UNIT 3 CHILDHOOD AS A PERIOD OF SOCIALIZATION

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BED 1ST SEMESTER PROSPECTIVE IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT

UNIT 3

CHILDHOOD AS A PERIOD

OF SOCIALIZATION

CHARACTERISTICS OF CHILDHOODDEVELOPMENTAL TASKS

“In the growth process from infancy to adulthood, there are three clear-cut and discrete stages

of growth when one is said to become suddenly different in one stage from the previous stage.”

This means, the process of development never ends with the child's passing from one stage of

development to the next. One stage merges with the next and that next with the forth-coming.

Scholars have held widely different opinions about the stages through which individual

development passes. At this point, we are putting forward the classifications offered by some

leading scholars. The classification accepted by many scientists is the one given in the following

fines. Their study of development is based upon this classification

1. Prenatal Period - from conception till 250 to 300 days.

I. (i) Germinal- 0 to 2 weeks

(ii) Embryonic - 2 to 10 weeks

(iii) Foetal- 10 weeks to birth.

2. Childhood- from birth to the age of 12 years,

(i) Infancy - from birth to an age of 2 years.

(ii) Early Childhood - 3 to 6 years.

(iii) Late Childhood - 6 to 12 years.

3. Adolescence - 13 to 19 years.

4. Adulthood- 20 years and above.

For convenience of study, here we will classify the developmental process of an individual as

follows

(1) Prenatal period - from conception till birth.

(ii) Infancy - from birth to an age of years.

(iii) Childhood - 6 to 12 years of age.

(iv) Adolescence - 12 to 19 years of age.

Pregnancy lasts for about 280 days. In some very exceptional cases it goes even upto 334 days

or so. In some it may last even less than 280 days.

This period of development may be understood in the following three stages which we

shall study below:



1. The Ovum or germinal stage.

2. The Embryo stage, and

3. The Fetus stage

1. In the first germinal stage, the child comes into existence through the union of the sperm and

the ova. In this stage, the first organ to grow is the head and then subsequently the other organs

and limbs begin to sprout.

2. The embryonic stage is the second stage which lasts from the second to the tenth week.

during which various parts of the body grow.

3. The third stage is designated the foetal stage, which lasts till the child is born. In this period,

the mother is aware of the movement of child's limbs. Studies in prenatal conditions begin to the

19th century.

Some of the conclusions arrived at through these studies are:

1) in the first two months, size of the head is half the size of the entire body.

(ii) in the tenth month, the head is reduced to one-fourth the size of the body.

(iii) after the fourteenth week, the movement of the foetus becomes perceptible.

(iv) in four months, the movement as the foetus becomes faster and more complex. This action

and reaction is fully influenced by the internal and the external environment.

Minkowsky and others studied the foetus after caesarean section at different stages

of growth. It has been found that at the end of the second month cotaneous stimulation elicits

response and at 14 weeks a spontaneous reaction of organism as a whole. It is found that

before birth, the organism is capable of reacting to the internal as well as external stimuli in the

appropriate environment

2. Infancy: The term “Infancy” is used to describe the period from the birth of the child till he

attains the age of five years. In this period, the child attains a height of 20inches and a body

weight between 5 to 8 pounds. At this stage, the child is completely dependent upon others, his

development depends almost entirely upon other members of the family. At this stage child

grows at a faster rate. All sorts of development and growth take a rapid movement. In the field

behavior, smooth functioning occurs.

3.Childhood: Most scholars have used the term “childhood” for the period extending from 6

years to 12 years. In this period, the child continues to undergo physical development. But,

apart from bodily development, the child also experiences social, cultural and emotional

development.

4. Adolescence: Adolescence is generally accepted as the period between 13 years and 19

years. Western scientists have also referred to it as the teen age. It is believed to be the most

complex stage of development.

DEVELOPMENT - PROCESS AND FORM

We have just stated that there are various stages in the development of the child in which the

child's person develops in numerous ways. The nature of the developmental process contains

within itself physiological, mental, emotional and social elements. Hence, development takes the



following forms:

(1) Physical growth and development

(ii) Mental growth and development

(iii) Emotional growth and development

(iv) Social growth and development

(v) Motor development

(vi) Language development

The manner in which these various forms of development are initiated and the manner in which

they reach their culmination in adolescence is analyzed in the following sections.

PHYSICAL GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

Physical growth starts when union of sperm with ovum takes place. Generally full growth of the

human body completes at the adolescent stage. How this growth and development take place,

is discussed in the following lines. »

1. Physical Development in Prenatal Period:

Life has its beginning not at the moment of birth but as soon as conception takes place and in

the prenatal stage, over a period of 280 days or ten lunar months, the human body attains its

maturity in the mother's womb.

(1) Foetal or embryonic state - Life springs into existence when the sperm and the ovum unite

with each others. The growth that takes place from this moment till the children emerges from

the womb - the foetal or embryonic stage - passes through three distinct periods before the

process achieves completion.

The process of the child's birth can be divided into the following three parts, for convenience:

(a) the period of ovum,

(b) the period of embryo, and

(c) the period of foetus.

The child's birth is the outcome of this complex process which occupies a period of 9 calendar

months, or 10 lunar months or 280 days, although in abnormal conditions, the minimum period

can be as low as seven months and the maximum 334 days.

(a) The Period of ovum: The period of ovum, or what can be called the period of conception,

lasts for two weeks from the moment of union between the sperm and ovum. In this period, the

cells continue to divide and subdivide. Important changes take place in the zygote or

impregnated ovum, while an emptiness begins to develop within the cells. The impregnated

ovum travels through the fallopian tubes and reaches the uterus. By this time, it reaches a size

roughly Equivalent to that of the head of a pin. In the uterus, it wanders around for a number of

days but as soon as it finds affirms place, it adheres to the wall of the uterus. In this position, it

begins to derive nutrition through the uterus. Sometimes, the ovum stricks to the walls of the

fallopian tube and begins to grow in that place itself. Such a case is called a tubal pregnancy.



(b) The Period of Embryo:

This period has its beginning two weeks after conception and lasts for two months. It is

designated the period of embryo. In this state, as a result of the continuous process of cell

division, the child begins to assume a definite shape.

The ovum divides itself into three layers - the external layer called the ectoderm, the middle

layer the mesoderm and the third or inner layer, the endoderm.

The ectoderm or the external layer grows into the skin, hair, nails, teeths, glands ofthe skin and

the sensory nerve ending. mesoderm grows into the internal organs, the muscles and the

glands which produce various secretions.

The endoderm provides the basis for the growth of the digestive system, lungs, liver, ductless

glands, thyroid, thymus and other glands and some internal organs.

It is in this stage that the embryo develops the placenta through which it receives nutrition.

Initially, it has the shape of a thread but gradually it changes into a vessel or tube, The embryo

and the placenta are connected to each other through the umbilical cord which is connected

with the placenta at one end and the intestinal wall of the embryo at the other. As time passes, it

acquires the thickness of the thumb.

During the embryonic stage, the ernibioditic sack also grows. It is a sack containing water of

fluid which protects the embryo from injury: As the embryo grows, this sac also enlarges itself.

The fluid filling this sac proves useful in the delivery of the child at the moment of birth. With the

formation of the placenta and the umbilical cord, the foetus receives oxygen, water and nutrition

from the mother's blood. Besides, the placenta also performs the important function of a



At the end of the second lunar month, the embryo attains a length between 2 to 4 inches and a

weight of approximately 2 grams. All this time the growth is 2,00,000 times. The head of the

child grows before the other organs are formed. In the head, the sockets for the eyes become

clearly defined and the outline of the ears and the various parts of the face become perceptible.

At the same time, the formation of the torseo the main part of the human body not including

head, arms legs, liver intestines, sex organs, arms, bones, etc., is also initiated. This is a very

hazardous period because even the slightest lack of caution on the part of the mother, or the

father, can lead to abortion or miscarriage.

It is in this stage that the woman's organs begin to suffer abnormalities of and many other

diseases, such as RH factor, deficiency vitamins, malnutrition, thyroidal deficiency, etc.,

communicate themselves to the foetus.



(c) The Period of foetus:

This stage starts from the second month of the pregnancy and continues till the moment of the

child's birth, that is, it continues till the tenth lunar or ninth calendar month. In the third month,

the foetus is 3.5" long and 4 ounces in weight. Two months later, it attains a lengths of 10

inches and a weight of about ? to 10 ounces. In the eighth month, it achieves a length between

16 to 18 inches and a weight from 4 to 5 pounds, while at the time of birth, the foetus has a

height of 20 inches and weight between to 7 to 7.5 pounds.

In this period, many important changes take place in the structure of the nose, mouth, throat,

etc. Lanugo hair also grows during this period, though its colour changes at the time of birth.

The heart also begins to beat, just as the digestive system begins to grow. In this period,

sensitivity to sensations of beat, hearing, taste, smell, pain etc. and the muscles which

maintains balance also begin to grow.

This period is almost completely free from the problems of pregnancy, the only thing needing

attention being the care to prevent a premature delivery, If such a coincidence does occurs,

very great attention is required

The mother comes to know of the time of her child's delivery because the first pains of labour

indicate this fact. Consequently, the time for making preparations for delivery also arrives. The

position of the foetus in the womb at the time of initial labour pains is indicated in figure. The



second or final labour pain is indicative of the fact that the child is about to enter the world. The

sack bursts and the fluid contained inside it lubricates the mother's vaginal passage to facilitate

the child's delivery into the world.

Fig. 1 shows the position of foetus during first labour pain and Fig. 2 shows the child's state at

the moment of birth.

Factors Influencing the pre-natal period:

There are numerous factors which influences the embryo or foetus in the prenatal stage, and

these factors have a profound impact upon the physical and mental development of the foetus.

Many researches have been conducted into this state, and it has been proved that the food

ingested by the mother has a very deep impact upon the development of the embryo.

According to scientists, the factors which influences the embryo are the following:

1. Food: During pregnancy, the embryo grows at a very rapid pace, and hence it has great need

for proteins, vitamins, carbohydrates and other nutritive elements, since these alone ensure its

balance growth. In this condition, if the mother does not get a balanced diet, or if she suffers

from malnutrition, it is only natural that this will have an adverse effect upon the growth of the

embryo also. Lack of a balanced diet means the birth of a weak, unhealthy baby, or a baby

lacking normal height and weight.

2. The Health of the mother: The embryo will be profoundly, and harmfully affected if the mother

is suffered from syphilis, gonorrhea, endocrine or any chronic disease. Ip some cases, these

diseases may lead to miscarriage. Doctors have observed many ill-effects of small pox, the RH

factor in the blood, X-rays and radium upon the health of the foetus. These diseases and

external factors often result in the birth of children with malformed bodies and defective brains.

3. Alcohol: It has been observed that, at present, the tendency to consume alcohol is increasing

among ladies in our country. Alcohol has a definite impact upon the heaļth of the foetus.

Confining the gradual effect of alcohol, Pearl has opined that it does not have fatal or disastrous

effects, but it does weaken the children's reproductive organs.

4. Tobacoo: As in the case of alcohol, tobacco also has an adverse effect because it leads to

the problem of blood pressure and this weakens the heart of the child in the uterus. Besides, it

also interferes with lactation, and leads to paucity of milk in the mother's breasts.

5. Emotionality: If the mother is excessively emotional, her heightened emotions of joy and

sorrow, both effect the child in her womb. Woman inclined to excessive anxiety or tension often

suffer from blood pressure and other problems.

6. The Age of the parents: The effect which the age of parents has upon the expected child are

under study at present. Despite this, it has already been noticed that children of young parents

usually have a higher intelligence quotient than the children born to elderly parents. It has also

been observed that children of parents having more or less the same age have a relatively

higher intelligence quotient. A child's birth involves a physical as well as emotional crisis for the

mother, and it is believed that, in the act of giving birth to her child, a mother is reborn. As a

consequence, her entire loyalty, love, faith and maternal feelings focus themselves upon the



child, and the mother and her child live in an exclusive world of their own. In this modem age,

which has attained access to such a vast reservoir of knowledge, it is essential for all young

boys and girls, who are potential mothers and fathers, to have proper knowledge of the care

necessary in the prenatal stage.

PHYSICAL AND MOTOR DEVELOPMENT

Meaning of Physical growth:

One of the chief characteristics of a living organism is its ability to grow. A seedling grows into a

plant which, in course of time, grows into a huge tree. A child in due course tums into an adult.

In living organisms, growth takes place by multiplication of the cell. Every living structure grows

to a certain limit; it cannot go on growing all the time through life.

By physical growth, it means the progressive development of the various parts of the body and

their capacity to function. Physical growth is determined by a variety of factors, some of which

are difficult to understand. These factors may be classified as internal and external. The internal

factors include heredity, sex, secretion of the ductless or endocrine glands etc. Some of the

important external factors are sunlight, air, food, fatigue, exercise and work. Seasons of the year

is another external factor influencing growth. The maximum gain in 'weight takes place between

October and December and the minimum gain between April and June.

The initial changes immediately after birth, include the expansion of the lungs and certain

changes in the circulation of blood. The growth of the brain during the first year is very rapid.

The bones start growing in length and thickness. The milk-teeth start erupting from the sixth to

the eighth month. By two and a half years, all the twenty teeth of the first set should have

erupted. These teeth start falling off after six years and the teeth of the permanent set start

erupting. The last tooth of the permanent set normally erupts by the 25th year. About the age of

13 years, the individual starts attaining sexual maturity. At this age, called the age of puberty,

girls start menstruating and show the secondary sexual characters; in males, similarly, at

puberty, secondary sexual characters appear and voice breaks due to the changes in the

larynx. Complete growth is attained by the age of 16 years in girls 20 years in boys.

The process of Physical growth:

The growth process of the human beings can be conveniently divided into the following stages:

1. The stage of Infancy.

The stage of Early Childhood.

III. The stage of Later Childhood

IV. The stage of Adolescence.

I. PHYSICAL GROWTH DURING INFANCY: Infancy is the period of rapid growth and

development. There is rapid growth in terms of height, weight and size which leads to changes

in shape and proportion. Physical growth is accompanied by motor activity. i

General Characteristics. In the first few weeks of life, the infant has no control over his body.

Gradually, he learns to lift up his chin when lying on his stomach. Around two months, he learns

to smile a little. Between three and four months, his neck muscles grow stronger and he learns



to hold his head up. By now he has also started cooing and gurgling and his salivary glands are

active. His eyesight becomes steady and when a dangling toy is tied to his crib, he can fix his

eyes on it and also turn his head to follow it, if removed. He can have a strong hold on any

object near him; but by six months he can reach for it and grasp it by six months, as found by

Gessel, a baby is able to sit with a slight support. Between 9 to 18 months the child rapidly

learns to creep, to stand with support, to climb stairs, to walk and is constantly moving about

Growth in Height and Weight. An easily noticeable aspect of physical growth is changes in

height and weight. Studies have shown that at birth, the infant is on an average 20" long and

weighs 7 pounds. Male infants weigh on an average 0.2 pounds more than female infants.

During the first six months the weight of an average infant is doubled. At the end of two years,

there is increase in arms and legs and he learns to walk also. By the time the infant reaches a

height of 28.25 inches, his weight increases to 19.7 pounds. The average female baby of the

height of 28.25 inches weighs 19.3 pounds. However, averages in height and weight cannot be

regarded as applying to any one individual because very wide variations are found among

growing children. Body Proportions besides changes in height and weight, growth in large

muscles affects body proportions. Finger and hand muscles show less growth. The growth of

the skeleton is not regular for all its component parts and there is a wide range of body built.

The skeletal growth is shown by many facts such as the contrast between the size of the skull

and the bones of the arms and the legs. Changes are also noticeable in respect of cutting teeth.

At first there are no teeth, then the baby teeth appear which are followed by different sets.

Some other changes. There are many other changes which are connected with digestion,

respiration, toilet habits etc. Changes also occur in nerves and glands, and in reproductive

organs. The baby bones are more pliable and the joints are less firm. There is greater scope for

environmental influences. There is always danger of infection because of low clarification.

By two, most infants will go to the toilet when they feel the need; by three, most infants will stay

dry all night.

II. PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT DURINGEARLY CHILDHOOD:

During the period of Childhood there are marked changes inking place in the child both

physically and psychologically. None of these changes," says Hurlock, “come from maturation

and most come from learning." The period of Early Childhood which extends from two years to

five or six years is significant on two counts.

(1) It is the period during which the child is prepared for entry into a place of formal education.

(ii) It is the convenient dividing line between early and late Childhood.

According to Hurlock, - This dividing line is significant because as the child leaves the home

environment and enters school, new pressures and new expectations result in marked changes

in patterns of behavior, attitudes and values'

Today, with the emergence of pre-school education, the period of early Childhood has acquired

new significance. New demands are put on the child while new expectations are being made' by



school where the child proposes to enter for formal schooling.

The following features of physical development during the period of Early Childhood are

significant.

1. General Nature of Growth. This period is marked by physical growth and motor development.

Some of the bodily changes accompanying growth are concrete and visible. The most important

of these is increase in weight and height. At five years of age, the average child will have gained

about nine inches in height from that of age two( Watson and Lowrcy).

A weight gain of about four or five pounds per year will also be found. Here again, there is

difference between slow-growing and fast growing. In the case of healthy children, the growth is

comparatively more rapid. There is also muscular development and some development in

muscular coordination. Different parts of the body such as head, hands, arms, legs etc,, grow

proportionately. The nervous system also grows and develops, and there is a marked

improvement in the functioning of sensory organs.

2.Motor Development. There is a lot of motor development and muscular coordination. This

enables a child to perform various types of essential activities like walking, running, jumping,

throwing etc. The child pays instant attention to noise, sound, colour and light. He begins to

recognize faces and expresses the feelings of pleasure and pain through facial expressions.

The five-year old, says Gesell, is poised and controlled, with an economy of movement and an

adoptness with fingers and hands adoptness. Again, the influence of learning may be readily

seen in such skills as talking, writing, and buttoning clothes. In a study conducted by Gutteridge,

it was indicated that a fair proportion of children are proficient in some motor activities before the

age of three years. However, they become proficient in climbing, jumping, throwing and catching

of balls, recycling and so on by the time they are four or five years of age. Sex variations are

also noticeable.

3. Lymphatic System. Another point worth noting is the prominence of the lymphatic system

during this period. This lymph glands are found in the region of the neck, under arm, and

various other parts of the body. Tonsils and' adenoids are also made up of lymphoid tissue.

Tonsils are in the throat while adenoids are behind the soft palate where the nasal passages

join the throat. These glands and ducts are larger and more numerous in childhood. In the

second and third years, the tonsils become larger, reaching maximum size at four or five years.

4. Each child has his own tempo of growth. It is important to note that each child has his own

tempo of growth. Some children grow slower during the early years and faster later. Boys and

girls grow at different rates. It is found that 60 percent of the adult height is reached by girls at

3'l, years and by boys at 4'/, years.

III. PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT DURING LATER CHILDHOOD (6 YEARS TO 12 YEARS)

- Later childhood refers to the period beginning with the child's entrance to the primary school at

the age of six or so, and ending with the appearance of physical changes at puberty. Thus, the



Inter childhood period extends from six year of age to twelve years.

The main characteristics of development during this stage as follows:

1. Slow but Steady Growth. Whereas the infancy and early childhood are the periods of rapid

growth and development, the stage of later-childhood is characterised as the period of slow,

steady and uniform growth. Development rate, although uniform, is very slow at this stage. The

average height of the child at twelve is about 58 inches and he weighs between 95 and 100

pounds. There is a tendency to grow slim but tall. Sex differences also influence the physical

growth at this stage. For example, on the average, a girl grows later than a boy. Maturity is

reached about two years earlier among girls than boys. Moreover, bones become harder, the

milk-teeth are replaced by permanent teeth and resistance to disease increases. 2. Motor

Development. In addition to this, muscles become stronger and the development of motor skills

becomes more specific, The child gains better control over his muscles and there is a better

coordination and integration in his motor activities. There is a marked increase in manipulation

and speed, and the child possesses greater strength and endurance. The child moves in an

atmosphere of freedom and he wants to do and manipulate many things. He likes to engage

himself in physical games and playful activities. Investigations of Metheny have shown that

among measures of motor development there is tendency for the stronger to be taller, faster,

and healthier than the weaker child. 3. Years of Healthy Growth. These are the years of healthy

growth. At the age of 9 or 10, children engage themselves in various types of outdoor games

such as swimming and skating, hockey and cricket etc. The seeds of early peer-group are

shown.

Educational Implications of Physical and Motor development:

i) PERIOD OF EARLY CHILDHOOD

1. Rich and balanced diet. Early childhood being an age of rapid growth and development, the

children must be provided with a rich and balanced diet at this stage, Any deficiency of diet at

this stage may have serious repercussions at a later stage and the growth of the child may be

retarded.

2. Training in good habits. The child must be trained in acquiring good habits of personal

cleanliness and hygiene.

3. Child to be gradually made independent. The child must be encouraged to do many of the

routine things himself; full dependence of the child must gradually give way to his

Independence.

4. Play. Play is the most dominating instinct at this stage. It is an important part of child's life

during this period. Therefore, play activities involving maximum use of limbs should be provided

to the children to facilitate better motor development.

5. Self-expression. The child must be allowed to move about in a wider sphere, so that he

develops in the art of self-expression and command over the language.



ii) PERIOD OF LATER CHILDHOOD:

1. Parents to take proper care of food. For proper physical development, the parents should

take proper care of food and child's personal hygiene. They should see that the child is

physically healthy in all respects. At school, provision should be made for indoor and outdoor

games during and after school hours.

2. Physical and practical activities. Emphasis should be placed on physical and practical

activities. Dignity of labour should also be emphasized.

3. Good and healthy habits should be developed in children. The virtues of moderation and a

disciplined life should be impressed upon children.

4. Self-expression. The children must be allowed the fullest possible self-expression through

various types of co-curricular activities. Games and sports should also be provided for their

physical and social development.

5. Sympathetic atmosphere. Sympathetic and affectionate type of atmosphere should be

provided at home as well as in the school, so that the child develops into a well-balanced

personality.

COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

Cognitive development is an important aspect of growth, embracing the various mental abilities.

Mental development includes such abilities as attending, perceiving, observing, remembering,

imagining, thinking, solving problems, and growth of intelligence as well as of language. These

abilities grow and mature with age. In spite of general pattern of mental development, each

individual grows and matures with age. In spite of a general pattern of mental development,

each individual grows and develops in his own unique manner.

The various mental abilities are inter-related and develop as a whole. They are inter-dependent.

Moreover, mental development is a continuous process. The factors that affect mental

development include maturation, learning and education. Mental development is a function of

the nervous system, especially of the brain.

Stages in Cognitive Development:

(a) Development from Birth to 2 years (Infancy stage). The child inherits all the sensory

equipment that is needed for mental activity. The child shows evidence of his thinking ability at a

very early age. For example, he tries to secure approval from his parents for the things he likes

or does. The child's curiosity is another characteristic of mental development at this stage. He is

curious to know about his immediate environment. He also develops the ability to differentiate

people and things around him. This is a period of rapid language development, which increases

the ability of expression of the child; and self-expression is a potent means of mental

development. The child also acquires a variety of sensory and perceptual experiences and

these experiences contribute a lot towards his mental development.



(b) Development during early childhood (3-6 years):

The child begins to think symbolically. The perception of size, colour, shape, time and distance

evolves. Memory increases rapidly thinking and reasoning develop in relation to concrete

materials.

(c) Development from 7 to 12 Years (Later Childhood Stage): This is a period of rapid mental

development. The child acquires a new interest in studies and he takes pride in the increase of

his knowledge! His sphere of interests is also widened and he likes to meet people, converse

and discuss with them on various types of topics. This naturally leads to his further mental

development.

(d) Development during Adolescence. (From 12 to 18 Years): During this period, the mental

development riches its climax. The capacities and abilities such as observation, perception,

attention, memory, thinking reasoning and intelligence are sharpened and increased, leading to

a high degree of mental development of the adolescent. This is also a period of heightened

imagination and therefore, there is a great increase in the aesthetic sensibility of the pupils.

Creativity in arts is also a dominant characteristic of this period. All this lends to a high degree of

mental and intellectual development.

SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

Human beings are essentially social beings. In modern life, man has come to feel the necessity

of human relationships more than ever before. Practically, no one can any longer live in a state

of complete or even partial isolation. It is by living in society that man comes to develop human

qualities of which the social phase is the fundamental quality which he must develop for better

adjustment in a civilized society. At the time of birth, the human child is unaware of the social

phase, though he is born within a social group and is surrounded by those in whose case social

development has already taken place or is under way. From merely a biological organism, the

human child develops into a total individual in the context of social environment. As the child

grows up, he develops not only in physical, mental, emotional and attitudinal behavior, but also

in his social behavior. It is the acceptable social behavior that makes him an acceptable social

being.

Social Development according to the following psychologists:

1 . Francis F. Powers. Social development can be defined as the progressive improvement,

through directed activity, of the individual in the comprehension of the social heritage and the

formation of flexible conduct patterns of reasonable conformity with this heritage. 73

In this sense, social development emphasizes the fact that growth must be progressive.

2. Sorenson, “By social growth and development we mean the increasing ability to get along

well with oneself and others" This means that a socially developed person has accepted tastes,

attitudes and behavior patterns.

3. Hurlock, social development is the "attaining of maturity in social relationships".

4. Garret regards social development as the process whereby the biological individual is

converted into a human person”.

5. Freeman and Shovel. Social development is the process of learning to conform to group

standards, mores and traditions and becoming imbued with a sense of oneness, inter-



communication and cooperation.”

1. Infancy: Social Development

It is self-evident that man is a social creature. The child falls under the influence of society

though indirectly, even before he is born.

Once the individual is born, his existence cannot be maintained in the absence of society.

Initially, the mother alone constitutes the child's entire society, because in the first four or five

weeks of his life, her face is the one he sees most often and gradually comes to recognize. In

three or four months, the child's social tendency begins to develop, as a result of which the

crying or laughing child falls silent upon seeing a stranger. At the age of 6 or 7 months, the child

begins to recognize members of his family. When he grows to 9 months, he learn! to crawl

towards his mother or some person with whom he is acquainted. At the age of 2 years, he

learns to play with other children of his own age. When he becomes 3 years old, he begins

taking interest in collective or group activities, and by the age of 6 years, he begins participating

in collective games. At this stage, there is no much difference between the social development

of boys and girls play with dolls while boys prefer imitative games. Growth of the negative

tendency leads the children manifesting anger, annoyance and dissatisfaction. Children often

quarrel with each other but in this age, such quarrels last only for a few moments.

L.D.Crow has pointed out that, as compared to the earlier-stage, the child now begins to

differentiate between the concepts of l' and "You'. He becomes familiar with other children. He

continues to act on the principle that whatever belongs to him is undoubtedly his own, but he

also becomes gradually aware of the fact that whatever belongs to another undoubtedly belongs

to that person. When the child approaches the age of three years, perhaps he begins to

understand that whatever belongs to him also belongs to another, that is, he learns to share his

own possessions with others. It has been observed that the tendency to play with other children

in preference to playing only with his own toys and possessions becomes stable and firm after

the age of three years.

Social development has its distinct form in infancy. the child has his own society. As Elizabeth

Hurlock has explained, the child learns to adapt himself to the collective life of other children, to

share things with them, and to make his play fellows participants in his own possessions. The

child tries to mould himself according to the approved patterns prevailing in the group of which

he is a member.

To put it in simple terms, the fact is that a child's social development means the child's

socialization. From a stage of helplessness, the child grows to a state of capability, and this

capability itself directs the child towards adjustment . Commenting on the growth of

socialization, MacIver and Havinghurst have clarified that socialization is the process through

which the various possibilities of individual behavior are conjoined with the society's approval or

disapproval of them, so as to enable the individual to choose the approved patterns of behavior

and reject the disapproved ones. In this process, emphasis is laid upon the influence of formal

as well as informal social classes upon the personality of every individual.



2. Childhood: Social Development

The beginning of childhood marks the formal entrance of the child in social life. It is in childhood

that moves out of the home and goes to school, where he sets many other children like himself.

It is here that he develops the tendency towards gregariousness, towards forming groups and

becoming a member of gangs. Friendliness begins to manifest itself. Girls and boys prefer to

play, their separate games. Children now engage in many games outside the house and the

competitive spirit, too, begins to emerge. It has also been seen that it is in this stage that the

Odipus and Electra complexes begin to develop.

(i) The Odipus complex is the tendency of the child to love his mother much more. The name of

this complex derives from the mythological character Oedipus who, with the help of his sister,

murdered his father and married his own mother. It is for this reason that a child's love for his

mother, especially when ; exaggerated, is referred to as the Oedipus complex.

(i) Similarly, the growth of the Electra complex in girls leads to their excessive love for their

fathers. A girl named Electra killed her mother with the assistance of her brother and then

married her own father. This is the reason why that this complex is know as the Electra

complex..

In childhood there is deep affection for persons of the other sex, manifested most strongly and

openly towards the parents, but it is also noticed in the deep attachment between brothers and

sisters. Children love and play with their younger brothers and sisters build sand castles, devise

games about the marriage of dolls and thus entertain themselves. The quality ofleadership also

begins to develop.

According to Guthry and Powers, the quality of possessiveness also its origin in this period of

life. According to them, the feeling of possessiveness in the child first expresses itself most

noticeably towards members of his family and the objects with which he comes in to contact.

Respect for public property or the property of others develops only later. The desire to protect

one's belongings develops according to individual experience, and hence it is not found to be

equally strong in all children.

3. Adolescence: Social Development

In adolescence, the child's social development comes under the influence of his interests,

needs, sense of security or insecurity, etc. In this stage, adolescents are very sensitive towards

their environment, but, at the same time, the adolescent's social development is also profoundly

influenced by his physical growth. Weak, sickly disabled or handicapped adolescents tend to

develop abnormalities and suffer from maladjustment. Such children are usually shunned by

other people, and this intensifies their problems.

In adolescence, the important features of social development can be outlined as follows:

(1) Similarity of objectives: Similarity of objectives in adolescence leads to the birth of firm and

permanent friendships. However, in forming friendships, adolescents keep in mind interests,

aptitudes, and social and economic status. There is not much significance in proximity of

residence.

(ii) Social acceptability: Adolescents become aware of the fact that they have social

acceptability at some places but not at 5thers. They come to feel that their parents do not make



an effort to understand them or to give them adequate independence, especially in decision-

making.

(iii) Sex drive: Because of the powerful manifestation of the sex drive in adolescence, girls and

boys like to meet and talk to each other and to participate jointly in social activities. Where

healthy social relations between girls and boys fail to develop, relations with members of the

same sex are established.

(iv) Sociability: Sociability develops to such an extent in adolescents that they are usually eager

to make sacrifices for the honor and dignity of their friends or their group. For this purpose, they

obey every command given by the leader of the group.

(v) Maturity: The social development of girls is marked by greater maturity. However, they take

greater interest in talking about boys or reading books about them.

(vi) Social awareness: Social awareness grows at a' rapid pace in adolescents. The adolescent

wants to win praise from his parents as well as acquaintances. He easily becomes annoyed and

insists upon the fulfillment of his wish, his behavior is characterized by selfishness.

EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT

During the process of growth and development, every individual undergoes distinct emotional

experiences, specific to that particular stage of development. In every activity that we perform,

we have an emotional experience which is reflected in our mood. Emotions which are said to be

the springs of life tine actions, occupy a special field of study for a student of education and

psychology and bear special significance for a teacher.

Nature of Emotion:

On the basis of our daily experience a emotion is u complex mental process coloured by a well-

marked feeling tone. In this sense emotions are a complex feeling. However, it will not be out of

place to midlist a few expert definitions of emotion,

Emotion is defined as:

1. Derivative Meaning. In its derivative meaning, emotion may be defined as the stirred up or the

excited or the disturbed state of mind. The word 'emotion' is itself derived from the Latin word

"emovere' which means to 'stir up' to 'excite' or to 'agitate!

2. Gates defines emotions as “episodes in which the individual is moved or excited”.

3. Woodworth defines "Emotion is a moved or stirred state of an organism. It is disturbed

muscular and glandular activity".

4. McDougall defines "emotion is the made up experience that accompanies the working of an

instinctive impulse. In this theory, every instinct is accompanied by a specific emotion. The

fourteen emotions which accompany the fourteen instincts are known as prime emotions."

5.Hoff ding speaks of "emotion as a sudden boiling up of feeling which, for a time, overwhelms

the mind."

From the above definitions, we conclude that emotion is a complex of feelings, a general stirring



up of the individual, physically and mentally, a state of intensified excitement. When a person is

undergoing an emotional outburst, he gets a sudden increase in the heart beat, change in blood

pressure, irregular respiration and marked change in his facial expression. One becomes

emotional in the face of a difficult situation or a crisis or when the organism fails to make

complete adjustment, happy or unhappy. But when the individual makes an adjustment or

knows how to make an adjustment, emotion passes over and relief is obtained through

expression.

General Characteristics of Emotions:

1. Every emotion is followed by physiological change such as rapid heart beat, change in the

pulse rate, change in blood pressure, change in the facial expression, voice and body

movements.

2. Emotion is accompanied by a feeling of pleasantness and unpleasantness, following

physiological changes.

3. Emotions are subjective and purely individual. The same situation may evoke different

emotions in different individuals. Emotion is a tripolor response having affective, cognitive and

conative aspects.

5. Emotions have wide range and are not restricted to a particular age period. They occur to

children, adolescents and adults.

6. Emotions rise abruptly. The passing away of emotions is, however, slow, leaving behind an

emotional state which lasts for some time.

7. Emotions have swings. One emotion may give rise to another emotion and the two may get

merged.

8. An emotion mostly rises when the organism faces a difficult situation or when the basic need

is challenged or is not satisfied.

In fact, a situation, real or imaginary, is always connected with An emotion.

Children's emotions are not as natural and long-standing as those of adults. Their emotions are

characterized by sudden and intense outburst, are transitory, more frequent and are easily

expressed.

Characteristics of Childhood Emotionality:

Hurlock in her book Child Development has beautifully listed the following characteristics of

childhood emotionality which distinguish the emotions of children from those of adults..

(a) Children's emotions are brief: Young child's emotions last only a few minutes and then end

abruptly. By expressing her emotion, he simply clears' his system and as a result the emotion

lasts for a relatively short time.

(b) Children's emotions are intense: Young child's emotions are marked by intensity which is

seldom observed in the emotional reactions of an adult. There are no gradations in the

emotional response of a child.



(c) Children's emotions are transitory: By transitory we mean shifting and there is shifting of

emotions—from tears to smiles from jealousy to affection. It also means change in emotional

reactions.

(d) Children's emotions appear frequently: Children's emotions appear more frequently than

those of a typical adult, This reason is that as the child grow older, he has greater ability to

make adjustments to situations that justifiably call forth emotional reactions that he had when he

was younger and less secured.

(e) Children's emotional responses are different: There is a whole variability in the emotional

responses of children. An example will illustrate this One child in fear will run out of room,

another may hide behind his mother's shirt and so on.

(f) Children express their emotions directly or as they feel them: whereas in adults, the

responses are indirect and they know how to hide their emotions.

Emotional development in various stages:

(a) Infancy (0-2 years):

Garrison is of the view that the infant is poorly endowed emotionally. However, the baby exhibits

much behavior that seems to have an emotional quality as and when he thrashes his limbs. On

the whole, early in this stage, emotions, if at all they exist, they exist in undifferentiated and

diffused form. They develop as a result of maturation and training. In the first year there is only

one emotional response and that is that of general excitement. As the baby grows, the

emotional responses become less diffused and can be distinguished.

According to J.B. Watson then, emotions of fear, anger and love are identified even in very

young infant. Anger is more developed and very soon the child learns to say “No". 'Authorities,

however, do not agree to specific emotions present at babyhood.

In another study, Bridges observed 62 infants from two weeks to two years of age. She found

undifferentiated excitement at the initial stage. However, she found that at about three weeks of

age, emotional differentiations in the infant began. Distress and delight are the two emotional

patterns which first got differentiated from excitement. Fear, anger and disgust are differentiated

from distress before the age of six months. Continuing in this way, Bridges found that at the age

of 18 months, a rather extensive report of differentiated emotional reactions could be noted in

the infant. However, neither the ages at which a particular 'emotion ‘emerged, nor the precise

sequences’ she found can be given much evidence.

(b) Early Childhood (2—6 years):

It is at this age that the emotions begin to show themselves up in differentiated form. The two

streams of emotions differentiated from excitement, the unpleasant, disruptive emotions such as

anger and fear, and the pleasant, integrative emotions, will again provide a framework for

discussion. Maturation continues to play its part. If a child is not handled properly, he will

develop into an emotionally immature person. The chief characteristics of emotions in early

childhood is that the emotions are spontaneous and the child cannot control them till he reaches

later childhood. There is decline in overt expression of emotions. Early childhood is invariably a

period of heightened emotionality. The emotions of the child are intense. He often funs into



temper tantrums. Common emotions of children during early childhood are fear, anger, jealousy.

(c) Later Childhood (6-12 years):

This is the period of stability and control. The emotional expressions are restrained and very

soon the child learns that violent expression of emotions is not acceptable and it is 'babyish to

express the emotions every time. But it, in any way, does not mean that the emotional life of the

child is not rich. He has pleasant emotions too and expresses them. He laughs and enjoys

being laughed with. Although there is increased differentiation of emotional expressions, there is

gradual decline in the exhibition of overt expressions. There is a shift from the wholehearted and

violent reactions to more subdued responses. Garrison is of the view that the child who at the

age of nine months shrieks and cries with his "whole self, withholds his emotional expressions.

Why is it that the child learns to control his emotions? It is, because at this stage, what matters

is social prestige of the child; in later childhood, he shuns the very idea of expressing his

emotions directly mean ļt should be understood that lack of expression does that the child is

without any emotional life. He has emotions of anger, fear, jealousy and other common

emotions. In order to express his emotions, the child uses words. He might be aggressive

sometimes and resort to beating also. "Ignoring others' is another common technique of

expressing his emotion of jealousy.

(d) Emotional Development of an Adolescent:

“There is a tide which begins to rise in the veins of youth at the age of eleven or twelve. It is

called by the name of adolescence. If this tide can be taken at the flood, voyage begins in the

strength and along the flow of its current, we think that it will move on to fortune.”

According to the Hadow Report of England, adolescence is an interesting period to the teacher

and an exciting period between late childhood and adulthood. It is called the spring of life. It is

attractive but uneven, insecure and strange path from childhood to maturity. It is the period

when growth takes place in all aspects of life --- physical, mental, social, moral and emotional

aspects.

Emotionally speaking, adolescence is the period of emotional imbalance, strain and stress. This

emotional stress, as evidenced by recent experiments, is not inherent in the period. It is due to

certain factors in the environment and cultural traditions that this period acquires a certain

amount of stress and strain. The factors include uncertain physical changes, unexpected rapid

sex development, lack of status, gap between what the adolescent expects of himself and what

his parents expect of him, uncertain experiences with the opposite sex and many of other

complications. The adolescent finds himself in conflict with himself and many a time, is in

conflict with his family or society. Sometimes he goes fits of anger and sometimes he represses

his emotions. If the sex urge is not given a healthy outlet, he succumbs to homo-sexuality or

self-gratification. This leads to a sense of guilt and sin against himself. The present trend of

vocational insecurity is another cause of emotional into easy disturbance on the part of the

adolescent. They are ever haunted by the uncertain future. Anxiety, guilt etc. are some of the

main emotional characteristics shown by an adolescent,



Emotional Maturity:

Emotional maturity is the result of healthy emotional development. Many attempts have been

made to define "emotional maturity”. Many a time, it has been understood in negative terms.

The prominent feature in some of the definitions has been that emotional maturity essentially

involves emotional control.

According to this view, the emotionally mature person is able to hide his feelings. Such a person

is not subject to swings in mood and can suffer in silence. When he does express emotions, he

does so with moderation, decently, and in good order.

Educational implications of Emotional development:

1. Teacher's role in Emotional training:

Emotions and feelings are the prime movers of human activity. They are connected with the

specific modes of activity important for the development of the individual and his relationship

with the society. Emotions are the main springs of human behavior and have, therefore,

tremendous importance in the theory and practice of education. **Reservoirs of power," said

Prof. James, are developed by emotions". Proper emotional training of the young, growing child

often called the little savage-is highly desirable to fit him to hold a place in the civilized society.

Thus, emotional training is an important task with the teacher if he values physical, mental and

social health of his pupils. Development of character is very dependent on sound emotional

health of the individual.

Emotions can be trained by the following methods:

(1) Sublimation, (2) Catharsis, that is, giving a free outlet to emotions, (3) Redirection, (4)

Mental occupation, that is, making the child do something, (5) Co-curricular activities, (6)

Creating healthy environment (7) Inhibition and repression, (8) Punishment, if needed.

2. Teacher's personal emotional stability is very important:

Example is better than precept! A teacher who does not fall back to fits of anger nor loses

temperament, is sure to leave a healthy impression on his pupils. The teacher is likely to be

caught in a number of tense situations inside the class-room or in the playground. He must give

a proof of emotional balance without getting irritated on small accounts. The teacher should be

careful that his home-life does not interfere with his professional life. He must ignore small acts

of mischief of his pupils. He should treat his pupils kindly and sympathetically. He should help

the emotionally disturbed pupil and should give him his confidence.

3., Unnecessary, frequent punishments should be avoided: He should avoid such remarks as

would hurt the child's ego. He should own the student and respect his personality.

4. Congenial atmosphere: Congenial atmosphere is necessary for the emotional health of

students. Teachers should behave themselves in their interpersonal relationship. The school

atmosphere should give the pupils a sense of belongingness and a feeling of security.

5. Opportunities for self-expression are helpful in creating emotional stability. Proper literary



facilities, provision for games and sports, organization of debates, declamations, dramatics, etc.

are a number of activities which the teacher can arrange in the school for giving an outlet to

children's pent-up emotions and repressed feelings.

6. Self-government in school is another important means of teaching self-restraint, self-

discipline and a code of conduct to the children which no external agent can teach. This

satisfies their ego, gives them a feeling of responsibility and helps them in sound mental health.

7. Positive suggestions can help in the formation of positive sentiments. Negative suggestions

disturb emotional as well as mental balance. The teacher should avoid negative suggestions. 8.

Educational guidance and counseling is highly desirable in schools. If a whole-time counselor is

not available, the teacher should perform this job also. The teacher should win over the

confidence of his students to the extent that they do not think in bringing even their personal

problems to him. The teacher should do his best in helping them overcome their problems, 9.

Occasional visits to children's homes help the teacher in knowing them better. This would also

help him in detecting certain problems which have their origin in the child's home and are likely

to upset him. The teacher can take positive steps in this regard.

MORAL DEVELOPMENT

The word moral and all its derivations come from the Latin term 'Mos' which means manner,

custom and habit.

According to Webster's New International Dictionary, ‘moral refers to fixed customs or folkways

imbued with an ethical significance”. In its general phase, the term "moral' refers to a system of

personality traits which are in harmony with the inner nature of the individual and which are in

accordance with the values approved by the society.

Moral development is one of the important phases of the development process of the individual.

Moral development means learning social or moral values which include lessons about honesty,

kindness, charity, service, obedience and the like. Moral development may also refer to learning

what is right and what is wrong, what is good and what is bad. It also includes rules of games

and rules concerning relations between children and their peers, between children and adults,

between men and women.

Stages in Moral Development:

Development of moral concepts is indicative of an individual's mental or intellectual powers.

Besides, development of moral notions goes hand in hand with other aspects of development.

Every child is an instinctive creature. As he-passes through various stages of development, he

gets to know what is ‘right, and what is 'wrong ‘and that he must not cry for things which belong

to another child. At first, every child feels a sense of pleasure by acquiring what the other child

possesses. It is only after the attainment of moral maturity that he understands his limitations.



Stages of Moral Development:

1. Stage of Infancy (0-3 years): The child's first and probably the most impressive experience

with Right and Wrong", "Good' and 'Bad' is in toilet training. As children develop through infancy,

they are able to make an increasing number of choices and they start tolerating increasing

restrictions. By the time they are two years of age, they may show apparent feeling of guilt. At

three plus, the mere thought of a forbidden act may cause guilt feeling.

2. Early Childhood (3-8 years):

The children at this age think of good and bad only in terms of specific acts approved or

disapproved by parents. The ideals of good and bad take shape in obeying elders, helping co-

fellows, in mutual give and take. Children want tð feel that they have done what is right. Wrong

actions leave them worried and unhappy.

The children show sense of responsibility when they are made to go to a grocery store, the play-

ground or the homes of friends, If the parents do not expect too much consistency, these

children can help in such tasks as setting the dining table, washing dishes, making their beds

and tidying up their rooms.

The children are also interested in the idea of God. They like visiting religious places, places of

rituals etc. They enjoy listening to stories which end up in a moral.

3. Late Childhood (8-13 years):

At this stage of his development, the child can make substantial growth in his understanding of

the notions of right and wrong. He develops tolerance, honesty and justice.

An important thing in the moral development of the child at this stage is the conflict between the

morality at home and that of the gang. In manners, speech and general behaviour, the gang will

have the maximum influence. In matters of religion and race attitude, the home influences will

prevail.

The delinquent child at this age is easily noticed. Stealing, lying and bullying are common

among the children at this age.

4. Adolescence:

Adolescence is the crucial period in the life of an individual At this stage, the adolescent is

expected to replace the specific moral concepts of childhood with general moral principles. His

moral behavior is the result of internal control rather than of external imposition. As a child, he

accepted the concepts of right and wrong as preached by his parents or elders around him

without questioning. As an adolescent, he questions everything that does not conform to his

own moral code. This moral code, the roots of which go back to his childhood, are now changed

and modified to meet his mature level of development.

The adolescent finds a number of inconsistencies in the moral concepts of people around him.

The adolescent is easily confused. “In spite of this confusion most young adolescents are able

to work out a code of moral standard which differs from that of their childhood days which will



serve them well not only now but also after they reach maturity.”

The following are important aspects of the moral development in an adolescent:

1. Development of conscience is an important factor. Social expectations provide the adolescent

with necessary motivation to develop his conscience. It is here that guilt and shame enter as

important factors in internal control of the adolescent behavior:

2. Setting of higher moral standards is natural for an adolescent. This happens since the young

adolescent has taken moral matters into his own hands. When his own behavior or that of

others falls short of the standards set by him, he feels guilty and suffers from a troubled

conscience.

3. Need of Discipline. Adolescents feel the need of discipline but not of the type they had in

childhood. They want guidance with reasonable explanations for what they are expected to do;

they resent authoritarian discipline. They do not mind punishment, if fair and just. They, at the

same time, expect appreciation for their right behavior.

4. Shades of Moral Behavior. The following are major shades of moral behavior exhibited by an

adolescent.

a) Misdemeanors. A misdemeanor is a willful defiance of rules. Common school misdemeanors

include annoying the teacher. whispering. bullying classmates, smoking, drinking, cheating,

truancy, eve-teasing etc. Home misdemeanors include going out without telling parents, going

to forbidden places or meeting peers whom parents do not like, staying out beyond time,

running away from home.

b) Juvenile Delinquency. Juvenile delinquency is quite common at adolescent stage. It means

committing antisocial acts of a serious nature. Boys contribute more heavily to juvenile

delinquency than do girls. The percentage in urban areas is far greater than in rural areas.

5. Moral Maturity. The moral concepts of the older adolescent closely approximate those of the

adult. The adolescent knows what society expects from him. In late adolescence, the individual

becomes more tolerant towards his own and other's shortcomings. A morally mature individual

understands that he cannot be a law unto himself. So, he follows the moral code of the society

because he believes that it is the right thing to do.

Factors affecting moral Development:

1. Family: Family plays an important role in a child's moral development. His first initiation into

the mysteries of the good and the bad is through his parent's acceptance or rejection of his

various actions. The actions which are approved by the parents are regarded as good and those

rejected by them are regarded as bad. The truth remains that the foundations of a child's moral

development are laid in the family.

2. School: School, too, plays an important role in forming moral concepts. The child is

influenced by the notions of the good and the bad as a result of his relationship with his



classmates, teachers and senior students. The propriety of his moral behavior depends to a

great extent on his learning. Children accept many things which they see their seniors doing in

the school. Most of what has been learnt at the mother's knee is rejected. The teaching of moral

science and a programme of moral education go a long way in the moral development of

children and adolescents.

3. Peer Group: Children are always in search of suitable companions for play. They are

influenced by the notions of good and bad that prevail among his chosen companions.

4. Society and Culture: The general social atmosphere also affects the moral development of

the individual. It is this reason why the moral behavior of individuals belonging to cultured

societies is markedly different from that of individuals belonging to uncivilized societies.

5. Age: Age is an important factor in forming moral concepts and moral behaviors. As the

individual passes from infancy to adolescence, he becomes more tolerant towards certain those

ideals which sometimes do not tally with what he thinks to be good. From unconditional

obedience of his seniors in early and late childhood, the individual becomes critical and defiant

in early adolescence. But in later adolescence he comes to accept many things which he had

earlier rejected.

6. Sex: Sex also plays an important role in moral development. Girls are more seized with the

sense of guilt and shame if their behavior does not find propriety within the accepted moral

code. They try to be less critical of the moral tone set by their elders. Boys, on the other hand,

are more aggressive than the girls and in most cases, set their own standards of moral behavior

and try to stick to them. Hence moral development is a complex process in which the action

and interaction of an individual and those surrounding him is of great importance.

LANGUAGE DEVELOPEMENT

In the opinion of Carl C. Garrison, the language that a child has acquired before going to school

is the best criterion of his mental development. The development of linguistic ability also takes

place according to the principles characterizing other aspects of development. This

development is the outcome of maturity and learning, and in it, the child has to learn many new

responses and to refine many of the responses learnt in the past.

1. Infancy: Language Development

At the moment of birth, the child usually lets out a cry, and this is the first sound it makes in this

life. At this time, the child knows neither consonants nor vowels. Up to the age of 25 months, the

various sounds produced by the child are dominated by vowels. At the age of 10 months, the

child. usually speaks his first word, and then repeats it very frequently. In the first year, it is quite

difficult to understand the child's language, and it has to be interpreted by inference. In 1950,Mc

Carthy conducted a study and concluded that only 26% of the language of an 18 month old child

is comprehensible. In the beginning, a child speaks sentences consisting of single words only,

and in fact uses incomplete words to convey his meaning. A study of the qualitative aspects of

the vocabulary of children at different age-levels indicates that there is an increase in the nature

of definitions of words. The mode of linguistic development in infancy is influenced by the



culture prevailing within the family. Smith has outlined the pattern of language development

through a table 4.

The development of the child's linguistic ability also comes under the influence of his mind and

the environment in the school. Anastasi states that as compared to boys, girls show greater

linguistic development in infancy. Children suffering from speech defects such as stammering,

or from deafness, usually exhibit a lower rate of language development.

Progress of Language Development

Age Words

From birth to 8 months 0

10 months 1

1 year 3

1 year to 3 months 19

3 months to 6 months 22

I year to 9 months 118

2 years 272

4 years 1550

5 years 2072

6 years 2562

2. Childhood: Language Development

Children undergo an increase in their rate of learning as they grow older, and thus the time span

for every activity becomes gradually less and less. In childhood, the child learns everything from

single words to construction of sentences. The Hyder brothers concluded from their studies that

(i) linguistic development is faster in the case of girls than that of boys; (ii) that girls construct

longer sentences then boys do, (iii)that girls are more skilled in expressing their thoughts

cogently. R.H. Seashore, too, made a study of linguistic development in childhood. In his

research, he made use of pictures to study the language habits of 117 children in the 4 to 10

years age-group. He tabulated his conclusions in the following manner.

Language Development According to Seissore

Age in years Words

4 5600

5 9600

6 14700

7 21200

8 26300

10 34300

The individual's linguistic development is profoundly influenced by the community, home,

school, and the family's social and economic status. When the child sees an object, he

becomes aware of the concept associated with it. Subsequently, he derives pleasure in

expressing this concept. Conceptual knowledge progresses from the gross to the subtle, and in



the same manner, knowledge of language, too, progresses from the concrete to the abstract.

3. Adolescence: Language Development

The myriad emotions aroused in the adolescent as a result of his startling physical development

in this period deeply influence the development of his linguistic ability. Adole-vents develop

interest in reading literature. The growth of their imagination turns them towards poetry, stories

and painting, with the result that they express their feelings through these media. Love letters

written in adolescence are marked with very deep sentiment, and hence they are remarkably

beautiful and affecting. Each word conveys the deepest meaning.

Adolescents also develop their vocabulary at a rapid rate. Language is essential even for

animals, since they must express their fear, hunger and sex desire through bodily gestures or

audible sounds. It is only natural, therefore, that the adolescent, being a very social creature,

feels the need to express himself as best as he can. He expresses the language he has learnt

not only by writing it but also by speaking it and imparting dramatic elements to it. Adolescents

often develop a 'code' language, which is written through the medium of certain signs or

symbols, the meaning of which is known only to individuals familiar with the code. Adolescents

use similar codes even in their spoken language. Through the medium of language,

adolescents develop and increase their conceptions which are symbolical of their preparation

for the life “ahead of them.

The thinking of the adolescents affects the development of linguistic ability. Watson regards this

is one aspect or part of behavior. Through the medium of language, the adolescent describes

the situation which is not present or existing at the moment. He also uses it as a medium of

discussion or exchange of views. By the time adolescence arrives, the individual learns in life,

how, when and where to use language, which means that he has become familiar with most of

its secrets.

CHILD IN DIFFERENT SOCIO-CULTURAL CONTEXTS

Culture and society may mean different things to different people. For instance, society is

defined as an association with one's fellows the system of customs and organization 'adopted

by a body of individuals, the aggregate of people living together in a more or less ordered

community,

“Society refers to "the aggregate of people living together". Therefore, the society means the

populations living in a area. Culture refers to the distinctive customs, achievements, products,

outlook, etc., of a society By culturally-specific child rearing practices it means the consistent

and similar child rearing practices adopted, such as feeding, toilet training, sleeping

arrangement, and discipline.

Children grow up in specific physical, social, cultural, economic and historical circumstances

(their socio-cultural context), all of which will influence their childhood. Researches has shown

that children's socio-cultural context can have a large influence on their development. We know

that culture influences how children develop; across different cultures, children develop in quite



different ways. And we know that children who are deprived of contact with their mothers can

often experience difficulties in later childhood because of poor attachment bonds.

Development involves a process of learning and improvement, and children can only learn when

others are there to support them, like parents, teachers and siblings. This does not conflict with

Piaget's stage theory but does extend it to explain how some of the environmental experiences

that children receive can allow them to move from one stage to another, in line with Vygotsky's

socio-cultural approach.

According to socio cultural theories, child development differentiates in different social and

cultural contexts. In each socio cultural context influence children's development in its unique

way this is useful to examine how children developments in academic knowledge.

SOCIALIZATION

Socialization is the process of preparing the children to fit well in the society into which they are

born. The family, the school, neighborhood, community, religion, media, cinema etc. are some

of the chief agencies of society to socialize the human beings. It is a slow and continuous

process. It starts at birth and ends with death.

Definitions of Socialization:

According to Drever, “Socialization is a process by which the individual is adapted to bis social

environment and becomes a recognized cooperating and efficient member of it.”

Cook refers socialization as a process as a result of which children take on themselves the

various social roles, social learning and development tasks.

Some other social psychologists describe socialization as a process of social development

which includes the development of attitudes, friendliness, cooperativeness, rivalry, social skills &

social norms.

The process of socialization is generally conceived as an unconscious process whereas formal

education is a conscious process. Primary socialization is taken as unconscious process and

secondary socialization as a conscious process.

Stages of Socialization:

Socialization is a continuous process. it has 4 stages They are:

1. Primary Socialization: In this stage the family plays a major role. The church Temple,

Masque, neighborhood influences socialization. The method of primary socialization informal.

2. Social Development: The individual has to move out of his family and neighborhood. When

he has to move with people of other religious, other cultures and other social classes. The age

of 6 social development begins and continues throughout life.

3. Anticipatory Socialization : In this process individuals develop aspirations about the future

goals and try to learn behavior appropriate to their anticipatory notes.



4. Resocialsation: An Individual develops new behavior temporarily for the acceptance of

society to adjust there, again he avoids his behavior and adopt old behavior. But later,

individuals have to avoid his behavior and adopt old ways of behavior. This is called

resocialsation. In other words, he gets resocialised.

Ex. Hostel life of the students behavior with Roommets and family

Process of Socialization:

Communication may be defined as the transmission of meanings through the use of symbols.

One learns and is taught through communication. Man has superiority over lower animals

because of his speech and learning ability. Man uses the methods of behaviour, observation

and imitation and develops an insight and employs perceptual visual learning which leads to

alternative kinds of behavior. Man alone is expert in communicating through symbols, which he

develops into systems of expression, exchange and thinking Hence he is superior over animals.

This superiority in learning lies in his ability to retain learning and to stimulate what he has learnt

through symbols, numbers or diagrams. Culture & man's ability to learn and to communicate

forms the basis of teaching-learning process. This also terms the basis of Teaching-Learning

process and also the basis for inter personal relationships. These make possible social

interaction which is the most basic social process in human behavior.

Social Interaction is the way in which two or more people interact, stimulate and influence each

other's behavior.

Communication, exchange and influence also involves social interaction.

Knowledge, status authority and experience are all involved in interaction process. This process

repeats itself.

METHODS OF SOCIALISATION

According to Sociologists, the effectiveness of teaching methods and techniques can be

described with the effective usage of six principles.

1. The method of teaching is effective only in so far as the skills and knowledge acquired in the

classroom are actually utilized by the individual in his adjustment to social situations.

2. The method of teaching must place primary emphasis on social behaviour outsides of the

classroom.

3.The teaching technique must seek to utilize the social forces operative in social life in order to

develop capacity for social adjustment.

4.Co-operative group patterns of learning which lay emphasis on group interaction, cooperative

and democratic planning are always preferable to methods in which the individual learn by

himself. Students react better to cooperative learning in which there is sharing in the teaching-

learning process.



5. Personality development is one of the important aims of education, the method of teaching

should help in forming a personality which is emotionally stable and socially acceptable.

6. The teacher will develop problem-solving and constructive thinking. Socialized techniques,

projects and group methods fulfill most of the conditions. Discussions will replace the lecture

method and autocratic procedures in the classroom.

AGENCIES OF SOCIALISATION

Society has developed a number of specialized institutions to carry out there functions of

education. These agencies are known as agencies of socialization or of individual group

interaction.

Types of Agencies:

There are two types of agencies. They are the formal and informal.

Formal Agencies:

The agencies which are set up by the society with the objective of carrying out the various

functions of education are called formal agencies.

Examples: The school, the temple, gurudwara, libraries, organised & creation centres, Arya

Samaj, Rama Krishna Mission, Jamia Milia

3.Informal Agencies:

These are institutions which diffuse and transmit culture and knowledge from one generation to

another in an informal & unorganized manner.

Examples: The family, the play group, the community, relatives etc.

The School:

It is one of the formal agencies of Socialization. It has acquired importance because of its

sociological changes & influences.

The school as a formal agency of education imparts the maximum knowledge of the subjects

requited for necessary living of a useful and successful life. These subjects include languages,

mathematics, social and natural sciences. Schools also cater to vocational education; a variety

of trades, occupations and professions are introduced to the students at the secondary level.

Physical education, games and sports also features as activities in schools. '

Thus, John Dewey has described the school as dynamic functions of reviewing rehearing and

vitalizing the social fabric, the function of constantly reorganizing & reconstructing human

experiences.

The Family:

The family is an important informal but activity agency of education,

It is the institution into which each individual is born. It is an essential agency for Child Rearing

Socialization and for introducing the child to the culture of its society. It helps in shaping the



basic character structure of culture and forming the child's personality. It satisfies most of the

needs of the child and provides emotional experience which stimulate the learning activities of

the children. Family provides the greatest possible opportunity for establishing the rapport

because of affection between various members and the possibility of suggestions being given

and practiced. The family continuous to be a source for the exchange of affection, consideration

and sympathy. Children gain a feeling of security and belongingness, a feeling whose

importance carries over and forms the basis of his attitudes and values throughout life. Hence it

is a key institution in the transmission of the cultural heritage and in social survival.

Peer Group:

There are groups in which most members are of equal age and of similar social status. People

of all age lends form peer groups of their own. Peer group influences are encouraged by

extracurricular activities, sports and other social influences. Peer group is primarilyan activity

group which operates through social, recreational and vocational activities. It assist the

individual teen-ager in the process of self-identification and self-discovery, social and emotional

emancipation from the family is possible through Peer group.

Other agencies of Education:

The other agencies of education includes the cinema, the radio and the press.

Cinema:

It is a very popular and powerful agency and an effective instrument in modifying human

behavior and in disseminating cultural values and habits. Its makes an appeal to “our senses”,

to our imagination and arouses a variety of emotions and thus succeeds in developing and

capturing the spontaneous interest of the audience. The appeal is made through word, sound,

colour, through action and depiction of love, sorrow, anger, revenge and other basic human

motives and emotions.

Educational films, in the form of features' & documentaries, have great possibilities in education

the students to a greater extent.

Radio:

The radio is being used as a valuable auditory aid and a supplement to classroom instruction.

The AIR (All India Radio) has a daily school hour programme, in which useful talks, dramas and

discussions of literacy, scientific, geographical' and historical values are presented, there being

specially planned and written by teachers and educationists. Talks on general topics concerning

our daily life, interpersonal relationships, the impact of science on us and other should be

transmitted for a liberal education of our children.

Mass media Communication (Press):

Mass media which are more or less electronic provide a multisensory environment of all

encompassing wholeness and entirely. These media have speeded up communication. They

have brought about an inclusive consciousness and personal involvement of many human

beings simultaneously. The World has become a global village. These media are extensions if

our nervous system they influence our behavior and the present fabric of our society. The media

are becoming so important that they condition human consciousness. The message they carry

is not as important as the forms through which the message is conveyed. The media are not



only altering the meaning of life, they alter all patterns of human communication and human

inter-dependence.

Role of the school in the socialization of the child: Socialization is nothing but, transmitting

the norms do's and don'ts in a convincing way to the child and making him translate those into

practice in order to make the child acceptable and a befitting member of the group or a society

in future he is going to become a member

There are many types of socialization namely formal socialization in formal socialization diffused

socialization etc since the school is a formal agency established by the government it is very

much interested in only formal type of socialization. Informal socialization is the act of home and

church and peer groups etc.

There are three theories of socialization namely, symbolic, Mechanical and international.

Symbolic type is that which brings modification at mental level in attitudes. Mechanical

socialization is that which brings changes only in the exhibited behavior of the child. Both of

these types happened to be partial and incomplete because one interested in attitudes and the

other in the behavior International socialization is said to be the complete and perfect and

desired on which brings changes correspondingly in attitudes and behaviors both at the same

time.

PROCESS OF SOCIALIZATION

Socialization is a term used by sociologists and educationalists to refer to the lifelong process of

inheriting and disseminating norms, customs, and ideologies, providing an individual with the

skills and habits necessary for participating within his or her own society. Socialization is thus

the means by which social and cultural continuity are attained."

Socialization is a learning process that begins shortly after birth. Early childhood is the period of

the most intense and the most crucial socialization. It is then that we acquire language and learn

the fundamentals of our culture. It is also when much of our personality takes shape. However,

we continue to be socialized throughout our lives. As we age, we enter new statuses and need

to learn the appropriate roles for them.

Orville F. Brim (Jr) described socialization as a life-long process. He maintains that socialization

of adults differ from childhood socialization. There are many different forms of socialization, but

two types are particularly important for children. These two types are known as primary and

secondary socialization.

Primary socialization refers to socialization of the infant in the primary or earliest years of his

life. It is a process by which the infant learns language and cognitive skills, internalizes norms

and values. The infant learns the ways of a given grouping and is molded into an effective social

participant of that group. The norms of society become part of the personality of the individual.

The child does not have a sense of wrong and right. By direct and indirect observation and

experience, he gradually learns the norms relating to wrong and right things. The primary



socialization takes place in the family.

Secondary socialization is the process can be seen at work outside the immediate family, in the

'peer group'. The growing child learns very important lessons in social conduct from his peers.

He also learns lessons in the school. Hence, socialization continues beyond and outside the

family environment. Secondary socialization generally refers to the social training received by

the child in institutional or formal settings and continues throughout the rest of his life.

Characteristics of Socialization:

1. Socialization is a continuous process.

2. Socialization is visible as well as non-visible process.

3. Based on the time, place, the process of socialization will be doffers.

4. The child can absorb the values, social standards, beliefs, behavioral patterns in the process

of socialization.

5. The process of socialization is helping for making better individual in society.

6. The process of socialization develops the social maturity.

7. Development of psychic part of child and social efficient of child both are part and partial in

process of socialization. It results the personality development.

8. The socialization process can be describe as learning process.

CONFLICTS RESOLUTION

Conflicts are part of the life whether it is personal, Business or social. People found that goals,

behavior and motivation of the members are contradictory and move in different directions.

Conflicts crop up on thorny issues. Each individual perceives the other as a threat and therefore

oppose the other. Conflicting behavior involves both offence and defense. Sometimes, in

competition where goal is to do better than the others, can produce better results and the

conflict is almost to undo the others, can be non-productive.

Conflict do not take place in a vacuum and the important elements of conflict are the social and

physical contexts. They should be resolved to build stronger relationships between friends,

relations neighbors and co-workers in the society.

According to Thomas (1992) conflict is “a process that begins when party perceives that another

party has negatively affected, or is about to negatively affect, something that the first part care

about".

Chung and Megginson (1981) define conflict as the struggle between incompatible or opposing

needs, wishes, ideas, interests or people. Conflict arises when individuals or groups encounter

goals that both parties cannot obtain satisfactorily.

Conflicts are of two types external and internal. there may be conflicts between one individual

and another, between one individual and a group and between one group and another group.

Sometime the conflict may be between a person and a person, between a person and his

environment or within the person himself. Conflicts are due to negative interaction mainly. They

also take place due to environmental obstructions or in the fulfillment of human beings



instinctive demands.

Conflicting needs drive the person to behave in a particular manner which does not satisfy his

needs. Personal deficiencies like low intelligence, poor memory lack, of leadership also obstruct

the fulfillment of a person's needs.

Types of Conflicts:

1. Inter-Individual Conflicts: Inter-individual conflict occurs when two individuals strive to attain

their own goals and block the others achievement. This type of conflict takes place between a

person and a person, between a person and community. This mainly arises due to differences

in values, perceptions, temperaments, personalities, goals and socio-cultural factors.

Administrators may have conflict with subordinates or peers, due toʻa personality problem

members within the family, teachers and taught may be due to contradictory wishes

communications with each other plays a vital role in avoiding damage to the individual

relationships.

Factors responsible for inter individual conflicts :

The factors like the administrative policies, organizational structure, working conditions,

personal differences, information deficiency, environmental stress are the causes for inter-

individual conflicts.

a) Administrative policies: Administrative policies are to be clear without frequent changes and

these should be a balance between the individual goals and the organizational goals, to avoid

the conflict.

b) Organizational structure: In an organization the conflict arises at different levels. It has size,

shape, task specialization authority relationships different work activities. If the goals of the

organization are not clear, conflict is likely to arise between the employer and employee etc.

c) Working conditions: Meagor economic benefits, Bossism, feelings of security etc cause

frustration among the individuals which result in conflicts. Lack of encouragement.

Motivation, misunderstandings, back bitting among employees also contributes a number of

conflicts in the organization.

Personal differences, information deficiency environmental stress role incapability also create

inter-individual conflicts.

2. Intra-Individual Conflicts;

Intra-individual conflicts are the conflicts which occurs within the individual. It is internal to the

individual, where the person fights his thoughts and unable to decide further course of action

within each individual there are a number of competing needs and roles, a variety of ways that

roles can be expressed, many types of Barriers between the way and the goal and both positive

and negative aspects attached to desired goals. All these are responsible for complicating the

individuals adoptions and leads to conflict within himself.



Adaptive response's are both physical and psychological conflict with reard to goals are

classified into three types.

a) Approach - approach conflict: In this case, the individual is motivated to approach two or

more positive but actually exclusive goals.

For example, a girl is very eager to marry her fiancé and also wishes to complete her MBA

course in the same semester itself. The girl in this case move towards the other goal in order to

achieve one.

b) Approach-avoidance conflict: In this case, the individual is motivated to approach a goal and

at the same time develops a tendency to avoid the same. The single goal, contains both positive

and negative characteristics.

For example. An Indian girl wishes to marry an American resident boy, who is well educated

and well to do but at the same time she hesitates to marry, as he smokes and drinks.

c) Avoidance-avoidance conflicts: This form of conflict takes place when a person is forced to

choose between two mutually exclusives goals, each of which is unattractive to the person.

For example, a person staying in the same city on the same job without promotions for a long

time and leaving the city and family for going to another city with a promotion.

STRATEGIES FOR RESOLUTION OF A CONFLICT

Conflict resolution is a constructive approach that enables people with contrasting positions

work together, compromising their differences. Resolving conflicts is an art of communication.

Cooperation among the people reduces anger stress and frustration. In school, students can

learn how to deal with different situations in anger and how to work with others to arrive at win-

win situations through team Projects and role playing.

Conflict resolution helps to learn how to resolve problematic areas and prevent violence by

making people recognize conflict. The following are the common strategies that are developed

to resolve conflicts in an organization.

= Avoidance: This type of strategy attempts to keep the conflict withdrawn or any party's interest

neglected. The conflict is rather ignored simply. This strategy often leads to loose-loose

situation. A person may be un-willing to take things out and pretend, as if the conflict has not

existed.

Diffusion : This strategy makes an attempt to deactivate the conflict and cool the emotions and

aggression of the concerned parties. This will be useful when the individual/groups have mutual

important goals.

This is effective and appropriate, if the conflict is very small and can be neglected.

Confrontation: This strategy refers to the conflicting groups directly confront the issues each

other in an attempt to reach a mutually satisfactory resolution. This strategy maximizes the

achievement of goals by both the parties and results in a win-win situation. This is most



successful approach which has may behavioral benefits.

Containment: In this case, the people ensure that the conflict does not get out of control and

further escalate. This strategy can be carried out when the problems and procedures are

structured and open discussions failed. The representatives of the conflicting parties be allowed

to negotiate with in the established structure.

TYPES OF CONFLICT RESOLUTION

1. Proactive Conflict Resolution:

In this method, the intelligent person senses the situation and take suitable steps to prevent the

untoward incidents or impending troubles, as a result of conflict. A teacher has to develop the

skills in the students to resolve conflicts.

The following steps may be initiated to prevent conflicts in this method:

a) Setting goals/targets realistically, not beyond the capacity to achieve.

b) Proper planning is required to reach the ambition/ goal.

c)If goals are changed, re-setting them according to reality is essential.

d) One has to develop positive values and attitude towards life.

e) An attitude of analytical examination of one's own inner tendencies and the external

conditions is helpful to resolve conflicts.

f) A person who has wider interests will be able to move away from the conflicting situation.

2. Reactive mechanism of conflict resolution :

1 This type of mechanisms are primarily meant for avoiding the anxiety, frustration and tense

emotionally generated, in conflict situations.

The following are some of the reactive mechanisms of resolving conflicts :

a) Repression: It is otherwise called as motivated forgetting. It is a mechanism in which people

try to push those ideas, which are not liked by them, into the unconscious state of mind.

b) Regression: This is a method where a person reverts to an earlier mode of behavior to

escape a conflict situation.

c) Rationalization: This is also called as "sour grape" mechanism. Through this mechanism, we

justify our actions and feelings and give socially acceptable reasons for failures.

d) Projection: This is a mechanism used for attributing one's thoughts or ideas or impulses to

another person. The individual tries to blame others for his failures and environment for

unfavorable factors.

e) Compensation: The individual in this mechanism tries to coverup his deficiency in one area

by exhibiting his strength in the other.

f)Sympathism: the person tries to get satisfaction by seeking sympathy and pity from others, for

his own mistakes and failure.

g) Displacement: This is a method to escape from anxiety by displacing it on others. The people

show their aggression on someone else, blaming them or shouting at them.



h) Reaction formation: in this mechanism, the person resolves the conflict by swinging to the

opposite extreme. When there is a strong tendency of aggression towards a certain class of

people and at the same time feels guilty about it, he may become an apostle of human love and

start a crusade for loving all humanity.

1) Identification: in this case, the person reduces his tension through achievements of other

persons to whom he is closely attached.

1) Sublimation : In case there is an obstruction to natural or some instinctive activity of a person,

he does not care for obstructions, but replaces it with higher and nobler activity. This is called

sublimation, and helps a person in solving his conflicts.

Advantages of Conflict Resolution :

1. These mechanism help to protect the personality of a person.

2. They will help the individuals to have satisfaction temporarily and avoids mental tension.

3. These mechanism helps as an alternative where permanent solutions cannot be found, to the

conflict.

4. Sufficient time will be provided, after getting temporary solutions to the conflict.

5. They help the person to get him adjusted to the prevailing situations.

Disadvantages of Conflict Resolution :

1. There is always tendency of the people to depend on these mechanisms without permanent

solutions to be conflict.

2. There will be nothing like happiness, satisfaction permanently, due to these mechanisms.

3. If a person is depended completely on these mechanisms, life will become an artificial one.

4. There is a possibility of fear of facing mental ill-health due to the breaking of his relationship

with the world.

STAGES OF SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

Social development passes through a number of marked stages which may be discussed as

under:

1. The Stage of pre-Social Behavior (Infancy period: 0 to 2 years) The period of infancy (0 to 2

years) is not very much important for social development. The studies conducted by Buhler,

Gassel and Thompson show that during this period, the infant is concerned almost completely

with the satisfaction of his body-wants. The young infant begins to respond to the behavior of

those who supply his wants. By the time a child has reached the age of one year, he has

developed a fairly satisfactory pattern of responses to adults. He indicates by his behavior that

he is not unaware of other's interests, although he still is primarily concerned with himself. The

following table indicates some main features of infant behavior during the first year.

Infant Responses / Behavior Age in Months

Returns glances of adults with smiles 1-2

Cries when adult who is attending on him leaves 2-3

Quieted by caressing 4-5



Shows negative responses to strangers 5-6

Stretches out hands towards adults 7-8

Strives for attention by movements 9_10

Imitates movements of another child 9-10

Organised play activity 0-11

Setting aside toys and turning towards another child 11-12

It may, however, be noted that infants differ from one another in the rapidity with which they

exhibit what appear to be characteristics of early social behavior

2. Progress from Individualization to Socialization (Early Childhood Period : 2 10 6 years)

During early childhood, the social behavior of the child exhibits a progressive change from

individualization towards socialization. In the company of other children who are brought into the

child's life, he believes what is mine is mine' but he also starts gaining in understanding of the

fact 'what is yours is yours. As the child approaches his fourth year, he comes to realize that

what is mine is yours also' and likes to share or exchange his toys with his playmates. He also

becomes sensitive to the attitudes of others around him. He also begins to regard himself as a

member of a social group in which hę takes pride.

Early childhood is an important period of a child's life. Habits of social response developed

during the pre-school years continue for long. The children of both sexes learn to play together.

This helps them to live a healthy group life. Some of the important forms of social behaviour

during this period are negativism, rivalry, quarrelling, teasing, cooperation and social approval.

According to Appeal, children of four years of age quarrel more in comparison to those of two

years of age. Green is of the view that boys are more combative while this tendency in girls is

limited to oral quarrel only. A good nursery school serves as a good agency for developing

healthy social behavior in a child in his early childhood.

3. Expansion of Child's Social World (Late Childhood Period: 6 to 12 years)

The six-year-old is ready for entrance to the primary school for formal education. The beginning

of formal schooling not only increases his opportunities for furthering his social development but

also gives rise to problems of adjustment that encourage the development of socially desirable

behavior.

This period is often called the gang age and the geographical instinct develops to the full. He no

longer wants to depend upon restricted environment of the home and wants to be in the wider

social world of pears and hence craves for social approval. In this process of social adjustment

there are frequent quarrels and bickering. During this process, envy, jealousy, aggressiveness,

etc. are clearly expressed in the child's behavior. Sex differences are also there. Boys grow

more aggressive than girls and girls grow more jealous than boys in matters of friendship. Social

adjustments are also marked by the socioeconomic status of the children. This is reflected in

likes and dislikes and prejudices in matters of social relationship. The important feature of the

'gang age is that children's groups tend to expand and to become highly organised. Among the

members of the group' or 'gang' secret pass words, rules for membership, special places for

meeting, elected officers, and specific purposes of activities of time, loyalty to fellow members



becomes more and more interise, Group interest is preferred to self interest.

4. The Socializing Process during Adolescence. The period of adolescence is marked by

significant changes in his social behavior and social relationships. The shift of interest from the

family to the world outside takes a stronger hold of him than ever before. The adolescent

responds to parents and other members in the home but he is also very keen that his peers are

not betrayed in any way. At home he is caught in the twilight area-neither a child nor an adult.

The result is that he finds great satisfaction and comfort in close association with those of his

age among whom he enjoys a positive sense of security. If in the same family two or three

children are passing through the adolescence period, they often form a gang among

themselves. It is this peer group relationship which determines the future of the adolescents'

attitude in regard to leadership, fellow-feeling, cooperation, etc.

Thus the adolescent ever remains reviewing his relationships and his manners-how he looks,

talks, or behaves himself. There is a wide gap between what he expects of himself and what his

parents expect of him. If the adolescent is caught midstream, so are his parents. They want to

direct and guide him and yet they expect that he should act independently. Again, when the

parents shirk taking the adolescent boy or girl into confidence as regards private family matters,

the gap widens. Sometimes, the parents shift their responsibility on to their friends and relatives

to advise the boys or girls if something goes wrong. In this way they deny their children the

warmth of affection and sense of ownness. The friends or relatives of parents fail where the

peer group succeeds and the adolescent values his gang more than the values his family.

Consequently, habitual obedience to parents and elders is replaced by a spirit of criticism and

revolt, waywardness and irresponsibility. He is out for hero-worshipping. The need for status

and recognition is also strongly felt by the adolescent. At home or outside the home, the

adolescent wants to be accepted and wants that his presence be felt.

Adolescence is the period of “show off or of affected manners. This is especially so in matters of

relation between the opposite sexes. Boys put on the smartest look to attract the attention of the

girls and the girls want to show the sharpest curves to be valued by the boys. And the current

trend is that boys want to be 'feminine and girls like to be 'masculine'. This is more or less to

satisfy their hunger for the opposite sex and to look brighter in the other's presence.

SOCIAL MATURITY

The ultimate purpose of the process of social consciousness is the attainment of social maturity.

A socially mature individual is capable of exhibiting desirable social traits at a certain age level.

Social maturity implies that a child aged 10 chronologically must also be aged 10 socially.

A socially mature individual should be able to make judgments, decisions, and take proper

action in solving problems and critical issues. Such a person is able to adjust himself to his

fellowmen and new situations and is also able to adopt his fellowmen and situations to himself.

This means a socially mature behavior implies cooperation, dependability, self-confidence and

that the group or the society in which the individual lives approves of it.



Some necessary things for Emotional Maturity:

1. Good health

2. Control over the environment

3. The tendency of being cheerful

4. Development of reason or wisdom

5. Redirecting emotional outbursts in a healthy channel

Some Signs of Social Maturity:

1. To be able to show behavior according to the demands of a situation. To accept criticism in a

right spirit for effecting improvements in oneself.

2. To perform the duties of a citizen.

3. Not to follow anyone blindly.

4. Treating of personal interests as secondary.

UNIT 3 CHILDHOOD AS A PERIOD OF SOCIALIZATION

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