The Literature ReviewRationale, Frameworks & Structure at the Macro- & Micro-Levels

Aalto University: Workshop 1Sophia Butt

© S

ophi

a Bu

tt

Workshop 1: Aim & Overview

By the end of this workshop, you will be able to…• Define a literature review and identify pitfalls to avoid• Understand the rationale behind/purpose of reviews• Identify three basic frameworks for literature reviews• Consider which macro-structure/approach is best

suited to your Research Plan Literature Review• Structure your review at the macro- and micro-levels• Recognise the value of connectors in Literature

Reviews

2

© S

ophi

a Bu

tt

A Literature Review: Overview

Q: What is a Literature Review?• A critical analysis of published sources/literature on a

particular topic• An assessment which identifies gaps in knowledge • A theoretical framework and/or rationale for research• An analytical commentary which incorporates the

following:1. A succinct summary of texts2. Synthesis3. Critique 3

© S

ophi

a Bu

tt

A Literature Review is not…

• …merely a summary of the literature…• …an annotated bibliography…or• …a description of one source after another…

4

© S

ophi

a Bu

tt

Overall Purpose of a ReviewHart, C. (2001) Doing a Literature Review. London: Sage

• In a broad context, Hart (2001) defines the purpose of a literature review as being to:• …distinguish what has already been done from what

yet needs to be done• …discover important variables relevant to a topic• …synthesise and gain new perspectives on an issue• …identify relationships between ideas and practice• …establish the context of the topic or problem

5

© S

ophi

a Bu

tt

More specifically…The purpose of a Literature Review can be to…

1. Identify or advance the current state of knowledge on a topic, i.e.: to…

• …outline and analyse key concepts within the field• …identify theories that can help to explain important

phenomenon • …draw attention to competing theories or assumptions • …obtain, through synthesis, a new perspective on a topic• …highlight knowledge gaps in the field, and identify

opportunities for future research• and/or…

6

© S

ophi

a Bu

tt

2. Create a foundation/justification for own research or to uncover a research problem, i.e.: to…

• …justify propositions, hypothesis, or research questions• …develop a conceptual model to reflect aim of research• …inform research design and methodology• …specify the focus, scope and boundaries of research• …highlight gaps in own knowledge, thus identify areas for

future research

7

…the purpose of a Literature Review can also be to…

© S

ophi

a Bu

tt

Literature Review - The CycleMachi , L.A. & McEvoy, B.T. (2009:3) The Literature Review. London: Sage Ltd

Interest/Area identifies…

Topic specifies & frames…

Literature Reviewdiscovers & advocates…

Thesisproposes further

research…

Projectdetermines…

Research Findings & Conclusions

…answers…

8

© S

ophi

a Bu

tt

Preparing for the Review:Critical Reading – For Your PaperAsk yourself the following questions when reviewing texts for your

academic paper/research plan/thesis…

How does this paper relate to, and define my topic?Which specific aspects of the topic does it address?What issues or debates are raised?What questions/problems does the paper address that are of

relevance to my assignment?Is this a key source for my assignment? Why?How does this paper relate to other papers in this field?Has this paper helped to develop my understanding of the topic

as a whole?If the answer to most of the above questions is unfavourable – move on to another text…

9

© S

ophi

a Bu

tt

Some details to note for each source:

Setting for the inquiry Type of dataSample size Use (or otherwise)of theorySample profile Equipment (where relevant)Main arguments Style of writingStatistics used/referred to MeasurementsMethods Sources of biasQuestions raised in study LimitationsFollow-up arguments Intended audience

10

© S

ophi

a Bu

tt

Exercise 1: Pitfalls in the Literature Review

Work with a partner to brainstorm the pitfalls to be avoided when writing a Literature Review. Two examples are provided…

1. Failure to place study in a broad(er) context

2. Lack of theoretical framework, where needed

3. ?

4. ?

5. ?11

© S

ophi

a Bu

tt

Common Pitfalls in the Literature ReviewIn an article by

McKercher et al. (2007) it was

reported that 50.9% of articles are

rejected for poor quality literature reviews. The top ten reasons for rejection are…

McKercher, B., Law, R., Weber, K., Song, H. & Hsu, C. ‘Why Referees Reject Manuscripts.’ Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Research, 31 (4) November 2007: 455-470.

12

1. Failure to place study in a broad(er) context

2. Lack of theoretical framework, where needed

3. Use of old and/or outdated sources

4. Absence of critical evaluation of the literature

5. Review not relevant to the study

6. Poor referencing

7. Key sources missing in the review

8. Too short/too long

9. Repetition

10.Reference stacking (many citations; few points)

© S

ophi

a Bu

tt

Literature Review ModelMachi , L.A. & McEvoy, B.T. (2009:35) The Literature Review. London: Sage Ltd

The Literature

Review Model

Step 1: Select a

topic

Step 2: Search the literature

Step 3: Develop the

argument

Step 4: Survey the literature

Step 5: Critique the

literature

Step 6: Write the

review

13

© S

ophi

a Bu

tt

The Literature SearchJesson, J.K., Matheson, L. & Lacey, F.M. (2011: 32) Doing your Literature Review: Traditional & Systematic Techniques. London: Sage

When at Stage 2 (i.e. Searching the Literature)…

Use different search engines and databasesRefer to a range of resource typesTry several complex search statements/keywords (use

words from the thesis statement/research question)Use the Boolean operators (AND/OR/NOT) in the searchConsult the bibliographies/reference lists of key textsKeep a record of your search terms and results

Exercise 2: Resources for the Literature Search Work with a partner to complete the diagram in exercise

2 (page 2) on your handout.14

© S

ophi

a Bu

tt

Literature Review – 3 Frameworks

1. Traditional

2. Systematic

3. Conceptual/theoretical

15

© S

ophi

a Bu

tt

1: The traditional review

• Focuses on a number of key, primary papers into which secondary studies are integrated• Provides a summary of a particular concept, theory or

issue• Explores prior research findings and the development

of theory or argument• Identifies themes, gaps, issues in the literature• Develops research questions and identifies areas for

further research• Is often used by MBA and doctoral students in their

studies16

© S

ophi

a Bu

tt

2: The systematic review

• “A systematic review is a review in which there is a comprehensive search for relevant studies on a specific topic, and those identified are then appraised and synthesised according to a pre-determined explicit method” (Klassen, Jadad & Moher, 1998: 45)

• Documents all procedures (the research audit trail of databases and search terms used is also noted) in order and/or a logical sequence• Often used to test a hypothesis• Lists papers that were rejected for the review, and why• Often involves stakeholders in the review process• Contains: abstract, background, method, results, conclusion• Originally developed in the field of medicine but has now also

moved into the business and management field 17

© S

ophi

a Bu

tt

3: The conceptual/theoretical review

Offers critiques of existing knowledgeMay take a particular political or theoretical position

and apply the same to the thesis problem/topicCould apply theory from other disciplines to a problemReconceptualises conceptsIdentifies trendsOften refers to empirical studies

18

© S

ophi

a Bu

tt

Literature Reviews – Structural Approach

Within each framework, varying approaches can be taken:Dialectical approach – different views and theoretical

debates are compared and contrasted (suitable where there is divergence)

Thematic approach – a number of themes are developed, typically based around set research questions

Narrowing approach – starts with a historical context and/or broad concepts, then narrows down to particular aspects

Explanatory theories – evaluates a number of different perspectives which have been used in the literature

Methodological approach – is based on the methods of the researcher, i.e. qualitative and quantitative approaches

Tip: Choose a structure that reflects the aim of your paper…

19

© S

ophi

a Bu

tt

Research Plan: Literature Review

• Exercise 3: Reflect on the Literature Review for your Research Plan and address these questions: 1. What is your…• Thesis topic/area• Research problem/thesis statement• Research question(s)

2. Which framework would most suit your paper? Why?3. Which macro-structural approach would be

appropriate for your paper, and why?20

© S

ophi

a Bu

tt

The Literature Review at the Macro-Level

Review: Introduction, Body, Conclusion

• Identifies the general topic/issue/concern within context• Outlines overall trends/theories published thus far• Highlights any general gaps in research/inquiry• Identifies new perspective/area of interest• Provides the scale and structure of the review• Explains criteria to be used to

compare/contrast/analyse the literature• May also identify why certain literature (theories,

models, perspectives) will not be covered21

© S

ophi

a Bu

tt

The Literature Review at the Macro-Level

Review: Introduction, Body, Conclusion

• Reflects the structural approach suited to the review• Groups research according to a common denominator• qualitative v quantitative research• purpose or objective • methodologies employed• authors’ conclusions

• Summarises individual studies or articles• Synthesises key thoughts/findings/theories• Critiques perspectives • Each paragraph contains a topic sentence, citations &

concluding comment22

© S

ophi

a Bu

tt

• Provides an overview of major contributions• Reformulates the thesis statement/research topic with

concluding comments• Suggests areas/issues pertinent to future study• Concludes with insights into relationship between

central topic of the review and wider/larger area of study within the discipline• Provides closure to the line of argument

• Overall, the Literature Review provides a coherent background to a current study and/or overview of recent research

23

The Literature Review at the Macro-Level

Review: Introduction, Body, Conclusion

24

The Literature Review at the Micro-Level

Paragraph Structures• Paragraphs within the literature review can take many

forms; the following is representative of a typical paragraph structure...

• Concept is introduced & a point is made (topic sentence) • It is supported with reference(s) to theory or previous

research results • More support is added (where possible) with citations• If there is information refuting or contradicting the point, it

is added• Further negative evidence is added (if any) • The different points of view are critiqued and/or compared

and contrasted• A paragraph conclusion is drawn, with some restating

of/reference to the topic sentence in own voice

© S

ophi

a Bu

tt

25

Exercise 4: Paragraph Structures in the Review

• Look at exercise 4 on your handout and identify any evidence of the typical paragraph structure extracts a) and b).

• In particular, where evident, highlight the key components of a Literature Review, i.e.:• brief summary• evidence of synthesis• writer’s voice/critique of the text

© S

ophi

a Bu

tt

Connectors: Achieving Coherence & Expressing a Point of View

• Literature Reviews should not only provide information on the texts referred to, but should also express the writer’s point of view on the literature.

• Connectors and reporting verbs often divulge the writer’s stance on an issue/argument – while also achieving cohesion and coherence.

© S

ophi

a Bu

tt

26

Sentence Connectors[Adapted from: Swales & Feak (1994)]

Purpose Subordinators Sentence Connectors Phrase Linkers

AdditionFurthermore, …In addition, …Moreover, …

…in addition to…

Cause & Effect …because…Since …, …

As a result, ……, consequently, ……., hence …

Because of …Due to …As a result of …

Clarification That is, ….

Contrast While …, ……, whereas …

In contrast, …However, …Conversely, …

Unlike …, …

Illustration For example, …For instance, …

Intensification On the contrary, …In fact, …

© S

ophi

a Bu

tt

27

Information: Dan is…a) unkempt, b) unattractive & c) very rich Identify the writer’s viewpoint in each of these sentences…1. Dan is unkempt and unattractive. However, he is extremely

wealthy. 2. Dan is very rich. Nevertheless, he is unkempt and unattractive. 3. Despite the fact that Dan is unkempt and unattractive, he

tends to be successful in attracting many partners. This fact could be attributed to his material wealth.

4. Dan has some qualities; for example, he is very wealthy. On the other hand, he has the unwanted characteristics of being unkempt and unattractive.

5. While Pete is young and handsome, Dan is rather unkempt and unattractive. In fact, Dan's appearance is far from appealing to the eye.

Soph

ia B

utt

28

Exercise 5:Connectors for Coherence & Voice• Parts a) and b) of exercise 5 provide keywords about

two different topics:

a) Motivation: i) incentive schemes, ii) group bonus systems, and iii) workplace performance

b) Ethics: i) advertising aimed at children, ii) psychological development, and iii) profit

• Using a variety of connectors, create a total of four sentences, two for part a), and two for part b) where the sentence pair offers a different voice or point of view.

© S

ophi

a Bu

tt

29

© S

ophi

a Bu

tt

Exercise 5: Possible Answersa) Motivation: i) incentive schemes, ii) group bonus systems, and iii) workplace performance

• Motivation levels in the workplace may be increased through the provision of incentive schemes. For example, a group bonus system may help to raise performance, although it would also increase company costs.

• Group bonus systems are not always effective in increasing workplace performance because some individuals are motivated by individual incentive schemes.

30

© S

ophi

a Bu

tt

Exercise 5: Possible Answers (cont’d)

b) Ethics: i) advertising aimed at children, ii) psychological development, and iii) profit

• Some psychologists have criticised companies for putting profit before the wellbeing of children where advertising is concerned. However, as profit-seeking entities, most businesses must seek to generate higher incomes, although this should be done within the boundaries of ethical behaviour.

• While the psychological effects of advertising to young children can, to some extent, be managed by parents, profit-seeking companies also have ethical obligations.

31

© S

ophi

a Bu

tt

• Homework: Skim-read the three texts provided and come prepared to discuss and complete tasks related to them in workshop 2. Consider:• Vocabulary range• Arguments proposed• Similarities or differences in viewpoints

• …any questions…?• Focus of Workshop 2…• Critical appraisal of sources• Managing literature through a matrix• Synthesising the review 32

© S

ophi

a Bu

tt

Sources Consulted• Bell, J. (2005) Doing Your Research Project (4th edn.). Maidenhead: Open

University Press.

• Bruce, C.S. (1994) ’Research Students’ Early Experiences of the Dissertation Literature Review’. Studies in Higher Education. 19 (2): 217-29.

• Hart, C. (2001) Doing a Literature Review. London: Sage.

• Jesson, J.K., Matheson, L. & Lacey, F.M. (2011: 32) Doing your Literature Review: Traditional & Systematic Techniques. London: Sage

• Machi, L.A. & McEvoy, B.T. (2009) Literature Review: Six Steps to Success. USA: Corwin Press.

• McKercher, B., Law, R., Weber, K., Song, H. & Hsu, C. (2007) ‘Why Referees Reject Manuscripts.’ Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Research, 31 (4): 455-470.

• Nunan, D. (1992) Research Methods in Language Learning. Cambridge: CUP.

• Philips, P.M. & Pugh, D.S. (2005) How to Get a PhD (4th edn.). Buckingham: Open University Press.

• Ridley, D. (2008) The Literature Review: A Step-by-Step Guide for Students. London: Sage Publications.

33