Series “Towards Nonviolent Civil Defence”Slides n° 4

Civil resistance against dictatorships, coups and t errorism

Slides 4 - 2

Civil resistance against coup d’état

Étienne GodinotTranslation : Claudia McKenny Engström

10.04.2015

Civil resistance against coup d’état

Contents

- Germany (Kapp putsch, 1921)- France (Generals’ putsch in Alger, April 1961)- Spain (army putsch, April 1981)

Sources :

- review Alternatives non-violentes, n° 119-120 et 121 (2001) Les luttes non-violentes au XXème siècle (Nonviolent struggles of the XXth Century)

- Internet Wikipedia

1 – Germany : Kapp Putsch, 1921

In 1919, an anti-Republican brigade is founded in Germany by Captain Erhardt, supporting monarchist member of Parliament Wolfgang Kapp, himself at the origin of Deutsche Vaterlandspartei (Party for German Motherland). The Allies order its dissolution, which Weimar governments procedes to.

On 13th March 1920, the “Erhardt Brigade” – 6000 men – led by monarchist General von Lüttwitz, marches into Berlin.

Photos : - Wolfgang Kapp- Erhardt brigade enters Berlin, 13th March 1920.

General strike and civil servants’ resistance

The army refuses to shoot at insurgents. The council of ministers takes refuge in Dresden, then Stuttgart. The brigade occupies governmental quarters and installs a temporary government. Kapp proclaims state of siege and suspends newspapers.

But he is confronted to a four-day general strike, called by trade unions and left-wing parties, which blocks the whole economy. 12 million workers follow the strike.

Photos : - Marine brigade soldiers distributing flyers on 13th March 1920- Putsch brigade in position.

Putsch failure

The putsch is also confronted to civil servants’ resistance in Berlin. The Reichsbank Director refuses to pay the 10 million Marks demanded by Kapp.

On 17th March, Kapp flees to Sweden. He comes back to Germany after two years of exile. He dies in 1922 before his trial. The Republic of Weimar ends in 1933 with Nazism.

Photos : - General strike against Kapp’s putsch poster- Memorial to Kapp putsch failure (Wetter Station, Berlin)

2 – France

The Generals’ putsch in Alger, April 1961

On 8th January 1961, a referendum on Algeria’s auto-determination is organised in France and Algeria. Voters carry out a 75% vote in favour. Secret negotiations take place between Michel Debré government and the Provisional Government of the Republic of Algeria (PGRA), linked to the National Liberation Front (Front de Libération Nationale – FLN).

Part of the army, who had fought for seven years under the different governments’ command, feel betrayed by General De Gaulle, and want to oppose the independence project with a coup.

Photos : - FLN logo- “Yes” bulletin on 2nd referendum, July 1962.

Four generals representing part of professional arm y

French Presidency had known for months of some of the Generals’ intentions, via Alger police and secret services.

The putsch, on 21st April 1961, also known as “the Alger Putsch”, is led by four Generals (Maurice Challe, Edmond Jouhaud, Raoul Salan and André Zeller).

They declare: “Commandment reserves itself the right to extend its action to the continent and reconstitute a constitutional and republican order, endangered by the unlawfulness visible by the entire Nation”.

Photos : - The four Generals on the day of the putsch- Newspaper “La Croix”.

Taking control of strategic points in Alger

In the night, the 1st Regiment of Parachutists, under command of Hélie de Saint-Marc, take control, in the space of 3 hours, of Alger’s strategic points, namely the general Government of Alger, the Town hall, the radio and the airport.

Rebel military arrest General Government delegate, Jean Morin, Minister of transports Robert Buron, then travelling, and other civil and military authorities.

Left-wing parties, trade unions and the Ligue des droits de l’Homme call for demonstration “of workers and democrats against the coup in Alger”.

Photos : - Hélie Denoix de Saint-Marc, former resistant, he fought in Indochina and Algeria, imprisoned after the 1961 putsch. Revolted by France’s colonial adventures and the fate of the harkis (Algerians who fought for France) in France and Algeria, he was also a humanist. He received the Grand Croix de la Légion d’Honneur in 2011- Robert Buron (1910-1973), negotiator and signatory of the Evian Agreements, in March 1962, which ended the war in Algeria. This political man understood at an early stage the potential of nonviolence.

The General de Gaulle’s intervention on television

On 23rd April at 8 o’clock, President Charles de Gaulle, dressed in his military uniform, enounces a speech on television calling soldiers in Algeria, the people in France and Algeria, to oppose the coup :

“This power has an appearance : a quadroon of retired generals; it has a reality : a group of partisan officers, ambitious and fanatic. This group and this quadroon have limited and expeditious skills, but neither see nor know the nation and the world, aside from deformed in their frenzy (…).

In the name of France, I order that all means, and I say all means, be employed to stop these men. I forbid all Frenchman, and first of all soldiers, to execute their orders. Women and Men of France, help me ! ”

Refusing to obey the rebels

In compliance with Article 16 of the Constitution of the Vth Republic, General de Gaulle takes full power until 30th September 1961.

“500 000 men with transistors”, as he said speaking about the contingent, hear his call to disobedience and help him ensure the Generals are not obeyed. Those who refuse to obey revolt against them and arrest Putschist officers.

45 minutes past midnight, Prime Minister Michel Debréappears on television and calls the population to go to airports, “on foot or by car”, “as soon as they hear the sirens”, “to convince soldiers of their deep mistake” and to stop putschists.

Photo : Michel Debré (1912-1996)

Progressive return of the republican order

Progressively, the troupes having followed the generals give up. 220 officers are relieved of their duty, 114 are brought to justice. The Groupement des commandos de l’air (air force) and three other regiments having taken part in the coup are dismantled by the President.

The High Military Tribunal sentences Challe and Zeller to 5 years imprisonment. They are granted amnesty 5 years later. Salan and Jouhaud, are sentenced to life imprisonment. Jouhaud, who was pied noir, is sentenced to the death penalty (commuted later).

Partisans still fighting for French Algeria begin clandestine action with the Secret Army Organisation (Organisation de l’Armée Secrète – OAS). Salan and Jouhaud are its leaders together with Jean-Jacques Susini.

The Evian Agreements organising Algeria’s independence, are signed less than a month later.

Photo : 18th March, Parc Hotel, Evian. Louis Joxe, Robert Buron and Jean de Broglie, designated negotiators by de Gaulle, and PGRA vice-President Krim Belkacem, sign the agreements that end a 132 year long colonisation and 8 and a half years of war.

3 - Spain February 1981 Coup attempt

The 1981 coup is linked to the events which took place during Spain’s democratic transition. Four factors generate permanent tensions : 1. Economic crisis; 2. Difficulty to reach coherent territorial organisation of the State; 3. ETA terrorist acts; 4. Resistance of several army factions to obey democratic system.

On 23rd February 1981, at 6 o’clock in the evening, during the President’s vote of approval for investiture, a group of armed civil guards, led by lieutenant-colonel Antonio Tejero Molina,

enters the hemicycle and interrupts the session, ordering all present to lie down on the floor.

Photos : - Cortes Hemicycle, Parliament in Madrid- Antonio Tejero Molina, weapon in hand, ordering members of Parliament

to lie down on the floor.

Coup in National Assembly and in Valencia

General Manuel Gutiérrez Mellado, 70, highest rank in the Assembly, Government Vice-President in charge of Security and National Defence, orders putschists to drop their weapons. They arrest the General, and to affirm their authority, shoot at the ceiling. MPs lie down. The session is filmed by Spanish television operator.

Soon after, in Valencia, the General of the 3rd military region, Jaime Milans del Bosch, orders tanks to “invade” the city and proclaims the state of exception, in an attempt to convince other army members to follow him.

Photos : - Manuel Gutiérrez Mellado (1912-1995), standing up to putschists- Jaime Milans del Bosch (1915-1997), in Valencia.

King Juan Carlos’ decisive role

At 9 pm, Ministry of Interior press release announces the constitution of temporary government presided by Francisco Laina, in tight link with the Chief of Army staff junta.

King Juan Carlos I refuses to support the coup and aborts it during the night. The monarch himself, thanks to his personal management with the help of his collaborators, ensures the loyalty of military command.

At 1 am, Juan Carlos intervenes on television, in his uniform as Captain General of the Armies, to oppose the coup, defend the Constitution and depose Jaime Milans del Bosch. At that point, the coup is considered aborted. At 5 am, isolated, Milans del Bosch renounces his plans and is arrested. Tejero resists until 24th February at noon, but members of Parliament are released during the morning.

Reinforcing democracy

Milans del Bosch, Alfonso Armada and Antonio Tejero Molina are sentenced to 30 years imprisonment, as main instigators of the coup. The only civilian to be condemned is Juan Garcia Carres, ex-leader of the Sindicato Vertical (only trade union authorised under Franco).

The most obvious consequences of this attempt is the reinforcement of democracy, the beginning of the process towards autonomy (Organic Law for Harmonisation of Autonomy Process) and a strong reinforcement of royal image in the eyes of the population and media.

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