Europe’s North: Historical Geopolitics and International Europe’s North: Historical Geopolitics and International Institutional Dynamics, 2-5 ECTSInstitutional Dynamics, 2-5 ECTS

2. 2. Regionalization since the 1990s: How important?Regionalization since the 1990s: How important?Autumn 2011Autumn 2011

Pami AaltoPami AaltoJean Monnet Professor/Director, Jean Monnet Centre of Excellence on Jean Monnet Professor/Director, Jean Monnet Centre of Excellence on

European Politics and European-Russian Relations, University of European Politics and European-Russian Relations, University of Tampere Tampere pami.aalto@uta.fipami.aalto@uta.fi

<<http://www.uta.fi/jkk/jmc/index.htmlhttp://www.uta.fi/jkk/jmc/index.html>>

The idea of a regionalised (northern) The idea of a regionalised (northern) Europe/Baltic Sea region (BSR) of the 1990sEurope/Baltic Sea region (BSR) of the 1990s

In contrast to the interwar era, now the regionalising initiative did not come In contrast to the interwar era, now the regionalising initiative did not come from the Baltics (EST), but from GER/DEN, and later spread into SWE and from the Baltics (EST), but from GER/DEN, and later spread into SWE and FIN, and even attracted some, albeit limited positive response from the FIN, and even attracted some, albeit limited positive response from the Baltics – much more so from RussiaBaltics – much more so from Russia

The EU was developing its own regional approach in order to give voice to The EU was developing its own regional approach in order to give voice to the regional level where a substantial part of Union policies are the regional level where a substantial part of Union policies are implemented; Committee of Regions in 1991implemented; Committee of Regions in 1991

In the BSR, the Union encountered a regional setting quite different from In the BSR, the Union encountered a regional setting quite different from the earlier enlargement rounds: a rapidly building network of GER, and the earlier enlargement rounds: a rapidly building network of GER, and Nordic initiated regional organizations: unique in European and even global Nordic initiated regional organizations: unique in European and even global context – 600 organisations with a transborder capacitycontext – 600 organisations with a transborder capacity

Uniqueness stemmed from the dense network initiated by self-conscious Uniqueness stemmed from the dense network initiated by self-conscious region builders promoting region builders promoting bothboth intergovernmental and sub-state level intergovernmental and sub-state level regional organizations and activities – academics and policy-makers from regional organizations and activities – academics and policy-makers from the Nordics looking for a new locus of co-operationthe Nordics looking for a new locus of co-operation

Analogous ideas for a new locus of co-operation from the north GER Analogous ideas for a new locus of co-operation from the north GER provinces: a new provinces: a new HanseHanse or an or an OstseeraumOstseeraum

In scholarly literature, these region-building patterns within the BSR were In scholarly literature, these region-building patterns within the BSR were taken as one case of the formation of a regionalized European ordertaken as one case of the formation of a regionalized European order

The existence of visions and political experiments like these inspired The existence of visions and political experiments like these inspired scholars to refer to the BSR as a ‘laboratory’ of peaceful change in Europe scholars to refer to the BSR as a ‘laboratory’ of peaceful change in Europe (Hubel)(Hubel)• Laboratory vs. space vs. container vs. test ground vs. pilot area, etc.Laboratory vs. space vs. container vs. test ground vs. pilot area, etc.

Europe of Olympic ringsEurope of Olympic rings:: a more ordered a more ordered but yet regionalized formation, where the but yet regionalized formation, where the subjectivities centre around an imagined subjectivities centre around an imagined region like the BSR instead of the EU region like the BSR instead of the EU centre. In this vision, integration among centre. In this vision, integration among both state level and sub-state level both state level and sub-state level regional actors overrides integration regional actors overrides integration between them and the EU-centre that here between them and the EU-centre that here remains only loosely definedremains only loosely defined

Centre East

BSR

West/Atlantic

South

Geopolitical visions of European regionalisation

Europe of regions:Europe of regions: a mosaic a mosaic of political agents and of political agents and subjectivities, where regions subjectivities, where regions and cities form non-and cities form non-Westphalian chains extending Westphalian chains extending across state bordersacross state borders

Council of the Baltic Council of the Baltic Sea States (CBSS) Sea States (CBSS)

and the EUand the EU

DEN, GER initiated the CBSS in 1992 to facilitate ‘low politics’ co-op among DEN, GER initiated the CBSS in 1992 to facilitate ‘low politics’ co-op among BSR states + ICE, NOR and the EU Commission as a founding memberBSR states + ICE, NOR and the EU Commission as a founding member

The Commission’s legal mandate to participate was relatively unclear (and The Commission’s legal mandate to participate was relatively unclear (and still is especially after creation of European External Action Servicestill is especially after creation of European External Action Service

The mission of the CBSS was to assist in the transformation of the Baltics, The mission of the CBSS was to assist in the transformation of the Baltics, POL and RUS to reduce the risks and soft security threats that they were POL and RUS to reduce the risks and soft security threats that they were perceived to pose to their EU neighbours in the regionperceived to pose to their EU neighbours in the region

Covered policy sectors after Riga Declaration 2008: economy, energy (not Covered policy sectors after Riga Declaration 2008: economy, energy (not well); environment (not much); education and culture (better); civil securitywell); environment (not much); education and culture (better); civil security (mainly human trafficking)(mainly human trafficking)

Tries to turn itself to a project-based organisation since then (difficult)Tries to turn itself to a project-based organisation since then (difficult) Has a fairly strong secretariat but for concrete projects relies on funding by Has a fairly strong secretariat but for concrete projects relies on funding by

donors and participating countries: Nordics, NCM, EU – so far just one project donors and participating countries: Nordics, NCM, EU – so far just one project where all member states contribute (Pskov EuroFaculty)where all member states contribute (Pskov EuroFaculty)

The Commission first ‘activist’ with the FIN, SWE (and NOR) membership in The Commission first ‘activist’ with the FIN, SWE (and NOR) membership in sight, it had been inexorably drawn into the BSR, and thus felt a need to sight, it had been inexorably drawn into the BSR, and thus felt a need to ‘examine the future role of the Union [would be] called upon to play to ‘examine the future role of the Union [would be] called upon to play to further stability and economic development in the [area]’ (European further stability and economic development in the [area]’ (European Commission 1994; cited in Johansson 2002: 379)Commission 1994; cited in Johansson 2002: 379)

Commission became frustrated with the CBSS’s capacity play a central role Commission became frustrated with the CBSS’s capacity play a central role in the implementation of the EU’s 2009 Baltic Sea Strategyin the implementation of the EU’s 2009 Baltic Sea Strategy

15th CBSS Ministerial Session, Elsinore 4th June

2009 <http://www.cbss.org/component/option,com_rsgalle

ry2/Itemid,130/gid,1/page,inline/view,inline/

Nordic Council of Ministers Nordic Council of Ministers (NCM), Barents Euro-Arctic (NCM), Barents Euro-Arctic Council (BEAC) and EU Council (BEAC) and EU involvementinvolvement

NCM founded in 1972, with a permanent administration in Copenhagen NCM founded in 1972, with a permanent administration in Copenhagen Many of the ‘old’ Nordic regional co-operation programmes under the NCM became Many of the ‘old’ Nordic regional co-operation programmes under the NCM became

affected by the EU as did CBSS programmesaffected by the EU as did CBSS programmes Several new Interreg programmes of the EU to promote cross-border co-operation, Several new Interreg programmes of the EU to promote cross-border co-operation,

develop PPPs and set up institutions at the regional level were made conditional develop PPPs and set up institutions at the regional level were made conditional upon the co-sponsoring of the NCM. Interreg ‘europeanized’ the existing NCM upon the co-sponsoring of the NCM. Interreg ‘europeanized’ the existing NCM programmes by having largely the same geographical coverage + up to 20-fold programmes by having largely the same geographical coverage + up to 20-fold funding and EU-designed routinesfunding and EU-designed routines

‘‘Europeanization’ also in the NOR-RUS -centred and NOR-initiated BEAC founded Europeanization’ also in the NOR-RUS -centred and NOR-initiated BEAC founded with 1993 Kirkenes declaration; 2007 international secretariat in Kirkeneswith 1993 Kirkenes declaration; 2007 international secretariat in Kirkenes

BEAC’s original mission: environmental + other problems originating from the Kola BEAC’s original mission: environmental + other problems originating from the Kola peninsula, and other co-op; also to simply get the formerly divided parties on the peninsula, and other co-op; also to simply get the formerly divided parties on the same table, speaking of less divisive non-military security issuessame table, speaking of less divisive non-military security issues

Has both intergovernmental and regional levels; today works on economic and Has both intergovernmental and regional levels; today works on economic and commercial cooperation, sustainable living environment, human resources, commercial cooperation, sustainable living environment, human resources, indigenous peoples, transport and infrastructure, and information and promotionindigenous peoples, transport and infrastructure, and information and promotion

For NOR, BEAC helped to get the EU involved in the very north and open up a new For NOR, BEAC helped to get the EU involved in the very north and open up a new channel (the EU joined as a founding member)channel (the EU joined as a founding member)

Some regional actors in the Barents Regional Council started to view Some regional actors in the Barents Regional Council started to view europeanization of co-op as compromising their own powers over the increasingly europeanization of co-op as compromising their own powers over the increasingly EU-funded programmes; EU involvement challenged the original nature of the EU-funded programmes; EU involvement challenged the original nature of the whole Barents endeavour, yet EU still has largely ‘technical’ representationwhole Barents endeavour, yet EU still has largely ‘technical’ representation

Further ’europeanization’ of regional co-Further ’europeanization’ of regional co-operationoperation

Jauhiainen 2002: in two EU-regios (Karelia, Helsinki-Tallinn) and the Jauhiainen 2002: in two EU-regios (Karelia, Helsinki-Tallinn) and the ESTRUFIN network linking cities in FIN; EST, RUS, the importance and ESTRUFIN network linking cities in FIN; EST, RUS, the importance and funding of EU programmes created cross-border projects precisely to funding of EU programmes created cross-border projects precisely to obtain EU funding!obtain EU funding!

Cross-border co-operation ‘state controlled’ and ‘public authority driven’, Cross-border co-operation ‘state controlled’ and ‘public authority driven’, but also ‘European-designed’ as networks started following EU spatial but also ‘European-designed’ as networks started following EU spatial policy practicespolicy practices

The well-funded PHARE was launched in 1989/1990 to assist with the The well-funded PHARE was launched in 1989/1990 to assist with the transition in the CEE. Since 1992, it also covered the Baltic statestransition in the CEE. Since 1992, it also covered the Baltic states

The less well-funded TACIS was directed to the Former Soviet Union (FSU) The less well-funded TACIS was directed to the Former Soviet Union (FSU) excluding the Baltic states; whom the Union was about to include/excludeexcluding the Baltic states; whom the Union was about to include/exclude

The most ambitious co-ordinating role gradually taken by the EU came with The most ambitious co-ordinating role gradually taken by the EU came with the FIN initiative for a Northern Dimension (ND) of the EU in 1997; the FIN initiative for a Northern Dimension (ND) of the EU in 1997; accepted by the Union during 1997—1998 in order to, among other things, accepted by the Union during 1997—1998 in order to, among other things, introduce cohesion and to bring better structure into the various region-introduce cohesion and to bring better structure into the various region-wide activities alongside the many bilateral programmes of Germany and wide activities alongside the many bilateral programmes of Germany and the Nordics which targeted institution-building and alleviation of the the Nordics which targeted institution-building and alleviation of the transition problems in the Baltics, NW-RUStransition problems in the Baltics, NW-RUS

By that time, the BSR and Barents co-op agendas were becoming By that time, the BSR and Barents co-op agendas were becoming understood as part of a wider conceptual framework of ‘north European co-understood as part of a wider conceptual framework of ‘north European co-operation’. This conceptual shift in favour of the term ‘Europe’ accentuated operation’. This conceptual shift in favour of the term ‘Europe’ accentuated the north European region’s becoming a more integral part of continent-the north European region’s becoming a more integral part of continent-wide processes instead of indigenous patterns. wide processes instead of indigenous patterns.

Renewed Northern Dimension (ND) of the EU, Renewed Northern Dimension (ND) of the EU, Iceland, Norway and RussiaIceland, Norway and Russia

Unlike the AC, BEAC, CBSS and NCM, the ND is not a regional Unlike the AC, BEAC, CBSS and NCM, the ND is not a regional organisationorganisation• Designed to be an open and inclusive policy framework with several Designed to be an open and inclusive policy framework with several

institutional channels and mechanismsinstitutional channels and mechanisms• Tasked to improve the coordination of regional cooperationTasked to improve the coordination of regional cooperation

Based on the principle of equality of the partnersBased on the principle of equality of the partners Pragmatic nature: actual work has proceeded within the confines Pragmatic nature: actual work has proceeded within the confines

of the partnerships:of the partnerships:• The Northern Dimension Environmental Partnership (NDEP)The Northern Dimension Environmental Partnership (NDEP)• The Northern Dimension Partnership on Health and Social Affairs The Northern Dimension Partnership on Health and Social Affairs

(NDPHS)(NDPHS)• The Northern Dimension Partnership on Transport and Logistics The Northern Dimension Partnership on Transport and Logistics

(NDPTL);(NDPTL);• The Northern Dimension Partnership on Culture (NDPC)The Northern Dimension Partnership on Culture (NDPC)

Has a steering group of senior officials rather than summits, Has a steering group of senior officials rather than summits, Business Forum, Parliamentary Forum, and Northern Dimension Business Forum, Parliamentary Forum, and Northern Dimension InstituteInstitute• Part of CBSS work now coordinated with ND, NCM supports health and Part of CBSS work now coordinated with ND, NCM supports health and

social work of the ND – ND’s relevance growingsocial work of the ND – ND’s relevance growing In the ND EU represents all of its 27 member states unlike the In the ND EU represents all of its 27 member states unlike the

more technical nature of the Commission level representation in more technical nature of the Commission level representation in the CBSS, BEAC; EU and Russia ’big’ and run the show the CBSS, BEAC; EU and Russia ’big’ and run the show

The Northern Dimension StructureNon-governmental level Governmental Level Participants

1

NDIND Institute

NDBCND Business Council

ND ParliamentaryForum

ND

EP

N

D E

nviron

men

tal Partn

ership

ND

PC

N

D P

artnership on

Culture

ND

PT

L N

D P

artnership on

Transp

ort and

Log

istics

ND

PH

S

ND

Partn

ership in Pub

lic Health an

d

Social W

ell-Bein

g

4 Partnerships

ACArctic Council

BEACBarents Euro-Arctic Council

CBSSCouncil of the Baltic Sea States

NCMNordic Council of Ministers

EBRD, EIB, NEFCO, NIB

International Financial Institutions

4 Participants

4 ND PartnersEU, Russia, Norway, Iceland

Ministerial meetings

SOMSenior Officials

Meeting

Steering group

/

Evaluation of the 1990s Evaluation of the 1990s ’regionalisation’ thesis (I)’regionalisation’ thesis (I)

‘‘Regionalisation’ is a question of different geopolitical modelsRegionalisation’ is a question of different geopolitical models Joenniemi 1993: a ‘concentric Europe’ may co-exist with a regionalized Joenniemi 1993: a ‘concentric Europe’ may co-exist with a regionalized

orderorder This is possible because both models part from the allegedly weakening This is possible because both models part from the allegedly weakening

bond between the state and nation, and because the EU itself supports bond between the state and nation, and because the EU itself supports both ‘universalizing’ Brussels-centred policies, and subsidiarity-based both ‘universalizing’ Brussels-centred policies, and subsidiarity-based regionalizing policiesregionalizing policies

Joenniemi 1995: regionalization emerging in particular through the EU’s Joenniemi 1995: regionalization emerging in particular through the EU’s new Committee of Regions and formation of BSR/BEAC; yet, concomitant new Committee of Regions and formation of BSR/BEAC; yet, concomitant limits to regionalization in Europelimits to regionalization in Europe

Many authors second on how actions of states within the region undermine Many authors second on how actions of states within the region undermine prospects of bottom-up regionalizationprospects of bottom-up regionalization

Joenniemi and Browning 2004: EU-concentredness is the defining feature of Joenniemi and Browning 2004: EU-concentredness is the defining feature of northern Europe’s post-Cold War development. In their view, focusing only northern Europe’s post-Cold War development. In their view, focusing only on Brussels-centred processes obscures the possibility of the formation of on Brussels-centred processes obscures the possibility of the formation of other competing places of importance: ‘margins’ may position themselves other competing places of importance: ‘margins’ may position themselves between the centre and their own marginality, thus creating new political between the centre and their own marginality, thus creating new political spaces like witnessed in the multi-level region-building in northern Europe spaces like witnessed in the multi-level region-building in northern Europe since the early 1990ssince the early 1990s

Evaluation of the 1990s ’regionalisation’ thesis (II)Evaluation of the 1990s ’regionalisation’ thesis (II)

Hubel 2004: BSR becoming a European Hubel 2004: BSR becoming a European sub-regionsub-region rather than a distinct rather than a distinct region of its own, or a ‘laboratory’ of political experiments. In this scheme, region of its own, or a ‘laboratory’ of political experiments. In this scheme, main determining factors come partly from the inside and mostly outside:main determining factors come partly from the inside and mostly outside:• (West) European integration(West) European integration• Transatlantic relations and the continued importance of NATO (esp. Transatlantic relations and the continued importance of NATO (esp.

DEN, NOR, Baltic states and POL)DEN, NOR, Baltic states and POL)• Developments within the Nordic states and post-Soviet spaceDevelopments within the Nordic states and post-Soviet space

Hubel’s vision of a European sub-region shaped by externalities implies a Hubel’s vision of a European sub-region shaped by externalities implies a traditional-geopolitical view where NE is defined from the outside! Yet this is traditional-geopolitical view where NE is defined from the outside! Yet this is a powerful contra-argument to the regionalization thesisa powerful contra-argument to the regionalization thesis

English School perspective: NE immersed into the EU international society English School perspective: NE immersed into the EU international society due to the fact that it mostly embodies the same institutions/principles and due to the fact that it mostly embodies the same institutions/principles and has relatively little independence from wider EU-Europe at that planehas relatively little independence from wider EU-Europe at that plane

World political perspective: Russia now a BRIC, regionalisation has to stay World political perspective: Russia now a BRIC, regionalisation has to stay within the ‘limits’ as Russia’s strategic focus is elsewherewithin the ‘limits’ as Russia’s strategic focus is elsewhere

Regionalization continues to be a powerful tool if we focus on regional Regionalization continues to be a powerful tool if we focus on regional organizations organizations per seper se, or on twinning and other programmes between north , or on twinning and other programmes between north European cities, co-operation among regions across borders, etc.European cities, co-operation among regions across borders, etc.

Practical lessons: regional co-op ‘learning by doing:Practical lessons: regional co-op ‘learning by doing:• Cultural and historical differences play a role; trust and personal contacts Cultural and historical differences play a role; trust and personal contacts • Technical/expert level issues often easy to promote; finding common interests keyTechnical/expert level issues often easy to promote; finding common interests key• Financial and intellectual asymmetries hinder co-opFinancial and intellectual asymmetries hinder co-op• The very different federal structure in Russia (vs. FIN, GER)The very different federal structure in Russia (vs. FIN, GER)