Chinese Psychological Aspects. Outline I. Chinese Childhood Socialization II. Traditional Education...

Chinese Psychological Aspects

Outline

I. Chinese Childhood Socialization II. Traditional Education for

Chinese Boys & Girls III. Emotion Among the Chinese IV. Contemporary Psychological

Findings: Chinese vs. Western

I. Chinese Childhood Socialization

Psychologists: focus on individuals, examine individual capacities and variation in child development .

Anthropologies: pay more attention to cultural environmental influences, e.g. socio-economic condition of a population

I. Chinese Childhood Socialization Childhood Socialization:

how parents rear their children how children learn to become

acceptable members of a society. That is:

what is an acceptable Chinese way of socializing children

what kind of adults Chinese socialization aims to produce.

I.1 The Confucian Tradition of Parental Education 儒家傳统家教 Chinese concept of the child:

Scholars (Confucians) & political authorities developed over 2000 years

important roles for adult family-members in early childhood education.

first essays (in 1st century B.C) by Confucian scholars

Neo-Confucian 新儒家 scholars in Song, Ming 明 (1368-1644) & Qing 清 (1644-1911)--- short essays in plain language to guide parents in providing their children with proper discipline e.g. the Sanzijing 三字經 e.g. 人之初 , 性本善 , 性相近 , 習相遠… ).

I.1 The Confucian Tradition of Parental Education Traditional Chinese:

a person by nature is not yet an acceptable/ full human being

xue (deliberate efforts) to attain ren. Emphasis:

on paternal responsibility for instruction a child’s responsibility for learning abo

ut the way of becoming human (zuo ren 做人 ).

I.1.1 Environmental Theories of Child Development— “fetus” before birth and during gestation:

need for “womb education” “When a woman becomes pregnant she is

put into a school of ‘gestatony education,’ in order that she may be able to impart to the child a proper disposition before it is born.” 胎教

“If she is affected by good things the child will be good, if by bad things the child will be bad.”

I.1.1 Environmental Theories of Child Development- “fetus”

A pregnant woman: wish to shape the character of the coming child restriction of her activities avoiding spicy or bitter food listening to good music Always smiling & be peaceful

I.1.1 Environmental Theories of Child Development

After birth parents must provide the correct environ

ment for raising it. A good mother seeks the best environ

ment e.g. Mencius’ mother (mentioned in

Lei Nu Zhuan 烈女傳 , 77-6 B.C.)

I.1.1 Environmental Theories of Child Development Confucians: to be a “full” human:

must begin very early in the family to lay the foundation for the child to be one with proper manners and moral

tenets. Ancient Chinese theories of child

development emphasize: formation of habits of correct behavior

without a trace of deliberate teaching or coercion.

I.1.2 Models and Strategies of Traditional Child Rearing Teaching by example 身教

was and still is an important principle. e.g. father/mother/ school-teacher =the standard

of personal morality. Parents=a child’s first teachers

Must of exemplary behavior to set a life-long foundation for the child.

i.e. yi shen zuo ze 以身作則 Physical punishment 體罰 , normal & effective

Mencius’ passage

I.1.3 Training of Affective Control• Yanshi Jiaxun ,Yan’s Family Teaching 顏氏家訓 (5

31-91 AD), 20 essays set a model for all: --train a child from infant to learn to interpret adult’s facial expressions (the control of affective display) and to act according to parental wishes.

“Our family has always emphasized strictness in teaching children. When I was a young child at home, we walked properly and took every step delicately, spoke gently and calmly, showed great reverence and fear in front of parents and elders.”

I.1.3 Training of Affective Control Emphasis: composed, reverential behavior & the re

striction of physical activities among children. Text on family education: Parents should teach their children “no leaping, a

rguing, joking, or using vulgar language.” “How children should be taught to sit, stand, walk,

speak, bow, recite, and write.” “The little ones are exhorted always to walk slowl

y with the arms held under the sleeves, with no waving of the arms or jumping.”

Yan’s ideas vs. Nature of kids ???

I.1.3 Training of Affective Control Aware of adults’ emotional states--to distinguish

pleasure from anger. “To educate a daughter-in-law, one must begin o

n the first of marriage; to educate a child, one must begin with infancy.”

i.e. bugou yanxiao 不苟言笑 (not to reveal one’s thoughts and feelings)

To sum up: Chinese parents were pressured to instill solemnity and self-control early on in their children.

Why? social/community norm

I.1.4 On Dongshi 懂事 (understanding things) The age when a child is old enough to be pu

nished (capacity for moral reasoning right/wrong): dongshi (understanding things)

“When the son reaches the age of dongshi (understanding/reason), the father must be serious and proper in his speech and way of living in order to teach his son.” Qn: why son & father ???

I.1.4 On Dongshi (understanding things) Sima Guang’s 司馬程 (AD1019-86) Jia fan 家訓 (F

amily Examples): “As soon as the child can eat by himself, he must

be taught to eat with his right hand. Family discipline must begin as soon as the child can talk and know things. By the age of six, teaching of numbers and names of things must begin.”

Cheng brothers 程氏兄弟 (11 century Confucian scholars) said, “People in ancient times discipline children as soon as they can eat and talk.”

I.1.4 On Dongshi (understanding things) Filial devotion 孝 :

taught to toddlers as soon as they can walk/talk.

pay daily respect to seniors & to address them properly.

“The family regulations are such that as soon as a child begins to understand, he is not only taught to obey, but also loses his freedom of action.”

I.1.4 On Dongshi (understanding things) Chinese theories of psychological development. E.g. Li Shiyi 李史義 (AD1611-72):

study at the age of 4: use the innate memory capacity At 15, to be pushed to study the classics (The Four Boo

ks & Five Texts 四書五經 ) for the national examination科舉 .

4 Books: Great learning 大學 , Chongyong 中庸 , The Analects 論語 , Mencius 孟子

5 Texts: The Book of Poety/The Book of Songs, The Book of Documents, The Book of Rites, The Book of Change, The Book of Spring & Autumn 詩 , 書 , 禮 , 易 , 春秋

I.1.4 On Dongshi (understanding things) Li’s theory:

Base on an Analects passage (Analects 2.4): Confucius says, “At 15, I set my hea

rt on learning. At 30, I took my stand. At 40, I was no longer in doubt. At 50, I know the propensity of tian. At 60, I follow the my ears were attuned. At 70, I followed the propensity of tian without overstepping the line.”

“ 吾十五而有志于學 , 三十而立 , 四十而不惑 , 五十而知天命 , 六十而耳順 , 七十而從心所欲不越矩 .”

Confucius presents his own stages. ***Not that everyone’s developmental stages is as his

I.2 Contemporary Chinese Conceptions of Socialization Modern Chinese socialization:

for obedience for proper conduct for impulse-control for the acceptance of social obligations

**A relative lack of emphasis: independence, assertiveness, and

creativity extremely important for Western children

How About Kids in Hong Kong ?

British colony… Over 97% are ethnic Chinese 2 written and 3 spoken languages What do you think – Chinese

identity, parental control, independence????

How About Kids in Hong Kong?

Young Parents Western vs. Chinese influence ??? Background & Upbringing ??? Education ??? Cosmopolitan citizens ??? Small family ??? Good quality of life ???

I.2 Contemporary Chinese Socialization: Summary All Chinese, even modern, parents share cer

tain traditional values and practices. To train children to develop a moral charact

er, e.g. respect elders, cooperate & maintain harmo

nious social relations. To help & push children to achieve in school

(value education—xue) Adults to be role models Young parents: not harsh disciplinarians,

Yet, to obey, to act on parents’ command.

II. Traditional Education for Chinese Boys & Girls in the Past (till the end of the monarch)

Education: VERY expensive, only for better families

Boys (at 6-8): study in the village school hire a live-in teacher 家師

The Poor: illiterate, help in the family since young, i

nherit his father’s profession

II.1 Traditional Education for Chinese Boys in the Past (till the end

of the monarch)

Boys: study/memorize text to prepare for the public examination-- to bring glory (to family, village, county)

Exam Content (since Tong):Ancient texts (Confucian- Four Books & Five Texts 四書五經 )

Strategic issues Calligraphy Poetry writing: since Tong to early Ming

From late-Ming to Ching Dynasty exclude poetry & strategic issues--not included in the exam

II.2 Traditional Education for Chinese Girls (till the end of the monarch)

Most girls: illiterate, even from a rich family “Females without ability are virtuous” 女子無才

便是德 Sewing, clothes-making, cooking, take care of the family,

kids-raising, how to serve a hushand & parents –in-law Few parents: more open-minded

A live-in teacher/ teach by female family members for girls

Main Texts for these lucky girls: Four Books for Females 女四書 An ideal daughter/ daughter-in-law/ wife/ moth

er 孝女賢妻良母


The most important female text: The Text of the Great Ladies 列女傳 , of West Ha

n Dynasty (no authorship) 8 chapters:

105 stories of famous & moral ladies Ch. 1-7: ladies in antiquity 1. queens & mothers of important people 2. ladies who help their husbands (focus on

morality) 3. clever & intelligent wives & mothers


4. virginal & obedient ladies 5. ladies acting according to yi(righteous), s

uch as sacrificing their lives & assets for their fathers, husbands, & sons

6. ladies with good reasoning & arguments 7. Counter-examples of virtuous ladies, mai

nly the bad queens, concubines of previous corrupt kings

8. Moral and famous ladies in West Han


E.g. Ch 1.: queens & mothers of important people

Most famous: Mencius’ mother changes the location of their house 3 times for a good environment for her son. 1. next to a market -- Mencius learns to be a mer

chant 2. near the grave -- Mencius is following the buri

al/ritual performers’ practices 3. next to a school -- Mencius is surrounded by t

he text-phrases, interested in studying


E.g. Ch. 2. ladies who help their husbands (on moral aspect)

wife of Liuxiawei 柳下惠 reminds Liu: “When dao did not prevail in the kingdom (when the king was corrupt), it was shameful to be rich and of high status.”


Teaching Aim: help one’s husband or sons E.g. on morality, on problem-solving, be

virginal & pure, obedient, sacrifice of oneself, to provide good upbringing for the children

These ladies – do not plan for/ think about themselves. praised : to impose/ bring good influence to

their closest males. Females with a GOOD name/ highly

regarded: live SOLELY for the male.


Later Classical Texts for Girls: Theme: as that of “The Text of the Great La

dies” 列女傳 1. NuJie 女戒 , “Prohibited Rules for the Female,

” by Banzhiu 班昭 2. Jiafen 家範 , “Models for the Family,” by Zi

maguang 司馬光 3.Yuanzizifan 袁氏世範 , “Models of the Yuan’s

Family,” by Yuancai 袁采 4. Nufenjielui 女範捷錄 : 156 ladies as models

All by famous Confucian scholars

III. Emotions & Love among Chinese Arthur Kleinman (Harvard anthropologist, 1

986 paper): Chinese tend to believe emotion to be dangerous, value moderation 中庸 in all matters, and emphasize social harmony over individual expression.

That is, emotional behavior is normatively moderate or suppressed.

In traditional Chinese medicine, extreme emotions are thought to cause/closely related to physical illness (e.g. depression/worries & illness in liver 憂傷 & 肝鬱結 )

III.1 Emotional Behavior in a Social Context Potter (1988 paper) provides a different

analysis: Emotions are less relevant in China than they are in the West.

Emotions are best ignored like minor aches and pains, They do not achieve social ends and are not needed to legitimate social relationships.

Harmful emotions can therefore be discouraged; others emotions can be expressed but ignored.

III.1 Emotional Behavior in a Social Context According to Potter’s research, villagers in

his research did not expect emotional expressiveness to help in achieving an end. (e.g. anger would not help repeal an unpopular policy/ make a travel permit available).

E.g The open expression of sorrow did not elicit public sympathy.

Expression of sorrow did not elicit any valued response, and sharing of emotion was not a sign of intimacy between individuals.

III.1 Emotional Behavior in a Social Context Chinese society/interpersonal relation:

harmony avoid conflict comply with group norm

Childhood development: suppress/ do not show emotions

Extreme/ Strong emotions: Discouraged ignored

III.2 Romantic Love in Traditional Chinese Community

Western: love = basis of all relationships Chinese human attachment= role duty,

responsibility Potter’s research village in rural China:

Passionate/romantic love- not required for a successful relation

social order/ relationships and behavior do not require an emotional basis.

e.g. arranged marriages : deliberate passionate love between two persons harms social structure

III.2 Love -- a Social Context E.g. Dad/Mom: love a kid too much = spoilt/ no res

pect/ improper/ bring harm to the kid Strong & deliberate Love:

not affirming the social structure BUT to endanger it.

Potter: “Romantic love is culturally alien in Mainland China… even marriage is based on ‘good feelings.’”

Similar to “love” in family – one to work and sacrifice on others , unconditional responsibility and altrusim

Love/ oi-ching 愛情 , a new term, only since modern Chinese in 1954

III.2 Love in a Social Context Jankowiak (1993 paper):

in his study of Hohhot, the capital of the inner Mongolian Autonomous Region.

Romantic love as the theme of films and magazines. Young people date and fall in love.

Jankowiak: “Romantic love existed well before the founding of the Han dynasty, in some cases, actually thrived in the face of powerful parental opposition.”

Famous ancient literature on love: poems in Book of Songs (Early Zhou Dynasty) e.g. Kwantsui

關睢 A long poem in Han (the 1st Chinese love story): “Southea

st the Peacock Flies”

II.2 Love in a Social Context

Traditional marriage: arranged, without passionate love; but emphasis obligation & duty

Yet, love between a man & a prostitute/ a concubine-- he can make his own choice of his love.

IV. Contemporary Psychological Beliefs

1. Locus of Control 控制方向 2. Externality & the Nature of the Outc

ome 外在因素與結果 3. Effort and Ability Attributions in Aca

demic Situation 學術上努力與能力

IV.1 Locus of Control Locus of control: internal/external Internal control 內在控制 : the belief that rei

nforcements are under the control of the individual

External control 外在控制 : reinforcements are under the control of external forces, e.g. fate, luck, chance

It is widely agreed in literature that because of the collectivistic orientation, Chinese tend to possess a stronger belief in external control (fate, deterministic) than Westerners.

IV.1 Locus of Control – disagreement Tsui (1978 paper): HK Chinese undergradua

tes were more internal than were American-born Chinese undergraduates in the US.

Hung (1974 paper): undergraduates in Taiwan did not differ from the Americans in internality.

Smith, Trompenaars, & Dugan (1993 paper): Chinese are not necessarily more external than are all Westerners.

IV.2 Externality & the Nature of the Outcome

Humility 恥 , which originates from Confucianism, is a norm in Chinese culture. Chinese employees in Taiwan evaluated their performance less positive than did their supervisors, a pattern opposite to that commonly observed in the US.

IV.2. Externality & the Nature of the Outcome The humility norm is related to the attributional pa

ttern of the Chinese, who tend to make external attributions for successes (others’ joint effort) and internal attributions for failures (blaming oneself).

HK Chinese subjects made self-effacing attributions for their performance in public but self-enhancing attributions in private.

The salience of the humility norm in Chinese societies suggests that Chinese people select more internal explanations for failures than for success, the US the opposite.

IV.2. Externality & the Nature of the Outcome

The internality of Chinese is qualified by the nature of the outcome.

Chinese were more external for successful events than were the US.

IV.3 Effort and Ability Attributions in Academic Situation Compared with Americans, Chinese

believe that academic achievements is more strongly related to effort.

Chinese parents of primary students in Taiwan put more stress on the importance of hard work, and less on the importance of innate ability, than did American parents in explaining their children’s academic results.

Such an emphasis on efforts is rooted in human malleability which is advocated by Confucianism.

IV.4 Self-Concept Chinese culture: group-oriented, believing the group

rather than the individual is the basic unit in society. This group-orientation hypothesis has obvious impli

cations for the conception of the self. The collective self 集體我 was more salient for subje

cts from China than for the US. Chinese identify themselves as the member of a specific group.

Yet, Chinese subjects from HK responded at a level similar to the US.

So, was the difference due to cultural or political & economic differences?

IV.4 Beliefs about Self-Concept The idea of “yuan” 緣 (predestined interp

ersonal affinity) is endorsed in Chinese societies.

Yuan refers to the belief that interpersonal outcomes are determined by fate or supernatural forces.

Yuan, as an external explanation for those who enjoy a positive interpersonal relationship and protect the face of others who enjoy less interpersonal relationship.

IV.5 Collectivist Beliefs Chinese: collectivistic Because the futures of individuals from the

same in-group are inter-related and that each person’s well-being depends upon the results of collective effort. If each person follows the norms of the group and acts in the interest of the group, the group will be harmonious and prosperous.

E.g. Chinese subjects in HK allocated a larger share of a group reward to in-group members than did American subjects.

IV.5 Collectivist Beliefs The collectiveness of Chinese leads them to

believe that an effective way to get things done is often through one’s guanxi 關係 (interpersonal connections).

Chinese tend to believe that out-group members are less likely to be dependable and trustworthy than are members of the in-group.

HK Chinese were more likely to sue a stranger than were US subjects.

IV.5 Collectivist Beliefs In Chinese culture, it is widely believe that it is mor

e effective to resolve disputes through negotiation and compromise rather than through confrontation.

Chinese subjects from HK prefer mediation 和解調停 over adjudication 裁决 in dispute processing, whereas US subjects prefer both to the same extent.

Chinese employees in HK, when ranked the five conflict resolution: compromise first and competition last; UK managers who worked in HK: competition second and compromise third.

IV.6 Beliefs Related to Power Distance 權力距離 Social structure for Chinese: hierarchical an

d exhibits a large power distance. The basic belief is that the ideal way to orga

nize a collective is through a well-defined hierarchy, with explicit responsibilities for each role in the hierarchy.

E.g. the typical leadership pattern in Chinese societies tends to be paternalistic 父權 and authoritarian 權威性 .

IV.7Primary & Secondary Control

Primary control is a predominant strategy in the West. In order to attain one’s goal and wishes, one has to attempt to bring about objective changes in the environment.

Secondary control is prevalent in the East. Because of the emphasis on interdependence and harmony in groups, people should show a stronger tendency to adjust themselves to fit the environment.

Chinese believe that secondary control is a more effective way to attain their goals than is primary control.

IV.8 Beliefs about Uncertain Events British subjects tend to adopt a probabilistic

view of uncertainty and are able to assess the likelihood of occurrence of uncertain events more accurately.

The South-east Asian subject (including HK people) tend to view the world in terms of total certainty or uncertainty, and were less inclined to make a probabilistic judgment of uncertain events.

IV.8 Beliefs about Uncertain Events A probabilistic view of the world is conductive

to a rational approach to decision-making and to use of facts and figures in coming to a decision, and it is derived from the social logic of low power distance.

A non-probabilistic world-view would diminish the importance of objective facts and figures, thus making the role of intuition important and arbitrary authority acceptable. e.g. major business deals are made by Chinese tycoons (the head of the company) rather than meticulous calculations by the management.

Chinese Psychological Aspects. Outline I. Chinese Childhood Socialization II. Traditional Education...

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