''The structure of North Sami''

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Ante Aikio

THE STRUCTURE OF NORTH SAAMI

(course handout)

Department of Linguistics

The University of Utah

Spring 2009


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1. INTRODUCTION

1.1. The Saami languages

Saami (alternative spellings: Sami, Smi) is a general name for the indigenous people(s)

in Lapland (including Central and Northern Scandinavia, Northern Finland, and the KolaPeninsula in Northwestern Russia). Formerly the Saami peoples were generally calledLapps, but this term has fallen out of use, as it is often considered to have a derogatorytone.

The Saami people(s) do not speak asingle language, but a group of closelyrelated Saami languages. It is customary todistinguish between nine currently livingSaami languages: South Saami, Ume

Saami, Pite Saami, Lule Saami, NorthSaami, Inari Saami, Skolt Saami, KildinSaami, and Ter Saami. The languagesform a chain-like continuum reachingfrom Central Scandinavia in the southwestto the tip of the Kola Peninsula in the east(see the map on the left).

Formerly the varieties of Saami wereoften called dialects. However, this

usage is inadequate, because even neighboring Saami languages are often not mutuallywell intelligible, and between geographically more remote Saami languages mutualintelligibility is close to zero. For instance, a speaker of South Saami could at bestunderstand extremely little of spoken North Saami, and nothing at all of Ter Saami. Thedegree of divergence of the Saami languages can be compared to that of Romancelanguages (e.g. Spanish vs. French vs. Italian vs. Romanian).

In terms of their sociolinguistic situation the Saami languages can be grouped intoendangered (North Saami), seriously endangered (South, Lule, Inari, Skolt and KildinSaami), nearly extinct (Ume, Pite and Ter Saami), and extinct (Akkala and Kemi Saami).The estimated number of fluent speakers of each variety is:

South Saami 300400Ume Saami 10 at mostPite Saami 20 at mostLule Saami 10002000 North Saami 33000Inari Saami 400

Map 1. The Saami Languages. 1 = South Saami, 2 = UmeSaami, 3 = Pite Saami, 4 = Lule Saami, 5 = North Saami, 6 =Skolt Saami, 7 = Inari Saami, 8 = Kildin Saami, 9 = TerSaami


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Skolt Saami 300Kemi Saami extinct since late 19th centuryAkkala Saami extinct since 2003Kildin Saami 600Ter Saami 10

Six Saami languages South, Lule, North, Inari, Skolt and Kildin Saami have anindependent literary standard. The Kildin Saami writing system employs a slightlymodified Cyrillic alphabet, whereas the others are based on the Latin alphabet.

Genetically, the Saami languages form one subbranch of the Uralic (Finno-Ugric)language family; the Saami languages are thus remotely related to languages such asFinnish, Estonian and Hungarian, as well as numerous indigenous languages of EuropeanRussia and western Siberia. In terms of time depth, the Uralic affinity is very remote, andthe various Uralic branches are no more closely related to each other than branches ofIndo-European, for instance. Within the Uralic family Saami shares the most featureswith the neighboring Finnic languages (such as Finnish and Estonian); a large part ofthese shared features are due to language contact rather than genetic inheritance, though.

The Uralic languages.


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1.2. Some general features of North Saami grammar

As Saami languages belong to the Uralic language family, they share many features ofgrammar with other Uralic languages. In particular, Saami syntax and morphosyntax is inmany respects verysimilar to Finnish and the other Finnic languages. (There is alsomuch vocabulary common with Finnic, which partially results from borrowing inaddition to inherited Uralic vocabulary, there are extremely many Finnish loanwords inSaami.)

In general typological terms, North Saami can be described as a synthetic,highlyinflecting language. There is also a remarkable degree ofmorphological fusion meaning that the conjugation of words often involves phonological alterations, portmanteau morphemes, and blurring of morpheme boundaries. Each of these featurescan be illustrated with an example:

a) Phonological alterations:

vuolgi-t leaveINF vulggi-i PAST.3SG to leave, to go (away) (s)he left, (s)he went (away)

b) Portmanteau morphemes (morphemes which simultaneously mark several grammaticalfeatures):

vulggi-i PAST.3SG (the morpheme-i similtaneously marks past tense,singular, and third person)

c) blurring of morpheme boundaries:dllu houseSG. NOM dlu SG.GEN (no detectable morpheme boundary)

Some important general features of North Saami morphosyntax are listed below.

o Constituent order:o North Saami is primarily a SVO language, but in certain (non-finite)

constructions the word order SOV is preferred.o Postpositions are preferred against prepositions (even though some

prepositions also exist).o Nouns:

o North Saami has a well-developed case system with six cases. Nounsdistinguish between singular and plural number.

o Nouns can also take possessive suffixes: e.g.dlus in a/the house :dlust an in my house :dlust at in your house.


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o Adjectives:o Adjectives often have a distinct forms in predicative and attribute position:

e.g.mtki lea guhkki the trip is long vs. guhkes mtki a long trip.

o Pronouns:o Personal pronouns distinguish three numbers: e.g.mun I,moai we two,

mii we (more than two)o The system of demonstrative pronouns has five members:dt this,diet

that (near you),duot that (not near either of us),dot that (which is faraway),dat it

o Verbs:o Verbs have four tenses (present, past, perfect, pluperfect); there is no

separate future tense.o Verbs have four moods: indicative, imperative (imperative-optative),

conditional, dubitative.o Verbs with human subjects distinguish between singular, dual and plural:

vuolggn I leave,vulge we (two) leave,vuolgit we (more than two)leave.

o Verbs have a wide variety of non-finite forms.o Negation is expressed with a negative verb:in I dont,it you dont,ii

(s)he doesnt, etc.o There is no separate class of auxiliary verbs.

1.3. North Saami dialects

North Saami has four main dialect groups: the Western Inland dialects (WI), the EasternInland dialects (EI), the Torne dialects (T), and the Sea dialects (S).1 The differences between the dialects are mainly phonological. There are also some lexical differences, butgrammatical differences are small. The rough distribution of the dialect groups can beseen in the map below.

There is no standard pronunciation in North Saami, so everyone speaks the languageaccording to their own dialect; therefore also a student learning to speak North Saami willhave to learn to pronounce the language according to some dialect. In this course

1 The western and eastern inland dialects are often called Finnmark dialects (according to the Norwegiancounty of Finnmark), with further western and eastern subgroups. This division seems to be mistaken,however, as the two dialect groups do not share any common traits that would set them apart from Sea andTorne dialects. Moreover, the term Finnmark dialects is a misnomer, because these dialects are alsospoken outside the Norwegian county of Finnmark, and on the other hand, also Sea dialects are spoken inFinnmark.


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handout, two pronunciation keys are given: one approximating a typical WI and another atypical EI pronunciation. Minor phonological differences between subdialects will beignored. The geographically more marginal Torne and Sea dialects show quite notable phonological differences from the inland dialects; these will not be dealt with in this presentation.

The North Saami dialect

areas.

WI = Western inland dialectsEI = Eastern inland dialectsT = Torne dialectsS = Sea dialects

1.4. Some references to explore Bartens, Hans-Hermann 1989. Lehrbuch der saamischen (Lappischen) Sprache. This

is the best published Saami coursebook and it is also suitable for studying on yourown.

Nickel, Klaus Peter 1990.Samisk grammatikk. A grammar of North Saami, veryuseful if you can read Norwegian. Even if you do not know Norwegian, you canmake use of the many paradigms and tables.

Nielsen, Konrad 1979 [19261929]. Lrebok i lappisk (samisk) IIII. (I Grammatikk;II Tekster; III Glossar). 2. opplag. A very detailed grammar and collection oftexts, but does not employ the modern orthography. This is a very valuable reference,though, if you first learn the correspondences between Nielsens orthography and themodern literary language.

Nielsen, Konrad 1979 [19321962]. Lappisk (samisk) ordbok Lapp dictionary. Avery important dictionary, and the only one with English glosses. To effectively useit, you must learn the correspondences between Nielsens orthography and themodern literary language.


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2. PHONOLOGY AND ORTHOGRAPHY

2.1. The phonological system2.1.1. Consonant phonemes

The system of consonant phonemes in the eastern inland (EI) and western inland (WI)dialects is given in the table below. The phonemes marked with+ occur only in the EIdialects, but not in WI. The phonemes in parentheses are marginal, i.e., they occur only invery few words.

unvoiced stops p t t j kvoiced stops b d d j gaspirated stops + p +t +kunvoiced affricates c ! voiced affricates z "

sibilants s # voiced nasals m n n j +$ unvoiced nasals (M) (N)voiced spirants / semivowels v % junvoiced spirants f & (J) hvoiced laterals l l j unvoiced lateral (L)voiced tremulant runvoiced tremulant (R)

The aspirated stops can only occur in initial position, and they are mostly restricted torecent Scandinavian loanwords such asboasta /p'( sta/ post office,teaksta /t)( ksta/text andknske /knske/ perhaps (< Norwegian / Swedishkanske perhaps). They donot occur in the WI dialects and they are not consistently indicated in the orthography.

2.1.2. Vowel phonemes

The North Saami vowel system is rather complex and involves certain typologically quite

unusual features. The vowel systems of the various dialects also differ considerably fromeach other, especially in terms of quantity and diphthong quality. Vowel quantity is notindicated in orthography.

In the WI dialects there are five monophthongs, each of which can occur in threecontrasting quantities:


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short long half-long / finally stressedi u ii uu ii' uu'e o ee oo ee' oo'

a aa aa'

In the EI dialects there are seven monophthongs, all of which occur in the same threequantitaties:

short long half-long / finally stressedi u ii uu ii' uu'e o ee oo ee' oo' a aa ' aa' '

The vowel // has a very slight labialization (o-like color) and it is pronounced slightlymore back than /a/.

Diphthongs likewise occur in three quantities: short, long, and finally stressed. Thediphthongs of the WI dialects are:

short long finally stressed*+ ,' ie uo ie' uo'+( '( ea oa ea' oa'

The diphthongs in the EI dialects are slightly different in quality:

short long finally stressed

*+ ,+ ie uo ie' ue'+( '( i ua e' oa'

Finally stressed diphthongs have a short first component and a stressed and lengthenedsecond component. Their pronunciation is somewhat similar to certain Spanishdiphthongs (cf.bueno, puerto, ciudad ).

Note: there is also one more marginal vowel phoneme, the front rounded vowel /y/. Itonly occurs in incompletely assimilated borrowings and internationalisms (e.g. psykologiija psychology,myhta myth, fysihkka physics), but not in native North

Saami vocabulary.

2.1.3. Word-stress

Word-stress in North Saami is almost fully predictable, and stress has no phonologicallycontrastive function. The main stress always falls on the first syllable of a word.Secondary stress normally falls on each subsequent odd syllable, except that the final


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syllable of a word is never stressed. In the examples below, main stress is indicated bydouble underlining, secondary stress by single underlining:

dolla firedolastis in his/her firedolastallat to keep an outdoor firedolastallamin keeping an outdoor firedolastaladettiin while keeping an outdoor firedolastaladettiinan while I am/was keeping an outdoor fire

There are a couple of minor exceptions to the assignment of secondary stress. As a rule,clitics attached at the end of words are never stressed, and moreover, secondary stresscannot be assigned to the syllable immediately preceding a clitic. Consider the followingexamples involving the interrogative clitics-go (used for marking questions) and-son

(used to indicate that the question is rhetorical):

gulai (s)he heard gulaigo did (s)he hear? gulaigoson I wonder if (s)he heardmuitalii (s)he toldmuitaliigo did (s)he tell?muitaliigoson I wonder if (s)he told

As another type of exception, there are words where secondary stress falls on an evensyllable instead of an odd syllable. These kinds of words are usually either recentloanwords or irregularly shortened compounds:

reageret to react (< Norwegianreagere id.)televi ! uvdna televisionvilbealle male cousin (


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2.2. Orthography and pronunciation2.2.1. Alphabet

The North Saami alphabet has 30 letters:

Aa Bb Cc -! Dd ./ Ee Ff Gg Hh IiJj Kk Ll Mm Nn 0$ Oo Pp Rr Ss 1# Tt23 Uu Vv Yy Zz 4"

The lettersc, " , z and # indicate affricates,$ is a voiced dental spirant,% is its unvoiced pair,& is the velar nasal, and ! is the hushing sibilant (cf. English sh, German sch).

The vowel y is a high rounded front vowel (cf. German); it only occurs in recentloanwords and internationalisms (e.g.myhta myth, psykologiija psychology,analyseret to analyze).

2.2.2. Pronunciation of consonants

In general, North Saami spelling is largely phonological in the sense that the phonological form of the word can usually be rather straightforwardly deduced from itswritten form. There are practically no irregular spellings.

However, the system for spelling consonant sounds considerbly differs from many otherlanguages. There are a couple of rules on the pronunciation of consonants you shouldmemorize.

The most important thing to keep in mind is that the lettersb, d , g , z, and # which in mostlanguages stand for voiced consonants are actuallyalmost never pronounced voiced they stand for unvoiced stops and affricates . Hence, the letterb is usually pronouncedas /p/, the letterd as /t/, the letter g as /k/, the letter z as /c/ and the letter # as /!/. (Thereare a couple of exceptions to this rule, which will be explained below.) See the examples below:

bargu (WI /parkuu/, EI /prkuu/) workdrbu (WI /taarpuu/, EI /tarpuu/) needbzn (WI /paacaan/, EI /pcn/) I stayb # n (WI /paa!aan/, EI /p!n/) I shoot

A second, related rule is that when the letter p, t , k , c, or" occurs after another consonant,it is usually accompanied by a precedingh-sound (preaspiration) which is not spelledseparately. The following examples illustrate this:


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brgu (WI /paarkuu/, EI /parkuu/) (s)he criesbrku (WI /paar hkuu/, EI /paar hkuu/) tree bark

durdi (WI, EI /turtii/) stainbrti (WI /paar htii/, EI /pr htii/) serious accident

galg (WI /kalkaa/, EI /klk/) (s)he must galk (WI /kalhkaa, EI /klhk) it bounces off

gr # i (WI /kaar !ii/, EI /kr !ii/) narrownjr " (WI /n jaar h!aa/ EI /n jr h!/) tendon (in meat)

However, there is noh-sound if the preceding consonant is a stop or a sibilant:

luokta (WI /l,' kta/, EI /l,+kta/) baymtki (WI /maatkii/, EI /mtkii/) trip, journey

astu (WI /astuu/, EI /stuu/) spare timeru ! ki (WI, EI /ru#kii/) autumn colors on trees

In North Saami,i is both a vocalic and a consonantal letter. Wheneveri occursafteranother vowel , it stands for the consonant /j/:

libi (WI /laajpii/, EI /ljpii/) breadlibi (WI /laajpaaj/, EI /ljpj/) to a/the breadnieida (WI, EI /n*+ jta/) girlniidii (WI, EI /nijtij/) to a/the girl

Theh-sound rule applies also after the consonantali:idi (WI /aajtii, EI /jtii/) fenceiti (WI /aajhtii/, EI /jhtii/) storage houseigu (WI /aajkuu/, EI /ajkuu/) (s)he intends toika (WI /aajhka/, EI /ajhka/) old pine tree

In the WI dialects, between vowelsb and g are pronounced as the stops /p/ and /k/,respectively. In EI dialects the pronunciation is different: between vowelsb is pronounced as /v/ and g is pronounced either as / j/ or not at all (as , i.e. zero). Thesemivowel / j/ occurs if the preceding syllable is stressed and the following unstressedvowel is, e or i; otherwise g is not pronounced at all.

lobi (WI /lopii/, EI /loovii/) of a permissionagi (WI /akii/, EI /jii/) of ageviegan (WI /viekaan/, EI /vie.aan/) I rundagu (WI /takuu/, EI /t.uu/) of a deed


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Palatalized consonants are spelled by adding j after the corresponding non-palatalizedletter:

njuolla (WI, EI /n juolla/) arrowmannji (WI /man jn jii/, EI /mn jn jii/ daughter-in-law

vuodjit (WI, EI /vuot jt jiih(t)/) to driveviellja (WI, EI /v*+l jl ja/) brother

Whenb, d , g , z or # occur as geminates (double consonants) between vowels, they are pronouncedpartially voiced . This is an exception to the voicelessness rule mentionedabove. The combination-ddj- stands for a partially voiced geminate palatalized stop.

soabbi (WI, EI /s'( bpii/) pole, staffhaddi (WI /hadtii/, EI /hdtii/) priceddj (WI /aad jt jaa/, /d jt j/) grandfathervuogga (WI /v,' gka/, EI /v,+gka/) hook (and line, for fishing) gazza (WI /kazca/, EI /kzca/) nail gu ## a (WI, EI /ku"!a/) urine

In the WI dialects the voicelessness rule also has another exception: if the letterb, d or g is followed by a nasal, it is pronounced voiced. The EI dialects use an unvoiced stop inthese cases.

gobmi(WI /kobmii/, EI /kopmii/) ghostbodni (WI /podnii/, EI /potnii/) bottomboadnj (WI /p'( d jn jaa/, EI /p'( t jn j/) husbandduog &at (WI /t,' d jn jah(t), EI /t,+k $ah(t)/ to patch

In the WI dialects, the velar nasal& has merged with the palatalized nasalnj; both are pronounced as /n j/. EI dialects retain the distinction.

ma&is (WI /man jiis/, EI /m$iis/) behind (in the direction one is coming from)manjis (WI /man jiis/, EI /mn jiis/) daughter-in-law (locative form) jiek &a (WI /jietn ja/, EI /jiek $a/) ice

Word-final-t is pronounced as /h/. Before a pause the pronunciation /ht/ may occur, but

never in the middle of a sentence:Olbmot mannet vuojadit geassit. WI: /olpmoh manneh vuoja%ih keassiih(t)/EI: /olmoh mnneh vuoja%eh kissiih(t)/People go swimming in the summer.


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2.2.3. Pronunciation of vowels

The vowel systems in the North Saami dialects show considerable differences, and hence,the pronounciation of vowels in the written language may differ in the various dialects interms of both quality and quantity.

At this point it would not be useful to present a full account on the relationship ofspelling and vowel phonology. Therefore, you must ignore quantity for a while andcontent yourself with following certain basic rules.

In the WI dialects, the vowels are pronounced largely as they are written as far as qualityis concerned: i.e.,i = /i/,e = /e/,u = /u/,o = /o/,a and = /a/. Also vowel quantity can toa large extent be deduced from spelling, butonly if one knows the morphological andmorphophonological rules of the language. Therefore, the relationship betweenspelling and vowel quantity is best ignored at this point. There is one exception, though:

in the WI dialects, the lettera is almost always pronounced as short /a/, and the letter almost always as long /aa/ (there are a couple of exceptions to this rule, though):

mannu (WI /mannuu/) errand, need to go (somewhere)mnnu (WI /maannuu/) moon

In the EI dialects the pronunciation of vowels is even more complicated than in the WIdialects. At this point, only a couple of general rules regarding vowel quality (but notquantity!) will be introduced:

In a stressed syllable, the lettera stands for the vowel //:

dat (EI /th(t)/) itmana (EI /m'na/) go! salla (EI /slla/) lap, bosom

In a stressed syllable, is pronounced /a/ before a next syllable back vowel (a, o, u) and// elsewhere:

mnnu (EI /maannuu/) moonnjrga (EI /n jarka/) cape, land pointdkko (EI /taa'kko/) this way

mrfi (EI /mrfii/) sausagemnn (EI /mnn/) childdl (EI /tl/) now

In an unstressed syllable is always pronounced as //:

mann (EI /mnn/) (s)he goes


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3. MORPHOPHONOLOGY

North Saami has an intricate system of morphophonological alterations that affect theshape of word-roots. These alterations are realized in the inflectional paradigms of verbs,nouns, adjectives, quantifiers, and pronouns, as well as in word-formational operations(derivation and compounding).

There are six main categories of regular morphophonological alterations, the mostimportant being the first two:

A) Consonant gradation refers to a systematic alteration of consonants andconsonant clusters on the border of a stressed and an unstressed syllable (usuallythe first and the second syllable). The following serve as examples of consonantgradation in the declension of nouns:vrri mountain :vris on the mountain, goahti Saami tent : goa$ is in the tent,lgu beginning :lggus in the

beginning.B) Diphthong simplification refers to a process whereby diphthongs become

monophthongs in certain word-forms. The following serve as examples ofdiphthong simplification in verb conjugation:vuolgit to go away :moai vulge the two of us go away," ierrut to cry :moai " irro the two of us cry.

C) Unstressed vowel alteration refers to qualitative alterations of vowels in anunstressed syllable (usually the second syllable). Such alterations are frequent in both noun and verb paradigms, e.g.h"" i father :h"" n my father;bh" it toshoot :b # n I shoot : bh" en I shot.

D) Margin consonant alterations are alterations of consonants at the end of word-stems (i.e., on the stem margin). The alterations may be qualitative, as innvet cowhouse :nveh-is in the cowhouse. On the other hand, there are alsoalterations between the presence of a consonant vs. its absence (, zero): forexample :m in eana earth, ground,eatnamis on the ground; : g in " otta throat :" oddagis in the throat.

E) Stressed vowel length alteration refers to the alteration in the length of astressed vowel (usually the vowel in the first syllable). There are major dialectal

differences in the nature and scope of these alterations, and for this reason theyare not indicated in the literary language. Examples of alteration between shortand long vowels in the EI dialects:vulgen /vulken/ I went away :vulggii /vuulkkij/ (s)he went away;vuorddn /vuorttn/ I wait :vuord /v'( rt/(s)he waits.

F) Alteration between so-called largo and allegro forms. Many word-forms,such as finite verb forms and certain case forms of nouns, have two alternative


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phonological shapes: a more fully pronounced largo form and a shorter orreduced allegro form. The largo and allegro forms differ from each othermainly in terms of vowel quantity and quality. The use of shorter allegro formsinstead of largo forms may be triggered by e.g. speed of speech, syntactic position, or certain morphological processes such as compounding. The shorterallegro forms are consistently indicated in spelling only in the cases where theyare the result of some regular morphological process; in other cases no distinctionis usually made in writing.

The alterations A) and B) are crucial for undestanding North Saami morphology, and it isthus important to get acquainted with them right from the beginning. Alterations of thetypes C) and D) are also essential for conjugating Saami nouns and verbs correctly.Alterations E) and F), in contrast, can for the most part be ignored at this stage, as theyare not so crucial for understanding the overall grammatical structure of the language. As

vowel length is not indicated in spelling, one can learn to read and write North Saamidespite of ignoring vowel length alterations; even speaking North Saami without havinglearnt correct vowel lengths will result in no real difficulties of communication, butmerely a notable foreign accent. Also the largo allegro alteration (F) is a phenomenon that is primarily connected with spoken language.

3.1. Consonant gradation

3.1.1. Main principles

The termconsonant gradation refers to a systematic morphophonological alteration ofconsonants on the border of a stressed and an unstessed syllable (typically the first andthe second syllable). In North Saami nearly all consonants and consonant clusters aresubject to gradation. For each consonant and cluster, there exists astrong grade whichoccurs in certain word-forms and a correspondingweak grade which occurs in theothers. Consonant gradation may involve variation between:

a geminate and a single consonant, e.g.: guolli : guoli SG.GENfishmnnu : mnuSG.GENmoon

a consonant cluster and a single consonant, e.g. stni : sni SG.GENword giehta : gie$ a SG.GENhand, arm


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a long geminate and a short geminate, e.g. guos'si : guossi SG.GENguest2

two consonant clusters, e.g.h"" i : h" i SG.GENfather

biergu : bierggu SG.GENmeathaddi : hatti SG.GENpriceluokta : luovtta SG.GENbay

Consonant gradation was historically conditioned by the structure of the followingsyllable: the weak grade occurred if the syllable was closed (i.e., ended in a consonant),the strong grade if the syllable was open (i.e., ended in a vowel). However, this originallysimple conditioning has been completely obliterated by later sound changes. Thereforeyou have no way of guessing which forms will have the weak grade and which ones thestrong grade it has to be learnt by rote. (This isnt actually as hard as it may sound.)

In total, there are at least as many as 175 distinct cases of consonant gradation. Thisfigure may seem astronomical, but theres no need to be daunted: all the alterations can be grouped into a handful of easily understandable types, so there is no need to memorizeevery case separately.

The first thing you need to learn is that every instance of medial consonants belongsto one of three quantities, which are calledQuantity I , Quantity II , andQuantity III e.g., as follows:

Quantity III Quantity II Quantity I

h!! i h!i father (SG. NOM/ SG.GEN)geah!i gea"i end, tip (SG. NOM/ SG.GEN)

guos'si guossi guest (SG. NOM/ SG.GEN)

geassi geasi summer (SG. NOM/ SG.GEN)

goh!! o go"u soot (SG.GEN/ SG. NOM) [!]

Quantity I is always a single consonant, whereas Quantity II and III are always either

geminates (double consonants) or consonant clusters. In each word, the gradation takes place between two quantity groups. Most cases fall into two types:

2 Note that the distinction between long and short geminates is not indicated in normal spelling. Thesymbol ' (in e.g. guos'si) is used in linguistic notation to indicate a long geminate. In normal literary usagethe SG. NOM and theSG.GEN of these kinds of words are spelled identically ( guossi), even though there is adifference in pronunciation!


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1) the strong grade is Quantity II and the weak grade is Quantity I (e.g. geah" i, geassi)

2) the strong grade is Quantity III and the weak grade is Quantity II (e.g.h"" i, guos'si)

There is also a rare third type, which only occurs in the paradigms of certain types ofnouns (the so-called contracting s-nouns and mutatingu-nouns), but never in verbs.

3) the strong grade is Quantity III and the weak grade is Quantity I (e.g. go # u soot)

This exceptional type of gradation results from the a morphophonological process calledstrong grade strengthening, which is explained in subsection 3.1.3. below.

3.1.2. Types of consonant gradation

In the subsections below, the gradating pairs are grouped into categories, each of which behaves in a distinct manner phonologically. For each group, two forms from the paradigm of one example word are cited to illustrate each possible case of consonantgradation. (In the case of nouns, the forms areSG. NOMand SG.GEN, in the case of verbsINFand 1SG.)

3.1.2.1. Geminate consonant as the strong grade, single consonant as the weak grade(Q II Q I)

This is a very common type of alteration. The strong grade consists of a geminatecontinuant consonant, the weak grade of a corresponding single consonant.

SG WG example WI pronunciation EI pronunciation gloss

// / oa// it oa/ n /oa%%iih(t) oa%aan/ /ua%%iih(t) ua%n/ to sleepff f geaffi geafi /keaffii keafii/ /kiffii kifii/ poorll l giella giela /kiella kiela/ /kiella kiela/ languagemm m namma nama /nammaa namaa/ /nmma nma/ namenn n mnn mn /maannaa maanaa/ /mnn mn/ childnnj nj mannji manji /man jn jii man jn jii/ /mn jn jii mn jii/ daughter-in-law$$ $ ma$$i ma$i /man jn jii man jn jii/ /m$$ii m$ii/ rear, backrr r muorra muora /muorra muora/ /muorra muora/ treess s gussa gusa /kussaa kusaa/ /kuussa kuusa/ cow## # va##i va#i /va##ii va#ii/ /v##ii v#ii/ hatred33 3 Ruo33a Ruo3a /ruo&&a ruo&a/ /ruo&&a ruo&a/ Swedenvv v suovva suova /suovva suova/ /suovva suova/ smoke


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3.1.2.2. Geminate in both grades (Q III Q II)

This is a less common type of alteration. The strong grade consists of a long geminatecontinuant consonant, the weak grade of an ordinary geminate consonant.

A note on spelling: in the North Saami literary language, the difference between the longand the ordinary geminates is not indicated in any way both are spelt the same way. Inlinguistic references, however, the long geminates are usually indicated with a straightapostrophe (') between the consonants: hence, s's is to be read as a long geminate, andss as a regular geminate.

A note on dialectal pronunciation: in the EI dialects the actual phonological difference between the regular and long geminates has disappeared. There is, however, acompensatory alteration in the length of the preceding vowel, as the pronunciation keysin the examples below show.

SG WG example WI pronunciation EI pronunciation glossf'f ff jf'fu jffu /jaaf'fuu jaaffuu/ /jaffuu jaaffuu/ flourl'l ll ul'lu ullu /ul'luu ulluu/ /ulluu uulluu/ woolllj lj viellja vielja /v*+l j'l ja viel jl ja/ /v*+l jl ja viel jl ja/ brotherm'm mm cum'm cumm /cum'maa cummaa/ /cumm cuumm/ kissn'n nn bean'na beanna /p+(n'na peanna/ /p+(nna pinna/ pen$'$ $$ ha$'$ ha$$ /han j'n jaa han jn jaa/ /h$$ h$$/ long-tailed duckr'r rr skear'ru skearru /sk +(r'ruu skearruu/ /sk +(rruu skirruu/ discs's ss bus's buss /pus'saa pussaa/ /puss puuss/ cat#'# ## vuo#'#at vuo##an /v,'# '#ah(t) vuo##an/ /v,+##ah(t) vuo##aan/ to boil, cook (trans.)v'v vv neav'vu neavvu /n+(v'vuu neavvuu/ /n+(vvuu nivvuu/ advice; tool

3.1.2.3. The palatalized geminate stop (Q II Q I)

This is a unique case: the palatalized geminate stop /-t jt j-/ (written-dj-) has the glide-j- asits weak grade.


dj j vuodja vuoja /vuot jt ja vuoja/ /vuot jt ja vuoja/ butter, grease

3.1.2.4. Preaspirated stop or affricate in the strong grade, single consonant in theweak grade (Q II Q I)

This is a common type of alteration. In the strong grade there is a preaspirated consonantcluster, consisting ofh + a following stop or affricate. The corresponding weak grade is asingle, non-preaspirated stop or affricate except in the case of the cluster-ht-, which hasthe spirant-$ - as its weak grade.


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A note on dialectal pronunciation: in EI dialects, the weak grade-b- is pronounced as /v/,and the weak grade-g- as either /-j-/ or nothing at all (zero, ). Some older speakers pronounce the weak grade-g- as a voiced velar spirant /-)-/, but this has become veryrare.

SG WG example WI pronunciation EI pronunciation glosshp b lohpi lobi /lohpii lopii/ /loohpii loovii/ permissionht / giehta gie/ a /kiehta kie%a/ /kiehta kie%a/ hand, armhk g johka joga /johkaa jokaa/ /joohka joo(a (joo5a)/ river

ahki agi /ahkii akii/ /hki jii (5ii)/ agehc z beahci beazi /peahcii peacii/ /pihcii picii/ pine treeh! " geah!i gea"i /keah!ii kea!ii/ /kih!ii ki!ii/ end, tip

3.1.2.5. Preaspirated stop in both grades (Q III Q II)

In these cases, the strong grade is a long preaspirated cluster of the typeh + stop /affricate; the corresponding weak grade is a short (regular) preaspirated cluster. In theso-called long preaspirated cluster the soundh is pronounced longer than in the short preaspirated cluster.

A note on dialectal pronunciation: in the EI dialects the difference between the long andshort preaspirated clusters has been lost; however, there is a compensating difference inthe length of the preceding vowel (compare the gradation pattern discussed in 3.1.2.2.above).


hpp hp vuohppa vuohpa /v,' h'pa vuohpa/ /v,+hpa vuohpa/ father-in-lawhtt ht Mhtte Mhte /mah'te maahte/ /mhte mhte/ Matthewhkk hk lohkka lohka /loh'ka lohkaa/ /lohka loohka/ lockhcc hc fhcca fhca /fah'ca faahca/ /fahca faahca/ mittenh!! h! h!! i h!i /ah'!ii aah!ii/ /h!ii h!ii/ father

3.1.2.6. Stop + nasal in the strong grade, a single nasal in the weak grade (Q II QI)

Clusters written with an unvoiced stop letter ( p, t, k ) followed by a nasal have single nasalconsonants as their weak grade counterparts.


pm m Spmi Smi /saapmii saamii/ /spmii smii/ Laplandtn n vuotna vuona /vuotna vuona/ /vuotna vuona/ fjordtnj nj botnjat bonjan /potn jaah(t) pon jaan/ /pootn jaah(t) - poon jaan/ to twistk $ $ jiek $a jie$a /jietn ja jien ja/ /jiek $a jie$a/ ice


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3.1.2.7. Stop + nasal in both grades (Q III Q II)

Clusters written with a voiced stop letter (b, d, g ) followed by a nasal have weak gradesconsisiting of an unvoiced stop + nasal.

A note on dialectal pronunciation: in the EI dialects the difference between the twoclusters has been lost; however, there is a compensating difference in the length of the preceding vowel (compare the gradation patterns discussed in 3.1.2.2. and 3.1.2.5.above).


bm pm gobmi gopmi /kobmii kopmii/ /kopmii koopmii/ ghostdn tn bodni botni /podnii potnii/ /potnii pootnii/ bottomdnj tnj boadnji boatnji /p'( tn jii poatn jii/ /p'( tn jii puatn jii/ husbandg$ k $ duog$at duok $an /t,' dn jah(t) tuotn jaan/ /t,+k $ah(t) tuok $aan/ to patch

3.1.2.8. Partially voiced and unvoiced geminate stops (Q III Q II):

Partially voiced geminate stops and affricates are written with two voiced stop oraffricate letters between vowels. Their weak grade counterparts are unvoiced geminatestops and affricates.


bb pp oabb oapp /'( bpaa oappaa/ /'( bp uapp/ sisterdd tt haddi hatti /hadtii hattii/ /hdtii httii/ price

gg kk biegga biekka /p*+gka piekka/ /p*+gka piekka/ windddj dj ddj dj /aad jt jaa aat jt jaa/ /d jt j t jt j/ grandfatherzz cc gazza gacca /kazca kaccaa/ /kzca kcca/ nail, hoof"" !! vie""at vie!! an /v*+"!ah(t) vie!! an/ /v*+"!ah(t) vie!! aan/ to fetch, (go and) get

3.1.2.9. Clusters of a continuant + another consonant (Q III Q II)

This is a very large group. Clusters of this type show a curious behavior in respect toconsonant gradation: in the weak grade, the latter component of the cluster isgeminated .This may seem counterintuitive, as the weak grade thus has more consonants than the

strong grade!A note on dialectal pronunciation: in the EI dialects the difference between the weak andstrong grades has been lost in clusters where the first member is a sibilant; there is acompensating difference in the length of the preceding vowel.


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/ b / bb bea/ bi bea/ bbi /p+(% pii pea% ppii/ /p+(% pii pi% ppii/ shoulder-blade/ g / gg gea/ gi gea/ ggi /k +(%kii kea%kkii/ /k +(%kii ki%kkii/ stone, rock/ v / vv b/ va b/ vva /paa%va paa%vva/ /pa%va paa%vva/ curly birchib ibb libi libbi /laajpii laajppii/ /ljpii ljppii/ breadid idd nieida nieidda /n*+ jta niejtta/ /n*+ jta niejtta/ girl, daughterif iff riifu riiffu /rijfuu rijffuu/ /rijfuu riijffuu/ snailig igg igi iggi /aajkii aajkkii/ /jkii jkkii/ timeihl ihll mihli mihlli /maajLii maajLLii/ /mjLii mjLLii/ sapihm ihmm duihmi duihmmi /tujMii tujMMii/ /tujMii tuujMMii/ stupidihn ihnn !ihni !ihnni /!aajNii !aajNNii/ /!jNii !jNNii/ woodpeckeril ill biila biilla /pijla pijllaa/ /pijla piijlla/ carir irr liri lirri /laajrii laajrrii/ /ljrii ljrrii/ clayis iss gis giss /kaajsaa kaajssaa/ /kjs kjss/ mountain with perpetual

snow on top of itiv ivv moivi moivvi /mojvii mojvvii/ /mojvii moojvvii/ messlb lbb silba silbba /silpa silppaa/ /silpa siilppa/ silverld ldd guoldu guolddu /k ,' ltuu kuolttuu/ /k ,+ltuu kuolttuu/ snow stormlf lff skuolfi skuolffi /sk ,' lfii skuolffii/ /sk ,+lfii skuolffii/ owllg lgg lgu lggu /aalkuu aalkkuu/ /alkuu aalkkuu/ to leavels lss goalsi goalssi /k '( lsii koalssii/ /k '( lsii kualssii/ merganser (a bird)l# l## l#a l##a /aal#a aal##a/ /al#a aal##a/ energy, perserverencelv lvv balva balvva /palva palvvaa/ /plva plvva/ cloudmb mbb bumb bumbb /pumpaa pumppaa/ /pump puumpp/ chest, trunk (for items)nd ndd gnda gndda /kaanta kaantta/ /kanta kaantta/ boyns nss nsu nssu /aansuu aanssuu/ /ansuu aanssuu/ meritn" n"" stn"i stn""i /staan!ii staan!! ii/ /stn!ii stn!! ii/ mud$g $gg m$ga m$gga /maanka maankka/ /ma$ka maa$kka/ manyrb rbb rbi rbbi /aarpii aarppii/ /rpii rppii/ inheritancerd rdd !earda !eardda /!+(rta !eartta/ /!+(rta !irtta/ triberf rff mrfi mrffi /maarfii maarffii/ /mrfii mrffii/ sausagerg rgg biergu bierggu /p*+rkuu pierkkuu/ /p*+rkuu pierkkuu/ meatrj rjj vearju vearjju /v+(rjuu vearjjuu/ /v+(rjuu virjjuu/ weapon

rs rss bursa burssa /pursa purssaa/ /pursa puurssa/ walletr # r ## mor #a mor ##a /mor #a mor ##aa/ /mor #a moor ##a/ walrusrv rvv arvi arvvi /arvii arvvii/ /rvii rvvii/ rainr " r "" gr "i gr ""i /kaar !ii kaar !! ii/ /kr !ii kr !! ii/ narrowsk skk goaski goaskki /k '( skii koaskkii/ /k '( skii kuaskii/ maternal aunt (older

than mother)sm smm bisma bismma /pisma pismmaa/ /pisma piisma/ bishop


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st stt astat asttan /astah(t) asttaan/ /stah(t) staan/ to have time#k #kk rea#kit rea#kkn /r +(#kit rea#kkaan/ /r +(#kit ri#kn/ to cackle with laughter#m #mm #u#mi #u#mmi /#u#mii #u#mmii/ /#u#mii #uu#mii/ heel (of foot)# p # pp ru# pi ru# ppi /ru# pi ru# ppii/ /ru# pi ruu# pii/ carrottk tkk mtki mtkki /maatkii maatkkii/ /mtkii mtkii/ trip, journeytm tmm ftmi ftmmi /faatmii faatmmii/ /ftmii ftmii/ fathomvd vdd ravda ravdda /ravta ravttaa/ /rvta rvtta/ edgevg vgg !uovga !uovgga /!,' vka !uovkka/ /!,+ vka !uovkka/ lightvhl vhll skvhli skvhlli /skaavLii skaavLLii/ /skvLii skvLLii/ gullvj vjj !oavji !oavjji /!'( vjii !oavjjii/ /!'( vjii !uavjjii/ stomachvl vll guovlu guovllu /k ,' vluu kuovlluu/ /k ,+vluu kuovlluu/ area, regionvr vrr jvri jvrri /jaavrii jaavrrii/ /jvrii jvrrii/ lakevz vzz svza svzza /saavca saavcca/ /savca saavcca/ sheepv" v"" guov"a guov""a /k ,' v!a kuov!! a/ /k ,+v!a kuov!! a/ bear

3.1.2.10. Clusters of a sonorant and a preaspirated stop (Q III Q II)

In orthographic terms, these clusters behave exactly like the ones listed in the previousgroup: in the weak grade the latter consonant becomes doubled. In terms of pronunciationthe situation is somewhat different, though: the latter member of the cluster is a preaspirated stop or affricate, and the duration of the preaspiration varies between thestrong and the weak grade. In the strong grade the preaspiration is short, and in the shortgrade it is longer.

A note on pronunciation: the actual phonetic realization of the preaspiration tends to beheavily influenced by the previous consonant. The sequence j + h is often realized as [J](an unvoiced palatal fricative, cf. Germanich), the sequencev + h as [f],l + h as [L] (anunvoiced lateral), andh + r as [R] (an unvoiced trill). This kind of assimilation isespecially common in the weak grade. After nasals, the preaspiration is always realizedas an unvoiced nasal sound: gumpe /kumh pe/ is pronounced [kumM pe], etc.


ic icc gica gicca /kaajhca kaajhca/ /kajhca kaajhca/ goatik ikk !uoika !uoikka /!,' jhka !uojhka/ /!,+ jhka !uojhka/ mosquitoip ipp biipu biippu /pijh puu pijhpuu/ /pijh puu piijhpuu/ pipeit itt iti itti /aajhtii aajhtii/ /jhtii jhtii/ storehouselk lk mielki mielkki /m*+lhki mielhkii/ /m*+lhki mielhkii/ milklp lpp stoalpu stoalppu /st'( lh puu stoalhpuu/ /st'( lh puu stualhpuu/ polelt ltt slti sltti /saalhtii saalhtii/ /slhtii slhtii/ saltmp mpp gumpe gumppe /kumh pe kumhpe/ /kumh pe kuumhpe/ wolf$k $kk b$ku b$kku /paa$hkuu paa$hkuu/ /pa$hkuu paa$hkuu/ bankrc rcc bircu birccu /pir hcuu pirhcuu/ /pir hcuu piirhcuu/ dice


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r ! r !! skur !u skur !! u /skur h!uu skurh!uu/ /skur h!uu skuurh!uu/ ravinerk rkk mearka mearkka /m+(r hka mearhka/ /m+(r hka mirhka/ markrp rpp rpu rppu /aar h puu aarhpuu/ /ar h puu aarhpuu/ threadrt rtt brti brtti /paar htii paarhtii/ /pr htii prhtii/ (serious) accidentvk vkk lvka lvkka /laavhka laavhka/ /lavhka laavhka/ bagvp vpp gvpi gvppi /kaavh pii kaavhpii/ /kvh pii kvhpii/ store, shop

3.1.2.11. Clusters of the type v/ j /l + nasal (Q III Q II)

These clusters have a homorganic stop preceding the nasal in the strong grade; otherwisethey behave like the clusters discussed in group 3.1.2.9.

A note on dialectal pronunciation: the stop in the strong grade clusters is not pronouncedin the EI dialects.


ibm imm ibmu immu /aajpmuu aajmmuu/ /ajmuu aajmmuu/ airidn inn suoidni suoidni /s,' jtnii suojnnii/ /s,+ jnii suojnnii/ grass, hayig$ i$$ vuoig$a vuoi$$a /v,' jtn ja vuojn jn ja/ /v,+ j$a vuoj$$a/ breath, spiritlbm lmm !albmi !almmi /!alpmii !almmii/ /!lmii !lmmii/ eyeldn lnn suoldni suolnni /s,' ltnii suolnnii/ /s,+lnii suolnnii/ dewlg$ l$ alg$a al$$a /altn ja aln jn jaa/ /l$a l$$a/ gumsvdn vnn svdni svnni /saavtnii saavnnii/ /svnii svnnii/ saunavdnj vnjj lavdnji lavnnji /lavtn jii lavn jn jii/ /lvn jii - lvn jn jii/ peat, sod

3.1.2.12. Clusters of the type r + nasal (Q III Q II)

These clusters have a homorganic stop preceding the nasal in both the strong grade andthe weak grade. In the strong grade the stop is written with a voiced letter (b, d, g ), in theweak grade with an unvoiced letter ( p, t, k ).

In pronunciation, the difference between the clusters varies between dialects. In WIdialects the grades seem to be distinguisghed by the placement of the syllable boundary:in the strong grade the syllable boundary precedes the stop, in the weak grade it is placed between the stop and the nasal. In EI dialects, on the other hand, the stop is pronounced

only in the weak grade but not in the strong grade.SG WG example WI pronunciation EI pronunciation gloss

rbm rpm !orbma !orpma /!or.pma !orp.maa/ /!orma !oorpma/ fistrdn rtn brdni brtni /paar.tnii paart.nii/ /prnii prtnii/ boy, sonrdnj rtnj skurdnji skurtnji /skur.tn jii skurt.n jii/ /skurn jii skuurtn jii/ wretchrg$ rk $ goarg$ut goark $un /k '( r.tn juuh(t) koart.n juun/ /k '( r $uuh(t) kuark $uun/

to go uphill or upriver


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3.1.2.13. Clusters with k as the first member (Q III Q II)

In these clusters, thek in the strong grade alterates withv in the weak grade. Otherwiseclusters behave identically to those discussed in 3.1.2.9.


kc vcc gakcut gavccun /kakcuuh(t) kavhcuun/ /kkcuuh(t) kvhcuun/ to climbk ! v!! !ak !a !av!! a /!ak !a !avh!a/ /!k !a !vh!a/ autumnks vss uksa uvssa /uksa uvssa/ /uksa uuvssa/ doork # v## dik #ut div##un /tik #uuh(t) tiv##uun/ /tik #uuh(t) tiiv##uun/ to take care ofkst vstt teaksta teavstta /t+(ksta teavstta/ /t+(ksta tiavstta/ textkt vtt okta ovtta /okta ovhta/ /okta oovhta/ one

3.1.2.14. Three-consonant clusters (Q III Q II)

These clusters are relatively rare and occur mainly in recent loanwords. They behaveessentially identically to those discussed in 3.1.2.9.; the first consonant in the cluster doesnot have an effect on the gradation.


isk iskk Duiska Duiskka /tujska tujskkaa/ /tujska tuujska/ Germanyist istt mistit misttn /maajstiih(t) maajsttaan/ /mjstiih(t) mjstn/ to tastem#k m#kk lim#ki lim#kki /lim#kii lim#kkii/ /lim#kii liim#kii/ ragnst nstt goansta goanstta /k '( nsta koanstta/ /k'( nsta kuansta/ trick, way (of

doing something)rst rstt Girste Girstte /kirste kirstte/ /kirste kiirste/ (womans name)stm stmm stm stmm /aastmaa aastmmaa/ /stm stm/ asthmavsk vskk hvski hvskki /haavskii haavskkii/ /hvskii hvskii/ fun, pleasantvst vst nvstu nvsttu /naavstuu naavsttuu/ /nvstuu nvstuu/ shed for boats

3.1.3. Strong grade strengthening

Strong grade strengthening is a morphophonological process connected with consonant

gradation that affects Quantity II strong grades. In words which otherwise showconsonant gradation between Quantity II (strong grade) and Quantity I (weak grade),certain strong-grade forms may undergo strengthening which changes the strong gradefrom Quantity II to the corresponding Quantity III geminate or cluster. This is the case incertain imperative forms of verbs, for instance. In the example below, the Quantity IIstrong grade-ht- becomes strengthened to the corresponding Quantity III-htt- in the dualsecond person imperative form:


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strong grade Q II weak grade Q I strengthened grade Q III

boahtit boa$ n boahtti come.INF come.1SG come.IMP.2DU to come I come come! (you two)

Note that the process does not affect words which show consonant gradation betweenQuantity III and Quantity II (since there is no quantity longer than Quantity III to whichthe strong grade could be strengthened). Consider the following example:

strong grade Q III weak grade Q II strengthening has no effect:

luohttit luohtn luohtti trust.INF trust.1SG come.IMP.2DU to trust I trust trust! (you two)

The following table shows the results of strong grade strengthening in each case ofgradation of the type Q II : Q I.

SG WG strengthened INF 1SG IMP .2DU

// / > / '/ oa// it oa/ n oa/ '/ i to sleepll l > l'l doallat doalan doal'li to holdmm m > m'm njammat njaman njam'mi to sucknn n > n'n mannat manan man'ni to gorr r > r'r jearrat jearan jear'ri to askss s > s's bassat basan bas'si to wash## # > #'# vi##at vi#an vi#'#i to bother tovv v > v'v njuovvat njuovan njuov'vi to flay, to slaughter

hp b > hpp rahpat raban rahppi to openht / > htt boahtit boa/ n boahtti to comehk g > hkk juhkat jugan juhkki to drinkhc z > hcc bhcit bzn bhcci to stay, to remainh! " > h!! bh!it b"n bh!! i to shoot

pm m > bm doapmat doaman doabmi to hurrytn n > dn !atnat !anan !adni to tie, to bindtnj nj > dnj botnjat bonjan bodnji to twistk $ $ > g$ !k $at !$an !g$i to creep in

dj j > ddj vuodjit vuojn vuoddji to drive


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3.2. Diphthong simplification

The so-called diphtong simplification is the most important morphophonological phenomenon affecting vowels in North Saami. In certain word-forms diphthongs becomemonophthongs, as follows:

simplification INF 2DU ie > i " ierrut " irro to cryea > e eallit elle to liveuo > u vuolgit vulge to leave, go awayoa > o goarrut gorro to sew

Diphthong simplification isconditioned by the structure of the unstressed syllableimmediately following the diphthong . If the following syllable contains either-e-, -o-, -ii- or -ui-, diphthong simplification may occur. These conditions are not without

exceptions, though:trigger: applies:e ofteno oftenii nearly alwaysui rarely

The exceptions to the simplification rule are morphologically conditioned i.e.,simplification does not occur in certain morphological forms even though its phonological conditions are fulfilled. Before the sequence-ii- the simplification rule isalmost exceptionless, but before-e- or -o- there are numerous exceptions, for example:

compound forms: biergu meat +mlli soup> biergomlli meat soup (not *birgomlli)

many verb forms: oastit INFto buy: oastte IMP.2SG buy! (not *ostte): oasttekeahtt NEG _ CONVwithout buying

(not *osttekeahtt)

Before the sequence-ui-, it is the diphthong simplification itself which is exceptional: itonly occurs in very few forms. One such form is theSG.ILL of vowel-stem nouns endingin -u: viessu [house.SG. NOM] : vissui [house.SG.ILL]. In most forms, however, thesequence -ui- does not trigger diphthong simplification: cf.viesuin [house.SG.COM],viesuid [house.PL.GEN], viesuide [house.PL.ILL], etc.


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3.3. Unstressed vowel alterations

Unstressed vowel alterations refer to either changes in the quality of, or the loss of,vowels in unstressed syllables (most often, the second syllable). Some of these alterationsare conditioned by the phonological environment, whereas for others the conditions aremorphological: one has to know which alterations take place in a given form in the paradigm.

In orthographic terms, there are six underlying vowels that can occur in unstressedsyllables. These are affected by unstressed vowel alterations as follows:

vowel alterations conditioned: (does not alterate)e phonologicallyo phonologically

a morphologicallyi morphologically u morphologically

The alterations affecting an underlyinge and o are automatically conditioned by the phonological environment: in an unstressed syllable, the changese > i and o > u occurwhenever the letter-i- (phonologically the glide /j/) follows. Compare the verb forms inthe following partial paradigm, where thePAST.3SG ending-i and PAST.2DU ending-ime trigger the changes:

INF 3SG PAST.3SG 2DU PAST.2DU fertet ferte fertii fertejetne fertiime to have todi& got di& go di ! gui di& gojetne di ! guime to order, to subscribe

Morphologically conditioned vowel alterations affectinga, i and u occur in sets: in agiven morphological context, one vowel undergoes a particular change whereas anothervowel may undergo another change. At least seven sets of such changes can bedistinguished:

1) i > (no other changes). This change occurs, e.g., in the 1SG form of gradating verbs:

change INF 1SG i > boahtit boa" n to comea: no change giessat giesan to wrapu: no change goarrut goarun to sew


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2) i > , a > . This set of changes occurs, e.g., in the 3SG forms of gradating verbs:

change INF 3SG i > boahtit boaht to come

a > giessat giess to wrapu: no change goarrut goarru to sew

3) i > e, u > o. This set of changes occurs, e.g., in theCONNEG forms of gradating verbs:

change INF CONNEG i > e boahtit boa" e to comea: no change giessat giesa to wrapu > o goarrut goaro to sew

4) i > e, a > e, u > o. This set of changes occurs, e.g., in the 3PL forms of gradating

verbs:change INF 3PL i > e boahtit bohtet to comea > e giessat gisset to wrapu > o goarrut gorrot to sew

5) i > , u > o. This set of changes occurs, e.g., in thePL. NOMforms of consonant-stemnouns:

change SG. NOM PL. NOM

i > boaris boarrsat old persona: no change fanas fatnasat boatu > o boa$ us bohtosat result

6) i > , a > i. This set of changes is apparently confined to only one particular form, theSG.ILLof vowel-stem nouns:

change SG. NOM SG.ILL i > vuovdi vuovdi foresta > i giehta gihtii hand, armu: no change dllu dllui house

7) a > i (no other changes). This change occurs, e.g., in theIMP.2DUof gradating verbs:

change INF IMP.2DU i: no change boahtit boahtti to comea > i giessat gies'si to wrapu: no change goarrut goar'ru to sew


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In addition to the alterations listed above, unstressed vowels can also be affected bystemvowel deletion . In stems ending in a vowel, the final vowel becomes deleted when asuffix beginning with a vowel is added. This process is fairly rare in inflectional paradigms, but it does occur in gradating verbs when certain imperative suffixes areadded, such as theIMP.1DU suffix-u or theIMP.1PL suffix-ot :

INF stem IMP.1DU IMP.1PL vuolgit vuolgi- vuolgu vulgot to leave, go away geah"" at geah"" a- geah"" u geh"" ot to look, watchlvlut lvlu- lvlu lvlot to sing

Even though rare in inflectional morphology, stem vowel deletion is common inderivational operations. For example, the deverbal noun suffix-a and the punctual aspectverb suffix-d- cause the stem vowel of the root verb to be deleted:

vuolgit to leave, go away ! vuolgga start (of a trip, journey, etc.)lvlut to sing ! lvlla song

huikit to shout, to yell ! huikkdit to shout (suddenly, once) gossat to cough ! gosdit to cough (suddenly, once)bossut to blow ! bosdit to blow (suddenly, once)

3.4. Margin consonant alterations

In stems ending in a consonant (so-called consonant stems), the consonant at the end ofthe stem (i.e., on the stem margin) may display morphophonological alteration. Thereare two basic types of margin consonant alteration: qualitative changes, and alterationwith zero (). The basic conditioning factor is word-final vs. medial position. In a word-form that consists of the bare stem with no suffix added, the stem-final consonant ends upin word-final position, and then is either deleted or undergoes a qualitative change.

SG. NOM PL. NOM underlying consonant:

gvpot gvpogat city g beana beatnagat dog g

The following regular margin consonant alterations occur in North Saami:

: -g- (only in nouns; common)

gma SG. NOM: gpmagat PL. NOMshoe


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: -m-(only in nouns; rare)

eana SG. NOM: eatnamat PL. NOMearth, land

: -n- (only in nouns; rare)

luomi SG. NOM: luopmnat PL. NOMcloudberry-t : -b- (in the comparative derivatives of adjectives, but only very rarely in other words)

stuort SG. NOM: stuorbut PL. NOMbigger (cf. stuoris big)ustit SG. NOM: ustibat PL. NOMfriend

-t : -d- (in nouns, adjectives and verbs; common)

eahket SG. NOM: eahkedat PL. NOMevening" hppat SG. NOM: " hppadat PL. NOMblackborat CONNEG: boradit INFto have a meal, to dine

-t : -g- (in nouns, adjectives and verbs; rare)

gvpot SG. NOM: gvpogat PL. NOMcityallat SG. NOM: allagat PL. NOMhighbv"" at CONNEG: bv"" agit INFto hurt (intransitive)

-t : -h-, where-h- is pronounced as /-ht-/ in EI dialects (common in verbs, rare in nouns)

borat CONNEG: borahit INFto feed (EI: /poorahtih(t)/) Mret SG. NOM: Mrehat PL. NOM(a womans name) (EI: /mrehtah(t)/)

-t : -h-, where-h- is pronounced as /-hk-/ in EI dialects (nouns; rather common)

varit SG. NOM: varihat PL. NOMreindeer bull (EI: /vriihkah(t)/)

-n : -m- (deverbal nouns; common)

jpmin SG. NOM: jpmimat PL. NOMdeath (" jpmit to die)

- ! : - # - (diminutive nouns; common)

nieidda ! SG. NOM: nieidda # at PL. NOMlittle girl (" nieida girl)

-s : -st- (only in verbs; not very common)boagus CONNEG: boagustit INFto laugh

- ! : - ! t- (only in verbs; not very common)

bero ! CONNEG: bero ! tit INFto care


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-l : -ld- (only in verbs; rare)

oaivvilCONNEG: oaivvildit INFto have the opinion (that...)

-r : -rd- (only in verbs; rare)

gopmir CONNEG: gopmirdit INFto bow

All of the alterations which do not involve zero () have a straightforward motivation:b,d , g , h, m, and # and do not occur in final position in North Saami, nor do consonantclusters. The alterations and the simplifications of clusters in final position thus resultfrom phonotactic constraints.

In addition to the alterations listed above, there are also a couple of alterations that occuronly in one single word, e.g.-t : -p- in llat SG. NOM : llapat PL. NOMsnow bunting (akind of bird). Also these unique cases result form phonotactic constraints e.g., p does

not occur in final position.In the case of verb stems, the same alterations that occur in final position are alsotriggered by bisyllabic inflectional and derivational suffixes that begin with a consonant.For instance, the stem ofbero ! tit to care is realized asbero ! - in the NEG _ CONV bero ! keahtt without caring, and in the negative adjective derivativebero ! meahttuncareless.


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4. NOMINALS

In North Saami the group of nominal word-classes consists ofnouns, pronouns,adjectives, and quantifiers . All nominals can be inflected forcase and (with theexception of personal pronouns) forsingular and plural number . In addition to case andnumber, nouns can also be inflected for possession by means ofpossessive suffixes .

4.1. A functional overview of the case system

The North Saami case system consists of six cases. As an example, consider the singularcase paradigm of the noundllu house (the glosses are only intended to give a veryrough idea of the functions of the cases):

nominative: dllu a/the house (subject, predicative)genitive: dlu of a/the house; a/the house (object)

locative: dlus in a/the house, from a/the houseillative: dllui into a/the housecomitative: dluin with a/the houseessive: dllun as a house

The main functions of the cases are described in more detail in the subsections below.

4.1.1. Nominative

The nominative singular is morphologically unmarked, and it is the citation form ofnominals in dictionaries. The nominative has two core syntactic functions: it is used as acase of asubject and apredicative .

The grammaticalsubjects of all types of finite verbs are always in the nominative case:

Ipmillea. god(. NOM ) be.3SG God exists. (existential verb)

Duot dlutleat ruoksadat. that. PL .NOM house. PL .NOM be.3PL red.PL. NOM Those houses are red. (copula)

Ruoksatlea mu fvorihttaivdni. red(. NOM ) be.3SG 1SG.GEN favorite.colorRed is my favorite color. (equative verb)


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Moaivzze skuvlii. 1DU (.NOM ) walk.1DU school.ILL We (2) are walking / going to walk to school. (intransitive verb)

Mhtte gazz biergomli. Matthew(. NOM ) eat_with_spoon.3SG meat.soup.SG.GEN Matthew is eating meat soup. (transitive verb)

Biergomlli gazzojuv'vui visot. meat.soup(. NOM ) eat_with_spoon.PASS.PAST.3SG allAll the meat soup was eaten. (passive verb)

Mus leabiila. 1SG.LOC be.3SG car(. NOM ) I have a car. (possessive construction note that the possessed is the subject!)

The predicative in sentences built with the verbleat be is in the nominative case, exceptin sentences where the predicative indicates possession (see genitive, 4.1.2.) or where itexpresses a temporary task, state, function or quality of the subject (see essive, 4.1.6.):

Mun lean Mhtte.1SG be.1SG Matthew(. NOM )I am Matthew.

Dat leibuorre fanas. it be.PAST.3SG good boat(. NOM )

It was a good boat.Soai leabaoahpaheaddjit . 3DU be.3DU teacher. PL .NOM They (two) are teachers.

Duot dlut leatruoksadat . that.PL. NOM house.PL. NOM be.3PL red. PL .NOM Those houses are red.


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Also the verbs ! addat to become andorrut to seem to be3 can take a predicative in thenominative case:

Dat ! attai buorre fanas. it become.PAST.3SG good boat(. NOM )

It became a good boat. Dat orui buorre fanas. it seem.PAST.3SG good boat(. NOM )It seemed to be a good boat.

The nominative also functions as the case of the objectif the object is a singular formof a numeral higher than one, or one of the quantifiers m! ga many, moadde acouple of, or gal'le how many? .4 In all other instances, objects take the genitive case;see 4.2.2. below. Hence, these quantifiers form a curious exception to the general pattern

of object marking. Examples:Gal'le ostet? how_many(. NOM ) buy.PAST.2SG How many did you buy?

Osten golbma. buy.PAST.1SG three(. NOM )I bought three.

Ostenmoadde.

buy.PAST.1SG a_couple(. NOM )I bought a few.

3 Note that both verbs of these verbs are highly polysemous, and also appear in other meanings in quitedifferent syntctic constructions: ! addat also means to grow, to be born, and to end up in; to end uphaving to do something, andorrut also has the meanings to live (somewhere), to dwell, to stay, and incertain contexts even to be.4

Note that even numeral and other quantifier objects take the genitive case if they are in theplural . Pluralnumerals and quantifiers are used for counting pairs or sets of objects (see X.X. for details on the use ofquantifier constructions):

Osten golmmaid . buy.PAST.1SG three. PL .GEN I bought three [pairs of something / sets of something].


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The nominative case is also used as a form of address:

Gula,brdni !hear.IMP.2SG son(. NOM )Listen, son!

Leatgo, Mhtte-eahki , oaidnn dn? be.2SG.Q Matthew-fathers_older_brother(. NOM ) see.PAST.PTCL this.GEN Uncle Matthew, have you seen this?

The nominative is also used in exclamations,unless the exclamation begins with aninterjection (such asvuoi oh!, alas!)and the underlying topic of the exclamation is thesame as the referent of the noun phrase (compare exclamations in the genitive, 4.1.2.):

Bohccot! reindeer. PL .NOM

Reindeer! [e.g., watch out, there are reindeer on the road!] Mhtte-riehpu! Matthew-poor_thing(. NOM )Poor Matthew!

Vuoi beargalat!oh devil(. NOM )Oh hell!

4.1.2. Genitive

Nearly all grammatical descriptions of North Saami distinguish between agenitive andan accusative case. These are described as homonymous in nearly all instances, and thusalso the termgenitive-accusative is used. Despite this tradition, there seem to be noacceptable morphological or morphosyntactic criteria for distinguishing the accusativeas a case of its own in North Saami. Hence, only the term genitive will be used in thisgrammar sketch.

The genitive is used as anattribute in noun phrases. It most commonly expresses possession (in the wide sense):

Mhtebiila [Matthew. GEN car] Matthews carbeatnaga namma [dog. GEN name] the dogs namesu jurdda [3SG .GEN thought] his/her ideamnid skuvla-beaivi [child. PL .GEN school-day] the childrens day at schoolriikka rdj [state. GEN border] state bordermeara brut [sea. GEN wave.PL. NOM] the waves of the ocean


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Genitive attributes may also express:

a) location

Ohcejoga skuvla [Ohcejohka. GEN school] the school at OhcejohkaGivuona festivla [Givuotna. GEN festival] the festival at Givuotna

b) time

ma!! ebrgga viisa [tuesday. GEN newspaper] tuesdays newspaperdiimm ml'le [last_year. GEN model] last years model

c) measure

miillamtki [ten_kilometers. GEN trip] a distance of 10 kilometersdiimmuboddu [hour. GEN break] a one hour breakvi " a kilo" oarbealle [five. GEN kilo. GEN rump] a 5-kilo reindeer rump roast

d) subject of a verb that semantically underlies the head noun

doaktra dutkamu ! [doctor. GEN examination] the doctors examinationbissuidbvkkas [gun. PL .GEN banging] firing of guns

(cf.dutkat to examine, to study,bvkit to make banging sounds)

e) object of a transitive verb that semantically underlies the head noun

smegielaoahpahus [Saami.language. GEN teaching] the teaching of Saami dj hvdeja"" at [grandfather. GEN burial.PL. NOM] grandfathers burial

ru" aid juohku [money. PL .GEN division] the division of funds(cf.oahpahit to teach,hvddit to bury, juohkit to divide, to share)

The genitive is also used inpossessive predicatives :

Dt biila lea Mhte. this car be.3SG Matthew. GEN This car is Matthews.

Duot gpmagat leatmu.that.PL. NOM shoe.PL. NOM be.3PL 1SG .GEN Those shoes are mine.

Dependents ofpostpositions and prepositions are in the genitive case:

beavddialde [table. GEN on.LOC] on the tablebasiidma&& [holiday. PL .GEN after] after the holidaysru" a haga [money. GEN without] without moneymiehtmilmmi [all_overworld. GEN ] all over the world


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Mhtte dagai danmin die$ ekeahtt.Matthew do.PAST.3SG it.GEN 1PL .GEN know. NEG _ CONV Matthew did it without us knowing.

The genitive is used in exclamations, if the exclamation begins with an interjectionandthe underlying topic of the exclamation is the same as the referent of the noun phrase(compare exclamations in the nominative, 4.1.1.):

Vuoi Mhtte-riebu!oh Matthew-poor_thing. GEN Oh poor Matthew!

Heidn dlkki !oh this. GEN weather. GEN What a (bad) weather!

Genitive forms are also used in several other functions, such as in comparativeconstructions, certain numeral and quantifier constructions, and certain types of adverbs.Such use will be discussed in connection with these morphosyntactic topics later.

4.1.3. Locative

The locative is one of the two local cases in North Saami (cf. the illative, 4.1.4). It has

two basic local functions.a) The locative is a static local case that expresseslocation at the point of reference:

Mhtte lea gvppis.Matthew be.3SG store. LOC Matthew is at the (grocery) store.

Fierpmit leat# zis. net.PL. NOM be.3PL water. LOC The nets are in water.

I & g vulggii k ! u gie" as muoraid" uohppat. Ing leave.PAST.3SG ax hand. LOC tree.PL.GEN cut.INF Ing went cutting wood with an ax in her hand.

Eadni geah"" televi ! uvnnaorrun-lanjas.mother look.3SG television.GEN living-room. LOC Mother is watching TV in the living room.


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Din jekkiin ! addet ollu luopmnat.this. PL .LOC bog. PL .LOC grow.3PL much cloudberry.PL. NOM A lot of cloudberries grow in these bogs.

b) the locative is also a dynamic local case that expressesmovement away from thepoint of reference:

Mhtte bo$ ii gvppis. Matthew come.PAST.3SG store. LOC Matthew came (back) from the (grocery) store.

I & g gesii firpmiid# zis.Ing pull.PAST.3SG net.PL.GEN water. LOC Ing pulled the nets out of the water.

$ iljus gul'lojit olbmuid jienat. yard. LOC be_audible.3PL person.PL.GEN sound.PL. NOM Peoples voices can be heard from the yard.

To avoid confusion between the two local functions or to emphasize the dynamicinterpretation, the adverberet away may be used alongside a locative adverb:

Vlden govaseainnis eret .take.PAST.1SG picture.GEN wall. LOC away I took the picture off the wall.

Mhtte leaeret Anris.

Matthew be.3SG away Anr. LOC Matthew is from Inari. (i.e., he spent his early life there)

Note that the locative is also used with the verb fitnat to go somewhere and return.

Mhtte finai gvppis.Matthew go_and_return.PAST.3SG store. LOC Matthew went to the store [and came back].

Various kinds of metaphorical extensions of the basic local use are very common:

h"" i bo$ ii ealgabivddus. father come.PAST.3SG moose.hunt. LOC Father came (home) from the moose hunt.

Dt oahppo-girji ii leat ! at anus. this learning-book NEG.3SG be.CONNEGstill use. LOC This coursebook is not in use anymore.


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Eahkedismoai lvejetne leatruovttus. evening. LOC 2DU have_the_habit_of.2DU be.INF home. LOC We are usually home in the evenings.

The locative is also used in a habitive function. North Saami does not have a possessiveverb like Englishhave. Instead, possessive sentences are based on the verbleat to be,with the possessor in the locative case and the possessed as the grammatical subject ofthe sentence (in the nominative case).

Mhtes lea biila. Matthew. LOC be.3SG carMatthew has a car.

Manin Mhtesleat guokte biilla?why Matthew. LOC be.3PL two car.GEN

Why does Matthew have two cars? Eaigodus leat oappt? NEG.3PL.Q 2SG .LOC be.3PL sister.PL. NOM Dont you have any sisters?

The locative is also used to mark the person from whose possession something istransferred away from:

O ## on dn girjji I ! ggs.get.PAST.1SG this.GEN book.GEN Ing. LOC I got this book from Ing.

Vlden beannamns eret . take.PAST.1SG pen.GEN child. LOC away I took the pen away from the child.

The locative case also has the function of marking a person who experiences a bodilysensation or a mental state. The grammatical subject of the sentence is the body partaffected, or the feeling or mental state experienced.

Mhtesdoddjui giehta. Matthew. LOC break_in_two.PAST.3SG handMatthews arm broke.

Mhtesoaivi bv"" asta. Matthew. LOC head ache.3SG Matthew has a headache.


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Mhtes va !! i buol'li.Matthew. LOC hatred catch_fire.PAST.3SG Matthew got very angry (hatred caught fire)

The locative can also mark someone who experiences his possessions or circumstances

(usually negatively) affected by events beyond his control: Mhtesdllu bulii.Matthew. LOC burn.PAST.3SG houseMatthews house burned up on him.(note: Matthew isnot a possessor in the sentence!)

Mhtesmanai luopmu bil'li.Matthew. LOC go.PAST.3SG holiday ruin.ILL Matthews holiday was ruined. (went into ruin)

As an extension of such usage, the locative can also be used todecrease the agentivity of the sentence i.e., to express that the action or event caused by the person wasinvoluntary or supposedly beyond his control:

Mhtesbeasai garrustni.Matthew. LOC get_somewhere.PAST.3SG swear.wordA swear word slipped out on Matthew.

Mhtes gah" ai lssa lhtti. Matthew. LOC fall.PAST.3SG glass floor.ILL Matthew dropped a glass on the floor.

Mhtes manai tente funet. Matthew. LOC go.PAST.3SG examination badly.Matthews exam did not go well.

There are many other uses of the locative case, for instance in various temporal adverbs;such use will be discussed in connection with these morphosyntactic categories.

Certain individual verbs may also govern an argument in the locative case, even thoughthere is no transparent semantic reason for this, as in the case ofballat to be afraid:

Mun balanbeatnagis. 1SG be_afraid.1SG dog. LOC I am afraid of the dog.


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4.1.4. Illative

The illative is the second of the two local cases in North Saami (cf. the locative, 4.1.3.).The illative is a dynamic local case that expressesmovement to a place or point ofreference:

Mrj mann gvpi .Mary go.3SG store. ILL Mary is going to the store.

Mhtte doalvu mnidskuvlii .Matthew take.3SG child.PL.GEN school. ILL Matthew takes the children to school.

Soai suhppiiga firpmiid# hci .3DU throw.PAST.3DU net.PL.GEN water. ILL They cast the nets in water.

There are also many kinds of metaphoric extensions of this basic local function:

Ohcejogas leaGuovdageidnui guoktelogivihtta miilla.Ohcejohka.LOC be.3SG Guovdageaidnu. ILL twentyfive ten_kilometres.GEN It is 250 kilometres from Ohcejohka to Guovdageaidnu.

Mhtte geah" ai munnje.Matthew look.PAST.3SG 1SG .ILL Matthew looked at me.

Viellja vulggii guollebivdui . brother leave.PAST.3SG fish.hunt. ILL Brother went fishing.

The second basic function of the illative is habitive it marks a recipient, as in thefollowing examples:

Mhtte attii girjji I ! gi .Matthew give.PAST.3SG book.GENI ! g. ILL

Matthew gave the book to I$g.Ostenmnide o$$ a dlvejhkaid. buy.PAST.1SG child. PL .ILL new.ATTR winter.coat.PL.GEN I bought the children new winter coats.


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Njorresmunnje gfe! pour.IMP.2SG 1SG .ILL coffee.GENPour me some coffee!

A metaphoric extension of the recipient function is the use of the illative to mark a

beneficiary (i.e., for who something is done):* jehin dlu gussiide. show.PAST.1SG house.GEN guest. PL .ILL I showed the house to the guests. (i.e., I showed the guests around the house)

Rabatgo uvssamunnje? open.2SG.Q door.GEN 1SG .ILL Could you open the door for me?

The illative is also used in temporal adverbs to express until what time an action or an

event lasts:Gohceni " itidjii . be_awake.PAST.1SG morning.night. ILL I stayed awake until early morning.

I & g luoikkai munnje fatnasavahkkui . I$g lend.PAST.1SG 1SG.ILL boat.GEN week. ILL I$g lent me a boat for a week.

There are quite a few more marginal and idiosyncratic uses of the illative case. Some of

the most central ones are listed below.Verbs implying a change in the subjects or objects state usually require a locationaladverb in the illative (rather than the locative) case:

h"" i nohkai goahti . father fall_asleep.PAST.3SG tent. ILL Father fell asleep in [into] the tent.

Boazu jmiimeahcci .reindeer die.PAST.3SG wilds. ILL

The reindeer died in [into] the wilds. Bis'su lhppuimeahcci . gun get_lost.PAST.3SG wilds. ILL The gun got lost in [into] the wilds.


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Bisneimmetdan gilli idjii. stop.PAST.1PL it. GEN village. ILL night.ILL We stopped in [into] that village for the night.

Even more curiously, the verbbhcit to stay behaves in the same manner as verbs

denoting a change in the subjects state: Moai bziime gvpogii .1DU remain.PAST.1DU city. ILL We stayed in [into] the city (i.e., we did not leave)

The illative is also used to express in what langauge something is said, written, etc.:

Son doalai ovdasgasmegillii . 3SG keep.PAST.1SG presentation.GEN Saami.language. ILL (S)he kept the lecture in Saami.

Leago dt girji jorgaluvvonea! galasgillii ? be.3SG.Q this book translate.PAST _ PTCL English.language. ILL Has this book been translated into English?

The verbliikot to like governs an argument the illative case:

Liikotgo gffii ? like.2SG.Q coffee. ILL Do you like coffee?

The illative is also used to mark the agent of causative and adversative passive verbs; thiswill be discussed in connection with these verb types.

4.1.5. Comitative

The comitative case has two main functions.

a) It signifies an instrument or means for something:

I & g goarru gvtti goarrunma% iinnain. Ing sew.3SG Saami_costume.GEN sewing_machine. COM I$g sews a Saami costume with a sewing machine.

Sii" uhppe muoraidk % uiguin. 3PL cut.PAST.3PL tree.PL.GEN ax. PL .COM They cut down the trees with axes.


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Mrj mlii seainnirukses mlain.Mary paint.PAST.3SG wall.GEN red. ATTR paint. COM Mary painted the wall with red paint.

Mhtte vuodjmohtorgielkkin.

Matthew drive.3SG snowmobile. COM Matthew rides a snowmobile.

Olmmo ! ii eale du !! e biergomliin. person NEG.3SG live.CONNEGonly meat.soup. COM One cannot live on meat soup alone.

Osten bensiinna golmmain# u" iin ruvnnuin. buy.PAST.1SG gasoline.GEN three. COM hundred. COM crown. COM I bought gas for three hundred crowns.

b) It signifies concomitance (i.e., an accomplice or a participant): Mun manan bostii Mhtiin. 1SG go.1SG post_office.ILL Matthew. COM Im going to the post office with Matthew.

Mhtte hle ! ta gussiiguin. Matthew chat.3SG guest. PL .COM Matthew chats with the guests.

Mnn stoahkbussin.

child play.3SG cat. COM The child is playing with the cat.

This function is rare in the case of inanimate objects, but not unheard of:

Osten biilladlverieggiguin. buy.PAST.1SG car.GEN winter.tyre. PL .COM I bought a car with snow tyres. (i.e., the tyres came along with the car)

The comitative case can also be used with the dual personal pronounsmoai we two anddoai you two, when there is a need to define the second person involved:

Boahtibeahttigodoai I ! ggin frrui? come.2DU.Q 2DU Ing. COM alongAre you and I$g coming along?


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Moai Mhtiinvulge gvpi. 1DU Matthew. COM leave.1DU store.ILL (~ Moaivulge gvpi Mhtiin.)Me an Matthew are going to the store.

Note that these expressionscannot refer to three persons i.e., Moai Mhtiincan nevermean *the two of us and Matthew.

When there is a need to specify two definite persons in the third person, a specialconstruction built around a word guovttos is used (the word guovttos is a derivative of thenumeral guokte two):

Person1 (SG.GEN) + guovttos + Person2 (SG.COM)

Examples:

h# i guovttos Mhtiinvuolgiba meahcci.father. GEN guovttos Matthew. COM leave.3DU wilderness.ILL Father and Matthew set off to the wilds.

Mhte guovttos I ! gginboahtiba ihttin. Matthew. GEN guovttos I ! g. COM come.3DU tomorrow.Matthew and I$g will be coming tomorrow.

The word for Person2 can also be dropped. In such a case, how that persons identity isinterpreted depends then on the context. The possibilites are:

Mhte guovttos 1. Matthew and his spouse / partnerMatthew.GEN guovttos 2. Matthew and someone else (who was already

mentioned earlier)3. The two Matthews

bhpa guovttos 1. The priest and his/her spouse / partner priest.GEN guovttos 2. The priest and someone else (mentioned earlier)

3. The two priests

Note also:

gndda guovttos boy.GEN guovttosThe two boys

duot guovttos that.PL. NOM guovttos(nominative!)The two over there


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4.1.6. Essive

In intransitive sentences, the essive is a case of both predicatives and adverbs thatexpress:

a) what the subjects (usually temporary) task or function is, or what state the subjectis in;

b) what the subject becomes, changes or turns into, becomes like, or what state thesubject ends up in.

Consider the examples:

Mhtte barg gielddas# l'lin.Matthew work.3SG municipality.LOC secretary. ESS Matthew works as a secretary at the municipality office.

Mis ledje kssatstuollun. 1PL.LOC be.PAST.3PL box.PL. NOM chair. ESS We had boxes as chairs.

Mhtte veal'l sea& ggasbuohccin. Matthew lie.3SG bed.LOC sick. ESS Matthew lies sick in bed.

I & g stu$ ere doavttirin. I$g study.3SG doctor. ESS

I$g is studying to become a doctor. Idja joraibeaivin.night spin.PAST.3SG day. ESS Night turned into day.

dj jpmima ma&& I & g lea ! addan nu% lundin.grandfather.GEN death.GEN after I$g be.3SG become.PAST _ PTCL so depressed. ESS After grandfathers death I$g has become so depressed.

Son ! attai fuones oahpaheaddjin.

3SG become.PAST.3SG bad. ATTR teacher. ESS (S)he became a bad teacher. [i.e., (s)he was a teacher already, and then becamea bad one]


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In transitive sentences, the essive expresses:a) what the object, or its task, function or state, is thought to be (or said to be, etc.);

what the object is thought or said to be like; b) what the object is turned or changed into, or what the object becomes like, as a

result of the action denoted by the verb

Consider the examples:

Mun gdden dan Mhte biilan. 1SG assume.PAST.1SG it.GEN Matthew. GEN car. ESS I thought it was Matthews car. (but it wasnt)

h"" i gttii Mhteoahpaheaddjin. father assume.PAST.3SG Matthew.GEN teacher. ESS Father thought Matthew was a teacher. (but he wasnt)

Mhtte sivahii musuolan. Matthew accuse.PAST.3SG 1SG.GEN thief. ESS Matthew accused me of being a thief.

Son jhkk Mhte oalle fitmadin. 3SG believe.3SG Matthew.GEN quite clever. ESS (S)he believes Matthew is quite clever.

Gvnnahan dudnonittos-guoibmin. discover.1SG 2DU.GEN marriage-partner. ESS I pronounce you husband and wife.

I & g mlii dluruoksadin.I$g paint.PAST.3SG house.GEN red. ESS I$g painted the house red.

An essive phrase may also indicate from what perspective the subject is described:

Oahpaheaddjin son lei hui" eahppi.teacher. ESS 3SG be.PAST.3SG skilledAs a teacher, (s)he was very skilled.

Essive phrases may also function as temporal adverbs, especially when referring to phases in a persons life:

Dan mun lean jo mnnnoahppan.it.GEN 1SG be.1SG already child. ESS learn.PAST _ PTCL That I have learned as a child already.


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Nuorran ii vel dde ru$ a ala.young. ESS NEG.3SG yet understand.CONNEGmoney.GEN onWhen one is young, one doesnt understand about money yet.

The essive is also used to form adverbs describing weather and certain other natural

conditions: In vi ! a arvin vuolgit gvpi. NEG.1SG bother.CONNEGrain. ESS leave.INF store.ILL I wont bother to go to the store when its raining.

Itgo duosttaseavdnjadinvuolgit olggos? NEG.1SG.Q dare.CONNEGdark. ESS leave.INF out.ILL Dont you dare to go out at dark?

& uoikan lea vivi vuolgit muoraid" uohppat. mosquito. ESS be.3SG troublesome leave.INF tree.PL.GEN cut.INF It is annoying to go cutting wood when there are much mosquitos.


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4.2. Nominal stem types and case formation rules

North Saami nominals can be divided into four regular stem types, each of which behavesdifferently in their declension. The number of irregular declensions is very small; thereare only two common irregular nouns,almmi man andolmmo ! person. Many pronouns are irregular, however.

The four stem types are:

1) Vowel stem nominals , which have oblique stems ending in a vowel: e.g.libi bread,deadja tea,mnn child, MhtteMatthew,dllu house.

2) Consonant stem nominals , which have oblique stems ending in a consonant: e.g.ustit friend (oblique stemustib-), boaris old; old person (oblique stemboarrs-), beana dog (oblique stembeatnag-), eana earth, land (oblique stemeatnam-).

3) Contracting s-stem nominals , e.g. flis whale. The-s disappears in the obliquestem ( fl'l-).

4) Mutating u-stem nominals , e.g. boazu reindeer. The oblique stem (bohcco-) shows a complex phonological mutation.

The case suffixes in North Saami come in two variants, as shown in the table below. Theselection of a the suffix variant depends on the type of stem it is attached to. If the stemends in a vowel, a suffix of set 1) is used; if the stem ends in a consonant, a suffix of set2) is used. (Note that the essive case does not have distinct singular and plural forms;hence there is only one ending in each set.)

SET 1: SET 2:

SG PL SG PL NOM -t -atGEN -id -a -iidLOC -s -in -is -iinILL -i -ide -ii -iidda COM -in -iguin -iin -iiguinESS -n -in

Note that thePL.LOC and SG.COM case endings are identical; the two case forms areactually always homonymous for all words.


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4.2.1. Vowel stem nominals

Vowel stem nominals have stems ending in a vowel. Any of the six orthographic vowels(a, , e, i, o, u) can occur at the end of the stem; stems ending ina, i or u are much morecommon than others, though.

The stem nearly always has an even number of syllables most often two, but sometimesfour or even more: e.g. guolli fish,mnn child, giehta hand, arm, spmela ! (stem spmela ## a-) Saami (adj.); Saami person,amerihkkla ! (amerihkkla ## a-) American.An odd number of syllables can occur, though, if the stem shows an anomalous stress pattern: e.g.,vilbealle male cousin, with secondary stress on the second syllable, andtelevi ! uvdna television, with secondary stress on the fourth syllable (see 2.3.1. on word-stress).

Vowel stem nominals take case suffixes in set 1.

Most vowel stem nominals show consonant gradation. However, there are also a fewexceptional vowel stem nominals which lack gradation; the medial consonants in thestem thus remain unchanged throughout the whole paradigm. The lack of gradationcannot normally be predicted from theSG. NOM form of the word. The gradation patternexhibited by gradating vowel stem nominals is the following:

SG PL NOM strong weakGEN weak weakLOC weak weakILL strong weakCOM weak weakESS strong

In addition to consonant gradation, the following morphophonological alterations occurin the paradigms of vowel-stem nominals:

In e- ando-stem nominals, the stem vowel changese > i ando > u take place beforeany suffix beginning with-i- (see 3.3.)

In SG.ILLthe unstressed vowel alterationsi > anda > i take place. The sequence-ii- in an unstressed syllable following a diphthong triggersdiphthong

simplification (see 3.2.). In SG.ILL an exceptional diphthong simplification rule applies: also-ui- triggers

diphthong simplification (see 3.2.). In the eastern inland dialects lack of consonant gradation also triggers lack of

diphthong simplification in the entire paradigm. Western inland dialects do notexhibit this rule.


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In quadrisyllabica-stems the final vowel is deleted inSG. NOM. As a result of this, alsothe final consonant or consonant cluster is simplified due to phontactic restrictions onconsonants in final position.

Some i-stem nominals exhibit an exceptional finale in the SG. NOM (e.g., buorre good, guokte two). These kinds of nominals are very rare.

The following example paradigms illustrate the declension of vowel stem-nominals:

guolli fish: mnn child: giehta hand, arm:

SG PL SG PL SG PL

''The structure of North Sami''

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