingthechoicethatyoupreferfortheunderlinedpassage.

Achoicemaybewrongbecauseitdoesnotfitgrammaticallyorstructurallywiththerestofthesentence.Rememberthatsomesentenceswillrequirenocorrection.Whenthegivensentencerequiresnocorrection,choosethefirstanswer.

5.5TheDirectionsThesearethedirectionsthatyouwillseeforsentencecorrectionquestionswhenyoutaketheGMATexam.Ifyoureadthemcarefullyandunderstandthemclearlybeforegoingtositforthetest,youwillnotneedtospendtoomuchtimereviewingthemonceyouareatthetestcenterandthetestisunderway.

Sentencecorrectionquestionspresentasentence,partorallofwhichisunderlined.Beneaththesentence,youwillfindfivewaysofphrasingtheunderlinedpassage.Thefirstanswerchoicerepeatstheoriginalunderlinedpassage;theotherfouraredifferent.Ifyouthinktheoriginalphrasingisbest,choosethefirstanswer;otherwisechooseoneoftheothers.

ThistypeofquestiontestsyourabilitytorecognizethecorrectnessandeffectivenessofexpressioninstandardwrittenEnglish.Inchoosingyouranswer,followtherequirementsofstandardwrittenEnglish;thatis,payattentiontogrammar,choiceofwords,andsentenceconstruction.Choosetheanswerthatproducesthemosteffectivesentence;thisanswershouldbeclearandexact,withoutawkwardness,ambiguity,redundancy,orgrammaticalerror.

5.6SampleQuestionsEachofthesentencecorrectionquestionspresentsasentence,partoforallofwhichisunderlined.Beneaththesentenceyouwillfindfivewaysofphrasingtheunderlinedpart.Thefirstoftheserepeatstheoriginal;theotherfouraredifferent.FollowtherequirementsofstandardwrittenEnglishtochooseyouranswer,payingattentiontogrammar,wordchoice,andsentenceconstruction.Selecttheanswerthatproducesthemosteffectivesentence;youranswershouldmakethesentenceclear,exact,andfreeofgrammaticalerror.Itshouldalsominimizeawkwardness,ambiguity,andredundancy.

189. Usingdigitalenhancementsofskullfragmentsfromfiveprehistorichominidsdatingtomorethan350,000yearsago,anthropologistsarguethatthesehumanancestorsprobablyhadhearingsimilartothatofpeopletoday.

A. anthropologistsarguethatthesehumanancestors

B. anthropologistsargue,sothesehumanancestors

C. anthropologistsargue,thesehumanancestors

D. thesehumanancestors,anthropologistsargue,

E. thesehumanancestorsarearguedbyanthropologiststohave

190. Theinteriorministerexplainedthatoneofthevillageplanningproposal’sbestcharacteristicswastheirnotdetractingfromtheproject’soverallbenefitbybeingaburdenonthedevelopmentbudget.

A. oneofthevillageplanningproposal’sbestcharacteristicswastheirnotdetracting

B. oneofthevillage’splanningproposal’sbestcharacteristicswereitsnottaking

C. oneofthebestcharacteristicsofthevillage’splanningproposalwasthatitdidnotdetract

D. abestcharacteristicofthevillageplanningproposalwas,itdidnottake

E. amongthevillageplanningproposal’sbestcharacteristics,onewas,itdidnotdetract

191. Likeants,termiteshaveanelaboratesocialstructureinwhichafewindividualsreproduceandtherestareservingthecolonybytendingjuveniles,gatheringfood,buildingthenest,ortheybattleintruders.

A. areservingthecolonybytendingjuveniles,gatheringfood,buildingthenest,ortheybattle

B. areservingthecolonyinthattheytendjuveniles,gatherfood,buildthenest,orbattle

C. servethecolony,tendingjuveniles,gatheringfood,buildingthenest,orbybattling

D. servethecolonybytendingjuveniles,gatheringfood,bybuildingthenest,orbybattling

E. servethecolonybytendingjuveniles,gatheringfood,buildingthenest,orbattling

192. Some200world-famousphysicistsrecentlyattendedaconferencewhosepurposenotonlywastoconsidertheprospectsforthenext50yearsofresearchinphysicsbutalsoassessingtheaccuracyofthepredictionsmadeatthelastmeetingofthistype,whichtookplace50yearsearlier.

A. notonlywastoconsidertheprospectsforthenext50yearsofresearchinphysicsbutalsoassessingtheaccuracyofthepredictionsmadeatthelastmeetingofthistype,

B. notonlywasconsideringtheprospectsforthenext50yearsofresearchinphysicsbutalsoassessingtheaccuracyofthepredictionswhichweremadeatthelastmeetingofthistypeand

C. wasnotonlyconsideringtheprospectsforthenext50yearsofresearchinphysicsbutalsotoassesstheaccuracyofthepredictionsmadeatthelastmeetingofthistypeand

D. wasnotonlytoconsidertheprospectsforthenext50yearsofresearchinphysicsbutalsotoassesstheaccuracyofthepredictionsmadeatthelastmeetingofthistype,

E. wastoconsidernotonlytheprospectsforthenext50yearsofresearchinphysicsbutalsoassessingtheaccuracyofthepredictionsmadeatthelastmeetingofthistype,

193. Globalwarmingissaidtoberesponsibleforextremeweatherchanges,which,liketheheavyrainsthatcausedmorethan$2billionindamagesandledtofloodingthroughoutthestateofCalifornia,andtheheatwaveinthenortheasternandmidwesternUnitedStates,whichwasalsothecauseofagreatamountofdamageanddestruction.

A. which,liketheheavyrainsthatcausedmorethan$2billionindamagesandledtofloodingthroughoutthestateofCalifornia,

B. which,liketheheavyrainsthatthroughoutthestateofCaliforniacausedmorethan$2billionindamagesandledtoflooding,

C. liketheheavyfloodingthat,becauseofrainsthroughoutthestateofCalifornia,causedmorethan$2billionindamages,

D. suchastheheavyfloodingthatledtorainsthroughoutthestateofCaliforniacausingmorethan$2billionindamages,

E. suchastheheavyrainsthatledtofloodingthroughoutthestateofCalifornia,causingmorethan$2billionindamages,

194. ThevoluminouspersonalpapersofThomasAlvaEdisonrevealthathisinventionstypicallysprangtolifenotinaflashofinspirationbutevolvedslowlyfrompreviousworks.

A. sprangtolifenotinaflashofinspirationbutevolvedslowly

B. sprangtolifenotinaflashofinspirationbutwereslowlyevolved

C. didnotspringtolifeinaflashofinspirationbutevolvedslowly

D. didnotspringtolifeinaflashofinspirationbuthadslowlyevolved

E. didnotspringtolifeinaflashofinspirationbuttheywereslowlyevolved

195. Hundredsofspeciesoffishgenerateanddischargeelectriccurrents,inburstsorassteadyelectricfieldsaroundtheirbodies,usingtheirpowereithertofindandattackprey,todefendthemselves,oralsoforcommunicatingandnavigating.

A. eithertofindandattackprey,todefendthemselves,oralsoforcommunicatingandnavigating

B. eitherforfindingandattackingprey,defendthemselves,orforcommunicationandnavigation

C. tofindandattackprey,fordefense,orcommunicationandnavigation

D. forfindingandattackingprey,todefendthemselves,oralsoforcommunicationandnavigation

E. tofindandattackprey,todefendthemselves,ortocommunicateandnavigate

196. NativetoSouthAmerica,whenpeanutswereintroducedtoAfricabyPortugueseexplorersearlyinthesixteenthcenturytheywerequicklyadoptedintoAfrica’sagriculture,probablybecauseofbeingsosimilartotheBambarragroundnut,apopularindigenousplant.

A. whenpeanutswereintroducedtoAfricabyPortugueseexplorersearlyinthesixteenthcenturytheywerequicklyadoptedintoAfrica’sagriculture,probablybecauseofbeing

B. peanutshavingbeenintroducedtoAfricabyPortugueseexplorersearlyinthesixteenthcenturyandquicklyadoptedintoAfrica’s

agriculture,probablybecauseofbeing

C. peanutswereintroducedtoAfricabyPortugueseexplorersearlyinthesixteenthcenturyandwerequicklyadoptedintoAfrica’sagriculture,probablybecausetheywere

D. peanuts,introducedtoAfricabyPortugueseexplorersearlyinthesixteenthcenturyandquicklyadoptedintoAfrica’sagriculture,probablybecausetheywere

E. peanuts,introducedtoAfricabyPortugueseexplorersearlyinthesixteenthcenturyandhavingbeenquicklyadoptedintoAfrica’sagriculture,probablybecausetheywere

197. Itstoodtwelvefeettall,weighedninethousandpounds,andwieldedseven-inchclaws,andMegatheriumamericanum,agiantgroundsloth,mayhavebeenthelargesthuntingmammalevertowalktheEarth.

A. Itstoodtwelvefeettall,weighedninethousandpounds,andwieldedseven-inchclaws,andMegatheriumamericanum,agiantgroundsloth,

B. Itstoodtwelvefeettall,weighingninethousandpounds,andwieldingseven-inchclaws,Megatheriumamericanumwasagiantgroundslothand

C. ThegiantgroundslothMegatheriumamericanum,havingstoodtwelvefeettall,weighingninethousandpounds,andwieldingseven-inchclaws,it

D. Standingtwelvefeettall,weighingninethousandpounds,andwieldingseven-inchclaws,Megatheriumamericanum,agiantgroundsloth,

E. Standingtwelvefeettall,weighingninethousandpounds,itwieldedseven-inchclaws,andthegiantgroundslothMegatheriumamericanum

198. Delightedbythereportedearningsforthefirstquarterofthefiscalyear,itwasdecidedbythecompanymanagertogiveherstaffaraise.

A. itwasdecidedbythecompanymanagertogiveherstaffaraise

B. thedecisionofthecompanymanagerwastogiveherstaffaraise

C. thecompanymanagerdecidedtogiveherstaffaraise

D. thestaffwasgivenaraisebythecompanymanager

E. araisewasgiventothestaffbythecompanymanager

199. CoffeepricesrosesharplyMonday,postingtheirbiggestone-daygaininalmostthreeyears,afteraweekendcoldsnapinBrazilraisedconcernthattherecouldbedamagetotheworld’slargestcropwhenatatimewithsuppliesalreadytight.

A. thattherecouldbedamagetotheworld’slargestcropwhenatatimewithsupplies

B. thattheworld’slargestcropcouldbedamagedatatimesuchaswhensuppliesare

C. thattheworld’slargestcropcouldbedamagedatatimewhensuppliesare

D. oftheworld’slargestcroppossiblybeingdamagedatatimewithsupplies

E. ofpossiblydamagingtheworld’slargestcropatatimethatsupplieswere

200. Despiteagrowingpopulation,in1998theUnitedStatesused38billionfewergallonsofwateradaywhencomparingittotheperiodofall-timehighestconsumptionalmost20yearsearlier.

A. daywhencomparingittotheperiodofall-timehighestconsumptionalmost20yearsearlier

B. daythanitdidduringtheperiodofall-timehighestconsumptionalmost20yearsearlier

C. daythanwereusedalmost20yearsearlier,whichhadbeentheall-timehighconsumption

D. day,comparedtoalmost20yearsearlier,thathavingbeentheall-timehighconsumption

E. day,whichisincomparisontotheperiodofall-timehighestconsumptionalmost20yearsearlier

201. WilliamH.Johnson’sartisticdebttoScandinaviaisevidentinpaintingsthatrangefromsensitiveportraitsofcitizensinhiswife’sDanishhome,Kerteminde,andawe-inspiringviewsoffjordsandmountainpeaksinthewesternandnorthernregionsofNorway.

A. and

B. to

C. andto

D. with

E. inadditionto

202. Growingcompetitivepressuresmaybeencouragingauditorstobendtherulesinfavorofclients;auditorsmay,forinstance,allowaquestionableloantoremainonthebooksinordertomaintainabank’sprofitsonpaper.

A. clients;auditorsmay,forinstance,allow

B. clients,asaninstance,toallow

C. clients,liketoallow

D. clients,suchastobeallowing

E. clients;whichmight,asaninstance,betheallowingof

203. AMarch2000CensusBureausurveyshowedthatMexicoaccountedformorethanaquarterofallforeign-bornresidentsoftheUnitedStates,thelargestshareforanycountrytocontributesince1890,whenabout30percentofthecountry’sforeign-bornpopulationwasfromGermany.

A. thelargestshareforanycountrytocontribute

B. thelargestsharethatanycountryhascontributed

C. whichmakesitthelargestshareforanycountrytocontribute

D. havingthelargestsharetobecontributedbyanycountry

E. havingthelargestsharetohavebeencontributedbyanycountry

204. ThethemesthatRitaDoveexploresinherpoetryisuniversal,encompassingmuchofthehumanconditionwhileoccasionallyshedealswithracialissues.

A. isuniversal,encompassingmuchofthehumanconditionwhileoccasionallyshedeals

B. isuniversal,encompassingmuchofthehumancondition,alsooccasionallyitdeals

C. areuniversal,theyencompassmuchofthehumanconditionandoccasionallydeals

D. areuniversal,encompassingmuchofthehumanconditionwhileoccasionallydealing

E. areuniversal,theyencompassmuchofthehumancondition,alsooccasionallyaredealing

205. TravelerstoMarswouldhavetoendurelowlevelsofgravityforlongperiodsoftime,avoidlargedosesofradiation,contendwiththechemicallyreactiveMartiansoil,andperhapsevenhavingtowardoffcontaminationbyMartianlife-forms.

A. contendwiththechemicallyreactiveMartiansoil,andperhapsevenhavingtoward

B. contendwiththechemicallyreactiveMartiansoil,andperhapsevenwarding

C. contendwiththechemicallyreactiveMartiansoil,andperhapsevenward

D. contendingwiththechemicallyreactiveMartiansoil,andperhapseventoward

E. contendingwiththechemicallyreactiveMartiansoil,andperhapsevenwarding

206. IguanashavebeenanimportantfoodsourceinLatinAmericasinceprehistorictimes,anditisstillprizedasagameanimalbythecampesinos,whotypicallycookthemeatinaheavilyspicedstew.

A. itisstillprizedasagameanimal

B. itisstillprizedasgameanimals

C. theyarestillprizedasgameanimals

D. theyarestillprizedasbeingagameanimal

E. beingstillprizedasagameanimal

207. ThepersonalincometaxdidnotbecomepermanentintheUnitedStatesuntiltheFirstWorldWar;beforethattimethefederalgovernmentwasdependentontariffstobetheirmainsourceofrevenue.

A. thefederalgovernmentwasdependentontariffstobetheirmainsourceofrevenue

B. thefederalgovernmenthaddependedontariffsasitsmainsourceofrevenue

C. tariffswerewhatthefederalgovernmentwasdependentontobeitsmainsourceofrevenue

D. themainsourceofrevenueforthefederalgovernmentwasdependentontariffs

E. fortheirmainsourceofrevenue,tariffsweredependedonbythefederalgovernment

208. Thegyrfalcon,anArcticbirdofprey,hassurvivedaclosebrushwithextinction;itsnumbersarenowfivetimesgreaterthanwhentheuseofDDTwassharplyrestrictedintheearly1970’s.

A. extinction;itsnumbersarenowfivetimesgreaterthan

B. extinction;itsnumbersarenowfivetimesmorethan

C. extinction,theirnumbersnowfivefoldwhattheywere

D. extinction,nowwithfivefoldthenumberstheyhad

E. extinction,nowwithnumbersfivetimesgreaterthan

209. Exceptforaconcertperformancethatthecomposerhimselfstagedin1911,ScottJoplin’sragtimeoperaTreemonishawasnotproduceduntil1972,sixty-oneyearsafteritscompletion.

A. Exceptforaconcertperformancethatthecomposerhimselfstaged

B. Exceptforaconcertperformancewiththecomposerhimselfstagingit

C. Besidesaconcertperformancebeingstagedbythecomposerhimself

D. Exceptingaconcertperformancethatthecomposerhimselfstaged

E. Withtheexceptionofaconcertperformancewiththestagingdonebythecomposerhimself

210. Nearlyunrivaledintheirbiologicaldiversity,coralreefsprovideahostofbenefitsthatincludesthesupplyofproteinforpeople,protectingshorelines,andtheycontainbiochemicalsourcesfornewlife-savingmedicines.

A. coralreefsprovideahostofbenefitsthatincludesthesupplyofproteinforpeople,protectingshorelines,

B. coralreefsprovideahostofbenefits:theysupplypeoplewithprotein,theyprotecttheshorelines,

C. coralreefsprovideahostofbenefitsthatincludesupplyingproteinforpeople,aswellasshorelineprotection,

D. acoralreefprovidesahostofbenefits;theysupplyproteinforpeople,theprotectingofshorelines,

E. acoralreefprovidesahostofbenefits,includingproteinforpeople,protectingshorelines,

211. Literacyopenedupentirerealmsofverifiableknowledgetoordinarymenandwomenhavingbeenpreviouslyconsideredincapableofdiscerningtruthforthemselves.

A. havingbeenpreviouslyconsideredincapableofdiscerningtruthforthemselves

B. whohadpreviouslybeenconsideredincapableofdiscerningtruthforthemselves

C. previouslyconsideredincapableofdiscerningtruthforhimselforherself

D. ofwhomithadpreviouslybeenconsideredtheywereincapableofdiscerningtruthforthemselves

E. whohadpreviouslybeenconsideredincapableofdiscerningtruthforhimselforherself

212. Afterweeksofuncertaintyaboutthecoursethecountrywouldpursuetostabilizeitstroubledeconomy,officialsreachedarevisedagreementwiththeInternationalMonetaryFund,pledgingtheenforcementofsubstantiallygreaterbudgetdisciplineasthatwhichwasoriginallypromisedandtokeepinflationbelowtenpercent.

A. theenforcementofsubstantiallygreaterbudgetdisciplineasthatwhichwasoriginallypromisedandtokeepinflationbelowtenpercent

B. theenforcementofsubstantiallygreaterbudgetdisciplinethanoriginallypromisedandkeepinginflationbelowthetenpercentfigure

C. toenforcesubstantiallygreaterbudgetdisciplinethanoriginallypromisedandtokeepinflationbelowtenpercent

D. toenforcesubstantiallygreaterbudgetdisciplinethanthatwhichwasoriginallypromisedandkeepinginflationlessthanthetenpercentfigure

E. toenforcesubstantiallygreaterbudgetdisciplineasthatwhichwasoriginallypromisedandtokeepinflationlessthantenpercent

213. LikeRousseau,Tolstoirebelledagainsttheunnaturalcomplexityofhumanrelationsinmodernsociety.

A. LikeRousseau,Tolstoirebelled

B. LikeRousseau,Tolstoi’srebellionwas

C. AsRousseau,Tolstoirebelled

D. AsdidRousseau,Tolstoi’srebellionwas

E. Tolstoi’srebellion,asRousseau’s,was

214. Japaneseresearchersareproducingaseriesofrobotsthatcanidentifyhumanfacialexpressions,towhichtheywillthenrespond;theirgoalisprimarilycreatingarobotthatwillempathizewithus.

A. expressions,towhichtheywillthenrespond;theirgoalisprimarilycreating

B. expressions,thenrespondingtothem;primarilytocreate

C. expressionsandthenrespondtothem;theresearchers’primarygoalistocreate

D. expressionsaswellasgivingaresponsetothem;theirprimarygoaliscreationof

E. expressionsandrespondingtothem;primarily,theresearchers’goaliscreating

215. Analystsbelievethatwhereasbaddecisionsbyelectedleaderscancertainlyhurttheeconomy,noadministrationcanreallybesaidtocontrolormanageallofthecomplexandinterrelatedforcesthatdeterminethenation’seconomicstrength.

A. noadministrationcanreallybesaidtocontrol

B. noadministrationcanbesaidthatitreallycontrols

C. thatnoadministrationcanreallybesaidtocontrol

D. thatnoadministrationcanreallybesaidthatitcontrols

E. thatitcannotbesaidthatanyadministrationreallycontrols

216. Ananalysisoftreebarkallovertheglobeshowsthatchemicalinsecticideshaveoftenspreadthousandsofmilesfromwheretheywereoriginallyused.

A. thatchemicalinsecticideshaveoftenspreadthousandsofmiles

fromwheretheywereoriginallyused

B. thatchemicalinsecticideshavespread,oftenthousandsofmilesfromtheiroriginaluse

C. chemicalinsecticides,havingoftenspreadthousandsofmilesfromwheretheywereusedoriginally

D. chemicalinsecticides,oftenspreadingthousandsofmilesfromwheretheiroriginaluse

E. chemicalinsecticides,oftenspreadingthousandsofmilesfromwheretheywereoriginallyused

217. Consumersmaynotthinkofhouseholdcleaningproductstobehazardoussubstances,butmanyofthemcanbeharmfultohealth,especiallyiftheyareusedimproperly.

A. Consumersmaynotthinkofhouseholdcleaningproductstobe

B. Consumersmaynotthinkofhouseholdcleaningproductsbeing

C. Aconsumermaynotthinkoftheirhouseholdcleaningproductsbeing

D. Aconsumermaynotthinkofhouseholdcleaningproductsas

E. Householdcleaningproductsmaynotbethoughtof,byconsumers,as

218. Inrecentyearscattlebreedershaveincreasinglyusedcrossbreeding,inpartthattheirsteersshouldacquirecertaincharacteristicsandpartlybecausecrossbreedingissaidtoprovidehybridvigor.

A. inpartthattheirsteersshouldacquirecertaincharacteristics

B. inpartfortheacquisitionofcertaincharacteristicsintheirsteers

C. partlybecauseoftheirsteersacquiringcertaincharacteristics

D. partlybecausecertaincharacteristicsshouldbeacquiredbytheirsteers

E. partlytoacquirecertaincharacteristicsintheirsteers

219. AccordingtotheEconomicDevelopmentCorporationofLosAngelesCounty,ifoneweretocounttheLosAngelesmetropolitanareaasaseparatenation,itwouldhavetheworld’seleventhlargestgrossnationalproduct,thatisbiggerthanthatofAustralia,Mexico,ortheNetherlands.

A. ifoneweretocounttheLosAngelesmetropolitanareaasaseparate

nation,itwouldhavetheworld’seleventhlargestgrossnationalproduct,thatis

B. iftheLosAngelesmetropolitanareaiscountedasaseparatenation,ithastheworld’seleventhlargestgrossnationalproduct,thatbeing

C. iftheLosAngelesmetropolitanareawereaseparatenation,itwouldhavetheworld’seleventhlargestgrossnationalproduct,

D. weretheLosAngelesmetropolitanareaaseparatenation,itwillhavetheworld’seleventhlargestgrossnationalproduct,whichis

E. whentheLosAngelesmetropolitanareaiscountedasaseparatenation,ithastheworld’seleventhlargestgrossnationalproduct,thus

220. InitiatedfivecenturiesafterEuropeansarrivedintheNewWorldonColumbusDay1992,ProjectSETIpledgeda$100millioninvestmentinthesearchforextraterrestrialintelligence.

A. InitiatedfivecenturiesafterEuropeansarrivedintheNewWorldonColumbusDay1992,ProjectSETIpledgeda$100millioninvestmentinthesearchforextraterrestrialintelligence.

B. InitiatedonColumbusDay1992,fivecenturiesafterEuropeansarrivedintheNewWorld,a$100millioninvestmentinthesearchforextraterrestrialintelligencewaspledgedbyProjectSETI.

C. InitiatedonColumbusDay1992,fivecenturiesafterEuropeansarrivedintheNewWorld,ProjectSETIpledgeda$100millioninvestmentinthesearchforextraterrestrialintelligence.

D. Pledginga$100millioninvestmentinthesearchforextraterrestrialintelligence,theinitiationofProjectSETIfivecenturiesafterEuropeansarrivedintheNewWorldonColumbusDay1992.

E. Pledginga$100millioninvestmentinthesearchforextraterrestrialintelligencefivecenturiesafterEuropeansarrivedintheNewWorld,onColumbusDay1992,theinitiationofProjectSETItookplace.

221. Accordingtosomeeconomists,theJulydecreaseinunemploymentsothatitwasthelowestintwoyearssuggeststhatthegradualimprovementinthejobmarketiscontinuing.

A. sothatitwasthelowestintwoyears

B. sothatitwasthelowesttwo-yearrate

C. towhatwouldbethelowestintwoyears

D. toatwo-yearlowlevel

E. tothelowestlevelintwoyears

222. DevelopedbyPennsylvania’sPalatineGermansabout1750,Conestogawagons,withhighwheelscapableofcrossingruttedroads,muddyflats,andthenonroadsoftheprairieandtheyhadafloorcurvedupwardoneitherendsoastopreventcargofromshiftingonsteepgrades.

A. wagons,withhighwheelscapableofcrossingruttedroads,muddyflats,andthenonroadsoftheprairieandtheyhadafloorcurvedupwardoneitherendsoastoprevent

B. wagons,withhighwheelscapableofcrossingruttedroads,muddyflats,andthenonroadsoftheprairie,andwithafloorthatwascurvedupwardatbothendstoprevent

C. wagons,whichhadhighwheelscapableofcrossingruttedroads,muddyflats,andthenonroadsoftheprairie,andfloorscurvedupwardontheirendssothattheyprevented

D. wagonshadhighwheelscapableofcrossingruttedroads,muddyflats,andthenonroadsoftheprairie,andafloorthatwascurvedupwardatbothendstoprevent

E. wagonshadhighwheelscapableofcrossingruttedroads,muddyflats,andthenonroadsoftheprairieandfloorscurvingupwardattheirendssothatitprevented

223. TheBaldrickManufacturingCompanyhasforseveralyearsfollowedapolicyaimedatdecreasingoperatingcostsandimprovingtheefficiencyofitsdistributionsystem.

A. aimedatdecreasingoperatingcostsandimproving

B. aimedatthedecreasingofoperatingcostsandtoimprove

C. aimingatthedecreasingofoperatingcostsandimproving

D. theaimofwhichisthedecreasingofoperatingcostsandimproving

E. withtheaimtodecreaseoperatingcostsandtoimprove

224. Eatingsaltwaterfishmaysignificantlyreducetheriskofheartattacksandalsoaidforsufferersofrheumatoidarthritisandasthma,accordingtothreeresearchstudiespublishedintheNewEnglandJournalofMedicine.

A. significantlyreducetheriskofheartattacksandalsoaidfor

B. besignificantinreducingtheriskofheartattacksandaidfor

C. significantlyreducetheriskofheartattacksandaid

D. causeasignificantreductionintheriskofheartattacksandaidto

E. significantlyreducetheriskofheartattacksaswellasaiding

225. Asaresultofrecordlowtemperatures,thewaterpipesonthethirdfloorfroze,whichcausedtheheadsofthesprinklersystemtoburst,whichreleasedtorrentsofwaterintoofficesonthesecondfloor.

A. whichcausedtheheadsofthesprinklersystemtoburst,whichreleasedtorrentsofwater

B. whichcausedtheheadsofthesprinklersystemtoburstandwhichreleasedtorrentsofwater

C. whichcausedtheheadsofthesprinklersystemtoburst,torrentsofwaterwerethenreleased

D. causingtheheadsofthesprinklersystemtoburst,thenreleasingtorrentsofwater

E. causingtheheadsofthesprinklersystemtoburstandreleasetorrentsofwater

226. Around1900,fishermenintheChesapeakeBayarealandedmorethanseventeenmillionpoundsofshadinasingleyear,butby1920,overfishingandtheproliferationofmilldamsandculvertsthathaveblockedshadmigrationsuptheirspawningstreamshadreducedlandingstolessthanfourmillionpounds.

A. thathaveblockedshadmigrationsuptheirspawningstreamshadreducedlandingstoless

B. thatblockedshadfrommigratinguptheirspawningstreamshadreducedlandingstoless

C. thatblockedshadfrommigratinguptheirspawningstreamsreducedlandingstoaloweramount

D. havingblockedshadfrommigratinguptheirspawningstreamsreducedlandingstoless

E. havingblockedshadmigrationsuptheirspawningstreamshadreducedlandingstoanamountlower

227. Somebuildingsthatweredestroyedandheavilydamagedintheearthquakelastyearwereconstructedinviolationofthecity’sbuildingcode.

A. Somebuildingsthatweredestroyedandheavilydamagedintheearthquakelastyearwere

B. Somebuildingsthatweredestroyedorheavilydamagedintheearthquakelastyearhadbeen

C. Somebuildingsthattheearthquakedestroyedandheavilydamagedlastyearhavebeen

D. Lastyeartheearthquakedestroyedorheavilydamagedsomebuildingsthathavebeen

E. Lastyearsomeofthebuildingsthatweredestroyedorheavilydamagedintheearthquakehadbeen

228. Thoughtheterm“graphicdesign”maysuggestlayingoutcorporatebrochuresandannualreports,theyhavecometosignifywidelyrangingwork,frompackagedesignsandcompanylogotypestosigns,bookjackets,computergraphics,andfilmtitles.

A. suggestlayingoutcorporatebrochuresandannualreports,theyhavecometosignifywidelyranging

B. suggestlayingoutcorporatebrochuresandannualreports,ithascometosignifyawiderangeof

C. suggestcorporatebrochureandannualreportlayout,ithassignifiedwidelyranging

D. havesuggestedcorporatebrochureandannualreportlayout,ithassignifiedawiderangeof

E. havesuggestedlayingoutcorporatebrochuresandannualreports,theyhavecometosignifywidelyranging

229. Governmentofficialsannouncedthatrestrictionsontheuseofwaterwouldcontinuebecausenoappreciativeincreaseintheleveloftheriverresultedfromtheintermittentshowersthathadfallenthroughouttheareathedaybefore.

A. restrictionsontheuseofwaterwouldcontinuebecausenoappreciativeincreaseintheleveloftheriver

B. restrictingtheuseofwaterwouldcontinuebecausetherehadnot

beenanyappreciativeincreaseintheriver’slevelthat

C. theuseofwaterwouldcontinuetoberestrictedbecausenotanyappreciableincreaseintheriver’slevelhad

D. restrictionsontheuseofwaterwouldcontinuebecausenoappreciableincreaseintheleveloftheriverhad

E. usingwaterwouldcontinuebeingrestrictedbecausenotanyappreciableincreaseintheleveloftheriver

230. Becausethecollagenfibersinskinlineupinthedirectionoftension,surgicalcutsmadealongtheseso-calledLanger’slinesseverfewerfibersandislesslikelytoleaveanunsightlyscar.

A. Becausethecollagenfibersinskinlineupinthedirectionoftension,surgicalcutsmadealongtheseso-calledLanger’slinesseverfewer

B. Becausethecollagenfibersinskinlineupinthedirectionoftension,asurgicalcuthavingbeenmadealongtheseso-calledLanger’slinesseversless

C. Becausethecollagenfibersinskinlineupinthedirectionoftension,asurgicalcutmadealongtheseso-calledLanger’slinesseversfewer

D. Withthecollagenfibersinskinliningupinthedirectionoftension,surgicalcutsmadealongtheseso-calledLanger’slinesseverless

E. Withthecollagenfibersinskinliningupinthedirectionoftension,asurgicalcutmadealongtheseso-calledLanger’slinesseverfewer

231. InA.D.391,resultingfromthedestructionofthelargestlibraryoftheancientworldatAlexandria,latergenerationslostallbuttheIliadandOdysseyamongGreekepics,mostofthepoetryofPindarandSappho,anddozensofplaysbyAeschylusandEuripides.

A. resultingfromthedestructionofthelargestlibraryoftheancientworldatAlexandria,

B. thedestroyingofthelargestlibraryoftheancientworldatAlexandriaresultedand

C. becauseoftheresultofthedestructionofthelibraryatAlexandria,thelargestoftheancientworld,

D. asaresultofthedestructionofthelibraryatAlexandria,thelargest

oftheancientworld,

E. Alexandria’slargestlibraryoftheancientworldwasdestroyed,andtheresultwas

232. ThenephewofPlinytheElderwrotetheonlyeyewitnessaccountofthegreateruptionofVesuviusintwoletterstothehistorianTacitus.

A. ThenephewofPlinytheElderwrotetheonlyeyewitnessaccountofthegreateruptionofVesuviusintwoletterstothehistorianTacitus.

B. TothehistorianTacitus,thenephewofPlinytheElderwrotetwoletters,beingtheonlyeyewitnessaccountsofthegreateruptionofVesuvius.

C. TheonlyeyewitnessaccountisintwolettersbythenephewofPlinytheElderwritingtothehistorianTacitusanaccountofthegreateruptionofVesuvius.

D. Writingtheonlyeyewitnessaccount,PlinytheElder’snephewaccountedforthegreateruptionofVesuviusintwoletterstothehistorianTacitus.

E. IntwoletterstothehistorianTacitus,thenephewofPlinytheElderwrotetheonlyeyewitnessaccountofthegreateruptionofVesuvius.

233. Nearlytwotonsofnuclear-reactorfuelhavealreadybeenputintoorbitaroundtheEarth,andthechancesofacollisioninvolvingsuchmaterialincreasegreatlyastheamountofbothspacedebrisandsatellitescontinuetorise.

A. astheamountofbothspacedebrisandsatellitescontinuetorise

B. astherisecontinuesinboththeamountofsatellitesandspacedebris

C. astheamountofspacedebrisandthenumberofsatellitescontinuetorise

D. withthecontinuallyincreasingamountofspacedebrisandthenumberofsatellites

E. withtheamountofspacedebriscontinuingtoincreasealongwiththenumberofsatellites

234. Thoughbeingtiny,blind,andtranslucent,arecentlydiscoveredspeciesofcatfishlessenstheirvulnerabilitywiththickenedbonesandarmorplatesontheirsides.

A. Thoughbeingtiny,blind,andtranslucent,arecentlydiscoveredspeciesofcatfishlessenstheirvulnerabilitywiththickenedbonesandarmorplatesontheirsides.

B. Thoughtiny,blind,andtranslucent,arecentlydiscoveredspeciesofcatfishhasthickenedbonesandarmorplatesonitssidesthatlessenitsvulnerability.

C. Arecentlydiscoveredspeciesofcatfishhasthickenedbonesandarmorplatesonitssidesthatlessentheirvulnerability,thoughtiny,blind,andtranslucent.

D. Thickenedbonesandarmorplatesontheirsideslessenthevulnerabilityofarecentlydiscoveredspeciesofcatfishthatistiny,blind,andtranslucent.

E. Tiny,blind,andtranslucent,thickenedbonesandarmorplatesonitssideslessenthevulnerabilityofarecentlydiscoveredspeciesofcatfish.

235. Arecentcourtdecisionhasqualifieda1998rulingthatworkerscannotbelaidoffiftheyhavebeengivenreasontobelievethattheirjobswillbesafe,providedthattheirperformanceremainssatisfactory.

A. iftheyhavebeengivenreasontobelievethattheirjobswill

B. iftheyaregivenreasonforbelievingthattheirjobswouldstill

C. havingbeengivenreasonforbelievingthattheirjobswould

D. havingbeengivenreasontobelievetheirjobsto

E. givenreasontobelievethattheirjobswillstill

236. ThomasEakins’powerfulstyleandhischoicesofsubject—theadvancesinmodernsurgery,thedisciplineofsport,thestrainsofindividualsintensionwithsocietyorevenwiththemselves—wasasdisturbingtohisowntimeasitiscompellingforours.

A. wasasdisturbingtohisowntimeasitis

B. wereasdisturbingtohisowntimeastheyare

C. hasbeenasdisturbinginhisowntimeastheyare

D. hadbeenasdisturbinginhisowntimeasitwas

E. havebeenasdisturbinginhisowntimeas

237. InspiredbytheHelsinkiAccordsandoutragedbytheharshsentences

metedouttoagroupofCzechrockmusicianscalledthePlasticPeopleoftheUniverse,Charter77wasestablishedbydissidentwriters,philosophers,andotherprofessionalstobeahumanrightsgroup.

A. Charter77wasestablishedbydissidentwriters,philosophers,andotherprofessionalstobe

B. Charter77hadbeenestablishedbydissidentwriters,philosophers,andotherprofessionalsas

C. Charter77,establishedbydissidentwriters,philosophers,andotherprofessionals,was

D. dissidentwriters,philosophers,andotherprofessionalsestablishedCharter77as

E. dissidentwriters,philosophers,andotherprofessionalshadestablishedCharter77tobe

238. Aswellasheatandlight,thesunisthesourceofacontinuousstreamofatomicparticlesknownasthesolarwind.

A. Aswellasheatandlight,thesunisthesourceofacontinuousstream

B. Besidesheatandlight,alsothesunisthesourceofacontinuousstream

C. Besidesheatandlight,thesunisalsothesourceofacontinuousstreaming

D. Thesunisthesourcenotonlyofheatandlight,butalsoofacontinuousstream

E. Thesunisthesourceofnotonlyheatandlightbut,aswell,ofacontinuousstreaming

239. ThepsychologistWilliamJamesbelievedthatfacialexpressionsnotonlyprovideavisiblesignofanemotion,actuallycontributingtothefeelingitself.

A. emotion,actuallycontributingtothefeelingitself

B. emotionbutalsoactuallycontributingtothefeelingitself

C. emotionbutalsoactuallycontributetothefeelingitself

D. emotion;theyalsoactuallycontributetothefeelingofit

E. emotion;thefeelingitselfisalsoactuallycontributedtobythem

240. Reportingthatoneofitsmanyproblemshadbeentherecentextendedsalesslumpinwomen’sapparel,theseven-storeretailersaiditwouldstartathree-monthliquidationsaleinallofitsstores.

A. itsmanyproblemshadbeentherecent

B. itsmanyproblemshasbeentherecently

C. itsmanyproblemsistherecently

D. theirmanyproblemsistherecent

E. theirmanyproblemshadbeentherecent

241. Ofalltherecordcompaniesinvolvedinearlyjazz,thethreemostprominentwereColumbia,Victor,andOKeh.

A. Ofalltherecordcompaniesinvolvedinearlyjazz,thethreemostprominentwereColumbia,Victor,andOKeh.

B. ThreemostprominentrecordcompaniesofalltheonesthatwereinvolvedinearlyjazzwereColumbia,Victor,andOKeh.

C. Columbia,Victor,andOKehwere,ofalltherecordcompaniesinvolvedinearlyjazz,thethreeofthemthatweremostprominent.

D. Columbia,Victor,andOKehwerethreemostprominentofalltherecordcompaniesinvolvedinearlyjazz.

E. Outofalltherecordcompaniesthatwereinvolvedinearlyjazz,threeofthemthatwerethemostprominentwereColumbia,Victor,andOKeh.

242. Accordingtoresearchcoveringthelastdecade,theaveragenumberofroomsaddedbyhigh-endhotelchainswaslowerthanwhatthehotelindustryaveragedidforthisperiod,buttheiroccupancyandroomratesgrewfasterthantheaveragehotel.

A. thanwhatthehotelindustryaveragedidforthisperiod,buttheiroccupancyandroomratesgrewfasterthan

B. thanthehotelindustryaverageforthisperiod,butoccupancyandroomratesgrewfasterforthesechainsthanfor

C. ascomparedtothehotelindustryaverageforthisperiod,butoccupancyandroomratesforthemgrewfasterthanwith

D. ascomparedtowhatthehotelindustryaveragehadbeenforthisperiod,butoccupancyandroomratesforthesechainsgrewfasterthandid

E. ascomparedtothehotelindustryaverageforthisperiod,buttheiroccupancyandroomratesgrewfasterthantheydidfor

243. Onthetournamentrosterarelistedseveraltennisstudents,mostallofwhichplayasgoodastheirinstructors.

A. mostallofwhichplayasgood

B. mostallofwhomplayasgood

C. almostallofwhichplayaswell

D. almostallofwhomplayasgood

E. almostallofwhomplayaswell

244. RecentlydiscoveredfossilremainsstronglysuggestthattheAustralianegg-layingmammalsoftodayareabranchofthemainstemofmammalianevolutionratherthandevelopingindependentlyfromacommonancestorofmammalsmorethan220millionyearsago.

A. ratherthandevelopingindependentlyfrom

B. ratherthanatypethatdevelopedindependentlyfrom

C. ratherthanatypewhosedevelopmentwasindependentof

D. insteadofdevelopingindependentlyfrom

E. insteadofadevelopmentthatwasindependentof

245. In1974alargeareaofthesurfaceofMercurywasphotographedfromvaryingdistances,whichrevealedadegreeofcrateringsimilartothatoftheMoon’s.

A. whichrevealedadegreeofcrateringsimilartothatoftheMoon’s

B. torevealadegreeofcrateringsimilartotheMoon

C. revealingadegreeofcrateringsimilartothatoftheMoon

D. andrevealedcrateringsimilarindegreetotheMoon

E. thatrevealedcrateringsimilarindegreetothatoftheMoon

246. Thenormativemodelofstrategicdecision-makingsuggeststhatexecutivesexamineafirm’sexternalenvironmentandinternalconditions,andinusingthesetofobjectivecriteriatheyderivefromtheseanalyses,candecideonastrategy.

A. conditions,andinusingthesetofobjectivecriteriatheyderivefrom

theseanalyses,candecide

B. conditions,andtheyusethesetofobjectivecriteriaderivedfromtheseanalysesindeciding

C. conditionsand,inusingthesetofobjectivecriteriaderivedfromtheseanalyses,deciding

D. conditionsand,usingthesetofobjectivecriteriaderivedfromtheseanalyses,decide

E. conditionsand,intheiruseofthesetofobjectivecriteriatheyderivefromtheseanalyses,theydecide

247. TheenergysourceonVoyager2isnotanuclearreactor,inwhichatomsareactivelybrokenapart;ratherakindofnuclearbatterythatusesnaturalradioactivedecaytoproducepower.

A. apart;rather

B. apart,butrather

C. apart,butratherthatof

D. apart,butthatof

E. apart;itisthatof

248. Accordingtoitsproponents,aproposednewstyleofaircraftcould,byskimmingalongthetopoftheatmosphere,flybetweenmostpointsonEarthinundertwohours.

A. Accordingtoitsproponents,aproposednewstyleofaircraftcould,byskimmingalongthetopoftheatmosphere,flybetweenmostpointsonEarthinundertwohours.

B. Byskimmingalongthetopoftheatmosphere,proponentsofaproposednewstyleofaircraftsayitcouldflybetweenmostpointsonEarthinundertwohours.

C. AproposednewstyleofaircraftcouldflybetweenmostpointsonEarthinundertwohours,accordingtoitsproponents,withitskimmingalongthetopoftheatmosphere.

D. Aproposednewstyleofaircraft,sayitsproponents,couldflybetweenmostpointsonEarthinundertwohoursbecauseofitsskimmingalongthetopoftheatmosphere.

E. Accordingtoitsproponents,skimmingalongthetopoftheatmospheremakesitpossiblethataproposednewstyleofaircraft

couldflybetweenmostpointsonEarthinundertwohours.

249. Lawmakersareexaminingmeasuresthatwouldrequirebankstodiscloseallfeesandaccountrequirementsinwriting,providefreecashingofgovernmentchecks,andtocreatebasicsavingsaccountstocarryminimalfeesandrequireminimalinitialdeposits.

A. providefreecashingofgovernmentchecks,andtocreatebasicsavingsaccountstocarry

B. providefreecashingofgovernmentchecks,andcreatingbasicsavingsaccountscarrying

C. toprovidefreecashingofgovernmentchecks,andcreatingbasicsavingsaccountsthatcarry

D. toprovidefreecashingofgovernmentchecks,creatingbasicsavingsaccountstocarry

E. toprovidefreecashingofgovernmentchecks,andtocreatebasicsavingsaccountsthatcarry

250. Whethertheywillscalebacktheirorderstopre-2003levelsorstopdoingbusinesswithusaltogetherdependsonwhetherthechangesthattheirmanagementhasproposedwillbefullyimplemented.

A. Whethertheywillscalebacktheirorderstopre-2003levelsorstopdoingbusinesswithusaltogetherdependsonwhetherthechangesthattheirmanagementhasproposedwillbefullyimplemented.

B. Whethertheyscalebacktheirorderstopre-2003levelsorwhethertheydiscontinuetheirbusinesswithusaltogetherdependsonthechangestheirmanagementhasproposed,iffullyimplementedornot.

C. Theireitherscalingbacktheirordersinthefuturetopre-2003levels,ortheiroutrightterminationofbusinesswithus,dependsontheirmanagement’sproposedchangesbeingfullyimplementedornot.

D. Whethertheywillscalebacktheirorderstopre-2003levelsorstopdoingbusinesswithusaltogetherdependsifthechangesthattheirmanagementhasproposedbecomefullyimplemented.

E. Theywilleitherscalebacktheirorderstopre-2003levels,ortheywillstopdoingbusinesswithusaltogetherdependentonwhetherthechangestheirmanagementhasproposedwillbefully

implemented,ornot.

251. Twenty-twofeetlongand10feetindiameter,theAM-1isoneofthemanynewsatellitesthatisapartof15yearseffortofsubjectingtheinteractionsofEarth’satmosphere,oceans,andlandsurfacestodetailedscrutinyfromspace.

A. satellitesthatisapartof15yearseffortofsubjectingtheinteractionsofEarth’satmosphere,oceans,andlandsurfaces

B. satellites,whichisapartofa15-yearefforttosubjecthowEarth’satmosphere,oceans,andlandsurfacesinteract

C. satellites,partof15yearseffortofsubjectinghowEarth’satmosphere,oceans,andlandsurfacesareinteracting

D. satellitesthatarepartofaneffortfor15yearsthathassubjectedtheinteractionsofEarth’satmosphere,oceans,andlandsurfaces

E. satellitesthatarepartofa15-yearefforttosubjecttheinteractionsofEarth’satmosphere,oceans,andlandsurfaces

252. Manykitchenstodayareequippedwithhigh-speedelectricalgadgets,suchasblendersandfoodprocessors,whichareabletoinflictasseriousinjuriesasthosecausedbyanindustrialwood-planingmachine.

A. whichareabletoinflictasseriousinjuriesasthose

B. whichcaninflictseriousinjuriessuchasthose

C. inflictinginjuriesasseriousasthathavingbeen

D. capabletoinflictinjuriesasseriousasthat

E. capableofinflictinginjuriesasseriousasthose

253. Underhighpressureandintenseheat,graphite,themoststableformofpurecarbon,changesintothesubstancecommonlyreferredtoasdiamondandremainingthiswaywhetherornottheheatandpressureareremoved.

A. remainingthiswaywhetherornot

B. remaininglikethatevenas

C. remainingassuchwhetherornot

D. remainsinthiswayalthough

E. remainsthusevenwhen

254. Overarangeoffrequenciesfrom100to5,000hertz,monkeysandmarmosetshaveahearingsensitivityremarkablysimilartohumans,abovewhichthesensitivitybeginstodiffer.

A. Overarangeoffrequenciesfrom100to5,000hertz,monkeysandmarmosetshaveahearingsensitivityremarkablysimilartohumans

B. Comparedtohumans,thehearingsensitivityofmonkeysandmarmosetsareremarkablysimilaroverarangeoffrequenciesfrom100to5,000hertz

C. Comparedtohumansoverarangeoffrequenciesfrom100to5,000hertz,thehearingsensitivityofmonkeysandmarmosetsisremarkablysimilar

D. Thehearingsensitivityofmonkeysandmarmosets,whencomparedtohumansoverarangeoffrequenciesfrom100to5,000hertz,isremarkablysimilar

E. Thehearingsensitivityofmonkeys,marmosets,andhumansisremarkablysimilaroverarangeoffrequenciesfrom100to5,000hertz

255. Thecomputercompanyreportedstrongsecond-quarterearningsthatsurpassedWallStreet’sestimatesandannouncedthefirstinaseriesofpricecutsintendedtoincreasesalesfurther.

A. Thecomputercompanyreportedstrongsecond-quarterearningsthatsurpassedWallStreet’sestimatesandannouncedthefirstinaseriesofpricecutsintendedtoincreasesalesfurther.

B. Thereportofthecomputercompanyshowedstrongsecond-quarterearnings,surpassingWallStreet’sestimates,andtheyannouncedthefirstinaseriesofpricecutsthattheyintendtoincreasesalesfurther.

C. SurpassingWallStreet’sestimates,thereportofthecomputercompanyshowedstrongsecond-quarterearnings,and,forthepurposeofincreasingsalesfurther,theyannouncedthefirstinaseriesofpricecuts.

D. Thecomputercompanyreportedstrongsecond-quarterearnings,surpassingWallStreet’sestimates,andannouncingthefirstinaseriesofpricecutsforthepurposeoffurtherincreasingsales.

E. Thecomputercompany,surpassingWallStreet’sestimates,reportedstrongsecond-quarterearnings,whileannouncingthatto

increasesalesfurthertherewouldbethefirstinaseriesofpricecuts.

256. AnalystsblamedMay’ssluggishretailsalesonunexcitingmerchandiseaswellastheweather,colderandwetterthanwasusualinsomeregions,whichslowedsalesofbarbecuegrillsandlawnfurniture.

A. colderandwetterthanwasusualinsomeregions,whichslowed

B. whichwascolderandwetterthanusualinsomeregions,slowing

C. sinceitwascolderandwetterthanusuallyinsomeregions,whichslowed

D. beingcolderandwetterthanusuallyinsomeregions,slowing

E. havingbeencolderandwetterthanwasusualinsomeregionsandslowed

257. BeingaUnitedStatescitizensince1988andborninCalcuttain1940,authorBharatiMukherjeehaslivedinEnglandandCanada,andfirstcametotheUnitedStatesin1961tostudyattheIowaWriters’Workshop.

A. BeingaUnitedStatescitizensince1988andborninCalcuttain1940,authorBharatiMukherjeehas

B. HavingbeenaUnitedStatescitizensince1988,shewasborninCalcuttain1940;authorBharatiMukherjee

C. BorninCalcuttain1940,authorBharatiMukherjeebecameaUnitedStatescitizenin1988;shehas

D. BeingborninCalcuttain1940andhavingbeenaUnitedStatescitizensince1988,authorBharatiMukherjee

E. HavingbeenborninCalcuttain1940andbeingaUnitedStatescitizensince1988,authorBharatiMukherjee

258. EventhoughtheoverallconsumerpriceindexdidnotchangeinApril,indicatingtheabsenceofanygeneralinflationordeflation,pricesinseveralcategoriesofmerchandisehavefallenoverthelastseveralmonths.

A. April,indicatingtheabsenceofanygeneralinflationordeflation,pricesinseveralcategoriesofmerchandisehavefallen

B. April,indicatingthatanygeneralinflationordeflationwereabsent,pricesinseveralcategoriesofmerchandisefell

C. Aprilandindicatedthatabsenceofanygeneralinflationordeflation,pricesinseveralcategoriesofmerchandisefell

D. April,havingindicatedtheabsenceofanygeneralinflationordeflation,pricesinseveralcategoriesofmerchandisefell

E. April,whichindicatedthatanygeneralinflationordeflationwereabsent,pricesinseveralcategoriesofmerchandisehavefallen

259. ArchaeologistsinIrelandbelievethatarecentlydiscoveredchalice,whichdatesfromtheeighthcentury,wasprobablyburiedtokeepfrombeingstolenbyinvaders.

A. tokeepfrom

B. tokeepitfrom

C. toavoid

D. inorderthatitwouldavoid

E. inordertokeepfrom

260. DespiteJapan’srelativeisolationfromworldtradeatthetime,theprolongedpeaceduringtheTokugawashogunateproducedanalmostexplosiveexpansionofcommerce.

A. Japan’srelativeisolationfromworldtradeatthetime,theprolongedpeaceduringtheTokugawashogunate

B. therelativeisolationofJapanfromworldtradeatthetimeandtheTokugawashogunate’sprolongedpeace,it

C. beingrelativelyisolatedfromworldtradeatthetime,theprolongedpeaceduringJapan’sTokugawashogunate

D. Japan’srelativeisolationfromworldtradeatthetimeduringtheTokugawashogunate,prolongedpeace

E. itsrelativeisolationfromworldtradethen,prolongedpeaceinJapanduringtheTokugawashogunate

261. Thebankholds$3billioninloansthatareseriouslydelinquentorinsuchtroublethattheydonotexpectpaymentswhendue.

A. theydonotexpectpaymentswhen

B. itdoesnotexpectpaymentswhenitis

C. itdoesnotexpectpaymentstobemadewhentheyare

D. paymentsarenottobeexpectedtobepaidwhen

E. paymentsarenotexpectedtobepaidwhentheywillbe

262. Facedwithanestimated$2billionbudgetgap,thecity’smayorproposedanearly17percentreductionintheamountallocatedthepreviousyeartomaintainthecity’smajorculturalinstitutionsandtosubsidizehundredsoflocalartsgroups.

A. proposedanearly17percentreductionintheamountallocatedthepreviousyeartomaintainthecity’smajorculturalinstitutionsandtosubsidize

B. proposedareductionfromthepreviousyearofnearly17percentintheamountitwasallocatingtomaintainthecity’smajorculturalinstitutionsandforsubsidizing

C. proposedtoreduce,bynearly17percent,theamountfromthepreviousyearthatwasallocatedforthemaintenanceofthecity’smajorculturalinstitutionsandtosubsidize

D. hasproposedareductionfromthepreviousyearofnearly17percentoftheamountitwasallocatingformaintainingthecity’smajorculturalinstitutions,andtosubsidize

E. wasproposingthattheamounttheywereallocatingbereducedbynearly17percentfromthepreviousyearformaintainingthecity’smajorculturalinstitutionsandforthesubsidization

263. Inthetextbookpublishingbusiness,thesecondquarterishistoricallyweak,becauserevenuesarelowandmarketingexpensesarehighascompaniesprepareforthecomingschoolyear.

A. lowandmarketingexpensesarehighascompaniesprepare

B. lowandtheirmarketingexpensesarehighastheyprepare

C. lowwithhighermarketingexpensesinpreparation

D. low,whilemarketingexpensesarehighertoprepare

E. low,whiletheirmarketingexpensesarehigherinpreparation

264. Ms.Chambersisamongtheforecasterswhopredictthattherateofadditiontoarablelandswilldropwhilethoseoflossrise.

A. thoseoflossrise

B. itrisesforloss

C. thoseoflossesrise

D. therateoflossrises

E. therearerisesfortherateofloss

265. Lessthan400SumatranrhinossurviveontheMalaypeninsulaandontheislandsofSumatraandBorneo,andtheyoccupyasmallfractionofthespecies’formerrange.

A. Lessthan400SumatranrhinossurviveontheMalaypeninsulaandontheislandsofSumatraandBorneo,andtheyoccupyasmallfractionofthespecies’formerrange.

B. Lessthan400Sumatranrhinos,survivingontheMalaypeninsulaandontheislandsofSumatraandBorneo,occupyasmallfractionofthespecies’formerrange.

C. Occupyingasmallfractionofthespecies’formerrange,theMalaypeninsulaandtheislandsofSumatraandBorneoarewherefewerthan400Sumatranrhinossurvive.

D. Occupyingasmallfractionofthespecies’formerrange,fewerthan400SumatranrhinossurviveontheMalaypeninsulaandontheislandsofSumatraandBorneo.

E. SurvivingontheMalaypeninsulaandontheislandsofSumatraandBorneo,lessthan400Sumatranrhinosoccupyasmallfractionofthespecies’formerrange.

266. Certainpesticidescanbecomeineffectiveifusedrepeatedlyinthesameplace;onereasonissuggestedbythefindingthattherearemuchlargerpopulationsofpesticide-degradingmicrobesinsoilswitharelativelylonghistoryofpesticideusethaninsoilsthatarefreeofsuchchemicals.

A. Certainpesticidescanbecomeineffectiveifusedrepeatedlyinthesameplace;onereasonissuggestedbythefindingthattherearemuchlargerpopulationsofpesticide-degradingmicrobesinsoilswitharelativelylonghistoryofpesticideusethaninsoilsthatarefreeofsuchchemicals.

B. Ifusedrepeatedlyinthesameplace,onereasonthatcertainpesticidescanbecomeineffectiveissuggestedbythefindingthattherearemuchlargerpopulationsofpesticide-degradingmicrobesinsoilswitharelativelylonghistoryofpesticideusethaninsoilsthatarefreeofsuchchemicals.

C. Ifusedrepeatedlyinthesameplace,onereasoncertainpesticidescanbecomeineffectiveissuggestedbythefindingthatmuchlargerpopulationsofpesticide-degradingmicrobesarefoundinsoilswitharelativelylonghistoryofpesticideusethanthosethatarefreeofsuchchemicals.

D. Thefindingthattherearemuchlargerpopulationsofpesticide-degradingmicrobesinsoilswitharelativelylonghistoryofpesticideusethaninsoilsthatarefreeofsuchchemicalsissuggestiveofonereason,ifusedrepeatedlyinthesameplace,certainpesticidescanbecomeineffective.

E. Thefindingofmuchlargerpopulationsofpesticide-degradingmicrobesinsoilswitharelativelylonghistoryofpesticideusethaninthosethatarefreeofsuchchemicalssuggestsonereasoncertainpesticidescanbecomeineffectiveifusedrepeatedlyinthesameplace.

267. Themarketforrecycledcommoditieslikealuminumandothermetalsremainstrongdespiteeconomicchangesintherecyclingindustry.

A. commoditieslikealuminumandothermetalsremain

B. commoditieslikethoseofaluminumandothermetalsareremaining

C. commoditiessuchasaluminumandothermetalsremains

D. commodities,suchasaluminumandothermetals,remain

E. commodities,likethecommoditiesofaluminumandothermetals,remains

268. Whilesomeacademiciansbelievethatbusinessethicsshouldbeintegratedintoeverybusinesscourse,otherssaythatstudentswilltakeethicsseriouslyonlyifitwouldbetaughtasaseparatelyrequiredcourse.

A. onlyifitwouldbetaughtasaseparatelyrequiredcourse

B. onlyifitistaughtasaseparate,requiredcourse

C. ifitistaughtonlyasacourserequiredseparately

D. ifitwastaughtonlyasaseparateandrequiredcourse

E. ifitwouldonlybetaughtasarequiredcourse,separately

269. Geologistsbelievethatthewarningsignsforamajorearthquakemay

includesuddenfluctuationsinlocalseismicactivity,tiltingandotherdeformationsoftheEarth’scrust,changingthemeasuredstrainacrossafaultzoneandvaryingtheelectricalpropertiesofundergroundrocks.

A. changingthemeasuredstrainacrossafaultzoneandvarying

B. changingmeasurementsofthestrainacrossafaultzone,andvarying

C. changingthestrainasmeasuredacrossafaultzone,andvariationsof

D. changesinthemeasuredstrainacrossafaultzone,andvariationsin

E. changesinmeasurementsofthestrainacrossafaultzone,andvariationsamong

270. Until1868andDisraeli,GreatBritainhadnoprimeministersnotcomingfromalandedfamily.

A. Until1868andDisraeli,GreatBritainhadnoprimeministersnotcoming

B. Until1868andDisraeli,GreatBritainhadhadnoprimeministerswhohavenotcome

C. UntilDisraeliin1868,therewerenoprimeministersinGreatBritainwhohavenotcome

D. Itwasnotuntil1868thatGreatBritainhadaprimeminister—Disraeli—whodidnotcome

E. Itwasonlyin1868andDisraelithatGreatBritainhadoneofitsprimeministersnotcoming

271. Byofferinglowerpricesandamenuofpersonalcommunicationsoptions,suchascalleridentificationandvoicemail,thenewtelecommunicationscompanyhasnotonlycapturedcustomersfromotherphonecompaniesbutalsoforcedthemtooffercompetitiveprices.

A. hasnotonlycapturedcustomersfromotherphonecompaniesbutalsoforcedthem

B. hasnotonlycapturedcustomersfromotherphonecompanies,butitalsoforcedthem

C. hasnotonlycapturedcustomersfromotherphonecompaniesbutalsoforcedthesecompanies

D. notonlyhascapturedcustomersfromotherphonecompaniesbut

alsothesecompanieshavebeenforced

E. notonlycapturedcustomersfromotherphonecompanies,butitalsohasforcedthem

272. Aftersuffering$2billioninlossesand25,000layoffs,thenation’ssemiconductorindustry,whichmakeschipsthatruneverythingfromcomputersandspysatellitestodishwashers,appearstohavemadealong-awaitedrecovery.

A. computersandspysatellitestodishwashers,appearstohave

B. computers,spysatellites,anddishwashers,appearshaving

C. computers,spysatellites,anddishwashers,appearsthatithas

D. computersandspysatellitestodishwashers,appearsthatithas

E. computersandspysatellitesaswellasdishwashers,appearstohave

273. Thecomputercompanyhasannouncedthatitwillpurchasethecolor-printingdivisionofarivalcompanyfor$950million,whichispartofadealthatwillmakeitthelargestmanufacturerintheofficecolor-printingmarket.

A. million,whichispartofadealthatwillmake

B. million,apartofadealthatmakes

C. million,apartofadealmaking

D. millionasapartofadealtomake

E. millionaspartofadealthatwillmake

274. BluegrassmusicianBillMonroe,whoserepertory,viewsonmusicalcollaboration,andvocalstylewereinfluentialongenerationsofbluegrassartists,wasalsoaninspirationtomanymusicians,thatincludedElvisPresleyandJerryGarcia,whosemusicdifferedsignificantlyfromhisown.

A. wereinfluentialongenerationsofbluegrassartists,wasalsoaninspirationtomanymusicians,thatincludedElvisPresleyandJerryGarcia,whosemusicdifferedsignificantlyfrom

B. influencedgenerationsofbluegrassartists,alsoinspiredmanymusicians,includingElvisPresleyandJerryGarcia,whosemusicdifferedsignificantlyfrom

C. wasinfluentialtogenerationsofbluegrassartists,wasalso

inspirationaltomanymusicians,thatincludedElvisPresleyandJerryGarcia,whosemusicwasdifferentsignificantlyincomparisonto

D. wasinfluentialtogenerationsofbluegrassartists,alsoinspiredmanymusicians,whoincludedElvisPresleyandJerryGarcia,themusicofwhomdifferedsignificantlywhencomparedto

E. wereaninfluenceongenerationsofbluegrassartists,wasalsoaninspirationtomanymusicians,includingElvisPresleyandJerryGarcia,whosemusicwassignificantlydifferentfromthatof

275. Thecomputercompany’spresenttroublesarearesultoftechnologicalstagnation,marketingmissteps,andmanagerialblunderssothatseveralattemptstorevisecorporatestrategieshavefailedtocorrectit.

A. sothatseveralattemptstorevisecorporatestrategieshavefailedtocorrectit

B. sothatseveralattemptsatrevisingcorporatestrategieshavefailedtocorrect

C. inthatseveralattemptsatrevisingcorporatestrategieshavefailedtocorrectthem

D. thatseveralattemptstorevisecorporatestrategieshavefailedtocorrect

E. thatseveralattemptsatrevisingcorporatestrategieshavefailedtocorrectthem

276. Therootsystemsofmostfloweringperennialseitherbecometoocrowded,whichresultsinlossinvigor,andspreadtoofaroutward,producingabarecenter.

A. whichresultsinlossinvigor,andspread

B. resultinginlossinvigor,orspreading

C. withtheresultoflossofvigor,orspreading

D. resultinginlossofvigor,orspread

E. witharesultinglossofvigor,andspread

277. Downzoning,zoningthattypicallyresultsinthereductionofhousingdensity,allowsformoreopenspaceinareaswherelittlewaterorservicesexist.

A. littlewaterorservicesexist

B. littlewaterorservicesexists

C. fewservicesandlittlewaterexists

D. thereislittlewaterorservicesavailable

E. therearefewservicesandlittleavailablewater

278. Intheory,internationalcivilservantsattheUnitedNationsareprohibitedfromcontinuingtodrawsalariesfromtheirowngovernments;inpractice,however,somegovernmentsmerelysubstitutelivingallowancesfortheiremployees’paychecks,assignedbythemtotheUnitedNations.

A. fortheiremployees’paychecks,assignedbythem

B. forthepaychecksoftheiremployeeswhohavebeenassigned

C. forthepaychecksoftheiremployees,havingbeenassigned

D. inplaceoftheiremployees’paychecks,forthoseofthemassigned

E. inplaceofthepaychecksoftheiremployeestohavebeenassignedbythem

279. SorJuanaInésdelaCruzwasmakingthecaseforwomen’sequalitylongbeforethecausehadaname:Borninthemid-seventeenthcenturyinSanMiguelNepantla,Mexico,theconventwastheperfectenvironmentforSorJuanatopursueintellectualpursuits,achievingrenownasamathematician,poet,philosopher,andplaywright.

A. theconventwastheperfectenvironmentforSorJuanatopursueintellectualpursuits,achieving

B. SorJuanafoundtheconventprovidedtheperfectenvironmentforintellectualpursuits,andshewentontoachieve

C. theconventprovidedtheperfectenvironmentforintellectualpursuitsforSorJuana;goingontoachieve

D. SorJuanafoundtheconventprovidedtheperfectenvironmentforintellectualpursuits;achieving

E. theconventwas,SorJuanafound,theperfectenvironmentforintellectualpursuits,andshewentontoachieve

280. TheAnasazisettlementsatChacoCanyonwerebuiltonaspectacularscale,withmorethan75carefullyengineeredstructures,ofupto600roomseach,wereconnectedbyacomplexregionalsystemofroads.

A. scale,withmorethan75carefullyengineeredstructures,ofupto600roomseach,were

B. scale,withmorethan75carefullyengineeredstructures,ofupto600roomseach,

C. scaleofmorethan75carefullyengineeredstructuresofupto600rooms,eachthathadbeen

D. scaleofmorethan75carefullyengineeredstructuresofupto600roomsandwitheach

E. scaleofmorethan75carefullyengineeredstructuresofupto600rooms,eachhadbeen

281. Bydevisinganinstrumentmadefromarod,wire,andleadballs,andemployinguncommonlyprecisemeasurements,in1797–1798HenryCavendish’sapparatusenabledhimtoarriveatanastonishinglyaccuratefigurefortheweightoftheearth.

A. Bydevisinganinstrumentmadefromarod,wire,andleadballs,andemployinguncommonlyprecisemeasurements,in1797–1798HenryCavendish’sapparatusenabledhim

B. In1797–1798,bydevisinganinstrumentmadefromarod,wire,andleadballs,andemployinguncommonlyprecisemeasurements,HenryCavendish’sapparatusenabledhim

C. HenryCavendishdevisedaninstrumentmadefromarod,wire,andleadballs,andemployeduncommonlyprecisemeasurements,andin1797–1798wasable

D. Havingdevisedaninstrumentfromarod,wire,andleadballs,andemploymentofuncommonlyprecisemeasurements,HenryCavendishin1797–1798wasable

E. Bydevisinganinstrumentmadefromarod,wire,andleadballs,andemployinguncommonlyprecisemeasurements,HenryCavendishwasablein1797–1798

282. AccordingtoUnitedStatescensusdata,whiletherewasaboutone-thirdofmotherswithyoungchildrenworkingoutsidethehomein1975,in2000,almosttwo-thirdsofthosemotherswereemployedoutsidethehome.

A. whiletherewasaboutone-thirdofmotherswithyoungchildrenworkingoutsidethehomein1975,in2000,almosttwo-thirdsof

thosemotherswereemployedoutsidethehome

B. therewereaboutone-thirdofmotherswithyoungchildrenwhoworkedoutsidethehomein1975;in2000,almosttwo-thirdsofthosemotherswereemployedoutsidethehome

C. in1975aboutone-thirdofmotherswithyoungchildrenworkedoutsidethehome;in2000,almosttwo-thirdsofsuchmotherswereemployedoutsidethehome

D. eventhoughin1975therewereaboutone-thirdofmotherswithyoungchildrenwhoworkedoutsidethehome,almosttwo-thirdsofsuchmotherswereemployedoutsidethehomein2000

E. withaboutone-thirdofmotherswithyoungchildrenworkingoutsidethehomein1975,almosttwo-thirdsofsuchmotherswereemployedoutsidethehomein2000

283. Cloudsareformedfromtheevaporationoftheoceans’waterthatiswarmedbythesunandriseshighintotheatmosphere,condensingintinydropletsonminuteparticlesofdust.

A. Cloudsareformedfromtheevaporationoftheoceans’waterthatiswarmedbythesunandriseshighintotheatmosphere,condensingintinydropletsonminuteparticlesofdust.

B. Cloudsformbythesun’swarmthevaporatingthewaterintheoceans,whichriseshighintotheatmosphere,condensingintinydropletsonminuteparticlesofdust.

C. Warmedbythesun,oceanwaterevaporates,riseshighintotheatmosphere,andcondensesintinydropletsonminuteparticlesofdusttoformclouds.

D. Thewaterintheoceansevaporates,warmedbythesun,riseshighintotheatmosphere,andcondensesintinydropletsonminuteparticlesofdust,whichformsclouds.

E. Oceanwater,warmedbythesun,evaporatesandriseshighintotheatmosphere,whichthencondensesintinydropletsonminuteparticlesofdusttoformasclouds.

284. Schistosomiasis,adiseasecausedbyaparasiticworm,isprevalentinhot,humidclimates,andithasbecomemorewidespreadasirrigationprojectshaveenlargedthehabitatofthefreshwatersnailsthataretheparasite’shostsforpartofitslifecycle.

A. thefreshwatersnailsthataretheparasite’shostsforpartofitslifecycle

B. thefreshwatersnailsthataretheparasite’shostsinpartoftheirlifecycle

C. freshwatersnailswhichbecometheparasite’shostsforpartofitslifecycles

D. freshwatersnailswhichbecomethehostsoftheparasiteduringtheparasite’slifecycles

E. parasite’shosts,freshwatersnailswhichbecometheirhostsduringtheirlifecycles

285. FloatinginthewatersoftheequatorialPacific,anarrayofbuoyscollectsandtransmitsdataonlong-terminteractionsbetweentheoceanandtheatmosphere,interactionsthataffectglobalclimate.

A. atmosphere,interactionsthataffect

B. atmosphere,withinteractionsaffecting

C. atmospherethataffects

D. atmospherethatisaffecting

E. atmosphereasaffects

286. Sixty-fivemillionyearsago,accordingtosomescientists,anasteroidbiggerthanMountEverestslammedintoNorthAmerica,which,causingplantandanimalextinctions,markstheendofthegeologiceraknownastheCretaceousPeriod.

A. which,causingplantandanimalextinctions,marks

B. whichcausedtheplantandanimalextinctionsandmarks

C. andcausingplantandanimalextinctionsthatmark

D. aneventthatcausedplantandanimalextinctions,whichmarks

E. aneventthatcausedtheplantandanimalextinctionsthatmark

287. Althoughthefirstpulsar,orrapidlyspinningcollapsedstar,tobesightedwasinthesummerof1967bygraduatestudentJocelynBell,ithadnotbeenannounceduntilFebruary1968.

A. Althoughthefirstpulsar,orrapidlyspinningcollapsedstar,tobesightedwasinthesummerof1967bygraduatestudentJocelynBell,ithadnotbeenannounceduntilFebruary1968.

B. AlthoughnotannounceduntilFebruary1968,inthesummerof1967graduatestudentJocelynBellobservedthefirstpulsar,orrapidlyspinningcollapsedstar,tobesighted.

C. AlthoughobservedbygraduatestudentJocelynBellinthesummerof1967,thediscoveryofthefirstsightedpulsar,orrapidlyspinningcollapsedstar,hadnotbeenannouncedbeforeFebruary1968.

D. Thefirstpulsar,orrapidlyspinningcollapsedstar,tobesightedwasobservedinthesummerof1967bygraduatestudentJocelynBell,butthediscoverywasnotannounceduntilFebruary1968.

E. Thefirstsightedpulsar,orrapidlyspinningcollapsedstar,wasnotannounceduntilFebruary1968,whileitwasobservedinthesummerof1967bygraduatestudentJocelynBell.

288. Soundcantravelthroughwaterforenormousdistances,preventedfromdissipatingitsacousticenergyasaresultofboundariesintheoceancreatedbywaterlayersofdifferenttemperaturesanddensities.

A. preventedfromdissipatingitsacousticenergyasaresultof

B. preventedfromhavingitsacousticenergydissipatedby

C. itsacousticenergypreventedfromdissipatingby

D. itsacousticenergypreventedfrombeingdissipatedasaresultof

E. preventingitsacousticenergyfromdissipatingby

289. Inpreparationforthepredictionofamajorearthquakethatwillhitthestate,asatellite-basedcomputernetworkisbeingbuiltbytheCaliforniaOfficeofEmergencyServicesforidentifyingearthquakedamageandtopinpointthemostaffectedareaswithintwohoursoftheevent.

A. Inpreparationforthepredictionofamajorearthquakethatwillhitthestate,asatellite-basedcomputernetworkisbeingbuiltbytheCaliforniaOfficeofEmergencyServicesforidentifying

B. Inpreparingforthepredictionthatamajorearthquakewillhitthestate,theCaliforniaOfficeofEmergencyServicesisbuildingasatellite-basedcomputernetworkthatwillidentify

C. Inpreparingforamajorearthquakethatispredictedtohitthestate,theCaliforniaOfficeofEmergencyServicesisbuildingasatellite-basedcomputernetworktoidentify

D. Toprepareforthepredictionofamajorearthquakehittingthestate,

asatellite-basedcomputernetworkisbeingbuiltbytheCaliforniaOfficeofEmergencyServicestoidentify

E. Toprepareforamajorearthquakethatispredictedtohitthestate,theCaliforniaOfficeofEmergencyServicesisbuildingasatellite-basedcomputernetworkthatwillidentify

290. Intar,theoldestHispanictheatercompanyinNewYork,hasmovedawayfromtheSpanishclassicsandnowitdrawsontheworksbothofcontemporaryHispanicauthorswholiveabroadandofthoseintheUnitedStates.

A. nowitdrawsontheworksbothofcontemporaryHispanicauthorswholiveabroadandofthose

B. nowdrawsontheworksofcontemporaryHispanicauthors,boththosewholiveabroadandthosewholive

C. itdrawsontheworksofcontemporaryHispanicauthorsnow,boththoselivingabroadandwholive

D. drawsnowontheworksbothofcontemporaryHispanicauthorslivingabroadandwhoareliving

E. drawsontheworksnowofbothcontemporaryHispanicauthorslivingabroadandthose

291. Lastyear,landvaluesinmostpartsofthepinelandsrosealmostsofast,andinsomepartsevenfasterthanwhattheydidoutsidethepinelands.

A. sofast,andinsomepartsevenfasterthanwhattheydid

B. sofast,andinsomepartsevenfasterthan,those

C. asfast,andinsomepartsevenfasterthan,those

D. asfastas,andinsomepartsevenfasterthan,those

E. asfastas,andinsomepartsevenfasterthanwhattheydid

292. Createdin1945toreducepovertyandstabilizeforeigncurrencymarkets,theWorldBankandtheInternationalMonetaryFundhave,accordingtosomecritics,continuallystruggledtomeettheexpectationsoftheirmajorshareholders—agroupcomprisingmanyoftheworld’srichnations—butneglectedtheirintendedbeneficiariesinthedevelopingworld.

A. continuallystruggledtomeettheexpectationsoftheirmajorshareholders—agroupcomprisingmanyoftheworld’srichnations

—butneglected

B. continuallystruggledastheytrytomeettheexpectationsoftheirmajorshareholders—agroupcomprisingmanyoftheworld’srichnations—whileneglectingthatof

C. continuallystruggledtomeettheirmajorshareholders’expectations—agroupcomprisingmanyoftheworld’srichnations—butneglectedthatof

D. hadtostrugglecontinuallyintryingtomeettheexpectationsoftheirmajorshareholders—agroupcomprisingmanyoftheworld’srichnations—whileneglectingthatof

E. struggledcontinuallyintryingtomeettheirmajorshareholders’expectations—agroupcomprisingmanyoftheworld’srichnations—andneglecting

293. Unlikeautoinsurance,thefrequencyofclaimsdoesnotaffectthepremiumsforpersonalpropertycoverage,butiftheinsurancecompanyisabletoproveexcessivelossduetoownernegligence,itmaydeclinetorenewthepolicy.

A. Unlikeautoinsurance,thefrequencyofclaimsdoesnotaffectthepremiumsforpersonalpropertycoverage,

B. Unlikewithautoinsurance,thefrequencyofclaimsdonotaffectthepremiumsforpersonalpropertycoverage,

C. Unlikethefrequencyofclaimsforautoinsurance,thepremiumsforpersonalpropertycoveragearenotaffectedbythefrequencyofclaims,

D. Unlikethepremiumsforautoinsurance,thepremiumsforpersonalpropertycoveragearenotaffectedbythefrequencyofclaims,

E. Unlikewiththepremiumsforautoinsurance,thepremiumsforpersonalpropertycoverageisnotaffectedbythefrequencyofclaims,

294. Thecommissionproposedthatfundingforthepark’sdevelopment,whichcouldbeopentothepublicearlynextyear,isobtainedthroughalocalbondissue.

A. thatfundingforthepark’sdevelopment,whichcouldbeopentothepublicearlynextyear,is

B. thatfundingfordevelopmentofthepark,whichcouldbeopento

thepublicearlynextyear,be

C. fundingforthedevelopmentofthepark,perhapsopentothepublicearlynextyear,tobe

D. fundsforthepark’sdevelopment,perhapsopentothepublicearlynextyear,be

E. developmentfundingforthepark,whichcouldbeopentothepublicearlynextyear,istobe

295. SeismologistsstudyingtheearthquakethatstrucknorthernCaliforniainOctober1989arestillinvestigatingsomeofitsmysteries:theunexpectedpoweroftheseismicwaves,theupwardthrustthatthrewonemanstraightintotheair,andthestrangeelectromagneticsignalsdetectedhoursbeforethetemblor.

A. theupwardthrustthatthrewonemanstraightintotheair,andthestrangeelectromagneticsignalsdetectedhoursbeforethetemblor

B. theupwardthrustthatthrewonemanstraightintotheair,andstrangeelectromagneticsignalsweredetectedhoursbeforethetemblor

C. theupwardthrustthrewonemanstraightintotheair,andhoursbeforethetemblorstrangeelectromagneticsignalsweredetected

D. onemanwasthrownstraightintotheairbytheupwardthrust,andhoursbeforethetemblorstrangeelectromagneticsignalsweredetected

E. onemanwhowasthrownstraightintotheairbytheupwardthrust,andstrangeelectromagneticsignalsthatweredetectedhoursbeforethetemblor

296. Thetypeofbehaviorexhibitedwhenananimalrecognizesitselfinamirrorcomeswithinthedomainof“theoryofmind,”thusisbeststudiedaspartofthefieldofanimalcognition.

A. of“theoryofmind,”thusisbest

B. “theoryofmind,”andsoisbesttobe

C. ofa“theoryofmind,”thusitisbest

D. of“theoryofmind”andthusisbest

E. ofthe“theoryofmind,”andsoitisbesttobe

297. Proponentsofartificialintelligencesaytheywillbeabletomake

computersthatcanunderstandEnglishandotherhumanlanguages,recognizeobjects,andreasonasanexpertdoes—computersthatwillbeusedtodiagnoseequipmentbreakdowns,decidingwhethertoauthorizealoan,orotherpurposessuchasthese.

A. asanexpertdoes—computersthatwillbeusedtodiagnoseequipmentbreakdowns,decidingwhethertoauthorizealoan,orotherpurposessuchasthese

B. asanexpertdoes,whichmaybeusedforpurposessuchasdiagnosingequipmentbreakdownsordecidingwhethertoauthorizealoan

C. likeanexpert—computersthatwillbeusedforsuchpurposesasdiagnosingequipmentbreakdownsordecidingwhethertoauthorizealoan

D. likeanexpert,theuseofwhichwouldbeforpurposeslikethediagnosisofequipmentbreakdownsorthedecisionwhetherornotaloanshouldbeauthorized

E. likeanexpert,tobeusedtodiagnoseequipmentbreakdowns,decidingwhethertoauthorizealoanornot,orthelike

298. UnliketheUnitedStates,wherefarmerscanusuallydependonrainorsnowallyearlong,therainsinmostpartsofSriLankaareconcentratedinthemonsoonmonths,JunetoSeptember,andtheskiesaregenerallyclearfortherestoftheyear.

A. UnliketheUnitedStates,wherefarmerscanusuallydependonrainorsnowallyearlong,therainsinmostpartsofSriLanka

B. UnliketheUnitedStatesfarmerswhocanusuallydependonrainorsnowallyearlong,therainsinmostpartsofSriLanka

C. UnlikethoseoftheUnitedStates,wherefarmerscanusuallydependonrainorsnowallyearlong,mostpartsofSriLanka’srains

D. IncomparisonwiththeUnitedStates,whosefarmerscanusuallydependonrainorsnowallyearlong,therainsinmostpartsofSriLanka

E. IntheUnitedStates,farmerscanusuallydependonrainorsnowallyearlong,butinmostpartsofSriLanka,therains

299. Oncenumberinginthemillionsworldwide,itisestimatedthatthewolfhasdeclinedto200,000in57countries,some11,000ofthemtobe

foundinthelower48UnitedStatesandAlaska.

A. itisestimatedthatthewolfhasdeclinedto200,000in57countries,some

B. thewolfisestimatedtohavedeclinedto200,000in57countries,withapproximately

C. thewolfhasdeclinedtoanestimateof200,000in57countries,some

D. wolveshavedeclinedtoanestimateof200,000in57countries,withapproximately

E. wolveshavedeclinedtoanestimated200,000in57countries,some

300. Asbusinessgrowsmorecomplex,studentsmajoringinspecializedareaslikethoseoffinanceandmarketinghavebeenbecomingincreasinglysuccessfulinthejobmarket.

A. majoringinspecializedareaslikethoseoffinanceandmarketinghavebeenbecomingincreasingly

B. whomajorinsuchspecializedareasasfinanceandmarketingarebecomingmoreandmore

C. whomajoredinspecializedareassuchasthoseoffinanceandmarketingarebeingincreasingly

D. whomajorinspecializedareaslikethoseoffinanceandmarketinghavebeenbecomingmoreandmore

E. havingmajoredinsuchspecializedareasasfinanceandmarketingarebeingincreasingly

301. InuitsoftheBeringSeawereinisolationfromcontactwithEuropeanslongerthanAleutsorInuitsoftheNorthPacificandnorthernAlaska.

A. inisolationfromcontactwithEuropeanslongerthan

B. isolatedfromcontactwithEuropeanslongerthan

C. inisolationfromcontactwithEuropeanslongerthanwere

D. isolatedfromcontactwithEuropeanslongerthanwere

E. inisolationandwithoutcontactswithEuropeanslongerthan

5.7AnswerKey189. A

190. C

191. E

192. D

193. E

194. C

195. E

196. C

197. D

198. C

199. C

200. B

201. B

202. A

203. B

204. D

205. C

206. C

207. B

208. A

209. A

210. B

211. B

212. C

213. A

214. C

215. A

216. A

217. D

218. E

219. C

220. C

221. E

222. D

223. A

224. C

225. E

226. B

227. B

228. B

229. D

230. C

231. D

232. E

233. C

234. B

235. A

236. B

237. D

238. D

239. C

240. A

241. A

242. B

243. E

244. B

245. C

246. D

247. B

248. A

249. E

250. A

251. E

252. E

253. E

254. E

255. A

256. B

257. C

258. A

259. B

260. A

261. C

262. A

263. A

264.

265. D

266. A

267. C

268. B

269. D

270. D

271. C

272. A

273. E

274. B

275. D

276. D

277. E

278. B

279. B

280. B

281. E

282. C

283. C

284. A

285. A

286. E

287. D

288. C

289. C

290. B

291. D

292. A

293. D

294. B

295. A

296. D

297. C

298. E

299. E

300. B

301. D

5.8AnswerExplanationsThefollowingdiscussionofsentencecorrectionisintendedtofamiliarizeyouwiththemostefficientandeffectiveapproachestothesekindsofquestions.TheparticularquestionsinthischapteraregenerallyrepresentativeofthekindsofsentencecorrectionquestionsyouwillencounterontheGMAT.

189. Usingdigitalenhancementsofskullfragmentsfromfiveprehistorichominidsdatingtomorethan350,000yearsago,anthropologistsarguethatthesehumanancestorsprobablyhadhearingsimilartothatofpeopletoday.

A. anthropologistsarguethatthesehumanancestors

B. anthropologistsargue,sothesehumanancestors

C. anthropologistsargue,thesehumanancestors

D. thesehumanancestors,anthropologistsargue,

E. thesehumanancestorsarearguedbyanthropologiststohave

Logicalpredication;Diction

Theverbarguehere,becauseitexpressestheideaofarguingforapositionortheory,shouldbefolloweddirectlybyaclauseintroducedbythat,withoutapause.Verbformsendingwith-ingwithunderstoodsubjects,liketheonebeginningthissentence,musthavetheirsubjectsuppliedelsewhere—preferablybythesubjectofthemainclause.

A. Correct.Argueisfollowedimmediatelybyathatclause,andthesubjectofusingissuppliedbyanthropologists.

B. Argueisnotdirectlyfollowedbyathatclause;moreover,bycontinuingwithso...,thesentencedoesnotcoherentlyexpresstheintendedidea.

C. Argueisnotdirectlyfollowedbyathatclause.

D. Thesubjectofthemainclause,thesehumanancestors,willillogicallybetakenasthesubjectofusing.

E. Thesubjectofthemainclause,thesehumanancestors,willillogicallybetakenasthesubjectofusing.


190. Theinteriorministerexplainedthatoneofthevillageplanningproposal’sbestcharacteristicswastheirnotdetractingfromtheproject’soverallbenefitbybeingaburdenonthedevelopmentbudget.

A. oneofthevillageplanningproposal’sbestcharacteristicswastheirnotdetracting

B. oneofthevillage’splanningproposal’sbestcharacteristicswereitsnottaking

C. oneofthebestcharacteristicsofthevillage’splanningproposalwasthatitdidnotdetract

D. abestcharacteristicofthevillageplanningproposalwas,itdidnottake

E. amongthevillageplanningproposal’sbestcharacteristics,onewas,itdidnotdetract

Agreement;Rhetoricalconstruction

Thenounphrasebeginningwithoneissingular,asisoneofitsconstituentparts,thevillageplanningproposal,soanypronounsforwhichitistheantecedentshouldbesingular;furthermore,anyverbforwhichthenounphrasebeginningwithone...isthesubjectshouldbeinthesingular.Theverbdetractismoreappropriatetothethoughtbeingexpressedthantake.

A. Thepluralpronountheirhasasingularnounphraseasitsantecedent,namely,thevillageplanningproposal.(Itisillogicaltotaketheantecedentoftheirtobebestcharacteristics.)

B. Thepluralverbweredoesnotagreewiththesingularsubject.Also,theverbtakingshouldbereplacedbytheverbdetracting.

C. Correct.Theverbiscorrectlyinthesingularform.

D. Abestcharacteristicisawkward;theideaisbetterphrasedasoneofthebestcharacteristics.Alsotheverbtakeshouldbereplacedbytheverbdetract.

E. Insteadoftheawkwardsequenceonewas,itdidnot,abetterchoicewouldbewasthatitdidnot.


191. Likeants,termiteshaveanelaboratesocialstructureinwhichafewindividualsreproduceandtherestareservingthecolonybytendingjuveniles,gatheringfood,buildingthenest,ortheybattleintruders.

A. areservingthecolonybytendingjuveniles,gatheringfood,buildingthenest,ortheybattle

B. areservingthecolonyinthattheytendjuveniles,gatherfood,buildthenest,orbattle

C. servethecolony,tendingjuveniles,gatheringfood,buildingthenest,orbybattling

D. servethecolonybytendingjuveniles,gatheringfood,bybuildingthenest,orbybattling

E. servethecolonybytendingjuveniles,gatheringfood,buildingthenest,orbattling

Parallelism;Rhetoricalconstruction

Thesentencemosteffectivelyusesparallelstructuretocontrasttwotypesoftermitesinthesocialstructureoftermitecolonies:thosewhoreproduce,andthosewhoservethecolonyinanumberofways.Theprogressiveverbformareservingshouldbechangedtosimplepresenttenseservetoparallelreproduce.Inthefinallistofresponsibilities,parallelismdemandsthatallassumethegerundformasobjectsofthepreposition:bytending...gathering...building...orbattling.

A. Theprogressiveverbformareservingisinappropriateforthisgeneralclaimabouttermitebehavior.Itshouldparallelthepreviousverbreproduce.Itisunnecessarytointroduceanewclauseortheybattleintruders,becausebattlingisanotherwaysometermitesservethecolonyandshouldthereforebeexpressedasanotherobjectoftheprepositionby.

B. Inthattheyisanawkwardandwordyconstruction—apoorsubstituteforbyinthiscontext.

C. Theprepositionbyclarifieshowthetermitesservetheircolonyandshouldgovernallofthetaskdescriptions,notjustthefinalone.

D. Thereisnoneedtorepeattheprepositionby,becausealltaskscanbedescribedinaseriesofparallelobjectsofthesamepreposition.Toviolateparallelstructurebyomittingtheprepositionbeforeonegerundbutrepeatingitfortherestconfusesthereader.

E. Correct.Thesentenceusesproperparallelstructureandisclearandconcise.


192. Some200world-famousphysicistsrecentlyattendedaconferencewhosepurposenotonlywastoconsidertheprospectsforthenext50yearsofresearchinphysicsbutalsoassessingtheaccuracyofthepredictionsmadeatthelastmeetingofthistype,whichtookplace50yearsearlier.

A. notonlywastoconsidertheprospectsforthenext50yearsofresearchinphysicsbutalsoassessingtheaccuracyofthe

predictionsmadeatthelastmeetingofthistype,

B. notonlywasconsideringtheprospectsforthenext50yearsofresearchinphysicsbutalsoassessingtheaccuracyofthepredictionswhichweremadeatthelastmeetingofthistypeand

C. wasnotonlyconsideringtheprospectsforthenext50yearsofresearchinphysicsbutalsotoassesstheaccuracyofthepredictionsmadeatthelastmeetingofthistypeand

D. wasnotonlytoconsidertheprospectsforthenext50yearsofresearchinphysicsbutalsotoassesstheaccuracyofthepredictionsmadeatthelastmeetingofthistype,

E. wastoconsidernotonlytheprospectsforthenext50yearsofresearchinphysicsbutalsoassessingtheaccuracyofthepredictionsmadeatthelastmeetingofthistype,

Parallelism;Idiom;Logicalpredication

ThissentenceusestheidiomaticexpressionnotonlyXbutalsoYtopresenttwopurposesoftheconference.Thisexpressionrequiresparallelconstructions.Inthissentence,notonly...butalso...shouldfollowtheverbwas,makingbothpurposespredicatenominatives.

A. Theverbwasshouldcomebeforetheidiomnotonly...butalso...;thetwopurposesarenotexpressedinparallelform;toconsiderisaninfinitivephrase,andassessingisagerund.

B. Asin(A),theverbismisplaced;theuseoftheconjunctionandinplaceoftherelativepronounwhichneartheendofthesentencenonsensicallylinkstheverbtookplacewiththesubjectpurpose.

C. Theverbsconsideringandtoassessarenotparallel;asin(B),theconjunctionandnonsensicallylinkstheverbtookplacewiththesubjectpurpose.

D. Correct.Thissentencepresentsbothpurposesinparallelform.

E. Theverbstoconsiderandassessingarenotparallel.


193. Globalwarmingissaidtoberesponsibleforextremeweatherchanges,which,liketheheavyrainsthatcausedmorethan$2billionindamagesandledtofloodingthroughoutthestateofCalifornia,andtheheatwaveinthenortheasternandmidwesternUnitedStates,whichwasalsothecauseofagreatamountofdamageanddestruction.

A. which,liketheheavyrainsthatcausedmorethan$2billionindamagesandledtofloodingthroughoutthestateofCalifornia,

B. which,liketheheavyrainsthatthroughoutthestateofCaliforniacausedmorethan$2billionindamagesandledtoflooding,

C. liketheheavyfloodingthat,becauseofrainsthroughoutthestateofCalifornia,causedmorethan$2billionindamages,

D. suchastheheavyfloodingthatledtorainsthroughoutthestateofCaliforniacausingmorethan$2billionindamages,

E. suchastheheavyrainsthatledtofloodingthroughoutthestateofCalifornia,causingmorethan$2billionindamages,

Grammaticalconstruction:Logicalpredication

Thissentenceintroducestheclaimthatglobalwarmingisconsideredtobethecauseofextremeweatherchangesandthenillustratesthesechangeswithtwoexamplesintroducedbythephrasesuchas.Thecorrectcausalsequenceofeventsinthefirstexampleisheavyrain,whichcausedsignificantdamageandflooding.Therelativepronounwhich,referringtochanges,islackingaverbtocompletetherelativeclause.

A. Therelativepronoun,which,iswithoutaverb.Thephrasewhich,liketheheavyrainsincorrectlysuggeststhattheextremeweatherissomethingdifferentfromtheheavyrainsandtheheatwave,andthateachofthesethreephenomenaseparatelycauseddamageanddestruction.

B. Asin(A),therelativepronounhasnoverbtocompletethephrase,andthesequenceofeventsinthefirstexamplepositionscostlydestructionandfloodingastwoseparateorunrelatedresultsoftherain.

C. Thecausalsequenceinthefirstexampleisconfusing,suggesting,somewhatimplausibly,thatheavyfloodingoccurredonitsownbutcauseddamageonlybecauseoftherain.

D. Thesequentiallogicofthefirstexampleisconfused—indicating,implausibly,thatfloodingcausedheavyrainandthattherain,butnottheflooding,causedmorethan$2billionindamages.

E. Correct.Thisversionofthesentencecorrectlyusesthephrasesuchastointroducethetwoexamplesofextremeweatherchanges,anditcorrectlyidentifiesthesequenceofeventsinthefirst

example.


194. ThevoluminouspersonalpapersofThomasAlvaEdisonrevealthathisinventionstypicallysprangtolifenotinaflashofinspirationbutevolvedslowlyfrompreviousworks.

A. sprangtolifenotinaflashofinspirationbutevolvedslowly

B. sprangtolifenotinaflashofinspirationbutwereslowlyevolved

C. didnotspringtolifeinaflashofinspirationbutevolvedslowly

D. didnotspringtolifeinaflashofinspirationbuthadslowlyevolved

E. didnotspringtolifeinaflashofinspirationbuttheywereslowlyevolved

Parallelism;Idiom

Theconstructionnot...butshowsacontrast.Thewordsfollowingnotmustbeparallelinconstructiontothewordsfollowingbut.Intheoriginalsentencenotisfollowedbyaprepositionalphrase(inaflashofinspiration),whilebutisfollowedbyaverb(evolved).Tomakethetwocontrastingelementsparallel,notshouldbefollowedbyaverbratherthanaphrase.

A. Theconstructionfollowingnotisnotparalleltotheconstructionfollowingbut.

B. Theconstructionfollowingnotisnotparalleltotheconstructionfollowingbut.

C. Correct.Inthissentence,notisfollowedbytheverbspringjustasbutisfollowedbytheverbevolved.

D. Had...evolvedintroducesanincorrectverbtense.

E. Theconstructionfollowingnotisnotparalleltotheconstructionfollowingbut.


195. Hundredsofspeciesoffishgenerateanddischargeelectriccurrents,inburstsorassteadyelectricfieldsaroundtheirbodies,usingtheirpowereithertofindandattackprey,todefendthemselves,oralsoforcommunicatingandnavigating.

A. eithertofindandattackprey,todefendthemselves,oralsofor

communicatingandnavigating

B. eitherforfindingandattackingprey,defendthemselves,orforcommunicationandnavigation

C. tofindandattackprey,fordefense,orcommunicationandnavigation

D. forfindingandattackingprey,todefendthemselves,oralsoforcommunicationandnavigation

E. tofindandattackprey,todefendthemselves,ortocommunicateandnavigate

Idiom;Verbform

Thesentenceexplainsthatfishdischargeelectriccurrentsforseveralpurposes,whicharemostefficientlyandeffectivelydescribedinaparallelstructure:tofindandattack,todefend,ortocommunicateandnavigate.Theuseofeitherisinappropriateinthissentencebecausemorethantwousesofelectriccurrentsarelisted;idiomaticusagerequireseithertobefollowedbyortoidentifyalternatives,notbyalso.

A. Eitherinappropriatelyintroducesalistofmorethantwoalternatives,anditshouldnotbefollowedbyoralso;parallelismrequiresthatforcommunicatingandnavigatingbechangedtotocommunicateandnavigate.

B. Defendisnotparallelwiththelistofgerunds,leavingthereadertowonderhowtomakesenseofdefendthemselves.

C. Thelackofparallelismobscurestherelationshipsamongtheitemsintheseries;itisespeciallyconfusingtolistaninfinitivephrase(tofind...),anobjectofapreposition(fordefense),andnounswithnogrammaticalconnectiontotheverbphrase(communicationandnavigation).

D. Thisanswerchoicealsoviolatesparallelismbymixinganinfinitivewithobjectsoftheprepositionfor.Oralsoisanunidiomatic,contradictoryexpression.

E. Correct.Thedifferentwaysinwhichthevariousspeciesoffishusetheirelectricpowerarecorrectlyexpressedinaseriesofparallelinfinitives.


196. NativetoSouthAmerica,whenpeanutswereintroducedtoAfricaby

PortugueseexplorersearlyinthesixteenthcenturytheywerequicklyadoptedintoAfrica’sagriculture,probablybecauseofbeingsosimilartotheBambarragroundnut,apopularindigenousplant.

A. whenpeanutswereintroducedtoAfricabyPortugueseexplorersearlyinthesixteenthcenturytheywerequicklyadoptedintoAfrica’sagriculture,probablybecauseofbeing

B. peanutshavingbeenintroducedtoAfricabyPortugueseexplorersearlyinthesixteenthcenturyandquicklyadoptedintoAfrica’sagriculture,probablybecauseofbeing

C. peanutswereintroducedtoAfricabyPortugueseexplorersearlyinthesixteenthcenturyandwerequicklyadoptedintoAfrica’sagriculture,probablybecausetheywere

D. peanuts,introducedtoAfricabyPortugueseexplorersearlyinthesixteenthcenturyandquicklyadoptedintoAfrica’sagriculture,probablybecausetheywere

E. peanuts,introducedtoAfricabyPortugueseexplorersearlyinthesixteenthcenturyandhavingbeenquicklyadoptedintoAfrica’sagriculture,probablybecausetheywere

Grammaticalconstruction;Logicalpredication

TheopeningadjectivalphraseNativetoSouthAmericamustbefollowedimmediatelybythenounitmodifies:peanuts.Thesentencemakestwomainpointsaboutpeanuts—theywereintroducedtoAfricaandtheywerequicklyadoptedthere.Themostefficientwaytomakethesepointsistomakepeanutsthesubjectoftwomainverbs:wereintroducedandwere...adopted.

A. Whenincorrectlyintervenesbetweentheopeningadjectivalphraseandthenounitmodifies,anditisalsounnecessarybecauseearlyinthesixteenthcenturyexplainswhen.Becauseofbeingiswordyandindirect.

B. Thisversionofthesentencehasnomainverb,sincehavingbeenintroducedandquicklyadoptedbothintroduceadjectivalphrases.

C. Correct.Thesentenceisproperlystructuredandgrammaticallycorrect.

D. Thisversionofthesentencehasnomainverbbecauseintroducedandadoptedbothfunctionasadjectives.

E. Thisversionofthesentencehasnomainverbbecauseintroducedandhavingbeen...adoptedfunctionasadjectives.


197. Itstoodtwelvefeettall,weighedninethousandpounds,andwieldedseven-inchclaws,andMegatheriumamericanum,agiantgroundsloth,mayhavebeenthelargesthuntingmammalevertowalktheEarth.

A. Itstoodtwelvefeettall,weighedninethousandpounds,andwieldedseven-inchclaws,andMegatheriumamericanum,agiantgroundsloth,

B. Itstoodtwelvefeettall,weighingninethousandpounds,andwieldingseven-inchclaws,Megatheriumamericanumwasagiantgroundslothand

C. ThegiantgroundslothMegatheriumamericanum,havingstoodtwelvefeettall,weighingninethousandpounds,andwieldingseven-inchclaws,it

D. Standingtwelvefeettall,weighingninethousandpounds,andwieldingseven-inchclaws,Megatheriumamericanum,agiantgroundsloth,

E. Standingtwelvefeettall,weighingninethousandpounds,itwieldedseven-inchclaws,andthegiantgroundslothMegatheriumamericanum

Grammaticalconstruction;Parallelism

ThepointofthesentenceistodescribeseveralfeaturesofMegatheriumamericanum,toidentifythiscreatureasagiantgroundsloth,andtospeculateaboutitsstatusasthelargesthuntingmammalinEarth’shistory.Megatheriumamericanumisthereforethesolesubjectofthesentence.Whenitsfeaturesarepresentedasparalleladjectivephrasesanditscommonidentificationispresentedasanappositive,asinglemainverbmayhavebeenisallthatisrequiredtocompletethesentence.Whentheconjunctionandconstructsacompoundsentence,thesubjectsitandgroundslothorMegatheriumamericanumappeartonameseparateentities.

A. ThecompoundsentencestructuresuggeststhatitandMegatheriumamericanumaretwoseparateentities,makingitunclearwhat,ifanything,thepronounrefersto.

B. Asin(A),itandMegatheriumamericanumappeartoname

differententities.Thisarun-onsentence;thecommaafterclawsisnotsufficienttojointhetwomainclausesinasinglesentence.Theseriesdescribingtheslothisalsononparallel.

C. Thepresent-perfecttenseofthefirstparticipialphraseintheseries(havingstood)isnotparallelwiththe(timeless)presenttenseoftheothertwoparticipials.Theintroductionofthemainsubjectitleavesgroundslothwithoutaverb.

D. Correct.Theseriesofpresent-tenseparticipialphrasesdescribesthemainsubject,Megatheriumamericanum,whichisclarifiedbythecommonnameexpressedasanappositive.

E. Theidentityofitisambiguous,andthesecondsubjectofthecompoundsentencegiantgroundslothappearstonamesomethingotherthanit.Thismakesthesentenceungrammatical.


198. Delightedbythereportedearningsforthefirstquarterofthefiscalyear,itwasdecidedbythecompanymanagertogiveherstaffaraise.

A. itwasdecidedbythecompanymanagertogiveherstaffaraise

B. thedecisionofthecompanymanagerwastogiveherstaffaraise

C. thecompanymanagerdecidedtogiveherstaffaraise

D. thestaffwasgivenaraisebythecompanymanager

E. araisewasgiventothestaffbythecompanymanager

Logicalpredication;Verbform

Whowasdelighted?Thecompanymanagerwasdelighted.Thelongmodifyingphrasethatintroducesthesentencedescribesaperson,notit,sothedelightedpersonmustbethesubjectofthesentence.Correctingthemodificationerroralsochangestheconstructionfromthewordypassivevoice,itwasdecidedbyx,tothemoreconciseactivevoice,xdecided;theactivevoiceisgenerallypreferred.

A. Themodifierillogicallydescribesit,notthecompanymanager.Thepassivevoiceiswordy.

B. Themodifierillogicallydescribesthedecision.Theconstructiondecisionofthe...was...iswordy.

C. Correct.Themodifyingphrasecorrectlymodifiesthecompanymanager;usingtheactivevoicecreatesamoreconcisesentence.

D. Themodifierdescribesthestaffratherthanthecompanymanager;thepassivevoiceiswordy.

E. Themodifierillogicallydescribesaraise;thepassivevoiceiswordy.


199. CoffeepricesrosesharplyMonday,postingtheirbiggestone-daygaininalmostthreeyears,afteraweekendcoldsnapinBrazilraisedconcernthattherecouldbedamagetotheworld’slargestcropwhenatatimewithsuppliesalreadytight.

A. thattherecouldbedamagetotheworld’slargestcropwhenatatimewithsupplies

B. thattheworld’slargestcropcouldbedamagedatatimesuchaswhensuppliesare

C. thattheworld’slargestcropcouldbedamagedatatimewhensuppliesare

D. oftheworld’slargestcroppossiblybeingdamagedatatimewithsupplies

E. ofpossiblydamagingtheworld’slargestcropatatimethatsupplieswere

Idiom;Rhetoricalconstruction

Thissentencedescribesconcernaboutapotentialproblem,whichisappropriatelyexpressedinsubjunctivemood(couldbedamaged).Itusestheidiomatatimewhen...toexplainthecurrentconditionsthatmakethepossiblefutureeventareasonforconcern.Thepseudo-subjectthereintroducesunnecessarywordiness.Inthissentence,apassiveverbemphasizesthespeculativenatureofthedamagecausedbythecoldsnapinBrazil.

A. Thephrasewhenatatimewithisconfusinglyredundantandincorrectlyusestheidiomatatimewhen;thepseudo-subjectthereintroducesunnecessarywordiness.

B. Thephraseatatimesuchaswheniswordyandanincorrectidiom.

C. Correct.Thissentencecorrectlyusesthesubjunctivemoodtoexpressapotentialproblem,andtheidiomatatimewheniscorrect.

D. Theprepositionofafterconcernisanincorrectconstruction,asisatatimewith.

E. Theagencybehinddamagingisambiguous;theverbhasnoclearsubject.Thephraseatatimethatisanincorrectidiom.AsinD,theprepositionofafterconcernisincorrect.


200. Despiteagrowingpopulation,in1998theUnitedStatesused38billionfewergallonsofwateradaywhencomparingittotheperiodofall-timehighestconsumptionalmost20yearsearlier.

A. daywhencomparingittotheperiodofall-timehighestconsumptionalmost20yearsearlier

B. daythanitdidduringtheperiodofall-timehighestconsumptionalmost20yearsearlier

C. daythanwereusedalmost20yearsearlier,whichhadbeentheall-timehighconsumption

D. day,comparedtoalmost20yearsearlier,thathavingbeentheall-timehighconsumption

E. day,whichisincomparisontotheperiodofall-timehighestconsumptionalmost20yearsearlier

Rhetoricalconstruction;Logicalpredication

Whenmakingadirectcomparison(inthiscase,withfewer),thestandardwaytoexpresstheobjectofcomparisoniswiththan.Here,thesentenceusesfewer...whencomparingitto,whichnotonlyisunidiomatic,butalsocreatesanillogicalpredication:UnitedStatesistheonlypossiblesubjectfortheverbcomparing(surelythesentencedoesn’tmeantosaytheUnitedStatesused38billionfewergallonsatthetimeitwasmakingsomecomparison!).Also,whatistheantecedentofithere?Grammatically,thereisnoclearcandidate.

A. Insteadofusingfewer...than,thisversionusestheunidiomaticfewer...whencomparingitto,whichalsointroducesalogicalpredicationproblem.

B. Correct.Fewerthaniscorrect,andthisversionofthesentencehasnologicalpredicationproblems.

C. Thishasalogicalpredicationproblem:becausetherelativeclausebeginningwithwhichimmediatelyfollowsalmost20yearsearlier,itseemsthatthetimeperiodisbeingdescribedashavingbeentheall-timehighconsumption.

D. Fewerthanispreferabletofewer...comparedto;also,thereisalogicalpredicationproblem:becausethephrasebeginningwiththatimmediatelyfollowsalmost20yearsearlier,itseemsthatthetimeperiodisbeingdescribedashavingbeentheall-timehighconsumption.

E. Thisisawkwardlyandconfusinglyworded.RatherthancomparingtheUnitedStates’waterusagein1998toitswaterusagenearly20yearsearlier,thisappearsillogicallytocomparetheUnitedStates’waterusagein1998toaperiodoftime,namelytheperiodofall-timehighestconsumptionalmost20yearsearlier.


201. WilliamH.Johnson’sartisticdebttoScandinaviaisevidentinpaintingsthatrangefromsensitiveportraitsofcitizensinhiswife’sDanishhome,Kerteminde,andawe-inspiringviewsoffjordsandmountainpeaksinthewesternandnorthernregionsofNorway.

A. and

B. to

C. andto

D. with

E. inadditionto

Idiom;Logicalpredication

Thecorrectidiomisrangefromxtoy.Inthissentence,thecorrectidiomispaintingsthatrangefromsensitiveportraits...toawe-inspiringviews.

A. Anddoesnotcompletetheidiomaticexpressioncorrectly.

B. Correct.Inthissentence,tocorrectlycompletestheidiomaticconstructionrangefromxtoy.

C. Andtodoesnotcompletetheidiomaticexpressioncorrectly.

D. Withdoesnotcompletetheidiomaticexpressioncorrectly.

E. Inadditiontodoesnotcompletetheidiomaticexpressioncorrectly.


202. Growingcompetitivepressuresmaybeencouragingauditorstobendtherulesinfavorofclients;auditorsmay,forinstance,allowaquestionable

loantoremainonthebooksinordertomaintainabank’sprofitsonpaper.

A. clients;auditorsmay,forinstance,allow

B. clients,asaninstance,toallow

C. clients,liketoallow

D. clients,suchastobeallowing

E. clients;whichmight,asaninstance,betheallowingof

Grammaticalconstruction;Rhetoricalconstruction

Thissentencecorrectlyjoinstwoindependentclauseswithasemicolon.Thefirstclausemakesageneralization;thesecondclausegivesaparticularexamplethatsupportsthegeneralization.

A. Correct.Thissentencecorrectlyhastwoindependentclauseswithlinkedideasjoinedwithasemicolon.

B. Intryingtocondensetwomainclausesintoone,thisconstructionproducesanungrammaticalsequenceofwordswithnoclearmeaning.

C. Theprepositionlikeshouldnotbeusedtointroducetheinfinitivephrasetoallow...;thecomparativeprepositionlikeisproperlyusedtodrawacomparisonbetweentwonouns.

D. Suchastobeallowingisnotacorrectidiomaticexpression.

E. Thesemicolonisfollowedbyawordy,incorrectconstructionratherthananindependentclause.


203. AMarch2000CensusBureausurveyshowedthatMexicoaccountedformorethanaquarterofallforeign-bornresidentsoftheUnitedStates,thelargestshareforanycountrytocontributesince1890,whenabout30percentofthecountry’sforeign-bornpopulationwasfromGermany.

A. thelargestshareforanycountrytocontribute

B. thelargestsharethatanycountryhascontributed

C. whichmakesitthelargestshareforanycountrytocontribute

D. havingthelargestsharetobecontributedbyanycountry

E. havingthelargestsharetohavebeencontributedbyanycountry

Logicalpredication;Rhetoricalconstruction

Thissentenceclaimsthatthe2000CensusshowedthatatthetimeMexico’scontributiontotheforeign-bornpopulationofUnitedStatesresidentsexceededthatofanyothercountrysince1890.Itmakesthecomparisoninanappositivethatmodifiesmorethanaquarterofallforeign-bornresidentsoftheUnitedStates.

A. Thephraseforanycountrytocontributemakesthesentencewordyandindirect.

B. Correct.Thisformoftheappositiveisthemostefficientwaytoexpressthecomparison.Dependingonwhenthesentencewaswrittenandwhatthewriterintendedtoexpress,theverbformcouldbeeitherhadcontributedorhascontributed.Theuseofhascontributedimpliesthat,fromtheperspectiveofthesentence,thecomparisonbetweenGerman-bornU.S.residentsandthosefromothercountriesstillholdstrue.

C. Theantecedentsoftherelativepronounwhichandthepronounitareambiguous.Alongwiththeprepositionalphrase,thepronounscontributewordinessandindirection.

D. Thisconstructionisawkward,wordy,andindirect,andtheuseofthepresenttenseoftheinfinitiveisinappropriate.

E. Thisconstructionisawkward,wordy,andindirect.


204. ThethemesthatRitaDoveexploresinherpoetryisuniversal,encompassingmuchofthehumanconditionwhileoccasionallyshedealswithracialissues.

A. isuniversal,encompassingmuchofthehumanconditionwhileoccasionallyshedeals

B. isuniversal,encompassingmuchofthehumancondition,alsooccasionallyitdeals

C. areuniversal,theyencompassmuchofthehumanconditionandoccasionallydeals

D. areuniversal,encompassingmuchofthehumanconditionwhileoccasionallydealing

E. areuniversal,theyencompassmuchofthehumancondition,alsooccasionallyaredealing

Agreement;Grammaticalconstruction

Thepluralsubjectofthesentence,themes,requiresthepluralverbareinplaceofis.BecausethethemesofDove’spoetryencompassthehumanconditionanddealwithracialissues,thereisnoneedtomakethisacompoundsentencebyintroducinganewgrammaticalsubject,she,inafinalclause.Asinglesubjectwithtwoparallelverbsistheclearestandmostefficientformforthissentence.

A. Thepluralsubjectdisagreeswiththesingularverb.Thesentenceshouldretainthefocusonthesinglesubjectthemesratherthanintroduceanewsubjectandclauseattheend.

B. Thepluralsubjectdisagreeswiththesingularverb.Becausealsooccasionallyitdealswith...introducesanewmainclause,thecommabetweenconditionandalsoisaninsufficientconnector(creatingacommasplice).

C. Thecommabetweenuniversalandtheyisaninsufficientconnector,creatingacommasplice;thesingularverbdealsdoesnotagreewiththepluralsubjectthey.

D. Correct.Thepluralverbareagreeswiththepluralsubject.Thesentenceiseffectivelywordedandgrammaticallycorrect.

E. Thecommabetweenuniversalandtheycreatesacommasplice.Thereisnosubjectfortheverbaredealing.


205. TravelerstoMarswouldhavetoendurelowlevelsofgravityforlongperiodsoftime,avoidlargedosesofradiation,contendwiththechemicallyreactiveMartiansoil,andperhapsevenhavingtowardoffcontaminationbyMartianlife-forms.

A. contendwiththechemicallyreactiveMartiansoil,andperhapsevenhavingtoward

B. contendwiththechemicallyreactiveMartiansoil,andperhapsevenwarding

C. contendwiththechemicallyreactiveMartiansoil,andperhapsevenward

D. contendingwiththechemicallyreactiveMartiansoil,andperhapseventoward

E. contendingwiththechemicallyreactiveMartiansoil,andperhaps

evenwarding

Parallelism;Grammaticalconstruction

ThissentenceprovidesalistofthreeconditionsMarstravelerswouldcertainlyhavetocontendwith,alongwithoneadditionalthingtheymighthavetodo—wardoffcontaminationbyMartianlife-forms.Theitemsinthelistaremostclearlyandeffectivelystructuredinparallel—asphrasesbeginningwithinfinitiveverbforms—toendure,(to)avoid,(to)contend,(to)wardoff.Becausethesentenceintroducesalltheseactionsassomethingtravelerswouldhavetodo,repeatingthehav[ing]toconstructioninthefinalitemofthelistisredundant.

A. Thephrasehavingtoisnotparallelwiththeotheritemsinthelist,anditunnecessarilyrepeatsthesenseoftheintroductoryphrase,whichidentifiesallitemsinthelistasthingstravelerswouldhavetodo.

B. Theverbformwardingisnotparallelwiththeotheritemsinthelist.

C. Correct.Thesentenceusespropergrammarandparallelconstruction.

D. Theparticipialformcontendingviolatestheparallelstructureofthelistofinfinitivephrases.ThereaderismisledintothinkingthatcontendingwithchemicallyreactiveMartiansoildescribeswhattravelerswouldhavetodotoavoidradiationdoses.

E. Theparticipialphrasescontendingwithandwardingoffviolatetheparallelstructureestablishedbythelistofinfinitivephrases.


206. IguanashavebeenanimportantfoodsourceinLatinAmericasinceprehistorictimes,anditisstillprizedasagameanimalbythecampesinos,whotypicallycookthemeatinaheavilyspicedstew.

A. itisstillprizedasagameanimal

B. itisstillprizedasgameanimals

C. theyarestillprizedasgameanimals

D. theyarestillprizedasbeingagameanimal

E. beingstillprizedasagameanimal

Agreement;Grammaticalconstruction

Thepronounsandnounsthatrefertothepluralnouniguanasmustbeplural,asshouldtheverbfollowingthe(corrected)pronouninthesecondclause.Thus,thesentenceshouldread:Iguanas...theyarestillprizedasgameanimals.

A. Itisandagameanimaldonotagreewithiguanas.

B. Itisdoesnotagreewithiguanasorgameanimals.

C. Correct.Inthissentence,theyareandgameanimalsproperlyagreewithiguanas.

D. Agameanimaldoesnotagreewithiguanas;beingisunnecessaryandawkward.

E. Agameanimaldoesnotagreewithiguanas.Thesecondindependentclauserequiresasubjectandaverb,nottheparticiplebeing.


207. ThepersonalincometaxdidnotbecomepermanentintheUnitedStatesuntiltheFirstWorldWar;beforethattimethefederalgovernmentwasdependentontariffstobetheirmainsourceofrevenue.

A. thefederalgovernmentwasdependentontariffstobetheirmainsourceofrevenue

B. thefederalgovernmenthaddependedontariffsasitsmainsourceofrevenue

C. tariffswerewhatthefederalgovernmentwasdependentontobeitsmainsourceofrevenue

D. themainsourceofrevenueforthefederalgovernmentwasdependentontariffs

E. fortheirmainsourceofrevenue,tariffsweredependedonbythefederalgovernment

Agreement;Logicalpredication

TheFirstWorldWarisdesignatedaspasttenseintheopeningclauseofthissentence.Therelationshipbetweenthattimeandwhateverhappenedearliercanbemostclearlyindicatedbyusingthepast-perfecttensefortheearlierevents.[T]hefederalgovernmentisasingularsubjectofthesecondclause,soasingularpronoun,itsratherthantheir,mustrefertoit.Thephrasewasdependentoncausesunnecessary

wordiness,asdoesthepassiveconstructioninE.

A. Thepluralpronountheirinappropriatelyreferstothesingularnoungovernment.

B. Correct.Thepronounitsagreeswiththesingularsubjectgovernment,andthepastperfect,activeverbhaddependedrefersclearlytogovernmentactivitypriortotheFirstWorldWar.

C. Thisversionofthesentenceiswordybecauseoftheinvertedwordorderthatmakesthesubjectofthesecondclauseanobjectoftheprepositionon.

D. Thisversionofthesentencenonsensicallymakessourcethesubjectoftheverbwas[dependenton].

E. Thepluralpossessivepronountheirdoesnotagreewithitssingularantecedentgovernment.Infact,becauseoftheplacementoftariffsimmediatelyaftertheopeningprepositionalphrase,theirseemsatfirsttorefertotariffs,whichisillogical.Thepassiveverbformweredependedoniswordyandindirect.


208. Thegyrfalcon,anArcticbirdofprey,hassurvivedaclosebrushwithextinction;itsnumbersarenowfivetimesgreaterthanwhentheuseofDDTwassharplyrestrictedintheearly1970’s.

A. extinction;itsnumbersarenowfivetimesgreaterthan

B. extinction;itsnumbersarenowfivetimesmorethan

C. extinction,theirnumbersnowfivefoldwhattheywere

D. extinction,nowwithfivefoldthenumberstheyhad

E. extinction,nowwithnumbersfivetimesgreaterthan

Agreement;Diction;Logicalpredication

Theoriginalsentencecontainsnoerrors.Thesemicoloncorrectlyconnectsthecloselyrelatedideasinthetwoindependentclauses.Thegyrfalconistheantecedentforitsinthesecondphrase.

A. Correct.Theoriginalsentencecorrectlyusesasingularpronoun,its,torefertothesingularantecedentgyrfalcon,anditproperlyusestheconstructionitsnumbersare...greaterthan.

B. Theuseofmoreinsteadofgreaterinappropriatelyimpliesthattherearenowmorenumbers,ratherthanmoregyrfalcons.

C. Thepronountheirisplural,andthusincorrect,sincetheantecedentgyrfalconissingular.Fivefoldwhattheywereisawkwardandnonstandardandimpliesthattherearenowmorenumbers,ratherthanmoregyrfalcons.

D. Thepronountheyisplural,andthusincorrect,sincetheantecedentgyrfalconissingular.Thecommaintroducesaconfusingphraseseemingtomodifyextinction.Fivefoldthenumberstheyhadisawkwardandnonstandardandimpliesthattherearenowmorenumbers,ratherthanmoregyrfalcons.

E. Thecommaintroducesaconfusingphraseseemingtomodifyextinction.


209. Exceptforaconcertperformancethatthecomposerhimselfstagedin1911,ScottJoplin’sragtimeoperaTreemonishawasnotproduceduntil1972,sixty-oneyearsafteritscompletion.

A. Exceptforaconcertperformancethatthecomposerhimselfstaged

B. Exceptforaconcertperformancewiththecomposerhimselfstagingit

C. Besidesaconcertperformancebeingstagedbythecomposerhimself

D. Exceptingaconcertperformancethatthecomposerhimselfstaged

E. Withtheexceptionofaconcertperformancewiththestagingdonebythecomposerhimself


Thissentencerequiresattentiontoidiomandtoconciseness.Exceptforiscorrectlyfollowedbyanoun,concertperformance;thatthecomposerhimselfstagedisaclausethatclearlyandconciselydescribestheperformance.

A. Correct.Inthissentence,thecorrectidiomisusedinaclearandconciseexpression.

B. With...itisanawkwardandwordyconstruction,andstagingsuggestsongoingactionratherthanactioncompletedin1911.

C. Beingstagedsuggestsongoingratherthancompletedaction.

D. Exceptingusuallyappearsinnegativeconstructions;itisnotthe

correctidiominthissentence.

E. Thissentenceisawkwardandwordy.


210. Nearlyunrivaledintheirbiologicaldiversity,coralreefsprovideahostofbenefitsthatincludesthesupplyofproteinforpeople,protectingshorelines,andtheycontainbiochemicalsourcesfornewlife-savingmedicines.

A. coralreefsprovideahostofbenefitsthatincludesthesupplyofproteinforpeople,protectingshorelines,

B. coralreefsprovideahostofbenefits:theysupplypeoplewithprotein,theyprotecttheshorelines,

C. coralreefsprovideahostofbenefitsthatincludesupplyingproteinforpeople,aswellasshorelineprotection,

D. acoralreefprovidesahostofbenefits;theysupplyproteinforpeople,theprotectingofshorelines,

E. acoralreefprovidesahostofbenefits,includingproteinforpeople,protectingshorelines,

Parallelism;Agreement

Whenlistingseveralitems(here,benefitsofcoralreefs),theyshouldbeexpressedinaparallelway,suchasbyusingallnounphrasesorallfullclauses.Also,pronounsubjectsinoneclausethatrefertothesubjectofaprecedingclauseshouldagreeinnumber.

A. Thethreeitemsafterincludesarenotparallel(thesupply;protectingshorelines;theycontain).

B. Correct.Thethreeitemsafterbenefitsareparallel(theysupply;theyprotect;theycontain).Thesubjectofthenextclause(they)iscorrectlypluralgiventhatitsantecedentiscoralreefs.

C. Thethreeitemsafterincludearenotparallel:supplying,shorelineprotection,theycontain.

D. Thethreeitemsafterbenefitsarenotparallel(theysupply;theprotectingof;theycontain),andinthenextclausetheyistheincorrectpronoungiventhattheantecedenthereisthesingularacoralreef.

E. Thethreeitemsafterbenefitsarenotparallel(protein;protecting;

theycontain),andinthenextclausetheyistheincorrectpronoungiventhattheantecedenthereisthesingularacoralreef.


211. Literacyopenedupentirerealmsofverifiableknowledgetoordinarymenandwomenhavingbeenpreviouslyconsideredincapableofdiscerningtruthforthemselves.

A. havingbeenpreviouslyconsideredincapableofdiscerningtruthforthemselves

B. whohadpreviouslybeenconsideredincapableofdiscerningtruthforthemselves

C. previouslyconsideredincapableofdiscerningtruthforhimselforherself

D. ofwhomithadpreviouslybeenconsideredtheywereincapableofdiscerningtruthforthemselves

E. whohadpreviouslybeenconsideredincapableofdiscerningtruthforhimselforherself

Rhetoricalconstruction;Agreement

Thephrasebeginningwithhavingbeenmodifiesthenounphraseordinarymenandwomen.Incaseslikethis,itisbesttouseafullrelativeclause,startingwiththatorarelativepronounsuchaswhichorwho,insteadofaclausewiththe-ingformoftheverb.Also,themselvesisthecorrectformofareflexivepronountoreferbacktothepluralnounphraseordinarymenandwomen.

A. Aphrasestartingwiththe-ingverbform,insteadofwiththatorwho,isawkwardinthiscontext.

B. Correct.Arelativeclausecorrectlybeginningwithwhoisused,andthemselvesisthecorrectformforthereflexivepronoun.

C. Himselforherselfisnotthecorrectformforthepluralreflexivepronoun.

D. Thoughtherelativeandreflexivepronounsaregrammaticallycorrect,therelativeclause(theclausethatstartswithofwhom)isunnecessarilylongandcomplex.

E. Himselforherselfisnotthecorrectformforthepluralreflexivepronoun.


212. Afterweeksofuncertaintyaboutthecoursethecountrywouldpursuetostabilizeitstroubledeconomy,officialsreachedarevisedagreementwiththeInternationalMonetaryFund,pledgingtheenforcementofsubstantiallygreaterbudgetdisciplineasthatwhichwasoriginallypromisedandtokeepinflationbelowtenpercent.

A. theenforcementofsubstantiallygreaterbudgetdisciplineasthatwhichwasoriginallypromisedandtokeepinflationbelowtenpercent

B. theenforcementofsubstantiallygreaterbudgetdisciplinethanoriginallypromisedandkeepinginflationbelowthetenpercentfigure

C. toenforcesubstantiallygreaterbudgetdisciplinethanoriginallypromisedandtokeepinflationbelowtenpercent

D. toenforcesubstantiallygreaterbudgetdisciplinethanthatwhichwasoriginallypromisedandkeepinginflationlessthanthetenpercentfigure

E. toenforcesubstantiallygreaterbudgetdisciplineasthatwhichwasoriginallypromisedandtokeepinflationlessthantenpercent

Logicalpredication;Parallelism

Thissentenceexplainsthetwo-partstrategyanunnamedcountryagreedtopursueinordertostabilizeitseconomy.Nominalization(theenforcementof...)andanincorrectformofcomparison(asthatwhichwas...)intheaccountofthefirststrategycausesexcessivewordinessandindirectionandmakestheaccountofthefirststrategynonparallelwiththeaccountofthesecondstrategy.Toreducewordinessandachieveparallelism,bothstrategiespledgedbythecountryshouldbepresentedininfinitiveform(toenforce...andtokeep...).Thesentencealsoneedstoemploythecorrectcomparativeformgreaterdisciplinethan....

A. Thetwostrategies(theenforcementofandkeeping)arenotpresentedinparallelform;thenominalizedpresentationofthefirststrategyiswordyandindirect,andthecomparativeformisincorrect.

B. Thetwostrategies(theenforcementofandkeeping)arenotpresentedinparallelform.

C. Correct.Thecomparativeformiscorrect,andthetwostrategiesarepresentedinparallelform,asinfinitivescompletingtheverbpledged.

D. Thetwostrategiesarenotpresentedinparallelform,andthecomparativeformisunnecessarilywordy.

E. Thecomparativeformisincorrectandwordy.


213. LikeRousseau,Tolstoirebelledagainsttheunnaturalcomplexityofhumanrelationsinmodernsociety.

A. LikeRousseau,Tolstoirebelled

B. LikeRousseau,Tolstoi’srebellionwas

C. AsRousseau,Tolstoirebelled

D. AsdidRousseau,Tolstoi’srebellionwas

E. Tolstoi’srebellion,asRousseau’s,was


Theprepositionlikecorrectlycomparestwoequalnouns,inthiscase,twowriters.Thecomparisonmustbebetweentwoequalelements;itcannotbebetweenapersonandanevent.Theoriginalsentenceisdirect,clear,andconcise.

A. Correct.Thetwowritersarecomparedclearlyandsuccinctlyinthissentence.

B. Tolstoi’srebellionratherthanTolstoiiscomparedtoRousseau.

C. Whenusedasaconjunction,asshouldintroduceclauses,notphrasesornouns.

D. Tolstoi’srebellioniscomparedtoRousseau.Tobecorrect,thisconstructionwouldhavetobeasdidRousseau,Tolstoirebelled,butthisisawordyalternative.

E. Tolstoi’srebellion...wasagainstisawkwardandwordy;Tolstoirebelledagainstismoredirect.


214. Japaneseresearchersareproducingaseriesofrobotsthatcanidentifyhumanfacialexpressions,towhichtheywillthenrespond;theirgoalisprimarilycreatingarobotthatwillempathizewithus.

A. expressions,towhichtheywillthenrespond;theirgoalisprimarilycreating

B. expressions,thenrespondingtothem;primarilytocreate

C. expressionsandthenrespondtothem;theresearchers’primarygoalistocreate

D. expressionsaswellasgivingaresponsetothem;theirprimarygoaliscreationof

E. expressionsandrespondingtothem;primarily,theresearchers’goaliscreating


Thissentenceusestwocompleteclausestopresenttwomaintopics—thecapabilitiesofrobotsdesignedbyJapaneseresearchersandthegoalthatmotivatesthisdesign.Thefirstclausemosteffectivelyusesasuccessionofparallelverbstodescribewhattherobotscando:identifyexpressionsandrespondtothem.Beginningthesecondclausewiththepossessivepronountheircreatesambiguity,becauseitisnotclearwhetherthepronounreferstotherobotsortheresearchers.

A. Thepronounstheyandtheirinthisversionofthesentenceareambiguous,possiblyreferringtobothresearchersandrobots.

B. Thephrasethenrespondingtothemshouldbeconvertedtoamainverbtoparallelidentifyandtomakeclearthattherobotscandothesetwothings.Thesemicolonshouldbefollowedbyacompleteclause,butinthisversionofthesentenceitisfollowedbyanadverbialphrase.

C. Correct.Thewordingisconciseandunambiguous.

D. Thephraseaswellasgivingaresponsetothemiswordy;thepronountheirisambiguous.

E. Respondingisthewrongverbform—itshouldbeaninfinitivetoparallelidentify.


215. Analystsbelievethatwhereasbaddecisionsbyelectedleaderscancertainlyhurttheeconomy,noadministrationcanreallybesaidtocontrolormanageallofthecomplexandinterrelatedforcesthatdeterminethenation’seconomicstrength.

A. noadministrationcanreallybesaidtocontrol

B. noadministrationcanbesaidthatitreallycontrols

C. thatnoadministrationcanreallybesaidtocontrol

D. thatnoadministrationcanreallybesaidthatitcontrols

E. thatitcannotbesaidthatanyadministrationreallycontrols

Grammaticalconstruction;Verbform

Thepointofthissentenceistoexplainanalysts’commontwo-partbeliefaboutthelimitedpowerofelectedofficialstocontrolanationaleconomy.Itpresentsthisbeliefasthedirectobjectinthemainclause,[a]nalystsbelieve,andintroducesitwiththesubordinatingconjunctionthat,whichgovernsboththepositivedependentclause(decisions...canhurt)introducedbywhereas,andthesubsequentnegativeindependentclause(noadministrationcan...besaidtocontrol...).Theadditionalappearancesofthatinsomeoftheversionsofthesentenceareungrammatical.

A. Correct.Introducedbythesubordinatingconjunctionthat,thecomplexclausesuccinctlycontrastsleaders’powerstohurttheeconomywiththeirinabilitytocontrolalleconomicforces.

B. Theidiomcanbesaidtowouldbeappropriate,butnoadministrationcanbesaidthatitisungrammatical.

C. Therepetitionofthatisungrammatical,sincebothclausesaregovernedbytheinitialappearanceofthatafter[a]nalystsbelieve.

D. Thisversionofthesentencecombinesthemistakesdescribedin(B)withthosedescribedin(C).

E. Therepetitionofthatisungrammatical,sincebothclausesaregovernedbythefirstappearanceofthat.Theappearanceofitmakesthesentenceunnecessarilywordyandconvoluted.


216. Ananalysisoftreebarkallovertheglobeshowsthatchemicalinsecticideshaveoftenspreadthousandsofmilesfromwheretheywereoriginallyused.

A. thatchemicalinsecticideshaveoftenspreadthousandsofmilesfromwheretheywereoriginallyused

B. thatchemicalinsecticideshavespread,oftenthousandsofmiles

fromtheiroriginaluse

C. chemicalinsecticides,havingoftenspreadthousandsofmilesfromwheretheywereusedoriginally

D. chemicalinsecticides,oftenspreadingthousandsofmilesfromwheretheiroriginaluse

E. chemicalinsecticides,oftenspreadingthousandsofmilesfromwheretheywereoriginallyused

Grammaticalconstruction;Diction

Toexpresstheintendedmeaning,showscanbefollowedbyaclausebeginningwiththat.Anotheroptionwouldbetousethespecialclausetypeshow+nounphrase+ingverbform,suchasshowchemicalinsecticidesspreadingmanymiles—butthereshouldbenopauseinthemiddleofaconstructionofthislattertype.Ifthereissuchapause,thenchemicalinsecticidesbecomesthedirectobjectofshow,andthefollowingverb-ingphraseisanawkwardattemptatamodifierofthisobject.Notealsothatifsomethingspreads,itspreadsfromaplaceoranentity;otherwaysofexpressingthisideaintheanswerchoicesareawkwardorillogical.Verbswithoutovertsubjects(suchasspreadinghere)normallyaretobeunderstoodashavingthesamesubjectasthemainclause.

A. Correct.Showiscorrectlyfollowedbyathatclause,andaplaceiscorrectlyidentified(fromwhere)asthesourceofthespread.

B. Showisfollowedbyathatclause,butinsecticidesareillogicallysaidtohavespreadfromause,ratherthanfromaplace.

C. Showcansometimestakeadirectobject(here,chemicalinsecticides).However,theconstructionusedheremakesanalysisthesubjectofhaving.Thusitappearstosay,illogically,thattheanalysisshowsthattheanalysisitselfhasspreadfromwheretheinsecticideswereused.

D. Showcansometimestakeadirectobject(here,chemicalinsecticides).However,theconstructionusedheremakesanalysisthesubjectofspreading.Thus,itappearstosay,illogically,thattheanalysisshowsthattheanalysisitselfoftenspreadsfromwheretheinsecticideswereused.Also,wheretheiroriginaluseisgrammaticallyincorrect(wheretheywereoriginallyusedisacorrectalternative).

E. Showcansometimestakeadirectobject(here,chemicalinsecticides).However,theconstructionusedheremakesanalysisthesubjectofspreading.Thus,itappearstosay,illogically,thattheanalysisshowsthattheanalysisitselfoftenspreadsfromwheretheinsecticideswereused.


217. Consumersmaynotthinkofhouseholdcleaningproductstobehazardoussubstances,butmanyofthemcanbeharmfultohealth,especiallyiftheyareusedimproperly.

A. Consumersmaynotthinkofhouseholdcleaningproductstobe

B. Consumersmaynotthinkofhouseholdcleaningproductsbeing

C. Aconsumermaynotthinkoftheirhouseholdcleaningproductsbeing

D. Aconsumermaynotthinkofhouseholdcleaningproductsas

E. Householdcleaningproductsmaynotbethoughtof,byconsumers,as

Idiom;Agreement

Thesentenceusesanidiomthatiscorrectlyexpressedasthinkofxasy.Theuseoftobeisincorrect.

A. Tobeisincorrectintheidiomtothinkofxasy.

B. Beingisincorrectintheidiomtothinkofxasy.

C. Beingisincorrectintheidiomtothinkofxasy.Theirdoesnotagreewithaconsumer.

D. Correct.Thissentenceusestheidiomcorrectly:thinkofhouseholdproductsas.

E. Thepassive-voiceconstructionisawkwardandwordy.


218. Inrecentyearscattlebreedershaveincreasinglyusedcrossbreeding,inpartthattheirsteersshouldacquirecertaincharacteristicsandpartlybecausecrossbreedingissaidtoprovidehybridvigor.

A. inpartthattheirsteersshouldacquirecertaincharacteristics

B. inpartfortheacquisitionofcertaincharacteristicsintheirsteers

C. partlybecauseoftheirsteersacquiringcertaincharacteristics

D. partlybecausecertaincharacteristicsshouldbeacquiredbytheirsteers

E. partlytoacquirecertaincharacteristicsintheirsteers


Thesentencegivestworeasonsthatcattlebreedersusecrossbreeding;thesereasonsshouldbeintroducedinparallelwayswiththewordpartly.Theinfinitivetoacquireclearlyandconciselyconveysthepurposeofthecrossbreeding.

A. Inpartshouldbepartly.Useoftherelativeclausethattheirsteersshouldacquire...isungrammatical.

B. Inpartshouldbepartly.Useofprepositionalphrasesiswordyandawkward.

C. Becauseofsuggeststhatcrossbreedinghasoccurredbecausethesteershavealreadyacquiredcertaincharacteristics.

D. Passivevoiceshouldbeacquiredbyisawkwardandillogical.

E. Correct.Inthissentence,thewordpartlyisusedtointroducebothreasons;thephrasetoacquirecertaincharacteristicsisclearandconcise.


219. AccordingtotheEconomicDevelopmentCorporationofLosAngelesCounty,ifoneweretocounttheLosAngelesmetropolitanareaasaseparatenation,itwouldhavetheworld’seleventhlargestgrossnationalproduct,thatisbiggerthanthatofAustralia,Mexico,ortheNetherlands.

A. ifoneweretocounttheLosAngelesmetropolitanareaasaseparatenation,itwouldhavetheworld’seleventhlargestgrossnationalproduct,thatis

B. iftheLosAngelesmetropolitanareaiscountedasaseparatenation,ithastheworld’seleventhlargestgrossnationalproduct,thatbeing

C. iftheLosAngelesmetropolitanareawereaseparatenation,itwouldhavetheworld’seleventhlargestgrossnationalproduct,

D. weretheLosAngelesmetropolitanareaaseparatenation,itwillhavetheworld’seleventhlargestgrossnationalproduct,whichis

E. whentheLosAngelesmetropolitanareaiscountedasaseparate

nation,ithastheworld’seleventhlargestgrossnationalproduct,thus

Diction;Verbform

Thepointofthissentenceistoexplaintheimplicationsofacontrary-to-factstateofaffairs(LosAngelesmetropolitanareaasanation).Thesubjunctiveverbformisneeded(were...wouldhave).Toattributethisproposedstateofaffairstothecalculationsofananonymousagent(one)causesunnecessarywordiness.TheimplicationofthehypotheticalsituationisthattheLosAngelesareawouldhavetheeleventh-largestgrossnationalproduct(GNP)intheworld,aGNPthatisfurtherdescribedaslargerthantheGNPofanyofthreenationsnamed.Thisdescriptiveinformationismostefficientlypresentedasaterminaladjectivephrase.

A. Byintroducingthesubjectone,theopeningclausebecomesunnecessarilywordyandindirect.Therelativeclauseattheendofthesentencecausesadditionalwordiness.Thepresentindicativeverbformisinthephrasethatisbiggerthan...isinconsistentwiththeconditionalcontextestablishedearlierinthesentence(were...would).SinceLosAngelesisnotanation,itsnationalproductispurelyhypotheticalandcontrarytofact.

B. Becausetheifclauseintroducesasituationthatiscontrarytofact,theverbsiscountedandhasshouldbesubjunctiveandconditional,respectively(werecountedandwouldhave).Therelativepronounphrasethatbeingisawkward,wordy,andrepetitive.

C. Correct.Thesubjunctivemoodoftheverbsisappropriatetothecontrary-to-factsituationbeingdescribed,andtheterminaladjectivephrasewithoutanintroductoryrelativepronounisanappropriatewayofmakingthecomparisonamongGNPs.

D. Althoughtheopeningsubjunctiveverbisappropriate,itmustbefollowedbyaconditionalverbinthemainclause;therelativeclauseattheendofthesentence,beginningwithwhichis,isindirectandwordy.Asin(A),isisnotthemostappropriateverbformtoexpressacounterfactualcondition.

E. Theverbsiscounted...hasareincorrectfordescribingacontrary-to-factsituation.Beginningthefinaladjectivephrasewiththewordthusmakestherelationshipofthephrasetotherestofthesentenceunclear.


220. InitiatedfivecenturiesafterEuropeansarrivedintheNewWorldonColumbusDay1992,ProjectSETIpledgeda$100millioninvestmentinthesearchforextraterrestrialintelligence.

A. InitiatedfivecenturiesafterEuropeansarrivedintheNewWorldonColumbusDay1992,ProjectSETIpledgeda$100millioninvestmentinthesearchforextraterrestrialintelligence.

B. InitiatedonColumbusDay1992,fivecenturiesafterEuropeansarrivedintheNewWorld,a$100millioninvestmentinthesearchforextraterrestrialintelligencewaspledgedbyProjectSETI.

C. InitiatedonColumbusDay1992,fivecenturiesafterEuropeansarrivedintheNewWorld,ProjectSETIpledgeda$100millioninvestmentinthesearchforextraterrestrialintelligence.

D. Pledginga$100millioninvestmentinthesearchforextraterrestrialintelligence,theinitiationofProjectSETIfivecenturiesafterEuropeansarrivedintheNewWorldonColumbusDay1992.

E. Pledginga$100millioninvestmentinthesearchforextraterrestrialintelligencefivecenturiesafterEuropeansarrivedintheNewWorld,onColumbusDay1992,theinitiationofProjectSETItookplace.

Logicalpredication;Grammaticalconstruction

Theoriginalsentencebecomesillogicalwhenphrasesdonotmodifywhattheyareintendedtomodify.ThissentencemistakenlysaysthatEuropeansarrivedintheNewWorldonColumbusDay1992.ItalsosaysthatProjectSETIwasinitiatedfivecenturiesafter...ColumbusDay1992.Tomakethemodifiersgrammaticallyandlogicallycorrect,thesentencemayberevised:InitiatedonColumbusDay1992,fivecenturiesafterEuropeansarrivedintheNewWorld,ProjectSETI....

A. ProjectSETIcannothavebeeninitiatedfivecenturiesafter...1992,nordidEuropeansfirstarrivein1992.

B. Initiated...modifies$100millioninvestmentinsteadofProjectSETI.

C. Correct.Themodifiersaregrammaticallyandlogicallycorrectinthissentence.

D. Pledging...incorrectlymodifiestheinitiation.Thisisasentence

fragment.

E. Pledging...incorrectlymodifiestheinitiation.EuropeansappeartohavearrivedonColumbusDay1992.Theconstructionisawkward,unbalanced,andimprecise.


221. Accordingtosomeeconomists,theJulydecreaseinunemploymentsothatitwasthelowestintwoyearssuggeststhatthegradualimprovementinthejobmarketiscontinuing.

A. sothatitwasthelowestintwoyears

B. sothatitwasthelowesttwo-yearrate

C. towhatwouldbethelowestintwoyears

D. toatwo-yearlowlevel

E. tothelowestlevelintwoyears


Inthissentence,decreaseisusedasanounandcannotgrammaticallybemodifiedbytheadverbialsothat.Thesimpleprepositionalphrasetothelowestlevelintwoyearsisaprecise,concisealternative.

A. Theuseofsothatitwastomodifyanounisungrammatical,anditcouldrefertoeitherdecreaseorunemployment.

B. Theuseofsothatitwastomodifyanounisungrammatical.Itcouldrefertoeitherdecreaseorunemployment,andthewordrateisunclear.

C. Useoftheconditionalwouldtostateafactisnonstandard;lowestshouldrefertoanounsuchaslevel.

D. Themeaningoftoatwo-yearlowlevelisunclear,andthephraseisunidiomatic.

E. Correct.Thissentenceusesaclear,simplephrasethatconveysanunambiguousmeaning.


222. DevelopedbyPennsylvania’sPalatineGermansabout1750,Conestogawagons,withhighwheelscapableofcrossingruttedroads,muddyflats,andthenonroadsoftheprairieandtheyhadafloorcurvedupwardoneitherendsoastopreventcargofromshiftingonsteepgrades.

A. wagons,withhighwheelscapableofcrossingruttedroads,muddyflats,andthenonroadsoftheprairieandtheyhadafloorcurvedupwardoneitherendsoastoprevent

B. wagons,withhighwheelscapableofcrossingruttedroads,muddyflats,andthenonroadsoftheprairie,andwithafloorthatwascurvedupwardatbothendstoprevent

C. wagons,whichhadhighwheelscapableofcrossingruttedroads,muddyflats,andthenonroadsoftheprairie,andfloorscurvedupwardontheirendssothattheyprevented

D. wagonshadhighwheelscapableofcrossingruttedroads,muddyflats,andthenonroadsoftheprairie,andafloorthatwascurvedupwardatbothendstoprevent

E. wagonshadhighwheelscapableofcrossingruttedroads,muddyflats,andthenonroadsoftheprairieandfloorscurvingupwardattheirendssothatitprevented

Logicalpredication;Parallelism;Grammaticalconstruction

ThemainsubjectofthissentenceisConestogawagonsandthemainverbishad.Theopeningparticipialphrasedescribestheoriginofthewagons,andtherestofthesentencedescribesthefeaturestheypossessed.Thesefeaturesmustbepresentedinparallelformasobjectsoftheverbhad.Thesentencefirstpresentedisafragment;theprepositionalphrasewith...leavesthesubjectConestogawagonswithoutaverb.Whentheverbhadfinallyappears,anewsubjecttheyhasbeenunnecessarilyintroduced.

A. Thesubjectwagonsiswithoutaverb.Theintroductionofanewsubjecttheyisunnecessary.Giventheabsenceofhadafterwagonsandofacommaafterprairie,itisalsoungrammatical.

B. Thisversionofthesentencehasnomainverbforthesubjectwagons.

C. Asin(A)and(B),thisversionofthesentencefailstoprovideamainverbforthesubjectwagons.

D. Correct.Themainverbhadcompletesthesubjectwagonsandaccommodatesthetwodirectobjects,wheelsandafloor.Thecommaafterprairiehelpstoclarifythatfloorsisadirectobjectofhad,parallelwithhighwheels.

E. Thereferentforitisambiguous.


223. TheBaldrickManufacturingCompanyhasforseveralyearsfollowedapolicyaimedatdecreasingoperatingcostsandimprovingtheefficiencyofitsdistributionsystem.

A. aimedatdecreasingoperatingcostsandimproving

B. aimedatthedecreasingofoperatingcostsandtoimprove

C. aimingatthedecreasingofoperatingcostsandimproving

D. theaimofwhichisthedecreasingofoperatingcostsandimproving

E. withtheaimtodecreaseoperatingcostsandtoimprove


Thiscorrectsentenceusesthegrammaticallyparallelelementsdecreasingandimprovingtodescribethetwoaimsofthecompany’spolicy.

A. Correct.Decreasingandimprovingaregrammaticallyparallel;aimedatisacorrectandconciseexpression.

B. Thedecreasingandtoimprovearenotparallel.

C. Usingthebeforedecreasingcreatesagerund,whichisnotparalleltotheparticipleimproving.

D. Theaimofwhichisawkwardandwordy;thedecreasingisnotparalleltoimproving.

E. Withtheaimtoisnotthecorrectidiom;thecorrectidiomiswiththeaimoffollowedbyaningverbformsuchasdecreasing.


224. Eatingsaltwaterfishmaysignificantlyreducetheriskofheartattacksandalsoaidforsufferersofrheumatoidarthritisandasthma,accordingtothreeresearchstudiespublishedintheNewEnglandJournalofMedicine.

A. significantlyreducetheriskofheartattacksandalsoaidfor

B. besignificantinreducingtheriskofheartattacksandaidfor

C. significantlyreducetheriskofheartattacksandaid

D. causeasignificantreductionintheriskofheartattacksandaidto

E. significantlyreducetheriskofheartattacksaswellasaiding

Diction;Parallelism

Thewordaidcanbeanounoraverb;hereitshouldbeaverbthatisparalleltotheverbreduce.Ifaidwereanoun,itwouldparallelriskandsowouldmeanillogicallythateatingfishreducesaidforsufferersaswellastheriskofheartattacks.

A. Aidforseemstobeanoun,paralleltothenounrisk,indicatingthateatingsaltwaterfishreducesaidforsufferers.

B. Aidforseemstobeanoun,paralleltothenounrisk,indicatingthateatingsaltwaterfishreducesaidforsufferers.

C. Correct.Inthissentence,aidisusedasaverb,paralleltotheverbreduce.Sufferersisthedirectobjectofaid;noprepositionisneeded.

D. Aidtoisincorrectlyusedasanoun,suggestingthateatingsaltwaterfishreducesaidtosufferers.

E. Whilethissentenceconveysthecorrectmeaning,itlackstheparallelstructurefoundinthecorrectanswer.


225. Asaresultofrecordlowtemperatures,thewaterpipesonthethirdfloorfroze,whichcausedtheheadsofthesprinklersystemtoburst,whichreleasedtorrentsofwaterintoofficesonthesecondfloor.

A. whichcausedtheheadsofthesprinklersystemtoburst,whichreleasedtorrentsofwater

B. whichcausedtheheadsofthesprinklersystemtoburstandwhichreleasedtorrentsofwater

C. whichcausedtheheadsofthesprinklersystemtoburst,torrentsofwaterwerethenreleased

D. causingtheheadsofthesprinklersystemtoburst,thenreleasingtorrentsofwater

E. causingtheheadsofthesprinklersystemtoburstandreleasetorrentsofwater


Thissentencedescribesacausalsequenceofeventsleadingtofloodedsecond-flooroffices.Oneofthesteps,sprinklerheadsbursting,waspresumablysimultaneouswiththereleaseoftorrentsofwater,soitis

besttopresenttheseeventsasactionsattachedtothesamesubject(headsofthesprinklersystem).Thesentenceasgivenattemptstoexplainthesequenceinachainofrelativeclauses,usingthepronounwhichtointroducesuccessivesteps.Theprecisereferentofthisrelativepronounissomewhatobscure—itappearstorefertotheentireprecedingclause—andthesequenceseparatesthesimultaneousburstingofheadsandreleasingofwaterintotwotemporallyseparateevents.

A. Thereferentofthesecondwhichisobscure,andthesentenceimplausiblyseparatesburstingheadsandreleasingoftorrentsintotwotemporallyseparateevents.

B. Joiningtherelativepronounswiththeconjunctionandmakesthefreezingofthewaterpipesthesubjectofbothcaused...andreleased....Thus,itseemstoindicate,somewhatimplausibly,thatthefreezingofthepipesdirectlyreleasedtorrentsofwaterindependentlyofitscausingthesprinklerheadstoburst.

C. Thepassiveverbwere...releasedobscuresthecausalsequencebehindthereleasingoftorrentsofwater.Theintroductionofanewindependentclausewithoutaconjunctionisungrammaticalandmakesthisversionarun-onsentence.

D. Asin(B),thestructureofthisversionmakesthefreezingofthepipesthesubjectofbothcausing...andreleasing....Theintroductionofthesequentialmarkerthendividestheburstingofheadsandreleasingoftorrentsofwaterintotwoseparateeventsinthesequence.Itindicates,implausibly,thatthepipes’freezingdirectlyreleasedtorrentsofwaterafterithadalsocausedthesprinklerheadstoburst.

E. Correct.Theeliminationoftherelativepronounsclarifiesthecausalsequenceofevents,andthedoubleinfinitivestoburstand(to)releaseunderscoresthesimultaneityoftheseevents.


226. Around1900,fishermenintheChesapeakeBayarealandedmorethanseventeenmillionpoundsofshadinasingleyear,butby1920,overfishingandtheproliferationofmilldamsandculvertsthathaveblockedshadmigrationsuptheirspawningstreamshadreducedlandingstolessthanfourmillionpounds.

A. thathaveblockedshadmigrationsuptheirspawningstreamshadreducedlandingstoless

B. thatblockedshadfrommigratinguptheirspawningstreamshadreducedlandingstoless

C. thatblockedshadfrommigratinguptheirspawningstreamsreducedlandingstoaloweramount

D. havingblockedshadfrommigratinguptheirspawningstreamsreducedlandingstoless

E. havingblockedshadmigrationsuptheirspawningstreamshadreducedlandingstoanamountlower

Diction;Verbform

Thepointofthissentenceistoexplainhowoverfishingandinterferencewithshadspawningstreamsaffectedthesizeofshadlandings.Thesentencemakesthispointbycomparingthesizesofannuallandingsbeforeandafter1920.Thesentencemostefficientlycomparesthepoundageofpre-andpost-1920landingswiththecomparativeform[from]morethan...tolessthan....

A. Thepresent-perfecttenseofhaveblockedinappropriatelydescribesaneventthatcausedsomethingtohappenbefore1920.Inaddition,migrationsuptheirspawningstreamsisincorrect.

B. Correct.Thecomparisonofpoundageisefficientlyexplained,andthesequenceoftensesmakessense.Despiteapossiblesuperficialappearanceofacomparisonbetweencountablethings(pounds),lessismoreappropriatethanfewerforthecomparison.Thefishermenlandeddifferentamountsoffish;theydidnotlandthenumberofpoundsintermsofwhichthoseamountsaremeasured.

C. Thecomparativeexpressiontoaloweramountisunnecessarilywordy.Thepast-perfectformhadreducedwouldmakethetemporalrelationshipssomewhatclearerthandoesthepasttensereduced.

D. Thepresent-perfectparticipialphrase,havingblocked...streams,shouldbesetoffincommas;asitstands,itdoesnotmakesense.Thepast-perfectformhadreducedwouldmakethetemporalrelationshipssomewhatclearerthandoesthepasttensereduced.

E. Thepresent-perfectparticipialphrasemustbesetoffwithcommas;thepronountheir,whichisalsoin(A),nonsensicallyreferstomigrations,andthecomparativeexpressiontoanamountlowerisunnecessarilywordy.


227. Somebuildingsthatweredestroyedandheavilydamagedintheearthquakelastyearwereconstructedinviolationofthecity’sbuildingcode.

A. Somebuildingsthatweredestroyedandheavilydamagedintheearthquakelastyearwere

B. Somebuildingsthatweredestroyedorheavilydamagedintheearthquakelastyearhadbeen

C. Somebuildingsthattheearthquakedestroyedandheavilydamagedlastyearhavebeen

D. Lastyeartheearthquakedestroyedorheavilydamagedsomebuildingsthathavebeen

E. Lastyearsomeofthebuildingsthatweredestroyedorheavilydamagedintheearthquakehadbeen

Diction;Verbform

Thebuildingscannotbebothdestroyedandheavilydamagedatthesametime;theymustbeoneortheother.Theideasofthissentencearemostclearlyexpressedusingtwoverbtenses:thesimplepast,were,fortheearthquakeoccurringlastyear;andthepastperfect,hadbeen,forthetimepriortothatwhenthebuildingswereconstructed.

A. Thebuildingsareillogicallysaidtobebothdestroyedanddamaged.

B. Correct.Thissentenceproperlystatesthatthebuildingswereeitherdestroyedordamagedandclarifiesthattheyhadbeenconstructedbeforetheearthquakestruck.

C. Buildingscannotbebothdestroyedanddamaged.Theverbtensemakesitseemthattheywereconstructedaftertheearthquake.

D. Theverbtenseillogicallyindicatesthatthebuildingshavebeenconstructedsincetheearthquake.

E. Thisstructureindicatesthatconstructionofthebuildings,ratherthantheearthquake,occurredlastyear.


228. Thoughtheterm“graphicdesign”maysuggestlayingoutcorporatebrochuresandannualreports,theyhavecometosignifywidelyrangingwork,frompackagedesignsandcompanylogotypestosigns,bookjackets,computergraphics,andfilmtitles.

A. suggestlayingoutcorporatebrochuresandannualreports,theyhavecometosignifywidelyranging

B. suggestlayingoutcorporatebrochuresandannualreports,ithascometosignifyawiderangeof

C. suggestcorporatebrochureandannualreportlayout,ithassignifiedwidelyranging

D. havesuggestedcorporatebrochureandannualreportlayout,ithassignifiedawiderangeof

E. havesuggestedlayingoutcorporatebrochuresandannualreports,theyhavecometosignifywidelyranging

Agreement;Diction;Verbform

Thesubjectofthesentenceisthesingularnounterm,whichmustbefollowedbythesingularithasratherthanthepluraltheyhave.Widelyrangingcoulddescribeaconversationthatmovesfromonetopictoanother;inthiscontext,itisincorrectbecausetheworkdoesnotmovefromoneplacetoanother.Awiderangeofworkshowsthattheworkconsistsofmanydifferentkindsofprojects.

A. Theyhavedoesnotagreewithterm;widelyrangingworkisimprecise.

B. Correct.Inthissentence,ithasagreeswithterm,andthephraseawiderangeofworksuggestsavarietyofprojects.

C. Hassignifiedsuggestsacompletedactionandthusdistortsthemeaning;widelyrangingworkisimprecise.

D. Havesuggesteddoesnotagreewithterm.Theverbtensessuggestacompletedactionratherthananongoingone.

E. Havesuggestedandtheyhavedonotagreewithterm;widelyrangingworkisimprecise.


229. Governmentofficialsannouncedthatrestrictionsontheuseofwaterwouldcontinuebecausenoappreciativeincreaseintheleveloftheriverresultedfromtheintermittentshowersthathadfallenthroughouttheareathedaybefore.

A. restrictionsontheuseofwaterwouldcontinuebecausenoappreciativeincreaseintheleveloftheriver

B. restrictingtheuseofwaterwouldcontinuebecausetherehadnotbeenanyappreciativeincreaseintheriver’slevelthat

C. theuseofwaterwouldcontinuetoberestrictedbecausenotanyappreciableincreaseintheriver’slevelhad

D. restrictionsontheuseofwaterwouldcontinuebecausenoappreciableincreaseintheleveloftheriverhad

E. usingwaterwouldcontinuebeingrestrictedbecausenotanyappreciableincreaseintheleveloftheriver

Rhetoricalconstruction;Logicalpredication;Verbform

Thissentenceexplainstherationalebehindagovernmentalannouncementmadeatsomepointinthepast.Themostefficientwaytoexpressthemeaningoftheannouncementistouserestrictionsasthesubjectoftheclauseintroducedbythatandtouseanegativesubject(noappreciableincrease)andapositiveverbinthesubordinateclausethatfollows.

A. Itmakesnosensetosaythatahypotheticalincreaseinriverlevelisappreciative.Thepasttenseoftheverbresultedinthiscontextdoesnotasclearlyexpressthetemporalrelationshipsbetweentheannouncementandtheothereventsaswouldthepastperfecthadresulted.

B. Theuseofthereandthenegativeverbmakethedependentclauseunnecessarilywordyandindirect;therelativepronounthatappearstorefernonsensicallytolevel.Itmakesnosensetosaythatahypotheticalincreaseinriverlevelisappreciative.

C. Bymakinguseofwaterinsteadofrestrictionsthesubjectofthethatclause,thisversionofthesentencenecessitatestheuseofawordyandindirectpassiveinfinitivephrasetoberestricted.Thesentencebecomesevenmorewordyandconvolutedwiththeintroductionofanawkward,unidiomaticnegativesubject(notanyappreciableincrease)ofthedependentclause.

D. Correct.Thesentenceisdirectandefficient,andthepast-perfectverbhadresultedappropriatelyexpressesthesequenceofevents.

E. Thephraseusingwater...beingrestrictediswordyandimprecise,andtheunidiomaticnegativesubject(notanyappreciableincrease)ofthedependentclauseintroducesfurtherindirectionandwordiness.Thepasttenseoftheverbresultedinthiscontextdoes

notasclearlyexpressthetemporalrelationshipsbetweentheannouncementandtheothereventsaswouldthepastperfecthadresulted.


230. Becausethecollagenfibersinskinlineupinthedirectionoftension,surgicalcutsmadealongtheseso-calledLanger’slinesseverfewerfibersandislesslikelytoleaveanunsightlyscar.

A. Becausethecollagenfibersinskinlineupinthedirectionoftension,surgicalcutsmadealongtheseso-calledLanger’slinesseverfewer

B. Becausethecollagenfibersinskinlineupinthedirectionoftension,asurgicalcuthavingbeenmadealongtheseso-calledLanger’slinesseversless

C. Becausethecollagenfibersinskinlineupinthedirectionoftension,asurgicalcutmadealongtheseso-calledLanger’slinesseversfewer

D. Withthecollagenfibersinskinliningupinthedirectionoftension,surgicalcutsmadealongtheseso-calledLanger’slinesseverless

E. Withthecollagenfibersinskinliningupinthedirectionoftension,asurgicalcutmadealongtheseso-calledLanger’slinesseverfewer

Agreement;Diction

Thissentenceexplainsacausalconnectionbetweenthealignmentofcollagenfibersandtheimpactofaparticulartypeofsurgicalcut.Becauseisappropriatetoexpressthatcausalrelationship.Thesingularverbinthephraseislesslikelytoleaverequiresasingularsubject(cut)andmustbecoordinatedwithanothersingularverb(severs).Becausefibersarecountable,thecorrectmodifierisfewerratherthanless.

A. Thepluralsubjectcutsdoesnotagreewiththesingularverbis.

B. Theverbformhavingbeenmadeisinconsistentwiththepresenttenseverbsevers;lessinappropriatelymodifiescountablefibers.

C. Correct.Theadverbialconjunctionbecauseaccuratelycapturesthecausalrelationshipexpressedbythesentence.Thesingularsubjectcutagreeswiththesingularverbsseversandis,andfewerappropriatelymodifiescountablefibers.

D. Theprepositionwithdoesnotcapturethecausalrelationship

expressedbythesentence;thepluralsubjectcutsdoesnotagreewiththesingularverbs(seversandis);andlessisaninappropriatemodifierforcountablefibers.

E. Asin(D),theprepositionwithfailstocapturethecausalrelationshipbetweenalignmentoffibersandscarring.Thepluralverbseverdoesnotagreewiththesingularsubjectcutandthesubsequentsingularverbis.


231. InA.D.391,resultingfromthedestructionofthelargestlibraryoftheancientworldatAlexandria,latergenerationslostallbuttheIliadandOdysseyamongGreekepics,mostofthepoetryofPindarandSappho,anddozensofplaysbyAeschylusandEuripides.

A. resultingfromthedestructionofthelargestlibraryoftheancientworldatAlexandria,

B. thedestroyingofthelargestlibraryoftheancientworldatAlexandriaresultedand

C. becauseoftheresultofthedestructionofthelibraryatAlexandria,thelargestoftheancientworld,

D. asaresultofthedestructionofthelibraryatAlexandria,thelargestoftheancientworld,

E. Alexandria’slargestlibraryoftheancientworldwasdestroyed,andtheresultwas

Logicalpredication;Rhetoricalconstruction;Grammaticalconstruction

Becauseitisintroducedbyaparticiple,thephrasethatbeginsresultingfromillogicallymodifieslatergenerations.Substitutingtheidiomasaresultofforresultingfromcorrectsthiserror.ThelargestlibraryoftheancientworldatAlexandriaisbothcumbersomeandambiguousbecauseitsuggeststhattheancientworldwaslocatedat(andonlyat)Alexandria.Thisproblemisbestcorrectedbybreakingtheseriesofphrasesintotwodistinctparts:thelibraryatAlexandria,thelargestoftheancientworld.Here,thesecondphraseclearlymodifiesthefirst.

A. Resultingfromillogicallymodifieslatergenerations.Theseriesofprepositionalphrasesisconfusingandambiguous.

B. Thedestroyingofiswordyandawkward.Andcreatesasecondmain

clause,whichwouldneedtobeappropriatelypunctuatedwithacommabeforeand.

C. Becauseoftheresultofisredundant.

D. Correct.Asaresultofbeginsthephraseclearlyandcorrectlyinthissentence;thelibraryratherthantheancientworldisproperlylocatedatAlexandria;thelargestoftheancientworldcorrectlymodifieslibrary.

E. Alexandria’slargestlibraryoftheancientworldisanillogicalreference.Theresultwasmustbefollowedbythat.


232. ThenephewofPlinytheElderwrotetheonlyeyewitnessaccountofthegreateruptionofVesuviusintwoletterstothehistorianTacitus.

A. ThenephewofPlinytheElderwrotetheonlyeyewitnessaccountofthegreateruptionofVesuviusintwoletterstothehistorianTacitus.

B. TothehistorianTacitus,thenephewofPlinytheElderwrotetwoletters,beingtheonlyeyewitnessaccountsofthegreateruptionofVesuvius.

C. TheonlyeyewitnessaccountisintwolettersbythenephewofPlinytheElderwritingtothehistorianTacitusanaccountofthegreateruptionofVesuvius.

D. Writingtheonlyeyewitnessaccount,PlinytheElder’snephewaccountedforthegreateruptionofVesuviusintwoletterstothehistorianTacitus.

E. IntwoletterstothehistorianTacitus,thenephewofPlinytheElderwrotetheonlyeyewitnessaccountofthegreateruptionofVesuvius.


Thechallengeinthissentenceliesinthecorrectplacementofaprepositionalphrase.Intheoriginalversion,theplacementofintwoletterstothehistorianTacitusappearstosuggestthatVesuviuseruptedinthelettersthemselves.Placingthephraseatthebeginningofthesentencesolvestheproblem.

A. ThesentencesuggeststhattheeruptionofVesuviustookplaceinthelettersthemselves.

B. BeginningthesentencewithtothehistorianTacitusisclumsyand

unclear.Theverbphrasebeing...seemsillogicallytomodifythenephew,creatingtheawkwardsuggestionthatthenephewwastheeyewitnessaccounts.

C. Thesentence’smeaningisunclearduetoanextendedsequenceofprepositionalphrases.

D. Anaccountisanarrativerecord;toaccountformeanstobethecauseof.Usingbothinthesamesentenceisconfusingandheresuggeststhatthenephewcausedtheeruption.ThesentencealsosuggeststhattheeruptionofVesuviustookplaceinthelettersthemselves.

E. Correct.Theplacementoftheprepositionalphraseatthebeginningofthesentenceclarifiesthemeaningofthesentence;theconstructionoftherestofthesentenceisstraightforward.


233. Nearlytwotonsofnuclear-reactorfuelhavealreadybeenputintoorbitaroundtheEarth,andthechancesofacollisioninvolvingsuchmaterialincreasegreatlyastheamountofbothspacedebrisandsatellitescontinuetorise.

A. astheamountofbothspacedebrisandsatellitescontinuetorise

B. astherisecontinuesinboththeamountofsatellitesandspacedebris

C. astheamountofspacedebrisandthenumberofsatellitescontinuetorise

D. withthecontinuallyincreasingamountofspacedebrisandthenumberofsatellites

E. withtheamountofspacedebriscontinuingtoincreasealongwiththenumberofsatellites

Diction;Rhetoricalconstruction

Thissentenceopenswithamainclausestatingacondition(twotonsofnuclear-reactorfuelorbitingtheEarth)andfollowsthiswithasecondmainclausestatingpossibleconsequencesofcombiningthiscondition(amountofspacedebris)withasecondcondition(risingnumberofsatellites).Becausedebrisisnotacountablenoun,itmustbedescribedasanamount;satellitesarecountable,sotheymustbereferredtoasanumber,notanamount.

A. Amountisaninappropriatedescriptorforsatellites.

B. Amountisaninappropriatedescriptorforsatellites.Bothshouldbefollowedbytwonouns,buthereitisfollowedbyonlyone,sothecomparisonisgrammaticallyincorrect.

C. Correct.Thesentenceisunambiguousandgrammaticallycorrectandusesamountandnumbercorrectly.

D. Byattachingtheadjectiveincreasingonlytoamountofspacedebris,thesentencefailstoindicatethatthenumberofsatellitesisalsogrowing.Thisleavesthefunctionofandthenumberofsatellitesuncertainandconfusing.

E. Thisversionofthesentenceisindirect,wordy,andconfusing.


234. Thoughbeingtiny,blind,andtranslucent,arecentlydiscoveredspeciesofcatfishlessenstheirvulnerabilitywiththickenedbonesandarmorplatesontheirsides.

A. Thoughbeingtiny,blind,andtranslucent,arecentlydiscoveredspeciesofcatfishlessenstheirvulnerabilitywiththickenedbonesandarmorplatesontheirsides.

B. Thoughtiny,blind,andtranslucent,arecentlydiscoveredspeciesofcatfishhasthickenedbonesandarmorplatesonitssidesthatlessenitsvulnerability.

C. Arecentlydiscoveredspeciesofcatfishhasthickenedbonesandarmorplatesonitssidesthatlessentheirvulnerability,thoughtiny,blind,andtranslucent.

D. Thickenedbonesandarmorplatesontheirsideslessenthevulnerabilityofarecentlydiscoveredspeciesofcatfishthatistiny,blind,andtranslucent.

E. Tiny,blind,andtranslucent,thickenedbonesandarmorplatesonitssideslessenthevulnerabilityofarecentlydiscoveredspeciesofcatfish.

Logicalpredication;Agreement

Thepointofthesentenceistoexplaintwosetsoffeaturesofacatfishspecies,onethatmakesthespeciesseemvulnerable,andtheotherthatreducesitsvulnerability.Thesentenceaswrittenintroducestheunnecessaryparticipialbeingandincorrectlyreferstothesingular

specieswiththepluralpossessivepronountheir.

A. Theparticipialbeingmakesthesentenceunnecessarilywordy.Thepluralpronountheirhasnoclearantecedent;itcannotrefertospecies,becausethesentencehasalreadyestablished,withthesingularverblessens,thatitisusingspeciesasasingularnoun.Also,thesentenceillogicallysaysthatthespecies(notitsphysicalcharacteristics)lessenstheirvulnerability.

B. Correct.Theopeningsetofadjectivesintroducedbythecontrastivetermthoughisefficientandsetsupacontrastbetweenthefeaturesthatmakethespeciesvulnerableandthosethatmakeitlessvulnerable.Thesingularpronounitscorrectlyreferstothesingularnounspecies.

C. Thereferentforthepluralpossessivepronountheirisunclear;itisalsounclearwhatthesetofadjectivesintroducedbythoughissupposedtomodify.Thesentencestructuresuggests,nonsensically,thattheymodifyarmorplates.

D. Thisversionofthesentenceconfusinglyreferstospeciesasbothplural(theirsides)andsingular(thatis).

E. Theopeningsetofadjectives(tiny,blind,andtranslucent)nonsensicallydescribesbonesandplates.


235. Arecentcourtdecisionhasqualifieda1998rulingthatworkerscannotbelaidoffiftheyhavebeengivenreasontobelievethattheirjobswillbesafe,providedthattheirperformanceremainssatisfactory.

A. iftheyhavebeengivenreasontobelievethattheirjobswill

B. iftheyaregivenreasonforbelievingthattheirjobswouldstill

C. havingbeengivenreasonforbelievingthattheirjobswould

D. havingbeengivenreasontobelievetheirjobsto

E. givenreasontobelievethattheirjobswillstill

Verbform;Idiom

Thissentenceassertsthatacourtdecisionhasqualifieda1998ruling.Itthengoesontoexplaintheseriesofconditionsstipulatedbythatruling:workerscannotbelaidoffiftheyhavebeengiven(prior)reasontobelievethatcontinuedsatisfactoryjobperformancewill(always)ensure

thattheirjobsaresafe.Toexpressthesecomplicatedtemporalrelationships,thepresenttensepassiveverbcannotbelaidoffdescribestheassuranceprovidedbytheruling;thepresent-perfect,passiveverbdescribesthepriorconditionhavebeengiven...,andthefuturetenseverbwillbedescribestheoutcometheworkerscanexpect.Theidiomreasontobelievesuccinctlydescribestheassurancegiventoworkers.

A. Correct.Thesequenceofconditionsmakessense,andtheidiomiscorrect.

B. Thepresenttensearegivenfailstoclarifythattheassuranceofjobsecuritymustprecedetheworkers’confidencethattheycannotbelaidoff.Thephrasereasonforbelieving(singular,withnoarticle)isunidiomaticandinthiscontextisinappropriate.

C. Thisversionappearstobepresentinghavingbeengivenreason...asarestrictivemodifieroflaidoff.Thismakesthesentenceveryawkwardandhardtomakesenseof,anditobscurestherequisitenatureofthecondition(thatworkershadbeengivenpriorreasontothinktheirjobsweresafe).Reasonforbelievingisunidiomatic.

D. Withoutacommaafteroff,itisunclearwhathavingbeengivenreason...modifies;thestringofinfinitivephrasesisawkwardandconfusing.

E. Asin(D),itisunclearwhattheparticipialphrase(inthiscase,givenreasontobelieve)issupposedtomodify.


236. ThomasEakins’powerfulstyleandhischoicesofsubject—theadvancesinmodernsurgery,thedisciplineofsport,thestrainsofindividualsintensionwithsocietyorevenwiththemselves—wasasdisturbingtohisowntimeasitiscompellingforours.

A. wasasdisturbingtohisowntimeasitis

B. wereasdisturbingtohisowntimeastheyare

C. hasbeenasdisturbinginhisowntimeastheyare

D. hadbeenasdisturbinginhisowntimeasitwas

E. havebeenasdisturbinginhisowntimeas

Agreement;Verbform

Thecompoundsubjectofthissentence,styleandchoices,isfollowedby

singularverbs,wasandis,andasingularpronoun,it.Thecompoundsubjectrequiresthepluralverbswereandareandthepluralpronounthey.

A. Theverbsandpronounaresingular,butthesubjectisplural.

B. Correct.Verbs(were,are)andpronoun(they)agreewiththepluralsubjectinthissentence.

C. HasbeenissingularandillogicallyindicatesthatEakins’timecontinuestoday.

D. Hadbeenindicatesatimeanteriortosomeotherpasttime;itwasissingularandthewrongtense.

E. HavebeenillogicallyindicatesthatEakins’timecontinuesintothepresentday.


237. InspiredbytheHelsinkiAccordsandoutragedbytheharshsentencesmetedouttoagroupofCzechrockmusicianscalledthePlasticPeopleoftheUniverse,Charter77wasestablishedbydissidentwriters,philosophers,andotherprofessionalstobeahumanrightsgroup.

A. Charter77wasestablishedbydissidentwriters,philosophers,andotherprofessionalstobe

B. Charter77hadbeenestablishedbydissidentwriters,philosophers,andotherprofessionalsas

C. Charter77,establishedbydissidentwriters,philosophers,andotherprofessionals,was

D. dissidentwriters,philosophers,andotherprofessionalsestablishedCharter77as

E. dissidentwriters,philosophers,andotherprofessionalshadestablishedCharter77tobe


ThissentenceexplainswhatinspiredagroupofpeopletoestablishahumanrightsgroupcalledChapter77.Thepassiveconstructioninthemainclauseillogicallymakestheopeningphrase(inspired...andoutraged)describeCharter77.ThesentencesaysthatCharter77wasestablishedbyagroupofpeople.Thus,Charter77refersinthiscontexttotheorganizationasanabstractentity,nottoitsfoundersormembers.

Theintendedmeaningpresumablyisthatthedissidentwriters,philosophers,andotherprofessionalswerebothinspiredandoutragedandwerethuspromptedtostartCharter77.

A. TheopeningadjectivalphraseinappropriatelydescribesCharter77insteadofthepeoplewhostartedit.Theidiomaticexpressionestablished...asispreferabletothenonstandardandsomewhatunclearestablished...tobe....

B. Thepast-perfectverbformhadbeenestablishedisconfusingafterthepasttensephrasemetedouttoagroup....Additionally,like(A),thisversionofthesentencecreatesanopeningthatsomewhatillogicallymodifiesCharter77.

C. Asin(A)and(B),theopeningphraseillogicallydescribesCharter77insteadofthepeoplewhowereinspiredandoutragedandthuspromptedtostartCharter77.

D. Correct.Theopeningphrasecorrectlydescribesthesubjectdissidentwriters,philosophers,andotherprofessionals,andtheactiveverbestablishedpreventsunnecessarywordiness.

E. AlthoughtheopeningphrasedescribesthepeoplewhostartedCharter77,thepast-perfecttenseofthemainclauseisconfusing,makingthetemporalrelationshipsamongtheeventsunclear.Theidiomaticexpressionestablished...asispreferabletothenonstandardandsomewhatunclearestablished...tobe.


238. Aswellasheatandlight,thesunisthesourceofacontinuousstreamofatomicparticlesknownasthesolarwind.

A. Aswellasheatandlight,thesunisthesourceofacontinuousstream

B. Besidesheatandlight,alsothesunisthesourceofacontinuousstream

C. Besidesheatandlight,thesunisalsothesourceofacontinuousstreaming

D. Thesunisthesourcenotonlyofheatandlight,butalsoofacontinuousstream

E. Thesunisthesourceofnotonlyheatandlightbut,aswell,ofacontinuousstreaming

Idiom;Logicalpredication;Rhetoricalconstruction

Theunderlinedsectionmustberevisedtoeliminatemodificationerrorsandtoclarifymeaningbyusingparallelconstruction.Aswellasheatandlightcannotlogicallymodifythesun,asgrammarrequires;thesentenceseemstosuggestthatheat,light,andthesunarethesourceofthesolarwind.Thesentencecanbeimprovedbyemployingtheconstructionnotonlyx...butalsoy;xandyshouldbeparallel.

A. Aswellasheatandlightismisplacedandpotentiallyconfusing.

B. Besidesheatandlightisconfusing.Thewordorderofalsothesunisawkward.

C. Besidesheatandlightisunclear.Streamingshouldbethemorestraightforwardstream.

D. Correct.Thissentenceusesthenotonly...butalsoconstructiontosolvethemodificationerror;ofheatandlightisparalleltoofacontinuousstream.

E. Aswellisincorrectinthenotonly...butalsoconstruction.Heatandlightisnotparalleltoofacontinuousstreaming.Streamingshouldbethemorestraightforwardstream.


239. ThepsychologistWilliamJamesbelievedthatfacialexpressionsnotonlyprovideavisiblesignofanemotion,actuallycontributingtothefeelingitself.

A. emotion,actuallycontributingtothefeelingitself

B. emotionbutalsoactuallycontributingtothefeelingitself

C. emotionbutalsoactuallycontributetothefeelingitself

D. emotion;theyalsoactuallycontributetothefeelingofit

E. emotion;thefeelingitselfisalsoactuallycontributedtobythem

Idiom;Grammaticalconstruction

Thissentenceshoulddependonthecorrelativeconstructionnotonlyx...butalsoy,wherexandyareparallel.However,thefaultyconstructionintheoriginalsentencedoesnotproperlyincludethesecondelement,butalso,andsoproducesasentencefragment.Jamessaysthatfacialexpressionshavetwoeffects:theyprovideasignofemotionandtheycontributetoemotion.Thus,inthissentence,notonlyshouldbe

followedby(x)provideavisiblesignofanemotion,andbutalsoshouldbefollowedby(y)actuallycontributetothefeelingitself.

A. Thenotonly...butalsoconstructionisviolated,creatingasentencefragment.

B. Butalsoactuallycontributingisnotparalleltonotonlyprovide;becausecontributingisaparticipleandnotaverb,theresultisasentencefragment.

C. Correct.Thenotonly...butalsoconstructionisparallel,resultinginacompletesentence.

D. Thenotonlyconstructionneedstobecompletedwithbutalsoandshouldnotbeinterruptedbyasemicolon.Thefeelingofitisawkwardandwordy.

E. Useofthesemicoloninthenotonly...butalsoconstructionisnotcorrect;thepassivevoiceisalsoactuallycontributedtoisawkwardandnotparalleltoprovide.


240. Reportingthatoneofitsmanyproblemshadbeentherecentextendedsalesslumpinwomen’sapparel,theseven-storeretailersaiditwouldstartathree-monthliquidationsaleinallofitsstores.

A. itsmanyproblemshadbeentherecent

B. itsmanyproblemshasbeentherecently

C. itsmanyproblemsistherecently

D. theirmanyproblemsistherecent

E. theirmanyproblemshadbeentherecent

Agreement;Verbform;Diction

Thecorrectuseofpronounreference,verbtense,andmodifiermakethesentenceclearandeasytounderstand.Thesingularpossessivepronounitsreferstothesingularnounretailer.Thepast-perfectverbhadbeenindicatesactioncompletedbeforetheactioninthesimplepasttensesaid.Theadjectiverecentmodifiesextendedsalesslump.

A. Correct.Itsagreeswithretailer;thepastperfecthadbeenindicatesactionpriortothesimplepastsaid;andrecentmodifiesextendedsalesslump.

B. Theadverbrecentlymodifiesonlytheadjectiveextended,suggesting

illogicallythatthesalesslumphasbeenrecentlyextended.

C. Isshowspresent,ratherthancompleted,action,andtheadverbrecentlymodifiesonlytheadjectiveextended,distortingmeaning.

D. Theirdoesnotagreewithretailer,andisshowspresent,ratherthancompleted,action.

E. Thepluraltheirdoesnotagreewiththesingularretailer.


241. Ofalltherecordcompaniesinvolvedinearlyjazz,thethreemostprominentwereColumbia,Victor,andOKeh.

A. Ofalltherecordcompaniesinvolvedinearlyjazz,thethreemostprominentwereColumbia,Victor,andOKeh.

B. ThreemostprominentrecordcompaniesofalltheonesthatwereinvolvedinearlyjazzwereColumbia,Victor,andOKeh.

C. Columbia,Victor,andOKehwere,ofalltherecordcompaniesinvolvedinearlyjazz,thethreeofthemthatweremostprominent.

D. Columbia,Victor,andOKehwerethreemostprominentofalltherecordcompaniesinvolvedinearlyjazz.

E. Outofalltherecordcompaniesthatwereinvolvedinearlyjazz,threeofthemthatwerethemostprominentwereColumbia,Victor,andOKeh.

Diction;Rhetoricalconstruction

Thissentenceaimstoemphasizethespecialprominenceofjustthreespecificcompanies,asopposedtoallothercompanies.Wherethreemostprominentcompaniesisnotprecededbyadefinitearticle,itisunidiomatic.Toindicatethatthesethreeweremoreprominentthananyothers,itshouldsaythethreemostprominentcompanies.Iftheintentionwere,instead,toindicatethatthesecompaniesweremerelyamonganumberofhighlyprominentones,itshouldsaythreeofthemostprominentcompanies.Also,ingeneral,oneshouldavoidrelativeclauseconstructionswhensimpleadjectivescanexpressthesameideamoresimply.

A. Correct.Thethree...isused,andprominentmodifiestheunderstoodcompaniesinaconciseway.

B. Theisomittedbeforethree,andofalltheonesthatwereinvolvedis

inferiortoasimplerexpressionsuchasofalltheonesinvolved.

C. Thethreeofthemthatweremostprominentislongandawkward;thethreemostprominentisshorterandsimpler.

D. Theisomittedbeforethree.

E. Notonlyistheomitted,butthreeofthemthatwerethemostprominentistoolongandcomplex,comparedtothethreemostprominent.


242. Accordingtoresearchcoveringthelastdecade,theaveragenumberofroomsaddedbyhigh-endhotelchainswaslowerthanwhatthehotelindustryaveragedidforthisperiod,buttheiroccupancyandroomratesgrewfasterthantheaveragehotel.

A. thanwhatthehotelindustryaveragedidforthisperiod,buttheiroccupancyandroomratesgrewfasterthan

B. thanthehotelindustryaverageforthisperiod,butoccupancyandroomratesgrewfasterforthesechainsthanfor

C. ascomparedtothehotelindustryaverageforthisperiod,butoccupancyandroomratesforthemgrewfasterthanwith

D. ascomparedtowhatthehotelindustryaveragehadbeenforthisperiod,butoccupancyandroomratesforthesechainsgrewfasterthandid

E. ascomparedtothehotelindustryaverageforthisperiod,buttheiroccupancyandroomratesgrewfasterthantheydidfor

Logicalpredication;Agreement;Idiom

Thissentencecomparesoneaverage,numberofroomsaddedbyhigh-endhotelchains,withanother,hotelindustryaverage[numberofroomsadded],andthenitmakesanothercomparison:rateofgrowthinoccupancyandroomratesforhigh-endchainswiththesesamemeasuresintheaveragehotel.Inthesentenceasoriginallypresented,thereferentoftheirisunclear.Thepronounappearsasifitmightrefer,nonsensically,torooms.

A. Thephrasethanwhatthehotelindustryaveragedidiswordyandimprecise.Thesentenceattemptstocompareunlikeclauses:number...waslowerwithindustryaveragedid.Italsoillogicallycomparesthegrowthinoccupancyandroomrateswithgrowthof

theaveragehotel.Thereferentforthepluralpossessivepronountheirisunclear.

B. Correct.Thesentencecorrectlycomparesoneaveragenumberwithanotherandgrowthinoccupancyandroomratesforthesechainsandfortheaveragehotel.

C. Thecomparativephraseascomparedto...isanincorrectidiom.Thereferentforthemisambiguous.Thecomparisonbetweenthespeedofgrowthforthem,ontheonehand,andwiththeaveragehotel,ontheotherhand,doesnotmakesense.

D. Like(C),thisversionofthesentenceusesanincorrectidiom(ascomparedto)tomaketheinitialcomparison.Inthesecondcomparison,asin(A),thissentencenonsensicallycomparesthegrowthinoccupancyandroomrateswithgrowthoftheaveragehotel.

E. Like(C)and(D),thisversionofthesentenceopenswithanincorrectidiom(ascomparedto);thesecondcomparisoniswordy,andthereferentfortheyisambiguous.


243. Onthetournamentrosterarelistedseveraltennisstudents,mostallofwhichplayasgoodastheirinstructors.

A. mostallofwhichplayasgood

B. mostallofwhomplayasgood

C. almostallofwhichplayaswell

D. almostallofwhomplayasgood

E. almostallofwhomplayaswell

Idiom;Diction

Thestandardformal,writtenwordtoexpressaquantityjustshortofeverythingisalmost,notmost.Withanimateentitiessuchaspeople,who(m)ispreferredoverwhich.Forallbutafewexceptionalverbs,adverbialmodifiers(well)arecorrectasopposedtoadjectivalones(good).

A. Noneofmost,which,orgoodarethepreferredforms.

B. Mostandgoodarenotthecorrectstandardforms.

C. Althoughalmostandwellarefine,whichisnot.

D. Althoughalmostandwhomarefine,goodisnot.

E. Correct.Allofalmost,whom,andwellarecorrect.


244. RecentlydiscoveredfossilremainsstronglysuggestthattheAustralianegg-layingmammalsoftodayareabranchofthemainstemofmammalianevolutionratherthandevelopingindependentlyfromacommonancestorofmammalsmorethan220millionyearsago.

A. ratherthandevelopingindependentlyfrom

B. ratherthanatypethatdevelopedindependentlyfrom

C. ratherthanatypewhosedevelopmentwasindependentof

D. insteadofdevelopingindependentlyfrom

E. insteadofadevelopmentthatwasindependentof

Idiom;Parallelism

Theoriginalpointisthatthemammalsmentionedarethoughttobeanoffshootofthemainstemofmammalianevolutionandnotadescendentofacommonancestorof[all]mammals.Thissentencemakesacontrastusingtheconstructionxratherthanyorxinsteadofy;xandymustbeparallelineithercase.Themammalsare(x)abranchratherthan(y);hereyshouldconsistofanarticleandanountomatchabranch.Thesecondhalfofthecontrastmayberewrittenatypethatdevelopedindependentlyfromtocompletetheparallelconstruction.Theidiomindependentlyfromisdifferentinmeaningfromtheidiomindependentof;thelogicofthissentencerequirestheuseofindependentlyfrom.

A. Developingindependentlyfromisnotparalleltoabranch.

B. Correct.Thisidiomaticallycorrectsentenceproperlyusesatypeinparalleltoabranch.

C. Theverbdevelopedispreferabletotheawkwardandwordyrelativeclauseusingthenoundevelopment;independentofdistortstheoriginalmeaning.

D. Developingindependentlyfromisnotparalleltoabranch.

E. Whileadevelopmentmayappeartoparallelabranch,adevelopmentthatwasindependentof...expressesameaningcontrarytothatexpressedintheoriginalsentence.Theverb

developedispreferabletothenoundevelopment.


245. In1974alargeareaofthesurfaceofMercurywasphotographedfromvaryingdistances,whichrevealedadegreeofcrateringsimilartothatoftheMoon’s.

A. whichrevealedadegreeofcrateringsimilartothatoftheMoon’s

B. torevealadegreeofcrateringsimilartotheMoon

C. revealingadegreeofcrateringsimilartothatoftheMoon

D. andrevealedcrateringsimilarindegreetotheMoon

E. thatrevealedcrateringsimilarindegreetothatoftheMoon


Thissentence’ssecondclause,expressingwhattheimagingofMercuryshowed,mustbelinkedtothefirstclauseinagrammaticallycorrectway.Thisisbestdoneeitherbyanappositiverelativeclause(requiringtherelativemarkerwhich),orbyaclausestartingwithanonfiniteverb(torevealorrevealing).Also,whateverissaidtobesimilartoadegreeofcratering(onMercury)shouldalsobeadegreeofcratering(ontheMoon);thismustbeexpressedclearly.

A. Theuseofwhichiscorrect,butthatoftheMoon’sisinferiortothatoftheMoon,becausethepossessive’sandthatoftheredundantlyexpressthesameidea.ThatoftheMoon’sappearstorefer,illogically,tocrateringofsomeunspecifiedthingthatbelongstotheMoon,notcrateringoftheMoonitself.

B. Torevealisacceptable,buttotheMoonincorrectlycomparesaphysicalentity(theMoon)toadegreeofcratering.

C. Correct.Revealingisagoodwaytostartthesecondclause,andtothatoftheMoonproperlycontraststwodegreesofcratering.

D. Andisincorrectasawaytointroducethesecondclause;totheMoonmakesthewrongsortofcomparison.

E. Thatisnotthecorrectwaytointroduceanappositiverelativeclause.Thatistypicallyusedrestrictively,whereasthecommaprecedingitmakestheensuingclausenonrestrictive.Thisleavesthemeaningunclear.


246. Thenormativemodelofstrategicdecision-makingsuggeststhatexecutivesexamineafirm’sexternalenvironmentandinternalconditions,andinusingthesetofobjectivecriteriatheyderivefromtheseanalyses,candecideonastrategy.

A. conditions,andinusingthesetofobjectivecriteriatheyderivefromtheseanalyses,candecide

B. conditions,andtheyusethesetofobjectivecriteriaderivedfromtheseanalysesindeciding

C. conditionsand,inusingthesetofobjectivecriteriaderivedfromtheseanalyses,deciding

D. conditionsand,usingthesetofobjectivecriteriaderivedfromtheseanalyses,decide

E. conditionsand,intheiruseofthesetofobjectivecriteriatheyderivefromtheseanalyses,theydecide

Grammaticalconstruction;Verbform

Thenounclauseintroducedbythathasonesubject(executives)andtwomainverbs(examineanddecide).Theseverbsneedtobeinparallelform.Theinformationaboutusingobjectivecriteriadescribestheexecutivesandisthereforemostefficientlypresentedasaparticipialphrase(using...)ratherthanaprepositionalphrase(inusing...).

A. Thisversionisunnecessarilywordyandindirect.Thereisnoneedtorepeatthesubject,executives,withthepronounthey.

B. Thisversionisunnecessarilywordybecauseitcreatesacompoundsentencebyrepeatingthesubject,usingthepronountheytorefertoexecutives.

C. Byusingthecoordinatingconjunctionand,thisversionofthesentencecreatestheneedforasecondsubjectandmainverb;thissecondsubjectisabsent.Theparticipledecidingcannotfunctionasamainverb.

D. Correct.Thesentenceisgrammaticallycorrectandusesproperverbformstoexpressaclearandlogicallycoherentmessage.

E. Thisversionofthesentenceiswordyandindirect,largelybecauseoftherepetitionofthepronounthey.


247. **************

TheenergysourceonVoyager2isnotanuclearreactor,inwhichatomsareactivelybrokenapart;ratherakindofnuclearbatterythatusesnaturalradioactivedecaytoproducepower.

A. apart;rather

B. apart,butrather

C. apart,butratherthatof

D. apart,butthatof

E. apart;itisthatof


Thecorrectversionofthissentencefocusesonacontrastbyusingtheconstructionnotx,butrathery.Acomma,notasemicolon,shouldseparatethetwoparallelpartsofthecontrast;usingasemicolonresultsinasentencefragmentunlessasubjectandverbareprovidedintheconstructionthatfollowsthesemicolon.

A. Usingasemicolonresultsinasentencefragment.

B. Correct.Thissentenceisgrammaticalandlogicallycoherent.Thecontrastisclearlydrawnintheconstructionnotanuclearreactor...,butratherakindofnuclearbattery.

C. Thatofhasnoreferentandresultsinanillogicalconstruction.

D. Thatofhasnoreferent.

E. Nowordisusedtoindicatecontrast;thatofhasnoreferent.


248. Accordingtoitsproponents,aproposednewstyleofaircraftcould,byskimmingalongthetopoftheatmosphere,flybetweenmostpointsonEarthinundertwohours.

A. Accordingtoitsproponents,aproposednewstyleofaircraftcould,byskimmingalongthetopoftheatmosphere,flybetweenmostpointsonEarthinundertwohours.

B. Byskimmingalongthetopoftheatmosphere,proponentsofaproposednewstyleofaircraftsayitcouldflybetweenmostpointsonEarthinundertwohours.

C. Aproposednewstyleofaircraftcouldflybetweenmostpointson

Earthinundertwohours,accordingtoitsproponents,withitskimmingalongthetopoftheatmosphere.

D. Aproposednewstyleofaircraft,sayitsproponents,couldflybetweenmostpointsonEarthinundertwohoursbecauseofitsskimmingalongthetopoftheatmosphere.

E. Accordingtoitsproponents,skimmingalongthetopoftheatmospheremakesitpossiblethataproposednewstyleofaircraftcouldflybetweenmostpointsonEarthinundertwohours.


ThemainpointofthissentenceisthataproposedaircraftcouldflybetweenanytwopointsonEarthinundertwohours;thatinformationshouldbepresentedinthemainclause.Qualificationsofthispoint(whosaysit,howitcanbeaccomplished)areasecondaryfocusandshouldthereforebepresentedinadverbialphrases.

A. Correct.Thesentenceisclear,direct,andlogicallycoherent.

B. Thissentencemakesproponentsthemainsubjectofthesentence;theopeningprepositionalphrase,Byskimming...,nonsensicallydescribesproponents.

C. Theprepositionalphrase(withit...)isindirectandwordyandtoofarfromthenounphraseitmodifies(styleofaircraft).

D. Theexplanationofhowtheaircraftcouldaccomplishitsfeatisawkwardlyexpressedinthefinalphrase(becauseofits...).

E. Thisversioniswordyandrepetitive(possibleandcouldrepeatthesamemeaning);becausetheantecedentforitsissofarfromtheopeningphrase,thereferenceisunclear.


249. Lawmakersareexaminingmeasuresthatwouldrequirebankstodiscloseallfeesandaccountrequirementsinwriting,providefreecashingofgovernmentchecks,andtocreatebasicsavingsaccountstocarryminimalfeesandrequireminimalinitialdeposits.

A. providefreecashingofgovernmentchecks,andtocreatebasicsavingsaccountstocarry

B. providefreecashingofgovernmentchecks,andcreatingbasicsavingsaccountscarrying

C. toprovidefreecashingofgovernmentchecks,andcreatingbasicsavingsaccountsthatcarry

D. toprovidefreecashingofgovernmentchecks,creatingbasicsavingsaccountstocarry

E. toprovidefreecashingofgovernmentchecks,andtocreatebasicsavingsaccountsthatcarry

Parallelism;Verbform

Thecorrectversionofthesentenceusesparallelstructuretodescribewhatnewlegislationwouldrequirebankstodo.Thefirstrequirementiswrittenastodisclose;theothertworequirementsmustbeparallelinform.Inthiscase,theothertworequirementscanbegivenaseithertoprovide...tocreateorprovide...create,withthetounderstood.Inaddition,usingthesameinfinitiveformforadifferentpurposeintocarryispotentiallyconfusing;usingthatcarryisaclearerconstruction.

A. Provideandtocreatearenotparallel.Tocarryisunclearandcanbeseenasmakingtheillogicalclaimthatthepurposeofcreatingtheaccountsistocarryminimalfeesandrequireminimaldeposits.

B. Provideandcreatingarenotparallel.

C. Creatingisnotparallelwithtoprovide.

D. Toprovideandcreatingarenotparallelinform.Tocarryisunclearandcanbeseenasmakingtheillogicalclaimthatthepurposeofcreatingtheaccountsistocarryminimalfeesandrequireminimaldeposits.

E. Correct.Parallelismismaintainedinthissentencebyfollowingtodisclosewithtoprovideandtocreate.Inthissetting,theformthatcarryismorereadilyunderstoodthantocarry.


250. Whethertheywillscalebacktheirorderstopre-2003levelsorstopdoingbusinesswithusaltogetherdependsonwhetherthechangesthattheirmanagementhasproposedwillbefullyimplemented.

A. Whethertheywillscalebacktheirorderstopre-2003levelsorstopdoingbusinesswithusaltogetherdependsonwhetherthechangesthattheirmanagementhasproposedwillbefullyimplemented.

B. Whethertheyscalebacktheirorderstopre-2003levelsorwhethertheydiscontinuetheirbusinesswithusaltogetherdependsonthe

changestheirmanagementhasproposed,iffullyimplementedornot.

C. Theireitherscalingbacktheirordersinthefuturetopre-2003levels,ortheiroutrightterminationofbusinesswithus,dependsontheirmanagement’sproposedchangesbeingfullyimplementedornot.

D. Whethertheywillscalebacktheirorderstopre-2003levelsorstopdoingbusinesswithusaltogetherdependsifthechangesthattheirmanagementhasproposedbecomefullyimplemented.

E. Theywilleitherscalebacktheirorderstopre-2003levels,ortheywillstopdoingbusinesswithusaltogetherdependentonwhetherthechangestheirmanagementhasproposedwillbefullyimplemented,ornot.

Rhetoricalconstruction;Diction

Thissentenceexpressesadependencybetweentwosetsofoptions:thefirstisscalingbackordersversusstoppingallbusiness,andthesecondisfullyimplementingchangesversusnotfullyimplementingchanges.Ineachcase,themostsuccinctwaytoexpressthetwooptionsisthewhetherX(orY)construction,whichimmediatelyandclearlysignalsthepresenceoftwoopposedoptions.Inlinkingthetwosetsofoptions,dependordependentrequirestheprepositionon.

A. Correct.Eachsetofoptionsisexpressedconciselywithasinglewhether,anddependisfollowedbyon.

B. Thefirstsetofoptionsisexpressedbymeansofasecond,redundantandillogicalwhether;thesecondsetisexpressedinanunclearway,unnecessarilydelayingtheidentificationofthetwooptionsuntiltheveryend.Dependsonthechanges...iffullyimplementedornotmakesthemeaningunclear.Thiscouldbeanawkwardwayoftryingtosaythattheoutcomedependsonwhetherthechangeswillbemade,butitcouldjustasplausiblybeanattempttosaythattheoutcomedependsonthechanges,regardlessofwhetherthechangeswillbefullyimplemented.

C. Bothsetsofoptionsareexpressedwithoutwhether,andthefirstsetdoesnotevenexplicitlysaythatthereissuchanoption.Asaresult,theexistenceoftwodependentsetsofoptionsisunclearuntiltheendofthesentence.

D. Thefirstsetofoptionsiscorrectlyexpressedwithwhether,butthe

secondisnot;also,dependlacksafollowingprepositionon.

E. Bothsetsofoptionsareexpressedwithoutwhether,andthefirstsetdoesnotevenexplicitlysignaltheexistenceofoptions,sotheexistenceoftwodependentsetsofoptionsisunclearuntiltheendofthesentence.


251. Twenty-twofeetlongand10feetindiameter,theAM-1isoneofthemanynewsatellitesthatisapartof

15yearseffortofsubjectingtheinteractionsofEarth’satmosphere,oceans,andlandsurfacestodetailedscrutinyfromspace.

A. satellitesthatisapartof15yearseffortofsubjectingtheinteractionsofEarth’satmosphere,oceans,andlandsurfaces

B. satellites,whichisapartofa15-yearefforttosubjecthowEarth’satmosphere,oceans,andlandsurfacesinteract

C. satellites,partof15yearseffortofsubjectinghowEarth’satmosphere,oceans,andlandsurfacesareinteracting

D. satellitesthatarepartofaneffortfor15yearsthathassubjectedtheinteractionsofEarth’satmosphere,oceans,andlandsurfaces

E. satellitesthatarepartofa15-yearefforttosubjecttheinteractionsofEarth’satmosphere,oceans,andlandsurfaces


ThissentencedescribesonesatelliteandidentifiesitaspartofalargerspaceprojectdesignedtoscrutinizeEarth’socean,land,andatmosphericinteractions.Therelativepronounthatreferstosatellites,soitshouldbefollowedbyapluralverb.Theidiomaticexpressionisefforttoratherthaneffortof.Thecorrectadjectivaltermis15-yearratherthan15years.

A. Therelativepronounthatreferstosatellites,soitshouldbefollowedbythepluralverbare;efforttoisthecorrectidiomaticexpression;asanadjective,15yearsbecomes15-year.

B. Inthisversionofthesentence,itisunclearwhattherelativepronounwhichrefersto—ifitreferstosatellites,itshouldbefollowedbyapluralverb.Presentingtheobjectoftheverbsubjectasaphrasebeginningwithhowandendingwiththeverbinteractproducesasentencethatseemstobeabouthowvariousconditionsreacttodetailedscrutinyfromspace.

C. Thissentencetooseemstobemakinganonsensicalstatementabouthowconditionsareinteractingtodetailedscrutiny.ItisnotclearwhetherpartreferstosatellitesortheAM-1.

D. Thisversioniswordyandconfusingbecauseofthesequenceofrelativeclausesbeginningwiththat.

E. Correct.Thesentenceisclearlywordedandlogicallycoherent.


252. Manykitchenstodayareequippedwithhigh-speedelectricalgadgets,suchasblendersandfoodprocessors,whichareabletoinflictasseriousinjuriesasthosecausedbyanindustrialwood-planingmachine.

A. whichareabletoinflictasseriousinjuriesasthose

B. whichcaninflictseriousinjuriessuchasthose

C. inflictinginjuriesasseriousasthathavingbeen

D. capabletoinflictinjuriesasseriousasthat

E. capableofinflictinginjuriesasseriousasthose

Idiom;Agreement

Thepointofthissentenceistheclaimthatcommonkitchenappliancescanbeasdangerousasanindustrialwood-planingmachine.Itmakesthispointbycomparingtheinjuries(plural)causedbyblendersandfoodprocessorswiththose(alsoplural)causedbythewood-planingmachine.Anefficientwaytomakethiscomparisonistousetheidiomcapableof,anadjectivephraseratherthanarelativeclause,afterblendersandfoodprocessors.

A. Thetermablesuggestsagency,whichkitchengadgetsdonothave.Thephraseasseriousinjuriesasthoseisnon-idiomatic,apparentlycomparinginjuriesratherthanthedegreeofseriousnessofinjuries.Therelativeclausemakesthesentenceunnecessarilywordy.

B. Like(A),thissentenceintroduceswordinesswitharelativeclause;thecomparativephrasesuchasnonsensicallysuggeststhatinjuriescausedbyashopmachineareexamplesofthosecausedbykitchengadgets.

C. Itisnotclearwhattheparticipialinflictingmodifies.Thesentencesuggeststhatkitchengadgetsinevitablyinflictinjuries;thesingularrelativepronounthateitherincorrectlyreferstoapluralnoun,

injuries,orimplausiblyindicatesthatindustrialwood-planingmachineshaveonlyevercausedasingleinjury.

D. Asin(C),thesingularpronounthateitherdisagreeswiththepluralnouninjuriesorimplausiblyindicatesthatindustrialwood-planingmachineshaveonlyevercausedasingleinjury.Thephrasecapabletoisnotidiomatic.

E. Correct.Thisversionofthesentencecorrectlycomparestheseriousnessofonetypeofinjurywiththeseriousnessofanother(asseriousasthose),andthephrasecapableofisacorrectidiom.


253. Underhighpressureandintenseheat,graphite,themoststableformofpurecarbon,changesintothesubstancecommonlyreferredtoasdiamondandremainingthiswaywhetherornottheheatandpressureareremoved.

A. remainingthiswaywhetherornot

B. remaininglikethatevenas

C. remainingassuchwhetherornot

D. remainsinthiswayalthough

E. remainsthusevenwhen


Thissentencetellsoftwothingsthathappentographiteunderintenseheatandpressure,andthesearebestpresentedasparallelpredicates—changesandremains.Thusisthemosteconomicalwaytosaythisway,likethat,assuch,orinthisway.

A. Remainingshouldbeamainverb,parallelwithchanges.

B. Remainingshouldbeparallelwiththeothermainverb,changes;evenassuggeststhemeaningofwhile,whichisnottheintentofthesentence.

C. Remainingshouldbeparallelwithchanges;whetherornotisunnecessarilywordy.

D. Inthiswayisunnecessarilywordy;althoughindicatesthattheheatandpressurearealwaysordefinitelyremoved,butthismakeslittlesenseinrelationtotherestofthesentence.

E. Correct.Thesentencecoherentlyreferstothepossibilityofheat

andpressurebeingremoved.Thesentenceisclearandconciseandproperlyusesparallelverbforms.


254. Overarangeoffrequenciesfrom100to5,000hertz,monkeysandmarmosetshaveahearingsensitivityremarkablysimilartohumans,abovewhichthesensitivitybeginstodiffer.

A. Overarangeoffrequenciesfrom100to5,000hertz,monkeysandmarmosetshaveahearingsensitivityremarkablysimilartohumans

B. Comparedtohumans,thehearingsensitivityofmonkeysandmarmosetsareremarkablysimilaroverarangeoffrequenciesfrom100to5,000hertz

C. Comparedtohumansoverarangeoffrequenciesfrom100to5,000hertz,thehearingsensitivityofmonkeysandmarmosetsisremarkablysimilar

D. Thehearingsensitivityofmonkeysandmarmosets,whencomparedtohumansoverarangeoffrequenciesfrom100to5,000hertz,isremarkablysimilar

E. Thehearingsensitivityofmonkeys,marmosets,andhumansisremarkablysimilaroverarangeoffrequenciesfrom100to5,000hertz


Thissentenceexpressestwoideas:thesimilarityinmonkey,marmoset,andhumanhearinginthestatedfrequencyrange,andthedivergenceinhearingsensitivityabovethatrange.Thesecondideaisintroducedbyabovewhich.Abovewhichshouldbeimmediatelyprecededbytheantecedentofwhich,thatis,the100–5,000Hzrange.Also,thesubjectandverbmustagreeinnumber.

A. Inthisconstruction,abovewhich...illogicallymodifieseitherhumansorahearingsensitivityremarkablysimilartohumans,ratherthanthefrequencyrange.

B. Thesingularsubjectinthisversion,thehearingsensitivity...,isnotaccompaniedbythecorrectsingularverbform(is).

C. Abovewhichisincorrectlyprecededbysimilar,ratherthanbytheexpressionofthefrequencyrange.Thesentenceappears,illogically,tocomparehumansoverarangeoffrequencieswithmonkeys’and

marmosets’hearingsensitivity.

D. Abovewhichisincorrectlyprecededbysimilar,ratherthanbytheexpressionofthefrequencyrange.Thesentenceappears,illogically,tocomparehumansoverarangeoffrequencieswithmonkeys’andmarmosets’hearingsensitivity.

E. Correct.Abovewhichiscorrectlyprecededbyarangeoffrequencies...,andtheverbisisinitspropersingularform.


255. Thecomputercompanyreportedstrongsecond-quarterearningsthatsurpassedWallStreet’sestimatesandannouncedthefirstinaseriesofpricecutsintendedtoincreasesalesfurther.

A. Thecomputercompanyreportedstrongsecond-quarterearningsthatsurpassedWallStreet’sestimatesandannouncedthefirstinaseriesofpricecutsintendedtoincreasesalesfurther.

B. Thereportofthecomputercompanyshowedstrongsecond-quarterearnings,surpassingWallStreet’sestimates,andtheyannouncedthefirstinaseriesofpricecutsthattheyintendtoincreasesalesfurther.

C. SurpassingWallStreet’sestimates,thereportofthecomputercompanyshowedstrongsecond-quarterearnings,and,forthepurposeofincreasingsalesfurther,theyannouncedthefirstinaseriesofpricecuts.

D. Thecomputercompanyreportedstrongsecond-quarterearnings,surpassingWallStreet’sestimates,andannouncingthefirstinaseriesofpricecutsforthepurposeoffurtherincreasingsales.

E. Thecomputercompany,surpassingWallStreet’sestimates,reportedstrongsecond-quarterearnings,whileannouncingthattoincreasesalesfurthertherewouldbethefirstinaseriesofpricecuts.

Logicalpredication;Idiom

Thepointofthesentenceistodescribetwoactionsofthecomputercompany:itsearningsreportanditsannouncementofapricecut.Topresentthisinformationmostefficiently,thesentencerequiresasingularsubject“thecomputercompany”andcompoundverbs(reportedandannounced).Toindicatethatitisthecompany’searningsandnotthereportthatsurpassedWallStreet’sestimates,therelativeclausethat

surpassed...mustimmediatelyfollowearnings.

A. Correct.Thesentencemakesclearthatthecompanyisresponsibleforreportingitsearningsandannouncingitssalesplan;theplacementoftherelativeclausethatsurpassed...makesitclearthatthecompany’searnings,notthereport,surpassedWallStreet’sestimate.

B. Becausethiscompoundsentenceopensthefirstclausewiththesubjectthereport,andrelegatesthecomputercompanytothepositionofobjectofapreposition,thereferentofthesubjectofthesecondclausetheyisobscured—particularlysincetheyispluralandtheintendedreferentcompanyissingular.Thefunctionofthatinthefinalclauseisambiguousandconfusing.

C. Theplacementoftheopeningmodifiersurpassing...makesitmodifyreportratherthanestimate.Thepluralpronountheydoesnotagreewithitsintendedantecedent,company.

D. Surpassing...andtheparallelphraseannouncing...bothappeartomodifytheentireopeningclause,representingparallelfunctionsofthecompany’sreportofitsearnings.

E. Theplacementofsurpassing...makesthatphrasemodifyreported....Theconjunctionwhileindicatesthattheannouncementandthereportoccurredsimultaneously.Thephrasetherewouldbe...introducesunnecessarywordinessandindirection.


256. AnalystsblamedMay’ssluggishretailsalesonunexcitingmerchandiseaswellastheweather,colderandwetterthanwasusualinsomeregions,whichslowedsalesofbarbecuegrillsandlawnfurniture.

A. colderandwetterthanwasusualinsomeregions,whichslowed

B. whichwascolderandwetterthanusualinsomeregions,slowing

C. sinceitwascolderandwetterthanusuallyinsomeregions,whichslowed

D. beingcolderandwetterthanusuallyinsomeregions,slowing

E. havingbeencolderandwetterthanwasusualinsomeregionsandslowed

Logicalpredication;Diction

Thesentencemustclearlyindicatethattheinclementweatherhadslowedretailsales.Relativepronouns,suchaswhich,shouldfollowascloselyaspossiblethenounstowhichtheyrefer.Theadjectiveusual,ratherthantheadverbusually,isrequiredwhenmodifyinganoun.Thephrasewetterthanusualiscorrectandconcise.

A. Theinsertionofwasisunnecessaryandmisleading.Thereferentofwhichisunclear,becauseregions,notweather,isthenearestnoun.

B. Correct.Thissentenceisconcise,correct,andidiomatic,andwhichhasaclearreferent,theweather.

C. Withthelinkingverbwas,theadjectiveusualisneededinplaceoftheadverbusually.Thereferentofwhichisunclearbecauseregions,notweather,isthenearestnoun.

D. Thisconstructionisunclearandcanbeseenasunintentionallyindicatingthattheanalystswerecolderandwetter.Theadjectiveusualshouldbeusedinsteadoftheadverbusuallytomodifythenounweather.

E. Thisconstructionisunclearandcanbeseenasunintentionallyindicatingthattheanalystswerecolderandwetter.Theinsertionofwasisunnecessaryandmisleading.


257. BeingaUnitedStatescitizensince1988andborninCalcuttain1940,authorBharatiMukherjeehaslivedinEnglandandCanada,andfirstcametotheUnitedStatesin1961tostudyattheIowaWriters’Workshop.

A. BeingaUnitedStatescitizensince1988andborninCalcuttain1940,authorBharatiMukherjeehas

B. HavingbeenaUnitedStatescitizensince1988,shewasborninCalcuttain1940;authorBharatiMukherjee

C. BorninCalcuttain1940,authorBharatiMukherjeebecameaUnitedStatescitizenin1988;shehas

D. BeingborninCalcuttain1940andhavingbeenaUnitedStatescitizensince1988,authorBharatiMukherjee

E. HavingbeenborninCalcuttain1940andbeingaUnitedStatescitizensince1988,authorBharatiMukherjee

Verbform;Rhetoricalconstruction

Being...since1988andborninCalcuttain1940isanawkward,wordyconstruction,whichpresentsanunclearandpotentiallyconfusingchronologicalorder.Sinceinthecorrectversionofthesentencetheoriginalphrase(being...)hasbeenmadeintoamainclause,asemicolonshouldseparateitfromthesecondmainclausebeginningshehaslived.

A. Thephrasesareexpressedinanillogicalandpotentiallyconfusingsequence.

B. Havingbeensuggeststhatthecitizenshipcamechronologicallybeforethebirth.Thepronounsheisthesubjectofthefirstclause;sincetheauthor’snameismentionedonlyafterthesemicolon,shehasnoclearreferent.

C. Correct.Inthissentence,thesequenceofeventsisexpressedlogically,grammatically,andconciselyineachindependentclause.

D. Theprogressiveverbformsbeingbornandhavingbeenillogicallysuggestcontinuousactionandfailtoestablishalogicaltimesequence.Thesentenceiswordyandawkward.

E. Theprogressiveverbformshavingbeenbornandbeingillogicallysuggestcontinuousactionandfailtoestablishalogicaltimesequence.Thesentenceiswordyandawkward.


258. EventhoughtheoverallconsumerpriceindexdidnotchangeinApril,indicatingtheabsenceofanygeneralinflationordeflation,pricesinseveralcategoriesofmerchandisehavefallenoverthelastseveralmonths.

A. April,indicatingtheabsenceofanygeneralinflationordeflation,pricesinseveralcategoriesofmerchandisehavefallen

B. April,indicatingthatanygeneralinflationordeflationwereabsent,pricesinseveralcategoriesofmerchandisefell

C. Aprilandindicatedthatabsenceofanygeneralinflationordeflation,pricesinseveralcategoriesofmerchandisefell

D. April,havingindicatedtheabsenceofanygeneralinflationordeflation,pricesinseveralcategoriesofmerchandisefell

E. April,whichindicatedthatanygeneralinflationordeflationwereabsent,pricesinseveralcategoriesofmerchandisehavefallen


Coordinatednounphrasesinwhichsingularnounsarelinkedbyorareconsideredsingular,sowhenthephraseanygeneralinflationordeflationisasubject,itrequiresasingularverb.Oneoftheanswerchoicesincorrectlyusesthewordthat.Anotherphrasingproblemiswithindicating/indicated.Indicatingworkswellasaverbformintheoptionswhereitoccurs.

A. Correct.Anygeneralinflationordeflationisnotasubject(itfunctionsastheobjectoftheprepositionof),sothereisnopotentialagreementproblem.

B. Wereisincorrectastheagreeingformofbe;itshouldbeis.

C. Ifthatistakenasademonstrativeadjectivemodifyingabsence,itisinappropriate(thewordtheisrequired);ifitismeantasasubordinatingconjunction,itisincorrectbecauseitisnotfollowedbyaclause.

D. Havingindicatedisunclearandunnecessarilylong.Itappearstosay,somewhatillogically,thattheindicationoccurredatsomeunspecifiedtimepriortothelackofchangeinApril.Indicatingworkswellaloneandwouldbeapreferableverbformhere.

E. Wereherecouldonlybemeanteitherasapluralpast-tenseverborasasingularsubjunctive-moodverb(appropriateonlyincertainconditionalcontexts);ineithercaseitisincorrect.Also,indicatingworkswell,andthewhich-clauseisunnecessary.


259. ArchaeologistsinIrelandbelievethatarecentlydiscoveredchalice,whichdatesfromtheeighthcentury,wasprobablyburiedtokeepfrombeingstolenbyinvaders.

A. tokeepfrom

B. tokeepitfrom

C. toavoid

D. inorderthatitwouldavoid

E. inordertokeepfrom


Thephrasetokeepfrombeingstolenisincompleteanddoesnotindicate

whatmightbestolen.Insertingapronounmakesitclearthatitisthechalicethatmightbestolen.

A. Thepronounitisneededforclarity.

B. Correct.Thesentenceisclarifiedbyinsertingthewordit,whichrefersbacktochalice.

C. Thissuggeststhatthechaliceactstopreventitsowntheft.Thepronounitisneededforclarity.

D. Thissuggeststhatthechaliceactstopreventitsowntheft.Thepronounitisneededforclarity.Inorderthatitwouldiswordy.

E. Thepronounitisneededforclarity.


260. DespiteJapan’srelativeisolationfromworldtradeatthetime,theprolongedpeaceduringtheTokugawashogunateproducedanalmostexplosiveexpansionofcommerce.

A. Japan’srelativeisolationfromworldtradeatthetime,theprolongedpeaceduringtheTokugawashogunate

B. therelativeisolationofJapanfromworldtradeatthetimeandtheTokugawashogunate’sprolongedpeace,it

C. beingrelativelyisolatedfromworldtradeatthetime,theprolongedpeaceduringJapan’sTokugawashogunate

D. Japan’srelativeisolationfromworldtradeatthetimeduringtheTokugawashogunate,prolongedpeace

E. itsrelativeisolationfromworldtradethen,prolongedpeaceinJapanduringtheTokugawashogunate


Allpredicatesmusthaveaclearsubject;inthissentence,thelogicalsubjectoftheverbproducedistheprolongedpeace.Duringisaconcisewaytointroducetherelevanttimeperiodofthispeace(theperiodoftheTokugawashogunate);thephraseatthetimeclearlyreferstothesametimeperiod.

A. Correct.Thesubjectofproducedisclearlyandlogicallyidentified;duringsuccinctlyprovidesthetimeframe.

B. Thephraseatthetimeleavesituncertainwhattimeisbeingreferredto.Thesubjectitofproduceddoesnotclearlyidentifythis

verb’slogicalsubject,sinceitissingularyetseemstobeintendedtorefertotwosituationspreviouslymentioned,isolationandprolongedpeace.

C. BeingrelativelyisolatedismostlikelymeanttorefertoJapan’sisolation,butsincegrammaticallyitmustmodifytheprolongedpeace(thesubjectofthemainclause),thesentencewouldhaveanillogicalandunintendedmeaning.

D. Ifatthetimeistobeusedinsteadofduring,itshouldbefollowedbyof;thebetterchoiceistosimplyuseduringbyitself.

E. Theuseofthenafterworldtradeisawkwardandredundant,becauseduringlaterinthesentencesuppliesthetimeframeforbothJapan’sisolationandtheperiodofpeace.Thestructureofthesentenceleavesit(s)withoutaclearreferent.


261. Thebankholds$3billioninloansthatareseriouslydelinquentorinsuchtroublethattheydonotexpectpaymentswhendue.

A. theydonotexpectpaymentswhen

B. itdoesnotexpectpaymentswhenitis

C. itdoesnotexpectpaymentstobemadewhentheyare

D. paymentsarenottobeexpectedtobepaidwhen

E. paymentsarenotexpectedtobepaidwhentheywillbe

Agreement;Logicalpredication;Verbform

Thepluralpronountheycannotbeusedtorefertothesingularnounbank.Thestructureoftheydonotexpectpaymentswhendueisawkwardandunclear.

A. Bankrequiresthesingularpronounit,notthepluralpronounthey.Thestructureofwhenduecreatesambiguityinmeaning.

B. Paymentsisapluralnoun,sothesingularitisisincorrect.

C. Correct.Inthiscorrectsentence,pronounsandtheirreferentsagree,asdosubjectsandtheirverbs.Theadditionofthemodifyingphrasetobemadeclarifiesthemeaningofthesentence.

D. Theactivevoiceispreferablehere,sincethepassivevoiceleavesitunclearwhodoesnotexpectthepaymentstobemade.Payments...tobepaidisredundant.Arenottobeincorrectlysuggeststhatthe

writerisprescribingthatthepaymentsnotbeexpected.

E. Theactivevoiceispreferablehere,sincethepassivevoiceleavesitunclearwhodoesnotexpectthepaymentstobemade.Payments...tobepaidisredundant.Willbeisnotthecorrectverbform.


262. Facedwithanestimated$2billionbudgetgap,thecity’smayorproposedanearly17percentreductionintheamountallocatedthepreviousyeartomaintainthecity’smajorculturalinstitutionsandtosubsidizehundredsoflocalartsgroups.

A. proposedanearly17percentreductionintheamountallocatedthepreviousyeartomaintainthecity’smajorculturalinstitutionsandtosubsidize

B. proposedareductionfromthepreviousyearofnearly17percentintheamountitwasallocatingtomaintainthecity’smajorculturalinstitutionsandforsubsidizing

C. proposedtoreduce,bynearly17percent,theamountfromthepreviousyearthatwasallocatedforthemaintenanceofthecity’smajorculturalinstitutionsandtosubsidize

D. hasproposedareductionfromthepreviousyearofnearly17percentoftheamountitwasallocatingformaintainingthecity’smajorculturalinstitutions,andtosubsidize

E. wasproposingthattheamounttheywereallocatingbereducedbynearly17percentfromthepreviousyearformaintainingthecity’smajorculturalinstitutionsandforthesubsidization

Rhetoricalconstruction;Parallelism

Theoriginalsentencecontainsnoerrors.Itusestheparallelconstructiontomaintainandtosubsidizetoshowclearlythetwoareaswherethe17percentreductioninfundswillbeapplied.Inaddition,the17percentreductioniscloselyfollowedbytheamountallocatedthepreviousyear,makingitclearwhatisbeingreducedby17percent.

A. Correct.Thesentenceusesparallelconstructionandawell-placedmodifier.

B. Tomaintainandforsubsidizingarenotparallel.Thesentenceisimprecise,anditdoesnothaveaclearantecedent.

C. Forthemaintenanceandtosubsidizearenotparallel,andthe

sentenceiswordy.

D. Formaintainingandtosubsidizearenotparallel,itdoesnothaveaclearantecedent,andthesentencestructuremakesitunclearjustwhatthewriterisclaiming.

E. Maintainingandthesubsidizationarenotparallel,theydoesnothaveaclearantecedent,andthesentencestructuremakesitunclearjustwhatthewriterisclaiming.


263. Inthetextbookpublishingbusiness,thesecondquarterishistoricallyweak,becauserevenuesarelowandmarketingexpensesarehighascompaniesprepareforthecomingschoolyear.

A. lowandmarketingexpensesarehighascompaniesprepare

B. lowandtheirmarketingexpensesarehighastheyprepare

C. lowwithhighermarketingexpensesinpreparation

D. low,whilemarketingexpensesarehighertoprepare

E. low,whiletheirmarketingexpensesarehigherinpreparation

Parallelism;Logicalpredication

Thissentenceiscorrectlywritten.Itusesparallelstructuretogivetworeasonswhytextbookpublishershaveweaksecondquarters:revenuesarelowandexpensesarehigh.Theconstructionascompaniesprepareforthecomingschoolyearisclear,asopposedtotheawkwardconstructionsusingtheambiguouspluralpronounstheyandtheir.

A. Correct.Thissentenceusestheparallelformsarelow...arehighandemploystheunambiguouscompaniesasthesubjectofprepare.

B. Theirseemsillogicallytorefertorevenues.Thesubjectofprepareistheambiguousthey.

C. Higherisnotparalleltolow,anditgivesnoindicationofwhatthecomparisonissupposedtobe(Higherthanwhat?).Thisconstructionmakesitappear,illogically,thatthelowrevenueshavehighermarketingexpenses.

D. Higherisnotparalleltolowandisillogical.Theinfinitiveconstructiontoprepare...isawkward.

E. Higherisnotparalleltolowandisillogicalsincenocomparisonisbeingmade;theirhasnoclearreferent.


264. Ms.Chambersisamongtheforecasterswhopredictthattherateofadditiontoarablelandswilldropwhilethoseoflossrise.

A. thoseoflossrise

B. itrisesforloss

C. thoseoflossesrise

D. therateoflossrises

E. therearerisesfortherateofloss


Theforecasterismakingpredictionsabouttwodifferentrates.Theforecastchangesintheratescanbecomparedusingtheconstructiontherateofxwilldropwhiletherateofyrises;xandyshouldbeparallel.

A. Thereisnoreferentforthose.

B. Itreferstotherateofaddition,creatinganonsensicalstatement.

C. Thereisnoreferentforthose.Oflossesshouldbesingulartoparallelofaddition.

D. Correct.Thissentenceusesaconstructionthatclearlystatesthepredictedchangesintherates;theratesareexpressedinparallelways.

E. Therearerisesforiswordyandunidiomatic.


265. Lessthan400SumatranrhinossurviveontheMalaypeninsulaandontheislandsofSumatraandBorneo,andtheyoccupyasmallfractionofthespecies’formerrange.

A. Lessthan400SumatranrhinossurviveontheMalaypeninsulaandontheislandsofSumatraandBorneo,andtheyoccupyasmallfractionofthespecies’formerrange.

B. Lessthan400Sumatranrhinos,survivingontheMalaypeninsulaandontheislandsofSumatraandBorneo,occupyasmallfractionofthespecies’formerrange.

C. Occupyingasmallfractionofthespecies’formerrange,theMalaypeninsulaandtheislandsofSumatraandBorneoarewherefewer

than400Sumatranrhinossurvive.

D. Occupyingasmallfractionofthespecies’formerrange,fewerthan400SumatranrhinossurviveontheMalaypeninsulaandontheislandsofSumatraandBorneo.

E. SurvivingontheMalaypeninsulaandontheislandsofSumatraandBorneo,lessthan400Sumatranrhinosoccupyasmallfractionofthespecies’formerrange.

Diction;LogicalPredication

BecausethenumberofSumatranrhinoshasbeengiven,thecomparativetermfewerratherthanlessshouldbeusedtoaccountfortheirnumbers.Inordertoclarifythathabitatcurrentlyoccupiedbytherhinosisbutasmallfractionoftheirformerrange,theinformationabouttheirdwindlinghabitatismostefficientlypresentedinanopeningparticipialphrasedescribingtherhinos,followedbyamainclauseinwhichthenumberofsurvivingrhinosisthesubject,withthepredicateexplainingwheretherhinoscurrentlylive.Bypresentingtheinformationaboutthepopulationandrangeofrhinosintwoseparateindependentclauses,thesentenceaswrittendoesnotclarifythattheformerrangeoftherhinosonceextendedbeyondthepeninsulaandtheislands.

A. LessisinappropriatefordescribingthespecificnumberofsurvivingSumatranrhinos.Theseparateindependentclausesobscurethefactthattherhinos’rangeusedtoextendbeyondthepeninsulaandthetwoislands.Thereferentoftheyisunclear.

B. LessisinappropriatefordescribingthespecificnumberofsurvivingSumatranrhinos.Byusinganonrestrictivephrasesurviving...,thesentencesuggeststhatfewerthan400rhinos—perhapsonlyaportionofthetotalnumber—occupyasmallfractionofthespecies’formerrange.

C. Theopeningparticipialphrasesomewhatillogicallymodifiespeninsulaand...islandsratherthantherhinos.

D. Correct.Theopeningparticipialphrasecorrectlymodifiesfewerthan400...rhinos,aphrasethatusesthecorrectcomparativeterm.

E. Thecomparativetermlessisinappropriatefordescribingthenumberofrhinos.


266. Certainpesticidescanbecomeineffectiveifusedrepeatedlyinthesameplace;onereasonissuggestedbythefindingthattherearemuchlargerpopulationsofpesticide-degradingmicrobesinsoilswitharelativelylonghistoryofpesticideusethaninsoilsthatarefreeofsuchchemicals.

A. Certainpesticidescanbecomeineffectiveifusedrepeatedlyinthesameplace;onereasonissuggestedbythefindingthattherearemuchlargerpopulationsofpesticide-degradingmicrobesinsoilswitharelativelylonghistoryofpesticideusethaninsoilsthatarefreeofsuchchemicals.

B. Ifusedrepeatedlyinthesameplace,onereasonthatcertainpesticidescanbecomeineffectiveissuggestedbythefindingthattherearemuchlargerpopulationsofpesticide-degradingmicrobesinsoilswitharelativelylonghistoryofpesticideusethaninsoilsthatarefreeofsuchchemicals.

C. Ifusedrepeatedlyinthesameplace,onereasoncertainpesticidescanbecomeineffectiveissuggestedbythefindingthatmuchlargerpopulationsofpesticide-degradingmicrobesarefoundinsoilswitharelativelylonghistoryofpesticideusethanthosethatarefreeofsuchchemicals.

D. Thefindingthattherearemuchlargerpopulationsofpesticide-degradingmicrobesinsoilswitharelativelylonghistoryofpesticideusethaninsoilsthatarefreeofsuchchemicalsissuggestiveofonereason,ifusedrepeatedlyinthesameplace,certainpesticidescanbecomeineffective.

E. Thefindingofmuchlargerpopulationsofpesticide-degradingmicrobesinsoilswitharelativelylonghistoryofpesticideusethaninthosethatarefreeofsuchchemicalssuggestsonereasoncertainpesticidescanbecomeineffectiveifusedrepeatedlyinthesameplace.


Thesentenceiscorrectlyconstructed;ithastwoindependentclausesconnectedbyasemicolon.Ifusedrepeatedlyinthesameplaceclearlyandcorrectlymodifiescertainpesticides.

A. Correct.Thesentenceiscorrectlyconstructed;themodifierifusedrepeatedlyinthesameplaceiscorrectlyplaced.

B. Ifusedrepeatedlyinthesameplacemodifiesonereasonwhenitshouldmodifycertainpesticides.

C. Ifusedrepeatedlyinthesameplacemodifiesonereasonwhenitshouldmodifycertainpesticides.Theabsenceofininthephrasethanthose...makesthecomparisonunclear.

D. Ifusedrepeatedlyinthesameplaceambiguouslymodifiesonereasonwhenitshouldclearlymodifycertainpesticides.

E. Thecomparisonthefindingofmuchlargerpopulations...thaninthosethat...isimproperlyconstructedinawaythatmakesthefindingappeartoreferawkwardlytoadiscoveryoflargerpopulationsratherthantoaresearchconclusionaboutthepresenceofsuchpopulations.


267. Themarketforrecycledcommoditieslikealuminumandothermetalsremainstrongdespiteeconomicchangesintherecyclingindustry.

A. commoditieslikealuminumandothermetalsremain

B. commoditieslikethoseofaluminumandothermetalsareremaining

C. commoditiessuchasaluminumandothermetalsremains

D. commodities,suchasaluminumandothermetals,remain

E. commodities,likethecommoditiesofaluminumandothermetals,remains


Thesingularsubjectmarketrequiresthesingularverbremains.Whiletherehasbeensomedisputeovertheuseofliketomean“forexample,”thisisanacceptableuse.

A. Thepluralverbdoesnotagreewiththesingularsubject.

B. Likethoseofindicatesthataluminumandothermetalspossesscommoditiesratherthanexemplifythem;thepluralverbareremainingdoesnotagreewiththesingularsubjectmarket.

C. Correct.Theverbagreeswiththesubject,andsuchasproperlyexpressestherelationshipbetweenrecycledcommoditiesandaluminumandothermetals.

D. Thepluralverbremaindoesnotagreewiththesingularsubject

market.

E. Therepetitionofcommoditiesiswordyandwiththeuseoflikethisphrasingcouldsuggestthatthemarketforrecycledcommoditiesislikeorequivalenttothecommoditiesofaluminumandothermetals.


268. Whilesomeacademiciansbelievethatbusinessethicsshouldbeintegratedintoeverybusinesscourse,otherssaythatstudentswilltakeethicsseriouslyonlyifitwouldbetaughtasaseparatelyrequiredcourse.

A. onlyifitwouldbetaughtasaseparatelyrequiredcourse

B. onlyifitistaughtasaseparate,requiredcourse

C. ifitistaughtonlyasacourserequiredseparately

D. ifitwastaughtonlyasaseparateandrequiredcourse

E. ifitwouldonlybetaughtasarequiredcourse,separately

Rhetoricalconstruction;Verbform;Diction

Conditionalconstructionsrequirespecificverbtenses.Forapresentcondition,likethisdebatebetweenacademicians,thesubordinateclauseintroducedbyifusesthepresentindicative,andthemainclauseusesthefuturetense:ywillhappen(mainclause)onlyifxhappens(subordinateclause).Logically,thecourseistobebothseparateandrequired,sothetwoadjectivesshouldequallymodifythenounandthusbeseparatedbyacomma:separate,requiredcourse.

A. Theverbtenseintheifclauseisincorrect.Theadverbseparatelyshouldbetheadjectiveseparate.

B. Correct.Thissentencehasthecorrectverbtense,andthetwoadjectivesequallymodifythenoun.

C. Theplacementofonlydistortsthemeaning;itshouldprecedeif.Acourserequiredseparatelyisunclear.

D. Theverbtenseintheifclauseisincorrect.Theplacementofonlydistortsthemeaning.

E. Theverbtenseintheifclauseisincorrect.Theplacementofonlydistortsthemeaning.Theadjectiveseparateshouldbeusedinsteadoftheadverbseparatelyandshouldprecedethenoun.


269. Geologistsbelievethatthewarningsignsforamajorearthquakemayincludesuddenfluctuationsinlocalseismicactivity,tiltingandotherdeformationsoftheEarth’scrust,changingthemeasuredstrainacrossafaultzoneandvaryingtheelectricalpropertiesofundergroundrocks.

A. changingthemeasuredstrainacrossafaultzoneandvarying

B. changingmeasurementsofthestrainacrossafaultzone,andvarying

C. changingthestrainasmeasuredacrossafaultzone,andvariationsof

D. changesinthemeasuredstrainacrossafaultzone,andvariationsin

E. changesinmeasurementsofthestrainacrossafaultzone,andvariationsamong

Parallelism;Logicalpredication

Thissentenceusesfourphrasestodescribethewarningsignsforanearthquake.Thesephrasesshouldbeparallel.Thefirstsignissuddenfluctuationsinlocalseismicactivity;thesecondistiltingandotherdeformationsoftheEarth’scrust.Tiltinginthiscaseisusedasanoun,justasdeformationsandfluctuationsarenouns.Thefirsttwosignsareparallel.Thethirdandfourthwarningsignsresembletiltingintheingform,buttheyarenotparallelbecausetheyareusedasverbsratherthanasnouns:changing...thestrain;varying...theproperties.Tomakethelattertwosignsparallel,nounsmustreplaceverbs:changesin...variationsin.

A. Changingandvaryingareusedasverbsandsoarenotparalleltothenounsfluctuationsandtilting.

B. Thefoursignsarenotparallel;thesubstitutionofmeasurementsofthestraindistortsthemeaning.

C. Changingisusedasaverbandsodoesnotparallelthenounsfluctuations,tilting,andvariations.

D. Correct.Inthissentence,thefournouns—fluctuations,tilting,changes,variations—areparallel,andthemeaningofthemeasuredstrainisnotdistorted.

E. Thissentencesaysillogicallythatchangesinmeasurementareawarningsign;itshouldsaythatchangesinthestrainareawarning

sign.


270. Until1868andDisraeli,GreatBritainhadnoprimeministersnotcomingfromalandedfamily.

A. Until1868andDisraeli,GreatBritainhadnoprimeministersnotcoming

B. Until1868andDisraeli,GreatBritainhadhadnoprimeministerswhohavenotcome

C. UntilDisraeliin1868,therewerenoprimeministersinGreatBritainwhohavenotcome

D. Itwasnotuntil1868thatGreatBritainhadaprimeminister—Disraeli—whodidnotcome

E. Itwasonlyin1868andDisraelithatGreatBritainhadoneofitsprimeministersnotcoming

Verbform;Idiom

ThissentenceexplainshowDisraelimarkedaturningpointinBritishhistory:hewasthefirstprimeministerwhodidnotcomefromthelandedgentry.Theplacementofthedoublenegativeiscrucial.Whilenoprimeministersnotcomingfrom...ishardtountangle,[n]otuntil...thatGreatBritainhadaprimeministerwhodidnotcome...separatesthenegativesintoseparateclauses,makingthemeasiertodecode.Anappropriatewaytoexpressthetemporalrelationshipistousetheidiomaticphrasenotuntil...that.

A. Thephrasenoprimeministersnotcomingisunnecessarilyconfusing.Itisalsoconfusingtofollowtheprepositionuntilwithtwoverydifferenttypesofobjects—adateandaperson.

B. Asin(A),thedoublenegativeandunlikeobjectsoftheprepositionalphrasestartingwithuntilareconfusing.Additionally,theverbformhavenotcome,whichisthepresent-perfecttense,isinappropriatefollowingthepastperfecthadhadinthiscontext.

C. Thepresent-perfecttense(havenotcome)isinappropriateafterthepasttensewereinthiscontext.UntilDisraeliisimpreciseandincomplete.BeforeDisraeli’stermin1868...orUntilDisraelibecameprimeminsterin1868wouldwork.

D. Correct.Thisversioncorrectlyusestheidiomaticconstructionnot

until...that,anditcorrectlyusespasttensethroughout.

E. Whileitmakessensetosaythatahistoricalchangeoccurredin1868,itdoesnotmakesensetosaythatitoccurredinDisraeli.Itisunidiomatictosayhadoneofitsprimeministersnotcoming.


271. Byofferinglowerpricesandamenuofpersonalcommunicationsoptions,suchascalleridentificationandvoicemail,thenewtelecommunicationscompanyhasnotonlycapturedcustomersfromotherphonecompaniesbutalsoforcedthemtooffercompetitiveprices.

A. hasnotonlycapturedcustomersfromotherphonecompaniesbutalsoforcedthem

B. hasnotonlycapturedcustomersfromotherphonecompanies,butitalsoforcedthem

C. hasnotonlycapturedcustomersfromotherphonecompaniesbutalsoforcedthesecompanies

D. notonlyhascapturedcustomersfromotherphonecompaniesbutalsothesecompanieshavebeenforced

E. notonlycapturedcustomersfromotherphonecompanies,butitalsohasforcedthem

Parallelism,Verbform

Thesentenceintendstoshowtheeffectofthenewtelecommunicationscompanyontheotherphonecompanies.Intheoriginalsentence,however,theantecedentofthepronounthemisunclear;itmayrefertocompaniesortocustomers.Ifitreferstocustomers,thesentencestructureillogicallyhasthenewcompanyforcingcustomerstooffercompetitiveprices.

A. Thereferentofthemisunclear.

B. Thereferentofthemisunclear,andtheuseofitisredundant.

C. Correct.Theverbsareparallelinthissentence,andthesecompaniesisclearlytheobjectoftheverbforced.

D. Thesentencedoesnotmaintainparallelism,unnecessarilychangingfromactivevoice(hascaptured)topassivevoice(havebeenforced).

E. Thereferentofthemisunclear.Capturedandhasforcedarenotparallelinverbtense,andtheuseofitisredundant.


272. Aftersuffering$2billioninlossesand25,000layoffs,thenation’ssemiconductorindustry,whichmakeschipsthatruneverythingfromcomputersandspysatellitestodishwashers,appearstohavemadealong-awaitedrecovery.

A. computersandspysatellitestodishwashers,appearstohave

B. computers,spysatellites,anddishwashers,appearshaving

C. computers,spysatellites,anddishwashers,appearsthatithas

D. computersandspysatellitestodishwashers,appearsthatithas

E. computersandspysatellitesaswellasdishwashers,appearstohave

Idiom;Grammaticalconstruction;Verbform

Thissentencecorrectlymakesuseoftheidiomaticexpressionfrom...to...todescribetherangeofproductsmadebythesemiconductorindustry.Themainverbappearsisintransitiveandismostefficientlyfollowedbytheinfinitiveformtohavemade,whichintroducesadescriptionofthesubject,thesemiconductorindustry.

A. Correct.Thesentenceisgrammaticallycorrectandusestheidiomaticexpressioncorrectly.

B. Thephraseeverythingfromanticipatesidiomaticcompletionwiththesecondprepositionto;withoutthetoitcouldrefertocomponentscomingfromthelisteditems,butthisreadingisunlikely;appearshavingisanincorrectverbformandmakestheclauseungrammatical.

C. Thisversionisunidiomaticbecausefromisnotcompletedbyto;appearsthatithasisanawkwardandincorrectverbform.

D. Appearsthatithasisanincorrectverbform.

E. Aswellasisawkwardandimprecisehere;itisthewrongcompletionfortheidiomaticexpressionfrom...to....


273. Thecomputercompanyhasannouncedthatitwillpurchasethecolor-printingdivisionofarivalcompanyfor$950million,whichispartofadealthatwillmakeitthelargestmanufacturerintheofficecolor-printingmarket.

A. million,whichispartofadealthatwillmake

B. million,apartofadealthatmakes

C. million,apartofadealmaking

D. millionasapartofadealtomake

E. millionaspartofadealthatwillmake

Rhetoricalconstruction;Verbform

Therelativepronounwhichrequiresaclearantecedent,butnoneappearsintheoriginalversionofthesentence.Thecompany’sannouncementisentirelygearedtothefuture—itwillpurchasethedivisionaspartofadealthatwillmakeitthelargestmanufacturer.

A. Thereisnoantecedentfortherelativepronounwhich.

B. Likearelativepronoun,theappositivephrase(apart...)musthaveanounornounphraseasaclearantecedent;theverbmakesshouldbefuturetense.

C. Theappositivephraserequiresaclearantecedent;makingdoesnotindicatefuturetense.

D. Thissentenceisalittleawkward(thearticleainapartisunnecessary)andsayssomethingratherdifferent;asapartofadealtomakesuggeststhatthedealitselfincludesmakingthecompanythelargestmanufacturerratherthanitsbeingtheoutcomeofthedeal.

E. Correct.Thefuturetenseisusedthroughoutandthesentencestructureisclear.


274. BluegrassmusicianBillMonroe,whoserepertory,viewsonmusicalcollaboration,andvocalstylewereinfluentialongenerationsofbluegrassartists,wasalsoaninspirationtomanymusicians,thatincludedElvisPresleyandJerryGarcia,whosemusicdifferedsignificantlyfromhisown.

A. wereinfluentialongenerationsofbluegrassartists,wasalsoaninspirationtomanymusicians,thatincludedElvisPresleyandJerryGarcia,whosemusicdifferedsignificantlyfrom

B. influencedgenerationsofbluegrassartists,alsoinspiredmanymusicians,includingElvisPresleyandJerryGarcia,whosemusicdifferedsignificantlyfrom

C. wasinfluentialtogenerationsofbluegrassartists,wasalsoinspirationaltomanymusicians,thatincludedElvisPresleyandJerryGarcia,whosemusicwasdifferentsignificantlyincomparisonto

D. wasinfluentialtogenerationsofbluegrassartists,alsoinspiredmanymusicians,whoincludedElvisPresleyandJerryGarcia,themusicofwhomdifferedsignificantlywhencomparedto

E. wereaninfluenceongenerationsofbluegrassartists,wasalsoaninspirationtomanymusicians,includingElvisPresleyandJerryGarcia,whosemusicwassignificantlydifferentfromthatof

Agreement;Rhetoricalconstruction;Grammaticalconstruction

TheoriginalsentencelogicallyintendstoexplainthatMonroe’sworkinfluencedgenerationsofartistsinhisownmusicalfieldandthatheinspiredmanymusiciansinothermusicalfields.Whoorwhatinfluencedorinspiredwhommustbemoreclearlystated.Additionally,theoriginalsentencelacksprecision,beingoverlywordyandusingphrasesthatarenotidiomatic.Conciseandconsistentverbforms,aswellastheuseofsubordinatephrasesratherthanclauses,improvetheprecisionofthesentence.

A. Thephrasewereinfluentialoniswordyandisnotidiomatic;theuseofverbformswere(thepredicateofrepertory,views,andstyle)andwas(thepredicateofMonroe)isconfusing.

B. Correct.Theuseoftheconciseverbformsofinfluencedandinspiredsimplifiesandclarifiesthesentence.Theconciseuseofincludingavoidsthepronounerrorandunnecessarywordiness.

C. Thesubjectandverbdonotagreeinrepertory,views,andstyle...was(compoundsubjectwithsingularverb).Wasinfluentialtoanddifferent...incomparisontoareunnecessarilywordy.

D. Thereisincorrectsubject-verbagreementinrepertory,views,andstyle...was(compoundsubjectwithsingularverb).Wasinfluentialtoandinwhencomparedtoareunnecessarilywordy.Themusicofwhomiscumbersomeandstilted.

E. Thephrasewereaninfluenceoniswordyandnotidiomatic.Thephraseswasalsoaninspirationtoandwassignificantlydifferentareunnecessarilywordy.Thephrasefromthatofisunclearandconfusing.


275. Thecomputercompany’spresenttroublesarearesultoftechnologicalstagnation,marketingmissteps,andmanagerialblunderssothatseveralattemptstorevisecorporatestrategieshavefailedtocorrectit.

A. sothatseveralattemptstorevisecorporatestrategieshavefailedtocorrectit

B. sothatseveralattemptsatrevisingcorporatestrategieshavefailedtocorrect

C. inthatseveralattemptsatrevisingcorporatestrategieshavefailedtocorrectthem

D. thatseveralattemptstorevisecorporatestrategieshavefailedtocorrect

E. thatseveralattemptsatrevisingcorporatestrategieshavefailedtocorrectthem


Thissentenceliststhreecausesofthecompany’stroublesandassertsthatstrategiestocorrectthecausesoftheproblemshavefailed.Theclearest,mostefficientwaytoexplainthisistorefertothecauseswiththerelativepronounthat,positioningitasanobjectoftheverbfailedtocorrect.

A. Thesingularpronounithasnoclearantecedent;theconjunctionsotypicallyindicatesthataconsequencewillfollow,butthisisnotthecase.

B. Theconjunctionsoisinappropriatebecausenoconsequencesaregiven;theverbcorrecthasnoobject.

C. Inthatisaninappropriateconnectorbecauseitisnotfollowedbyanindicationofhowthecompany’stroublesresultfromthethreeproblemslistedinthefirstpartofthesentence.

D. Correct.Thesentenceisclearlyandefficientlyworded,andthereferentofthepronounthatisclear.

E. Becauseattemptsisthesubjectofthefinalclause,andthatistheobjectofitsverb(havefailedtocorrect),thepronounthemhasnofunction.


276. Therootsystemsofmostfloweringperennialseitherbecometoocrowded,whichresultsinlossinvigor,andspreadtoofaroutward,producingabarecenter.

A. whichresultsinlossinvigor,andspread

B. resultinginlossinvigor,orspreading

C. withtheresultoflossofvigor,orspreading

D. resultinginlossofvigor,orspread

E. witharesultinglossofvigor,andspread

Idiom;Parallelism

Thissentenceusestheconstructioneitherxory;xandymustbegrammaticallyparallel.Inthiscase,andspreadmustbeorspread.Theantecedentofwhichisunclear;replacingwhichresultswithresultingclarifiesthemeaning.

A. Eitherisincorrectlyfollowedbyand;whichhasnoclearreferent.

B. Orspreadingisnotparalleltoeitherbecome.

C. Withtheresultofiswordyandawkward.Orspreadingisnotparalleltoeitherbecome.

D. Correct.Thephraseresultinginlossofvigorconciselymodifiesthefirstclause;theeither/orconstructioniscorrectandparallelinthissentence.

E. Eitherisincorrectlyfollowedbyand;witharesultinglossiswordy.


277. Downzoning,zoningthattypicallyresultsinthereductionofhousingdensity,allowsformoreopenspaceinareaswherelittlewaterorservicesexist.

A. littlewaterorservicesexist

B. littlewaterorservicesexists

C. fewservicesandlittlewaterexists

D. thereislittlewaterorservicesavailable

E. therearefewservicesandlittleavailablewater

Diction;Agreement

Inthissentence,theadjectivelittlecorrectlymodifiesthenounwaterbecausewaterisnotacountablequantity.However,thenounservicesisacountablequantityandmustbemodifiedbyfew,notbylittle.Logically,theareasdescribedwouldsufferfrombothlittlewaterandfewservicesatthesametime,sothecorrectconjunctionisand,notor.Thiscompoundsubjectrequiresapluralverb.

A. Servicesshouldbemodifiedbyfew,notlittle.

B. Thesingularverbexistsdoesnotagreewiththepluralsubjectservices.Whenacompoundsubjectisjoinedbyor,theverbagreeswiththeclosersubject.

C. Whenacompoundsubjectconsistsoftwodistinctunitsjoinedbytheconjunctionand,theverbmustbeplural.

D. Littlecannotmodifyservices.

E. Correct.Inthissentence,fewcorrectlymodifiesservices;andcorrectlyjoinsservicesandwater.


278. Intheory,internationalcivilservantsattheUnitedNationsareprohibitedfromcontinuingtodrawsalariesfromtheirowngovernments;inpractice,however,somegovernmentsmerelysubstitutelivingallowancesfortheiremployees’paychecks,assignedbythemtotheUnitedNations.

A. fortheiremployees’paychecks,assignedbythem

B. forthepaychecksoftheiremployeeswhohavebeenassigned

C. forthepaychecksoftheiremployees,havingbeenassigned

D. inplaceoftheiremployees’paychecks,forthoseofthemassigned

E. inplaceofthepaychecksoftheiremployeestohavebeenassignedbythem


Itisdifficulttotellwhichpartsofthissentencegotogetherbecauseoferrorsandconfusionintheunderlinedportion.Livingallowancesisthecounterpartofpaychecks,soitisbettertosaygovernments...substitutelivingallowancesforthepaychecksoftheiremployeesbecauseitmakesthesubstitutionclearer.Thischangealsomakesiteasiertocorrectthemodificationerrorthatappearsinthephrase

assignedbythem,whichincorrectlymodifiespaychecksratherthanemployees.Themodifyingclausewhohavebeenassignedclearlydescribesemployeesandfitsintotheremainingpartofthesentence,totheUnitedNations.

A. Assignedbythemincorrectlyandillogicallymodifiespaychecks.

B. Correct.Inthissentence,themeaningisclearer,becausepaychecksisseparatedfromemployees.Therelativeclauseclearlymodifiesemployees.

C. Havingbeenassignedillogicallymodifiesgovernments.

D. Thecorrectconstructionissubstitutesxfory,notsubstitutesxinplaceofy.Theconstructionfollowingpaychecksiswordyandawkward.

E. Thecorrectconstructionissubstitutesxfory,notsubstitutesxinplaceofy.Theconstructionfollowingemployeesiswordyandawkward.


279. SorJuanaInésdelaCruzwasmakingthecaseforwomen’sequalitylongbeforethecausehadaname:Borninthemid-seventeenthcenturyinSanMiguelNepantla,Mexico,theconventwastheperfectenvironmentforSorJuanatopursueintellectualpursuits,achievingrenownasamathematician,poet,philosopher,andplaywright.

A. theconventwastheperfectenvironmentforSorJuanatopursueintellectualpursuits,achieving

B. SorJuanafoundtheconventprovidedtheperfectenvironmentforintellectualpursuits,andshewentontoachieve

C. theconventprovidedtheperfectenvironmentforintellectualpursuitsforSorJuana;goingontoachieve

D. SorJuanafoundtheconventprovidedtheperfectenvironmentforintellectualpursuits;achieving

E. theconventwas,SorJuanafound,theperfectenvironmentforintellectualpursuits,andshewentontoachieve


ThissentencefocusesonSorJuanaInésdelaCruz,butthesubjectofitssecondclauseistheconvent.Thiscausesaproblembecausethe

predicatesbornandachieving,whichhaveonlyunderstoodsubjects,aregrammaticallypairedwiththeconvent,anillogicalsubject.Also,normallywhereasemicolonisusedtomarktheendofanindependentclause(asinsomeoftheoptions),itshouldbefollowedbyanotherindependentclause.

A. Theconventisthesubjectofthesecondclause,sobothbornandachievingareillogicallyforcedtotakeitastheirsubject.

B. Correct.SorJuanaprovidesthecorrectlogicalsubjectforbornandwentontoachieve;thesecondclauseiscorrectlyintroducedbyand,andisconstructedasafullclausewithasubjectandtensedverb.

C. Astheconventisthesubjectofthesecondclause,bornisillogicallyforcedtotakethatphraseasitssubject.Also,theclauseafterthesemicolonisnotanindependentfullclausewithasubjectandatensedverb;shewentonisrequiredinsteadofgoingon.

D. Theclauseafterthesemicolonisnotanindependentfullclausewithasubjectandatensedverb:sheachievedisrequiredinsteadofachieving.

E. Sincetheconventisthesubjectofthesecondclause,bornmustillogicallytakethatphraseasitssubject.


280. TheAnasazisettlementsatChacoCanyonwerebuiltonaspectacularscale,withmorethan75carefullyengineeredstructures,ofupto600roomseach,wereconnectedbyacomplexregionalsystemofroads.

A. scale,withmorethan75carefullyengineeredstructures,ofupto600roomseach,were

B. scale,withmorethan75carefullyengineeredstructures,ofupto600roomseach,

C. scaleofmorethan75carefullyengineeredstructuresofupto600rooms,eachthathadbeen

D. scaleofmorethan75carefullyengineeredstructuresofupto600roomsandwitheach

E. scaleofmorethan75carefullyengineeredstructuresofupto600rooms,eachhadbeen


Thissentencemakesaclaimaboutthescale(size,extent)oftheAnasazisettlementsandthenillustratesthatclaimwithadescriptionofthesettlements’structures.Thesecondpartofthesentence,introducedbytheprepositionwith,describesthestructuresfirstintermsoftheirroomsandthenintermsoftheroadsthatconnectthemtogether.Todescribethenounstructures,theparticipialformconnectedshouldbeused,turningtheverbintoanadjective.

A. Theverbwereconnectedhasnosubject,sincestructuresistheobjectoftheprepositionwith.

B. Correct.Thesentenceislogicallycoherentandgrammaticallycorrect.

C. Thecommaprecedingeachmakeseachasubject,butithasnoverb,sincethatisthesubjectofhadbeenconnected.

D. Thissentencesuggeststhatthescaleorsizeofthesettlementsismadeupofstructures,ratherthanusesthestructuresasanexampleofthesettlements’grandscale;italsononsensicallyindicatesthateachroomisconnectedbyacomplexsystemofroads.

E. Thisrun-onsentencesuffersfromacommasplice,asthephrasefollowingthecommaisamainclause;thereferentofthepronouneachisambiguous.


281. Bydevisinganinstrumentmadefromarod,wire,andleadballs,andemployinguncommonlyprecisemeasurements,in1797–1798HenryCavendish’sapparatusenabledhimtoarriveatanastonishinglyaccuratefigurefortheweightoftheearth.

A. Bydevisinganinstrumentmadefromarod,wire,andleadballs,andemployinguncommonlyprecisemeasurements,in1797–1798HenryCavendish’sapparatusenabledhim

B. In1797–1798,bydevisinganinstrumentmadefromarod,wire,andleadballs,andemployinguncommonlyprecisemeasurements,HenryCavendish’sapparatusenabledhim

C. HenryCavendishdevisedaninstrumentmadefromarod,wire,andleadballs,andemployeduncommonlyprecisemeasurements,andin1797–1798wasable

D. Havingdevisedaninstrumentfromarod,wire,andleadballs,andemploymentofuncommonlyprecisemeasurements,Henry

Cavendishin1797–1798wasable

E. Bydevisinganinstrumentmadefromarod,wire,andleadballs,andemployinguncommonlyprecisemeasurements,HenryCavendishwasablein1797–1798


Thecoreofthissentence’sideaiseithertheverbenable,whichmusthaveitslogicallycorrectsubjectHenryCavendish’sapparatus,orbeable,withthesubjectHenryCavendish;thesesubjectsmustalsobeabletosupplythecorrectsubjectsforanyotherverbsthathaveunderstoodsubjects.ThesentenceshouldalsoclearlyexpressthetwothingsthatenabledCavendish’saccomplishment(devisingtheinstrumentandemployingprecisemeasurement).

A. Devisingneedsasubjectsuppliedfromelsewhereinthesentence,buttheonlyavailablesubjectistheillogicalHenryCavendish’sapparatus(anapparatusdoesnot“devise”anything).

B. Devisingneedsasubjectsuppliedfromelsewhereinthesentence,buttheonlyoptionistheillogicalHenryCavendish’sapparatus.

C. Connectingthethreepartsofthesentencewithtwooccurrencesofandisawkward;thefirsttwopartsarebestconnectedbyand,butthefinalportionexpressingwhatCavendishachievedwouldbebetterexpressed,forexample,asanewsentencebeginning,In1797–1798,heemployed.

D. Thisvariantseemstosuggest,illogically,thatCavendishdevisedaninstrumentfromseveralobjectsplusemployment;usingemployedinsteadofemploymentofwouldbeonewayofcorrectlypairinghistwoactions.

E. Correct.Theverbsdevising,employing,andwasablehavetheircorrectlogicalsubject(HenryCavendish),andtheactionsofdevisingandemployingarepairedclearly,withbyunderstoodbeforeemploying.


282. AccordingtoUnitedStatescensusdata,whiletherewasaboutone-thirdofmotherswithyoungchildrenworkingoutsidethehomein1975,in2000,almosttwo-thirdsofthosemotherswereemployedoutsidethehome.

A. whiletherewasaboutone-thirdofmotherswithyoungchildren

workingoutsidethehomein1975,in2000,almosttwo-thirdsofthosemotherswereemployedoutsidethehome

B. therewereaboutone-thirdofmotherswithyoungchildrenwhoworkedoutsidethehomein1975;in2000,almosttwo-thirdsofthosemotherswereemployedoutsidethehome

C. in1975aboutone-thirdofmotherswithyoungchildrenworkedoutsidethehome;in2000,almosttwo-thirdsofsuchmotherswereemployedoutsidethehome

D. eventhoughin1975therewereaboutone-thirdofmotherswithyoungchildrenwhoworkedoutsidethehome,almosttwo-thirdsofsuchmotherswereemployedoutsidethehomein2000

E. withaboutone-thirdofmotherswithyoungchildrenworkingoutsidethehomein1975,almosttwo-thirdsofsuchmotherswereemployedoutsidethehomein2000


Thesentencepresentstwopiecesofdata,onefromthe1975censusandonefromthe2000census.Itdoesnotattempttoexplainalogicalrelationshipbeyondthenumericaldifference.Theincorrectversionsofthesentenceattemptbutfailtomakealogicalconnectionbetweenthetwodata(while...,eventhough...,andwith...)and/orintroduceunnecessarywordinesswiththephrasetherewasortherewere.Themostefficientwaytopresentthetwodataforreadercomparisonisintwoparallelindependentclausesjoinedbyasemicolon.Toavoidtheconfusionofmisplacedorsquintingmodifiers,theseclausesarebeststructuredwithsubjectsdesignatingpercentageofmotherswithchildren,followedbyparticipialphrasesthatindicatethatthesemothersworkedorwereemployedoutsidethehome.

A. Thephrasetherewasintroducesunnecessarywordiness,andthesingularverbwasdoesnotagreewiththepluralpredicatenominativeone-thirdofmotherswithchildren.Theplacementofthemodifierworkingoutsidethehomeimmediatelyafterchildrensuggeststhatthechildrenratherthanthemotherswereexternallyemployed.

B. Therewereintroducesunnecessarywordiness;becauseofitsplacement,therelativeclausewhoworkedoutsidethehomeappearstodescribechildrenratherthanmothers.

C. Correct.Thetwopiecesofdataarepresentedinparallel

independentclauses,joinedbyasemicolon,allowingthereadertonotethenumericaldifference.

D. Theintroductoryphraseeventhoughsuggestsarelationshipbetweenthetwopiecesofdatathatthesentencedoesnotsupport;therewereintroducesunnecessarywordiness;whoworkedoutsidethehomeappearstodescribeyoungchildren.

E. Theintroductorywordwithnonsensicallysuggeststhesimultaneityofthetwopiecesofdata;theplacementofthemodifierworkingoutsidethehomeattachesittoyoungchildrenratherthanmothers.


283. Cloudsareformedfromtheevaporationoftheoceans’waterthatiswarmedbythesunandriseshighintotheatmosphere,condensingintinydropletsonminuteparticlesofdust.

A. Cloudsareformedfromtheevaporationoftheoceans’waterthatiswarmedbythesunandriseshighintotheatmosphere,condensingintinydropletsonminuteparticlesofdust.

B. Cloudsformbythesun’swarmthevaporatingthewaterintheoceans,whichriseshighintotheatmosphere,condensingintinydropletsonminuteparticlesofdust.

C. Warmedbythesun,oceanwaterevaporates,riseshighintotheatmosphere,andcondensesintinydropletsonminuteparticlesofdusttoformclouds.

D. Thewaterintheoceansevaporates,warmedbythesun,riseshighintotheatmosphere,andcondensesintinydropletsonminuteparticlesofdust,whichformsclouds.

E. Oceanwater,warmedbythesun,evaporatesandriseshighintotheatmosphere,whichthencondensesintinydropletsonminuteparticlesofdusttoformasclouds.


Thissentencedescribesamultistepprocessbywhichoceanwateristransformedintoclouds.Thesestepsaremostclearlypresentedinchronologicalorder,withoceanwaterasthemainsubjectofthesentence.

A. Thissentenceprovidesnosenseofstepsandillogicallysuggeststhattheoceans’waterevaporatesafteritriseshighintotheatmosphere.

B. Theantecedentfortherelativepronounwhichisambiguous,againsuggestingthatoceansrisehigh.

C. Correct.Thesequenceofstepsinacloud’sformationisclear.

D. Thenonchronologicalorderofthestepsbywhichcloudsareproducedisconfusing,suggestingthatdustformsclouds.

E. Therelativepronounwhichgrammaticallyreferstoatmosphere,creatinganonsensicalclaimthattheatmosphere,ratherthanthewater,condenses.


284. Schistosomiasis,adiseasecausedbyaparasiticworm,isprevalentinhot,humidclimates,andithasbecomemorewidespreadasirrigationprojectshaveenlargedthehabitatofthefreshwatersnailsthataretheparasite’shostsforpartofitslifecycle.

A. thefreshwatersnailsthataretheparasite’shostsforpartofitslifecycle

B. thefreshwatersnailsthataretheparasite’shostsinpartoftheirlifecycle

C. freshwatersnailswhichbecometheparasite’shostsforpartofitslifecycles

D. freshwatersnailswhichbecomethehostsoftheparasiteduringtheparasite’slifecycles

E. parasite’shosts,freshwatersnailswhichbecometheirhostsduringtheirlifecycles


Thissentenceexplainstheincreasedincidenceofschistosomiasisasaconsequenceoftheenlargedhabitatofthekindoffreshwatersnailsthathosttheparasiticwormresponsibleforthedisease.Thedefinitearticleisnecessarybeforefreshwatersnailsbecausethesentenceidentifiesaparticulartypeofsnail,namely,thosethathosttheparasite.Thecorrectprepositiontoexpressdurationincombinationwithhostisfor,notin.Astheparasiteisreferredtoassingular,thepossessivepronouninthefinalphrasemustalsobesingular.

A. Correct.Thesentenceisclearwithallpronounsandverbsinagreement.

B. Theprepositioninisinappropriateforexpressingduration;thepluralpossessivepronountheirdoesnotagreewiththesingularantecedentparasite.

C. Adefinitearticleshouldprecedefreshwatersnailstoidentifyaparticulartypeofsnail;thepluralcyclesisinappropriatebecauseitsreferstoasingularparasite,whichonlyhasonelifecycle.

D. Adefinitearticleisneededbeforefreshwatersnails;repetitionofthewordparasitemakesthefinalphraseunnecessarilywordy;cyclesshouldbesingular.

E. Therepetitionofhostsmakesthefinalphraseunnecessarilywordy;cyclesshouldbesingular;theirhostsshouldbeitshosts;thereferentforthesecondappearanceoftheirisunclear—doesitrefertosnailsortheparasite?


285. FloatinginthewatersoftheequatorialPacific,anarrayofbuoyscollectsandtransmitsdataonlong-terminteractionsbetweentheoceanandtheatmosphere,interactionsthataffectglobalclimate.

A. atmosphere,interactionsthataffect

B. atmosphere,withinteractionsaffecting

C. atmospherethataffects

D. atmospherethatisaffecting

E. atmosphereasaffects

Grammaticalconstruction;Agreement

Theunderlinedportionofthesentenceisanappositive,aterminalnounphraserestatingthekindofdatabeingcollectedandprovidingadditionalinformationaboutit.Thisisaclearandeconomicalwaytoprovidetheextrainformation.

A. Correct.Thesentenceisgrammaticallycorrectandlogicallycoherent.

B. Theprepositionalphrasewith...hasnoclearnounornounphrasetoattachtoandisthereforeungrammatical.

C. Usingtherestrictivethatafteratmosphereillogicallysuggeststhattherearemanyatmospherestodifferentiatefromandtheoneinquestioninthissentenceistheoneaffectingglobalclimate.

D. TherestrictivethatalsofollowsatmosphereasinanswerC.

E. Thephraseasaffectsglobalclimatefunctionsasanadverb,butthereisnoverbforittomodify.


286. Sixty-fivemillionyearsago,accordingtosomescientists,anasteroidbiggerthanMountEverestslammedintoNorthAmerica,which,causingplantandanimalextinctions,markstheendofthegeologiceraknownastheCretaceousPeriod.

A. which,causingplantandanimalextinctions,marks

B. whichcausedtheplantandanimalextinctionsandmarks

C. andcausingplantandanimalextinctionsthatmark

D. aneventthatcausedplantandanimalextinctions,whichmarks

E. aneventthatcausedtheplantandanimalextinctionsthatmark


Thissentencedescribesatwo-partsequenceofevents,thesecondofwhichhasledtoaparticularcategorizationofgeologicaltime.Inordertoclarifythatitisnotthefirstevent(asteroidstrike)thatproducedthetimedivision(endoftheCretaceousPeriod),butthefirstevent’sconsequences(biologicalextinctions),thesentenceneedsanappositiveformtorestatethecontentofthemainclause(anevent),followedbyatwo-partchainofrelativeclauses(thatcaused...thatmark...).

A. Theantecedentfortherelativepronounwhichisambiguous;itisthereforeunclearwhatmarkstheendoftheCretaceousPeriod.

B. Theantecedentofwhichisunclear;thecompoundverbscausedandmarksfailtoindicatethattheextinctions,nottheasteroidstrike,aresignificantmarkersofgeologicaltime.

C. Followingtheconjunctionandwithaparticipialratherthanamainverbisgrammaticallyincorrectbecauseitviolatesparallelismandproducesafragmentattheendofthesentence.

D. Which,referringtoextinctions,shouldbefollowedbyapluralverb.

E. Correct.Thesentenceisunambiguous,andtheverbsagreewiththeirsubjects.


287. Althoughthefirstpulsar,orrapidlyspinningcollapsedstar,tobesightedwasinthesummerof1967bygraduatestudentJocelynBell,ithadnotbeenannounceduntilFebruary1968.

A. Althoughthefirstpulsar,orrapidlyspinningcollapsedstar,tobesightedwasinthesummerof1967bygraduatestudentJocelynBell,ithadnotbeenannounceduntilFebruary1968.

B. AlthoughnotannounceduntilFebruary1968,inthesummerof1967graduatestudentJocelynBellobservedthefirstpulsar,orrapidlyspinningcollapsedstar,tobesighted.

C. AlthoughobservedbygraduatestudentJocelynBellinthesummerof1967,thediscoveryofthefirstsightedpulsar,orrapidlyspinningcollapsedstar,hadnotbeenannouncedbeforeFebruary1968.

D. Thefirstpulsar,orrapidlyspinningcollapsedstar,tobesightedwasobservedinthesummerof1967bygraduatestudentJocelynBell,butthediscoverywasnotannounceduntilFebruary1968.

E. Thefirstsightedpulsar,orrapidlyspinningcollapsedstar,wasnotannounceduntilFebruary1968,whileitwasobservedinthesummerof1967bygraduatestudentJocelynBell.

Verbform;Logicalpredication;Rhetoricalconstruction

Thissentencepresentsconditionsthatarefollowedbyanunexpectedoutcome:adelayedannouncementofthediscoveryofapulsar.Acompoundsentenceusingacoordinatingconjunctionbutisaneffectivewaytopresenttheconditionsofthefirstpulsarsightingandtheninformationaboutthesubsequentannouncementofthediscovery.Thesentencemustclarifythatitisnotaboutthefirstpulsar,butthefirstpulsar...tobesighted.Theverbsinthesentencemustallbeinpasttense;usingapast-perfectverbtopresentinformationabouttheannouncementofthediscoveryindicatesthatthisannouncementillogicallytookplacebeforethepulsarwasfirstsighted.

A. Thesubjectoftheopeningdependentclauseispulsar,andtheverbiswas.TheclauseneedstoindicatenotjustthatthepulsarexistedbutthatitwasobservedbyBell;thepast-perfectverbtenseisinappropriateintheconcludingclause.

B. Theopeningparticipialphrasefunctionsasanadjective,butithasnologicalnounornounphrasetoattachto;Bellherselfwasnotannouncedin1968.

C. Grammatically,theopeningparticipialphrasedescribesthefirstnounthatfollows,butitmakesnosensetosaythatthediscoveryofthepulsarwasobserved;discoveryofthefirstsightedpulsarisalsoimprecise;onedoesnotdiscoverafirstsighting.

D. Correct.Thesentencepresentsthesequenceofeventsclearlyandinthepasttense.

E. Thissentencepresentseventsinawaythatisconfusing;asaconjunction,whileindicatessimultaneousevents,butthissentenceisabouteventsthatoccurredinasequence.


288. Soundcantravelthroughwaterforenormousdistances,preventedfromdissipatingitsacousticenergyasaresultofboundariesintheoceancreatedbywaterlayersofdifferenttemperaturesanddensities.

A. preventedfromdissipatingitsacousticenergyasaresultof

B. preventedfromhavingitsacousticenergydissipatedby

C. itsacousticenergypreventedfromdissipatingby

D. itsacousticenergypreventedfrombeingdissipatedasaresultof

E. preventingitsacousticenergyfromdissipatingby


Thissentenceopenswithastatementthatsoundcantravellongdistancesthroughwaterandthenexplainswhythatisso:waterlayersintheoceanpreventacousticenergyfromdissipating.Becausedissipatingisanintransitiveverb,acousticenergycannotbeitsobject.

A. Dissipatingisnotatransitiveverb,soacousticenergycannotfunctionasitsobject.

B. Thisversionofthesentenceiswordy,awkward,andindirect;fromhaving...byerroneouslysuggeststhattheboundariesintheoceanareattemptingtodissipatesoundenergy.

C. Correct.Here,acousticenergyiseffectivelymodifiedbytheparticipialpreventedfromdissipating....

D. Thisversionofthesentenceiswordy,awkward,andindirect;beingdissipatedasaresultofmakesitunclearwhethertheboundariescontributetoenergylossorpreventit.

E. Thisversionofthesentencenonsensicallyexplainsthatsound

preventsthedissipationofitsownenergy.


289. Inpreparationforthepredictionofamajorearthquakethatwillhitthestate,asatellite-basedcomputernetworkisbeingbuiltbytheCaliforniaOfficeofEmergencyServicesforidentifyingearthquakedamageandtopinpointthemostaffectedareaswithintwohoursoftheevent.

A. Inpreparationforthepredictionofamajorearthquakethatwillhitthestate,asatellite-basedcomputernetworkisbeingbuiltbytheCaliforniaOfficeofEmergencyServicesforidentifying

B. Inpreparingforthepredictionthatamajorearthquakewillhitthestate,theCaliforniaOfficeofEmergencyServicesisbuildingasatellite-basedcomputernetworkthatwillidentify

C. Inpreparingforamajorearthquakethatispredictedtohitthestate,theCaliforniaOfficeofEmergencyServicesisbuildingasatellite-basedcomputernetworktoidentify

D. Toprepareforthepredictionofamajorearthquakehittingthestate,asatellite-basedcomputernetworkisbeingbuiltbytheCaliforniaOfficeofEmergencyServicestoidentify

E. Toprepareforamajorearthquakethatispredictedtohitthestate,theCaliforniaOfficeofEmergencyServicesisbuildingasatellite-basedcomputernetworkthatwillidentify


ThissentenceexplainswhattheCaliforniaOfficeofEmergencyServicesisdoingtoprepareforanearthquakethathasbeenpredictedforthestate,butthesentenceappearstoclaimthattheCaliforniaOfficeisdoingthesethingstopreparefortheprediction.Thetwopurposesofthesepreparationsshouldbepresentedinparallelform,butthesentenceaswrittenpresentsoneasaprepositionalphrase(foridentifying)andtheotherasaninfinitive(topinpoint).

A. Inthisversionofthesentence,theopeningphraseillogicallyclaimsthattheCaliforniaOfficeispreparingforaprediction,butlaterinthesentenceitbecomesclearthatthepreparationsaretargetedtotheaftermathofapossibleearthquake,notitsprediction.Thetwopurposesofthepreparationsarenotpresentedinparallelform.

B. Like(A),thisversionofthesentenceidentifiespreparationsforapredictionratherthananearthquake;thetwopurposesofthe

preparationsarenotpresentedinparallelform.

C. Correct.Thepreparationsarecorrectlypresentedasbeingforanearthquake,andthetwopurposesofthepreparationsarepresentedinparallelform(toidentifyandtopinpoint).

D. Asin(A)and(B),thebeginningofthissentenceisinconsistentwiththerestofit.Theopeningphraseclaimstodescribepreparationsforaprediction,whereasthelatterpartofthesentenceindicatesthatthepreparationsareforapredictedearthquake.

E. Like(A)and(B),thissentencedoesnotpresentthetwopurposesofthepreparationsinparallelform.


290. Intar,theoldestHispanictheatercompanyinNewYork,hasmovedawayfromtheSpanishclassicsandnowitdrawsontheworksbothofcontemporaryHispanicauthorswholiveabroadandofthoseintheUnitedStates.

A. nowitdrawsontheworksbothofcontemporaryHispanicauthorswholiveabroadandofthose

B. nowdrawsontheworksofcontemporaryHispanicauthors,boththosewholiveabroadandthosewholive

C. itdrawsontheworksofcontemporaryHispanicauthorsnow,boththoselivingabroadandwholive

D. drawsnowontheworksbothofcontemporaryHispanicauthorslivingabroadandwhoareliving

E. drawsontheworksnowofbothcontemporaryHispanicauthorslivingabroadandthose

Grammaticalconstruction;Idiom;Parallelism

Thepronounitbeforethesecondverbresultsinanungrammaticalconstruction;removingthepronounremovestheerror.Thescopeofthoseisunclear(authors,orcontemporaryHispanicauthors).ThecorrectversionofthesentencemakesitclearthatthecompanydrawsontheworksofcontemporaryHispanicauthorswholiveintwodifferentplaces.ThosewholiveabroadisparalleltothosewholiveintheUnitedStates.

A. Becausethereisnocommaafterclassics,theuseofitcreatesanungrammaticalconstruction.Theconstructionfollowingbothis

unclear.

B. Correct.Inthissentence,Intaristhesubjectofdrawson;parallelconstructionsfollowboth...and.

C. Itcreatesanungrammaticalconstruction;thoselivingabroadisnotparalleltowholive.

D. Theconstructionfollowingbothisnotparalleltotheconstructionfollowingand.

E. Nowmodifiestheverbandshouldprecedeit.Theparallelismoftheboth...andconstructionisviolated.


291. Lastyear,landvaluesinmostpartsofthepinelandsrosealmostsofast,andinsomepartsevenfasterthanwhattheydidoutsidethepinelands.

A. sofast,andinsomepartsevenfasterthanwhattheydid

B. sofast,andinsomepartsevenfasterthan,those

C. asfast,andinsomepartsevenfasterthan,those

D. asfastas,andinsomepartsevenfasterthan,those

E. asfastas,andinsomepartsevenfasterthanwhattheydid

Idiom;Parallelism

Thissentencesaysxrosealmostsofasty,whichisnotacorrectidiomaticconstruction;xrosealmostasfastasyisthecorrectidiomforthiscomparison.Thetwoelementsbeingcompared,xandy,mustbeparallel,butthenounlandvalues(x)isnotparalleltowhattheydid(y).Landvaluesinthepinelands(x)mustbecomparedwiththose(thepronouncorrectlyreplacinglandvalues)outsidethepinelands(y).

A. Sofastisusedinsteadofasfast.Whattheydidisnotparalleltolandvalues.

B. Sofastisnotthecorrectidiomforcomparison.

C. Asfastmustbefollowedbyasinthiscomparison.

D. Correct.Asfastasisthecorrectcomparativeconjunctionusedinthissentence;thoseisparalleltolandvalues.

E. Whattheydidisnotparalleltolandvalues.


292. Createdin1945toreducepovertyandstabilizeforeigncurrencymarkets,theWorldBankandtheInternationalMonetaryFundhave,accordingtosomecritics,continuallystruggledtomeettheexpectationsoftheirmajorshareholders—agroupcomprisingmanyoftheworld’srichnations—butneglectedtheirintendedbeneficiariesinthedevelopingworld.

A. continuallystruggledtomeettheexpectationsoftheirmajorshareholders—agroupcomprisingmanyoftheworld’srichnations—butneglected

B. continuallystruggledastheytrytomeettheexpectationsoftheirmajorshareholders—agroupcomprisingmanyoftheworld’srichnations—whileneglectingthatof

C. continuallystruggledtomeettheirmajorshareholders’expectations—agroupcomprisingmanyoftheworld’srichnations—butneglectedthatof

D. hadtostrugglecontinuallyintryingtomeettheexpectationsoftheirmajorshareholders—agroupcomprisingmanyoftheworld’srichnations—whileneglectingthatof

E. struggledcontinuallyintryingtomeettheirmajorshareholders’expectations—agroupcomprisingmanyoftheworld’srichnations—andneglecting

Idiom;Verbform

ThissentencedescribesacontradictionsomecriticshaveascribedtotheactionsandpoliciesofboththeWorldBankandtheInternationalMonetaryFund:althoughtheywerecreatedtoaddresspovertyinthedevelopingworld,theystruggledtomeettheirmajorshareholders’expectationsandneglectedtheirintendedbeneficiaries.Thecontradictionisbestexpressedbyjoiningthetwopast-tenseverbsstruggledtomeet...andneglected...withthecontrastingconjunctionbut.Theappositivephrasesetoffwithdashesmustimmediatelyfollowthenounitdefines(shareholders).

A. Correct.Theconjunctionbutaccuratelydescribesthecontradictionbetweenwhattheorganizationsdidfortheirmajorshareholdersandwhattheydidnotdofortheirintendedbeneficiaries,andtheappositiveclearlydefinestheimmediatelyprecedingnoun,shareholders.

B. Thepresenttenseofastheytrytomeetisinconsistentwiththerest

oftheverbsinthesentence.Thepronounthatseemstohavenoreferentinthephrasewhileneglectingthatof...sincetheonlylikelyantecedentexpectationsisplural.

C. Theappositivegrammaticallybutnonsensicallydescribesexpectationsratherthanshareholders;asin(B),thepronounthatdoesnotagreeinnumberwithitslikelyantecedentexpectations.

D. Like(B),thisversionisunnecessarilywordy,andlike(C),itintroducesthepronounthat,whichdisagreesinnumberwiththeantecedentexpectations.

E. Asin(C),theappositiveseemstodefineexpectationsratherthanshareholders,andtheconjunctionandfailstocapturethecontradictoryrelationshipbetweentheorganizations’actionstowardtheirshareholdersandtheirintendedbeneficiaries.


293. Unlikeautoinsurance,thefrequencyofclaimsdoesnotaffectthepremiumsforpersonalpropertycoverage,butiftheinsurancecompanyisabletoproveexcessivelossduetoownernegligence,itmaydeclinetorenewthepolicy.

A. Unlikeautoinsurance,thefrequencyofclaimsdoesnotaffectthepremiumsforpersonalpropertycoverage,

B. Unlikewithautoinsurance,thefrequencyofclaimsdonotaffectthepremiumsforpersonalpropertycoverage,

C. Unlikethefrequencyofclaimsforautoinsurance,thepremiumsforpersonalpropertycoveragearenotaffectedbythefrequencyofclaims,

D. Unlikethepremiumsforautoinsurance,thepremiumsforpersonalpropertycoveragearenotaffectedbythefrequencyofclaims,

E. Unlikewiththepremiumsforautoinsurance,thepremiumsforpersonalpropertycoverageisnotaffectedbythefrequencyofclaims,


Thesentencehasbeenwrittensothatautoinsuranceiscontrastedwiththefrequencyofclaims.Thecorrectcontrastisbetweenthepremiumsforautoinsuranceandthepremiumsforpersonalpropertycoverage.

A. Autoinsuranceisillogicallycontrastedwiththefrequencyofclaims.

B. Unlikewithisanincorrectidiom;autoinsuranceiscontrastedwiththefrequencyofclaims;thesingularsubjectfrequencydoesnotagreewiththepluralverbdo.

C. Thefrequencyofclaimsiscontrastedwiththepremiumsforpersonalpropertycoverage.

D. Correct.Thecontrastbetweenthepremiumsforautoinsuranceandthepremiumsforpersonalpropertycoverageisclearlyandcorrectlystatedinthissentence.

E. Unlikewithisanincorrectidiom;thepluralsubjectpremiumsdoesnotagreewiththesingularverbisnotaffected.


294. Thecommissionproposedthatfundingforthepark’sdevelopment,whichcouldbeopentothepublicearlynextyear,isobtainedthroughalocalbondissue.

A. thatfundingforthepark’sdevelopment,whichcouldbeopentothepublicearlynextyear,is

B. thatfundingfordevelopmentofthepark,whichcouldbeopentothepublicearlynextyear,be

C. fundingforthedevelopmentofthepark,perhapsopentothepublicearlynextyear,tobe

D. fundsforthepark’sdevelopment,perhapsopentothepublicearlynextyear,be

E. developmentfundingforthepark,whichcouldbeopentothepublicearlynextyear,istobe


Whichmodifiesthenounthatprecedesit;inthissentence,theclausebeginningwithwhichillogicallyreferstodevelopmentratherthanthepark.Thiserrorcanbecorrectedbysubstitutingdevelopmentofthepark(whichfollowspark)forpark’sdevelopment(whichfollowsdevelopment).Whenaverbsuchasrecommend,request,orproposeisusedinthemainclause,theverbfollowingthatinthesubordinateclauseissubjunctive(be)ratherthanindicative(is).

A. Whichmodifiesdevelopmentinsteadofpark.Beisrequired,notis.

B. Correct.Inthissentence,whichclearlymodifiespark;the

subjunctivebecorrectlyfollowsproposedthat.

C. Beisrequired,nottheinfinitivetobe.

D. Thatisomitted,makingtheconstructionawkwardandunclear.Thephrasemodifiesdevelopment,notpark.

E. Developmentfundingdistortsthemeaning.Beisrequired,notistobe.


295. SeismologistsstudyingtheearthquakethatstrucknorthernCaliforniainOctober1989arestillinvestigatingsomeofitsmysteries:theunexpectedpoweroftheseismicwaves,theupwardthrustthatthrewonemanstraightintotheair,andthestrangeelectromagneticsignalsdetectedhoursbeforethetemblor.

A. theupwardthrustthatthrewonemanstraightintotheair,andthestrangeelectromagneticsignalsdetectedhoursbeforethetemblor

B. theupwardthrustthatthrewonemanstraightintotheair,andstrangeelectromagneticsignalsweredetectedhoursbeforethetemblor

C. theupwardthrustthrewonemanstraightintotheair,andhoursbeforethetemblorstrangeelectromagneticsignalsweredetected

D. onemanwasthrownstraightintotheairbytheupwardthrust,andhoursbeforethetemblorstrangeelectromagneticsignalsweredetected

E. onemanwhowasthrownstraightintotheairbytheupwardthrust,andstrangeelectromagneticsignalsthatweredetectedhoursbeforethetemblor

Parallelism;Grammaticalconstruction

Someoftheearthquake’smysteriesaredescribedinaseriesofthreecorrectlyparallelelements:(1)theunexpectedpower...,(2)theupwardthrust...,and(3)thestrangeelectromagneticsignals....Eachofthethreeelementsbeginswithanarticle(the),amodifier,andanoun.Thisparallelismiscrucial,buteachmysteryisallowedthefurthermodificationmostappropriatetoit,whetheraprepositionalphrase(1),aclause(2),oraparticipialphrase(3).

A. Correct.Thissentencecorrectlyprovidesaparallelseriesofthreemysteries.

B. Theisomittedbeforestrange.Theverbweredetectedmakesthelastelementnotparalleltotheprevioustwo.

C. Becausetheyusecompleteindependentclauses,thelasttwoelementsarenotparalleltothefirst,andthesentenceisungrammatical.

D. Theconstructionsbeginningonemanandhoursbeforearenotparalleltotheconstructionbeginningtheunexpectedpower.

E. Thegrammaticalconstructionsdescribingthemysteriesarenotparallel.


296. Thetypeofbehaviorexhibitedwhenananimalrecognizesitselfinamirrorcomeswithinthedomainof“theoryofmind,”thusisbeststudiedaspartofthefieldofanimalcognition.

A. of“theoryofmind,”thusisbest

B. “theoryofmind,”andsoisbesttobe

C. ofa“theoryofmind,”thusitisbest

D. of“theoryofmind”andthusisbest

E. ofthe“theoryofmind,”andsoitisbesttobe

Grammaticalconstruction;Idiom

Thissentencelinkstwoindependentclauses;insuchsentences,theclausesmustnormallybesetofffromeachother(byasemicolon,forexample),orelsethesecondclausemustbeintroducedbyandorsomeotherconjunction,notmerelyanadverblikethus.Also,anounlikedomainnormallyisfollowedbytheprepositionofimmediatelyprecedingthenounphrasedescribingthedomain.

A. Thesecondclauseincorrectlylacksanintroducingconjunction.

B. Thephrasingisbesttobestudiedisawkwardlyunusualandunidiomatic;isbeststudiedisabetterchoice.

C. Thesecondclauseincorrectlylacksanintroducingconjunction.Thephrasea“theoryofmind”wouldrefertooneparticulartheoryratherthan(asintended)toatheoreticaldomain.

D. Correct.Andintroducesthesecondclause,whichusestheconcisewordingbeststudied.

E. Thebeginningofthesecondclauseisredundantandwordy:thewordandisunnecessarybecausetheconjunctionsoisused,andbesttobestudiedisunidiomatic.


297. ProponentsofartificialintelligencesaytheywillbeabletomakecomputersthatcanunderstandEnglishandotherhumanlanguages,recognizeobjects,andreasonasanexpertdoes—computersthatwillbeusedtodiagnoseequipmentbreakdowns,decidingwhethertoauthorizealoan,orotherpurposessuchasthese.

A. asanexpertdoes—computersthatwillbeusedtodiagnoseequipmentbreakdowns,decidingwhethertoauthorizealoan,orotherpurposessuchasthese

B. asanexpertdoes,whichmaybeusedforpurposessuchasdiagnosingequipmentbreakdownsordecidingwhethertoauthorizealoan

C. likeanexpert—computersthatwillbeusedforsuchpurposesasdiagnosingequipmentbreakdownsordecidingwhethertoauthorizealoan

D. likeanexpert,theuseofwhichwouldbeforpurposeslikethediagnosisofequipmentbreakdownsorthedecisionwhetherornotaloanshouldbeauthorized

E. likeanexpert,tobeusedtodiagnoseequipmentbreakdowns,decidingwhethertoauthorizealoanornot,orthelike


Thesentencepresentsthreefunctionsofintelligentcomputers,butthesefunctions(todiagnose...,deciding...,orotherpurposes)arenotwritteninparallelways.Moreover,thefinalfunctionisvague.Turningthisfinalfunctionintoanintroductorystatementandusingparallelformsforthetwoelementsdiagnosinganddecidingcreatesastrongersentence.Eithertheclause,asanexpertdoes,ortheprepositionalphrase,likeanexpert,iscorrectandidiomaticinthissentence.

A. Theseriestodiagnose...,deciding...,orotherpurposesshouldbeexpressedinparallelways.

B. Whichhasnoclearreferent.

C. Correct.Movingforsuchpurposesastoanintroductoryposition

strengthensthesentence;diagnosinganddecidingareparallel.

D. Theuseofwhichwouldbeforpurposeslikeiswordyandawkward.Whichhasnoclearreferent.

E. Tobeused,deciding,andorthelikearenotparallel.


298. UnliketheUnitedStates,wherefarmerscanusuallydependonrainorsnowallyearlong,therainsinmostpartsofSriLankaareconcentratedinthemonsoonmonths,JunetoSeptember,andtheskiesaregenerallyclearfortherestoftheyear.

A. UnliketheUnitedStates,wherefarmerscanusuallydependonrainorsnowallyearlong,therainsinmostpartsofSriLanka

B. UnliketheUnitedStatesfarmerswhocanusuallydependonrainorsnowallyearlong,therainsinmostpartsofSriLanka

C. UnlikethoseoftheUnitedStates,wherefarmerscanusuallydependonrainorsnowallyearlong,mostpartsofSriLanka’srains

D. IncomparisonwiththeUnitedStates,whosefarmerscanusuallydependonrainorsnowallyearlong,therainsinmostpartsofSriLanka

E. IntheUnitedStates,farmerscanusuallydependonrainorsnowallyearlong,butinmostpartsofSriLanka,therains


TheintentofthesentenceistocompareseasonalrainfallpatternsintheUnitedStatesandSriLanka.Therearemanywaystosetupsuchcomparisons:unlikex,y;incomparisonwithx,y;comparedtox,y;andsoon.Thexandybeingcomparedmustbegrammaticallyandlogicallyparallel.Analternativewayofstatingthecomparisonistheuseoftwoindependentclausesconnectedbybut.TheoriginalsentencecomparestheUnitedStatestotherainsinmostpartsofSriLanka;thisillogicalcomparisoncannotconveythewriter’sintention.

A. ThissentenceillogicallycomparestheUnitedStatestotherainsinmostpartsofSriLanka.

B. ComparingUnitedStatesfarmerstotherainsinmostpartsofSriLankaisnotlogical.

C. Thesentenceawkwardlyandillogicallyseemstobecomparingmost

partsoftheUnitedStateswithmostpartsofSriLanka’srains.

D. ThissentencecomparestheUnitedStatesandtherainsinmostpartsofSriLanka.

E. Correct.Thissentenceusestwoindependentclausestomakethecomparison.ThefirstclausedescribesconditionsintheUnitedStates,andthesecondclausedescribesconditionsinSriLanka.Thecomparisonisclearandlogical.


299. Oncenumberinginthemillionsworldwide,itisestimatedthatthewolfhasdeclinedto200,000in57countries,some11,000ofthemtobefoundinthelower48UnitedStatesandAlaska.

A. itisestimatedthatthewolfhasdeclinedto200,000in57countries,some

B. thewolfisestimatedtohavedeclinedto200,000in57countries,withapproximately

C. thewolfhasdeclinedtoanestimateof200,000in57countries,some

D. wolveshavedeclinedtoanestimateof200,000in57countries,withapproximately

E. wolveshavedeclinedtoanestimated200,000in57countries,some

Logicalpredication;Idiom

Thepredicatenumberedmusthaveitslogicallycorrectsubject,whichiswolves.Althoughthewolfcanbeusedtorefercollectivelytowolvesasacategory,thenounshouldbepluralinthiscasesincethesentencereferstonumbersofthemandsinceagreementisneededbetweenthenounandthepluralpronounthem.Giventhepluralsubject,theverbintheindependentclauseshouldbehavedeclined.Theobjectofdeclinetoshouldbeawordorphrasenaminganumberorestimatednumber(e.g.,aphrasesuchasanestimated200,000),notthephraseanestimate.

A. Thesubjectofthemainclause(it)seemstosupplythesubjectofnumbering,sothelatterdoesnothaveitscorrectlogicalsubject,whichshouldbeawordorphrasereferringtowolves.

B. Thewolfcannotcorrectlybetakenasthesubjectofnumbering,asitissingularandindisagreementwiththemoccurringlaterinthesentence.

C. Thewolfcannotcorrectlybetakenasthesubjectofnumbering,asitissingularanddisagreeswiththelaterthem;also,adeclineisstrictlyspeakingtoanumber,nottoanestimate.

D. Althoughwolvesisacorrectsubjectfornumbering,adeclineshouldbetoanumber,nottoanestimate.

E. Correct.Wolvesisapropersubjectfornumberingandagreeswiththelaterthem.Thedeclineiscorrectlysaidtobetoanumber,anestimated200,000.


300. Asbusinessgrowsmorecomplex,studentsmajoringinspecializedareaslikethoseoffinanceandmarketinghavebeenbecomingincreasinglysuccessfulinthejobmarket.

A. majoringinspecializedareaslikethoseoffinanceandmarketinghavebeenbecomingincreasingly

B. whomajorinsuchspecializedareasasfinanceandmarketingarebecomingmoreandmore

C. whomajoredinspecializedareassuchasthoseoffinanceandmarketingarebeingincreasingly

D. whomajorinspecializedareaslikethoseoffinanceandmarketinghavebeenbecomingmoreandmore

E. havingmajoredinsuchspecializedareasasfinanceandmarketingarebeingincreasingly

Verbform;Diction

Thesubordinateclauseasbusinessgrowsmorecomplexusesthepresent-tenseverbgrowstodescribeanongoingsituation.Themainclausedescribesaneffectofthisgrowingcomplexity;theverbsinthemainclauseshouldalsousepresent-tenseverbs.Thepresentperfectprogressivehavebeenbecomingisincorrect.Thepreferredwaytointroduceexamplesiswiththephrasesuchas,ratherthanwiththewordlike,whichsuggestsacomparison.

A. Likeshouldbereplacedbysuchas.Havebeenbecomingisanincorrectverbtense.

B. Correct.Inthissentence,majorandarebecomingarepresent-tenseverbs;such...asisthepreferredformforintroducingexamples.

C. Majoredisapast-tenseverb;thoseofisunnecessaryandawkward.Becomingispreferabletobeingfordescribinganunfoldingpatternofevents.

D. Likeshouldbereplacedbysuchas.Thoseofisunnecessaryandawkward.Havebeenbecomingisanincorrectverbtense.

E. Havingmajoredisanawkwardpastparticiple.Becomingispreferabletobeingfordescribinganunfoldingpatternofevents.


301. InuitsoftheBeringSeawereinisolationfromcontactwithEuropeanslongerthanAleutsorInuitsoftheNorthPacificandnorthernAlaska.

A. inisolationfromcontactwithEuropeanslongerthan

B. isolatedfromcontactwithEuropeanslongerthan

C. inisolationfromcontactwithEuropeanslongerthanwere

D. isolatedfromcontactwithEuropeanslongerthanwere

E. inisolationandwithoutcontactswithEuropeanslongerthan


Theconstructioninisolationfromisawkward;theidiomaticwaytoexpressthisideaisisolatedfrom.Thecomparisonisambiguous;itcouldmeantheBeringSeaInuitswereisolatedfromEuropeanslongerthantheywereisolatedfromAleutsandotherInuitsorthattheywereisolatedfromEuropeanslongerthanAleutsandotherInuitswereisolatedfromEuropeans.Addingwereafterthanwillsolvethisproblem.

A. Inisolationfromisnotthecorrectidiom.Thecomparisonisambiguous.

B. Thecomparisonisambiguous.

C. Inisolationfromisnotthecorrectidiom.

D. Correct.Theidiomisolatedfromiscorrectlyusedinthissentence.Thecomparisonisclearandunambiguous.

E. Inisolation...withoutisincorrectandconfusing.Thecomparisonisambiguous.


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