Resource Answer Key Documents, Art, Graphs/Charts, Maps ...

WorldView Software

Geography I v1.0w

Resource Answer Key

Documents, Art, Graphs/Charts, Maps, and Case

Studies

Written by: Margaret Boorstein, Ph.D.

© 2005 WorldView Software, Inc. 76 North Broadway, Suite 2002

Hicksville, NY 11801 1-800-34-STUDY

www.worldviewsoftware.com

WorldView Software Geography I v.1.0w: Resource Answer Key i

Chapter 1: World of the Geographer............................................................................. 1 Case Studies .................................................................................................................... 1

Relative Location........................................................................................................ 1 Human Geography...................................................................................................... 2 Regions ....................................................................................................................... 6 Maps and Globes......................................................................................................... 7 Geography and Scale .................................................................................................. 9 Creating Population Pyramids .................................................................................. 11

Maps.............................................................................................................................. 11 World Map................................................................................................................ 15 World Time Zones .................................................................................................... 16

Graphs ........................................................................................................................... 16 Geography Subdivisions ........................................................................................... 16 World Population ...................................................................................................... 17 Population Pyramids ................................................................................................. 18 Population-Age Structure.......................................................................................... 19

Art ................................................................................................................................. 19 Bands of Latitude...................................................................................................... 19

Chapter 2: The Earth .................................................................................................... 21 Case Studies .................................................................................................................. 21

Biosphere .................................................................................................................. 21 Physical Systems....................................................................................................... 21

Maps.............................................................................................................................. 26 Plates and Plate Movement....................................................................................... 26 World Climate Zones................................................................................................ 27

Art ................................................................................................................................. 27 Winter and Summer Solstice .................................................................................... 29 Latitude Zones and Wind Patterns............................................................................ 30 Glaciers ..................................................................................................................... 31 View from Space: Aswan High Dam........................................................................ 31 Topographical Features............................................................................................. 33 Loma Prieta Earthquake............................................................................................ 33

Document...................................................................................................................... 34 Hurricanes ................................................................................................................. 34

Chapter 3: United States: Physical Geography........................................................... 35 Case Studies .................................................................................................................. 35

The Everglades.......................................................................................................... 35 U.S. Geologic-Related Natural Disasters.................................................................. 36 U.S. Weather-Related Natural Disasters................................................................... 36

Maps.............................................................................................................................. 39 Physical Map: North America .................................................................................. 39 Natural Vegetation: U.S. and Canada ....................................................................... 39

Graphs ........................................................................................................................... 40 U.S. Petroleum Consumption ................................................................................... 41 U.S. Petroleum Overview ......................................................................................... 42 U.S. Petroleum Imports............................................................................................. 42

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Art ................................................................................................................................. 43 Painting: Estes Park .................................................................................................. 43 Repairing River Levee .............................................................................................. 43

Documents .................................................................................................................... 44 America the Beautiful ............................................................................................... 44 Lewis and Clark's Journal ......................................................................................... 44

Chapter 4: United States: Human Geography............................................................ 48 Case Studies .................................................................................................................. 48

U.S. Conservation ..................................................................................................... 48 Spatial Distribution of Religions in the U.S. ............................................................ 49 Human Migration-A Special Topic: Texas............................................................... 50 Landscape and Agriculture-A Special Topic: Texas ................................................ 52

Maps.............................................................................................................................. 52 Map of the United States........................................................................................... 54 Population Density: U.S. and Canada....................................................................... 54 Manufacturing/Agriculture: U.S. and Canada .......................................................... 55 A Planned City: Washington, D.C............................................................................ 56

Graphs ........................................................................................................................... 57 Immigration to the U.S. ............................................................................................ 58 U.S. Urbanization...................................................................................................... 58 America Work Force................................................................................................. 59

Art ................................................................................................................................. 60 Painting: The Smoke Signal...................................................................................... 60 Painting: The Fall of the Cowboy............................................................................. 60 Dust Bowl ................................................................................................................. 61 Southwestern Architecture........................................................................................ 61

Chapter 5: Canada......................................................................................................... 63 Case Studies .................................................................................................................. 63

Historical Settlement of Canada ............................................................................... 63 Canadian Government and Economy ....................................................................... 64 Multiculturalism in Canada....................................................................................... 66

Maps.............................................................................................................................. 67 Political Map: Canada............................................................................................... 67 Physical Map: Canada............................................................................................... 67 Population Density: U.S. and Canada....................................................................... 68 Manufacturing/Agriculture: U.S. and Canada .......................................................... 69 Physical Map: North America .................................................................................. 69 Natural Vegetation: U.S. and Canada ....................................................................... 71

Graph............................................................................................................................. 71 Canada's Population.................................................................................................. 72

Chapter 6: Europe: Physical Geography..................................................................... 74 Case Studies .................................................................................................................. 74

European Natural Disasters....................................................................................... 74 European Environmental Problems .......................................................................... 74

Maps.............................................................................................................................. 74 Land Forms of Europe .............................................................................................. 76

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Natural Vegetation: Europe ...................................................................................... 76 Chapter 7: Europe: Human Geography...................................................................... 79

Case Studies .................................................................................................................. 79 Changing Borders in Europe..................................................................................... 79 Evolution of the English Language........................................................................... 79 Cultural Influences in Europe's Past ......................................................................... 80

Map ............................................................................................................................... 81 Modern Europe ......................................................................................................... 81

Graph............................................................................................................................. 81 Population of Europe ................................................................................................ 82

Art ................................................................................................................................. 82 The Berlin Wall......................................................................................................... 83

Chapter 8: Russia and Other Countries of the CIS: Physical Geography ............... 84 Case Study .................................................................................................................... 84

Russia and the Commonwealth of Independent States ............................................. 84 Map ............................................................................................................................... 84

Physical Map: Russia and Eurasia ............................................................................ 84 Art ................................................................................................................................. 84

Lake Baikal (Russia)................................................................................................. 86 Chapter 9: Russia and Other Countries of the CIS: Human Geography ................ 87

Case Studies .................................................................................................................. 87 Changing Borders of Russia ..................................................................................... 87 Cultural Influences on Russia ................................................................................... 87 Minorities in Russia and the CIS .............................................................................. 87

Map ............................................................................................................................... 89 Political Map: Russia and Eurasia ............................................................................ 89

Chapter 10: Oceania: Physical Geography ................................................................. 90 Case Studies .................................................................................................................. 90

The Origin of Atolls.................................................................................................. 90 Australian Plants and Animals.................................................................................. 90

Maps.............................................................................................................................. 91 Physical Map: Australia and New Zealand............................................................... 91 International Date Line: Oceania .............................................................................. 91 Papua New Guinea.................................................................................................... 92 Ocean Currents.......................................................................................................... 92

Art Gallery .................................................................................................................... 92 Volcanic Islands........................................................................................................ 93

Chapter 11: Oceania: Human Geography................................................................... 95 Case Studies .................................................................................................................. 95

Education and Literacy in Oceania ........................................................................... 95 Aboriginal Art........................................................................................................... 95 Oceania Art, Architecture, and Religion................................................................... 95 Mutiny in the South Pacific ...................................................................................... 97

Maps.............................................................................................................................. 98 Political Map: Australia and New Zealand............................................................... 98 Cultural Areas of Oceania......................................................................................... 98

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Papua New Guinea.................................................................................................... 98 Art ................................................................................................................................. 98

Easter Island.............................................................................................................. 99 Document...................................................................................................................... 99

Clancy of the Overflow........................................................................................... 100

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Chapter 1: World of the Geographer

Case Studies

Relative Location 1. Write down the street address for your home. Is this an absolute or relative location? Students should write down their addresses. It is an absolute location. 2. Describe the location of your school compared to your home. Is this description a relative or absolute location? Answers to the first part of the question will vary, for example, the student might write that her school is northwest of her home. The answer to the second part of the question is that the description is a relative location. 3. Describe the location of the store where your family buys food in relation to your home. Is this description a relative or absolute location? This is a relative location. 4. What is the latitude of the Equator? The latitude is 0 (zero) degrees. Latitude is defined as the angular measure north or south of the Equator. Thus the Equator has a latitude of zero. 5. What is the highest measure possible for latitude? The highest measure of latitude is 90 degrees either North or South. Latitude is defined as the angular measure north or south of the Equator. As one moves from the Equator northwards or southwards, one reaches the North or South Pole when one has traveled one-quarter of the circumference of the earth. One quarter of the circumference is one quarter of 360 degrees or 90 degrees. 6. Where is the Prime Meridian? What is the measure of its longitude? The Prime Meridian runs from the North Pole to the South Pole (as all meridians do) through Greenwich, England. Its measure is 0. Longitude has to have a starting point. By international convention, Greenwich was the agreed starting point. 7. What is the highest possible measure for longitude? The highest possible measure for longitude is 180 degrees. Longitude is the angular measure east or west of a given line, by agreement the Greenwich Meridian. If one travels east or west of the given line, one will travel half-way around the Earth. Further travel will involve overlapping of either the eastern or western segment. One half of the circumference of 360 degrees is 180 degrees. 8. Walk around your community. Write down the street intersections or addresses of a: a. store that sells food b. place of worship


c. post office d. restaurant e. police or fire station The answers will vary by community and may differ by student. These are examples of absolute locations. 9. To answer the following questions, refer to the map: WORLD MAP, found under "Resource" on the menu bar. a. Find the approximate latitude and longitude of the city of New Orleans, Louisiana (USA). 30 N 90 W b. Find the approximate latitude and longitude of the capital of the United States. 39 N 77 W c. Find the approximate latitude and longitude of the city of Johannesburg, South Africa. 26 S 28 E d. These are examples of absolute locations. e. Find the two places above using relative location, with your home as a reference. (Hint: you can use the Internet by going to travel sites such as www.mapquest.com.) Answers will vary depending on where students live. 10. The following places have names that describe their relative locations. Name three countries that are found in each area. Answers will vary depending on countries chosen. Examples include: a. Far East: China, Japan, Vietnam, North Korea, South Korea, Laos, Thailand, etc. b. Central Asia: Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Mongolia, Kyrgyzstan, Turkmenistan, etc. c. Middle East: Saudi Arabia, Oman, United Arab Emirates, Egypt, Israel, Jordan, Syria, Yemen, Iraq, Iran, etc.

Human Geography 1. Why are poor countries not able to invest much money to improve conditions? Most people in poor countries do not have much money and must spend a large proportion of it on food, clothing, and shelter. They have very little money to save or to invest. Similarly, their governments should use most of their funds to supply vital public services, including police and sometimes food for the poor. Yet, in many instances, the governments spend money on military supplies and on the government officials themselves. Those patterns of spending leave little money for education, health care, safe drinking water, and better roads and buildings. 2. Why do people in poor countries continue to move to cities even though the cities are overcrowded? People in poor countries frequently have few job opportunities in the countryside. Because of high population growth, a surplus of farming labor exists in rural areas. The cities offer more


employment possibilities. Most of the jobs do not pay much, and some are not in legal occupations. But, people are more likely to find work there than in the countryside. Thus poor people migrate to cities even though the conditions are often unpleasant, dirty, and dangerous. 3. What are three reasons that people move? The main reason that people move is for jobs. You are likely to move during your lifetime in order to take a job or to take a better job. Sometimes people move to a more pleasant climate. California and Florida have grown in population largely for that reason. People also move for religious and political freedom. Some people move because their spouse has moved or to join another member of their family. 4. Many poor countries have large numbers of children compared to working adults. What are three problems that these countries face in improving the conditions of their people? First, children need to be taken care of and supported and educated. Large families may have insufficient resources to provide their children with enough food and clothes. Second, a society with proportionately small numbers of adults of working age will have large numbers of children and large numbers of old people. These people are poor because the money they earn can only go so far in paying for the needs of the children and the elderly. Oftentimes, the working people cannot earn much money. Employers do not have to pay high wages because the people are willing to work cheaply because they are usually not skilled and because other people are also willing to work for little money. They are unable to save much, if any, money. Third, families and societies that must spend most of their income for current needs, such as food, clothing, and shelter, are not able to save much money or to invest in social needs, such as education, better housing, and safe water supply. 5. Cities in Western Europe are densely populated. Cities in developing countries are also densely populated. Why are the people in the cities in Western Europe better off than those living in cities in developing countries? The people in Western Europe are generally better off than those living in cities in developing countries because Western Europe has developed a safe water supply. Indoor plumbing is widely available, while it is not so prevalent in developing countries. The western cities are generally clean with less opportunity for large populations of rodents and other disease-carrying organisms to spread and multiply on a large and dangerous scale. Livestock are more likely to be found in cities in developing countries; their droppings make the city dirtier and facilitate the spread of disease. Cities in Western Europe are more likely to have and apply building codes, making life safer. More jobs in legitimate and legal occupations are available in Western European cities than in many developing countries. Similarly, air pollution is controlled more in western cities, while in developing countries air pollution is more prevalent, resulting in respiratory problems. Children are better cared for in western cities, partially because diseases, such as AIDS and HIV, have not killed their parents. More children are in school in western cities, more children are already working or otherwise on their own in cities in developing countries. 6. Name and describe the push and pull factors that encouraged migration to the United States in the 1800s and early 1900s. Compare those factors to push and pull factors affecting migration to the United States in the early 21st century. Push factors encourage people to leave an area, or to emigrate. Pull factors attract people to enter another place, or to immigrate. Push factors encouraging migration to the United States included poverty and shortages of food, sometimes famine (Ireland), in the home country. Political repression also led to people emigrating. Religious persecution was an important factor,


at both the beginning of the mass migrations, to Plymouth, Massachusetts in the early 1600s, and towards the end, in the latter part of the 19th century and early 20th century, from eastern Europe and Russia. Not all migration to the United States was voluntary. Millions of Africans and people from the Caribbean were forced to come to the United States as slaves. Pull factors included the view that the United States was a land of opportunity, that jobs were available, that farmland was available. People were attracted to the ideals of freedom, including freedom to practice one’s religion. One should note that even though economic factors attracted people to the United States, for many immigrants, times were not easy once they arrived. They lived in crowded apartments in cities and worked in sweatshops. In the early 20th century, the United States changed its immigration policy. It lessened the numbers of legal immigrants allowed into the country and it restricted their country of origin. Thus fewer people came to this country and of those most came from western and northern Europe. In the latter part of the 20th century, the immigration policy changed again. As a result, more immigrants come from the Americas and Asia than had been allowed in the past. Millions of illegal immigrants have also entered the United States over the past few decades. In the early 21st century, push factors include poverty and lack of jobs in the home country. Political, and to a lesser extent, religious, persecution has also led to migration to the United States. Views of the United States as a land of opportunity remain an important pull factor. Many immigrants arrive illegally, often paying huge sums of money to be smuggled into the United States. Sometimes, these immigrants die in the cargo sections of trucks left in the desert of the Southwest United States or in containers in ships. Although slavery is no longer legal, some immigrants can be considered almost slaves as they have to work to pay off the illegal fees they were charged to come to the United States. Many times the work they are required to do is not legal and extremely demeaning. As in the 19th and 20th centuries, many immigrants live in crowded apartments and work in sweatshops. The “American Dream” frequently takes luck, hard work, and a long time to attain. 7. The world's major religions originated in a few locations. Judaism and Christianity originated in what is now called Israel. Islam originated in Arabia. Hinduism originated in the Indus River Valley in Pakistan. Buddhism originated in northeastern India. Yet, all of these religions are practiced in other locations. Compare the location of their places of origin with their current locations. By what processes did they spread? In what directions did they spread? Religions spread through several major processes: migration, contact conversion, natural increase, and missionary activity. Migration means that the people who follow the religion move and take their religion with them. Natural increase results in growing populations when more people are born than die, so that the number of followers increase. Contact conversion involves convincing neighbors or conquered peoples to follow the religion. Islam: Contact conversion was the main way that Islam spread from Arabia westwards through Africa and eastwards into more of southwest Asia through parts of southern Asia and all the way into Indonesia. A major group of converters was Arab traders who, as they traveled on their caravans through the deserts, convinced others of the value of Islam. Islam’s appeal arose because it did not include a caste (class) system and involved straightforward requirements, including praising Allah, praying several times a day, paying alms, fasting from dawn until dusk during the month of Ramadan, abstaining from pork, alcohol and tobacco, and making a pilgrimage to Mecca once in one’s life, if possible. Christianity: Early Christianity spread largely through migration and contact conversion. Although in later centuries, Christianity was known for its missionary activity, that process was not always


successful, especially in parts of Africa. During the 17th through early 20th centuries, as Europeans left their homes and moved to the Americas and, on a smaller scale, to Australia and New Zealand, migration and accompanying natural increase were major factors in the spread of Christianity. Judaism: Early Judaism spread by migration, some voluntary and some forced. The diaspora, starting around the year 70 of the Common Era, involved Jews leaving Israel and moving into Europe. From the 18th through the mid-20th century, Jews migrated to the Americas, but not in the same numbers as Christians, mainly because fewer Jews existed than Christians. After six million Jews were killed by the Nazis during the 1930s and 1940s, many survivors migrated to Israel, where, over the last half century, their numbers have grown, partially from natural increase. Contact conversion has not been an important contributor to growth in numbers. Hinduism: Hinduism originated in the Indus Valley of Pakistan and spread through contact conversion and some migration to much of what is now India. Its many beliefs and many gods attracted millions of adherents over the centuries. In the 1940s, British India was given independence from Great Britain and split into India and Pakistan (which later split into Pakistan and Bangladesh). India was primarily Hindu, while Pakistan was primarily Moslem. Some Indians have migrated to other lands, including Europe and the Americas, making migration one means of the spread of Hinduism. Those numbers are comparatively small so that India remains the prevailing location for Hinduism. Buddhism: Buddhism originated in northeast India, in the foothills of Nepal, when Prince Gautama became the Enlightened One (or the Buddha). Although early Buddhism spread through India at first, Hinduism re-gained believers and Buddhism instead became strong in East and Southeast Asia. It grew first by contact conversion and somewhat through missionaries. Its major growth has been through natural increase of the population. Early Buddhism involved celibacy and living as a monk. If that belief had continued, then Buddhism would have died out relatively quickly. Other forms of Buddhism have developed, which do not require celibacy, so that millions of Buddhists exist today. 8. Name and describe three ways that dense populations affect the natural environment. As a follow-up, how are people then affected? Deforestation: Large numbers of people in an area frequently cut down forests. The people use the trees as firewood and then farm the cleared land. Although the people benefit in the beginning, the natural ecology is damaged. Wildlife die or must find another place to live. With the removal of trees and other plants, soil erosion can occur more easily. Very large proportions (perhaps around 90%) of the forests of the Eastern United States were destroyed by settlers. Over the decades, many of the forest lands have grown back. Deforestation is a serious problem for people because it leads to soil erosion and desertification (the formation of deserts). People in many developing countries depend on the forests for food and for firewood. If the forests are cut down, then the people have little food and little fuel to keep warm or to cook their food. Remember, people in poor countries usually are not able to afford oil or gas for cooking or heating. Depletion and contamination of the water supply: Dense populations may use up the natural water supply. Sometimes people may obtain water from underground sources, aquifers, and in other places, they may use surface water. If people use the water faster than it can be replenished, then the water supply will diminish or even disappear. People are frequently not careful with their wastes and many sources of water have been contaminated. Contamination can occur on a large scale or in an immediate area. The contaminated water can spread disease, causing sickness and death. Once water is contaminated, it is difficult to make pure again.


Changes in weather and climatic conditions: Cities are dense concentrations of people and buildings. The buildings and streets, combined with automobile traffic, increase the air temperature and result in more precipitation. As a result, cities are sometimes called thermal islands. Other differences include air pollution from automobiles and factories, which can cause respiratory problems and disease.

Regions 1. What is a region? Where do geographers get information or data to describe places or regions? A region is an area that is defined by a unifying characteristic. A region can be distinguished from its surrounding area. Geographers obtain information or data from government sources, such as a census. Geographers also obtain information from field work, by traveling to the place and collecting data on plants, animals, people, rocks, and minerals. Data can also be obtained from satellite imagery or aerial photographs (taken from airplanes). Geographers also obtain data by reading work of other geographers and even scientists from other disciplines, including geologists, political scientists, biologists, and meteorologists. 2. Do all borders have distinct boundaries? Give an example of a region that has a distinct boundary. Give an example of a region with a blurred boundary. Regions do not all have distinct boundaries. A state’s borders form distinct boundaries. A line separates one state from another. A climatic region has a blurred boundary. Climates do not change drastically from one type to another. A gradual transition occurs. Similarly, vegetation regions change gradually from one type to another. One does not walk from a forest into a savanna. Instead, as one moves from the forest, the proportion of grasses and bushes increases and the proportion of trees declines. Over a distance, the trees are replaced by bushes and grasses, yielding savanna. 3. Name and give examples of three types of regions. Political regions: States, counties, cities, and countries are political regions. They are delineated from their adjacent regions by defined boundaries. Sometimes countries may not agree on a boundary, which leads too often to war and bloodshed. Language regions: These are areas where one language is dominant or pervasive. The United States is an English-speaking region. However, parts of the United States include areas where people do not speak English as their primary language. These include parts of the Southwest and Florida where Spanish is the primary language. In other parts of the Southwest, Native American languages are dominant. There are parts of Maine and Louisiana where French is primary. Vegetation regions: The five major vegetation regions are forest, savanna, grassland, desert, and tundra. For example, forests are dominated by trees. Many types of forests exist, including rainforest, deciduous forest, and boreal forest. 4. Choose one of the following countries. Name its major languages. On a map of the country, draw in the approximate boundaries of the language regions. a. Nigeria: The major regional languages in Nigeria include Hausa, spoken mostly in the north, Yoruba, spoken mostly in the southwest, and Ibo, the major language of the southeast. But many


people do not speak these languages. Around 12 local languages exist along with more than 200 local tongues or dialects. (A tongue or dialect is a variant on the main language, spoken in a particular region or by a group of people sharing a common background.) To encourage both communication and national unity, Nigeria made English its official language. b. Canada: Canada is officially a bilingual country. Both English and French are official languages. English is prevalent in most of southern Canada, except Quebec, where French is prevalent. When Nunavut was established in 1999 as a new territory (it was carved out of the Northwest Territories), three languages were proclaimed official, English, French, and Inuktitut. c. Italy: Italian is the language over most of the country. However, in the North, German is spoken; near the border with France, French is spoken, and in the northeast, Serbo-Croatian is spoken. Sicilian, a close relative of Italian, is spoken in Sicily. Other languages, about 30, are spoken throughout the country. d. Spain: Castilian (which is the Spanish word for the Spanish language), Catalan, Basque (El Euskera), and Galician. e. India: India has about 15 major languages, mostly from two language families, Indo-European and Dravidian. All together, about 1,600 different languages exist in India, although many of these are spoken by relatively few people. Hindi is spoken in the north and Dravidian languages in the south. Hindi and English are the official languages of India. 5. Use a map of your state to answer this question. Divide your state into regions based on dominant economic activities. Answers will vary, depending on the student’s state. 6. Describe the locations of the major religions of the world. Draw in the regions on a map of the world. Islam is the dominant religion throughout northern Africa, east into southwest Asia, north into Turkey, and (with the exception of India) east into southeast Asia. Muslims are in the majority in Indonesia, the fourth most populous country in the world. Hinduism is found in India and Nepal and parts of neighboring countries. Judaism is dominant in Israel. Christianity is dominant throughout much of the Americas. All of Europe is predominantly Christian. In the Southern Hemisphere, Christianity is found in South Africa and New Zealand. In Australia, Christians live on coastal areas, where the European-descended population is prevalent. The interior of Australia is very thinly populated, and most of those who live there are Aborigines, following traditional religions. Chinese religions, including Buddhism, Confucianism, and Taoism and combinations of beliefs unique to Chinese, are prevalent throughout much of China. Shintoism and Buddhism are dominant in Japan. Many adherents of Buddhism may be found in Southeast Asia. In describing the locations of religions, or any cultural feature, one should be aware that although a religion is dominant in a region, other religions are likely to exist there as well.

Maps and Globes 1. Why is the globe a true-scale model of the earth?


In geography, the term scale refers to the relationship between real world distances and map distances. True-scale means that the map or globe represents accurately the size and the shape of features on the earth. A globe is a true-scale model because it is round as is the earth. The shape, size, and relative position of land masses and oceans are in the same proportion on the globe as they are in the real world. 2. What is a map projection? Why are map projections not true representations of the earth's surface? A map projection is an orderly system of parallels and meridians representing the earth. Map projections are not true representations of the earth’s surface because the round earth cannot be transformed to a flat surface. Any representation of the earth on a flat surface will involve distortion. An analogy can be made with peeling an orange. The skin of the orange cannot be laid on a flat surface without cracking. Similarly, features of the earth’s surface will be distorted, either changed in shape or size or both, when transferred to a map projection. 3. The Mercator projection was made in 1569, over 400 years ago. Yet, it remains a very popular map in classrooms throughout the United States and also for navigators. Explain why. The Mercator projection preserves shape. The shapes of all continents on the globe are shown accurately on the Mercator projection. However, the Mercator projection does not preserve size. As one moves to higher latitudes, from the Equator to the Poles, the size of the landmasses becomes more distorted. Northern Hemisphere continents appear much larger on the Mercator Projection than they do in the real world. Nevertheless, the projection provides a good picture of the relationships among landmasses. The projection also preserves direction. All straight lines on the Mercator projection show true direction. (These lines are called loxodromes or rhumb lines.) Since the map does not preserve size, one cannot depend on it alone for navigating. One would soon get lost by following the true direction size, because the distances are not accurate. 4. Compare the sizes of the following landmasses on a globe and on a Mercator projection map: Greenland and South America, Ecuador (in South America) and Gabon (in Africa). Which one of the pair looks larger? Why? Greenland and South America: Greenland looks larger than South America on the Mercator projection because it is located at a higher latitude. As part of preserving shape, the map enlarges areas of landmasses as latitude increases. Even though Greenland is much smaller in the real world and as depicted on the globe, it appears much larger than South America on the Mercator projection. Gabon and Ecuador: Both Gabon and Ecuador are approximately the same size on both the Mercator projection and the globe. They are both on the Equator; thus the Mercator map barely distorts their size. 5. What are Geographic Information Systems (GIS)? Geographic Information Systems are a way of showing spatial data. GIS uses computer technology to display several types of geographic information on a map. GIS makes layers of different data, such as vegetation types, roads, and topography, to provide a detailed picture of natural and human phenomena. GIS can be used to analyze land-use patterns. GIS is particularly useful for examining changes occurring over time in the human and natural environments.


Geography and Scale 1. You are looking at two maps, one of your school grounds and one of the whole world. Both are on the same size of paper. Which has the larger scale? Which provides more detail? The map of the school grounds has a larger scale and provides more detail. The map of the world has a smaller scale and provides less detail. Scale is the relationship between real world distance and map distance. The size of the world compared to the piece of paper is much larger than the relative size of your school grounds compared to the piece of paper. Thus the map of the whole world will not be able to show as much information (or detail) as a map of your school grounds. Therefore, the map of the world has a smaller scale. 2. What do coffee traders do when the coffee crop in Brazil is damaged? If Japan imports food from Australia, what does Japan do if a food import fails in Australia? When the coffee crop in Brazil is damaged, coffee traders will look for another country from which to buy coffee. Colombia is the second largest exporter of coffee. Coffee traders may seek coffee from there. Coffee traders could also try to buy coffee from West African countries, such as the Ivory Coast, or from India or even Vietnam in Asia. However, the price might rise because of the overall smaller supply of coffee and because of new business relationships and transportation arrangements that must be made. If Australian farmers produce less of a commodity usually sold to Japan, then Japan will look to another country to supply it with the food. Beef is the major food export from Australia to Japan. Thus if cattle of Australia were sickened or damaged in some way, Japan would either import less beef or seek out another market. Sometimes, demand for a particular export increases or declines without anything happening in the supplying country. In 2004, Japan increased the amount of beef imported from Australia, not because of anything that happened in Japan, but because of a case of Mad Cow Disease appearing in the United States in late 2003. The Japanese government decided that United States beef supply was not safe and placed a ban on beef from the United States. Japan then imported more beef from Australia and Australia’s exports increased. 3. Make a list of the following based on the size of its scale, starting from smallest to largest scale. a. A globe (around 18 inches in diameter) b. A map of the world (around 4 feet long and 3 feet wide) c. A map of the United States (around 4 feet long and 3 feet wide) A globe has the smallest scale as it shows the largest part of the world on the smallest area. A map of the world has the next largest scale as it is showing the whole world on a larger area. But the amount of distortion of the shape and size will be greater on the flat map than the globe. Transferring the features of the round Earth onto a flat map always leads to distortion. Finally, a map of the United States of the same size as the map of the world (around 4 feet by 3 feet) will have the largest scale. That map is depicting a much smaller area than that of the whole world; thus it provides more detail and a larger scale. 4. Explain how a hurricane in Central America might affect the supply of bananas in a supermarket in Kansas.


A hurricane in Central America might destroy or severely damage the banana plants grown on plantations there. Central America is the primary source of bananas for the United States market. However, the hurricane probably would affect only a relatively small area, so the whole banana crop would probably not be destroyed. If the damage is wide enough, the supply of bananas might decrease significantly. With a smaller supply of bananas, the price should rise, thus making bananas more expensive in the consuming areas, including Kansas. Consumers in Kansas may have fewer bananas available and may have to pay more for them. 5. For each of the three following topics, what type of map would you use to understand these topics better -- a small-scale map or a large-scale map, or something in between? Explain why you chose the answer that you did. a. Oil flows from Southwest Asia to the rest of the world. b. Drawing a route for a hike in the woods. c. Planning a trip from California to Florida. a. Oil flows form Southwest Asia to the rest of the world: For this topic, a small-scale map is the best. Although the small-scale map may not provide much detail, it will allow the reader to see the movements of oil over the whole world. Details of the actual movements are not as important as the overall perspective. b. Drawing a route for a hike in the woods: For this job, one should use a large-scale map. One wants as much detail as possible, including locations of roads, paths, and any buildings, as well as heights of the surface and types of landforms. c. Planning a trip from California to Florida: At least two scales of map are best for this trip. A medium-scale map is appropriate for starting the trip. One wants an overall perspective as well as some detail, especially in terms of roads and highways. One would want to see the states to drive through as well as which roads to take. Having made the plan, the driver should use larger scale maps to gain more information about the specific route, including which main highways, which roads to take to the main highways, and which entrances and exits to use. By using the larger scale map, one is less likely to get lost and is more likely to take the most efficient route. 6. Place the maps from question number 5 in order of scale, from largest to smallest scale. b. Hike in the woods c. Planning a trip from California to Florida a. Oil flows from Southwest Asia to the rest of the world. 7. Explain why a weather forecaster needs to use maps of different scales: global perspective (such as satellite imagery), national perspective, and community perspective. A weather forecaster must be aware of atmospheric conditions over a wide area as well as at the local level. Weather refers to the conditions of the atmosphere and changes that are occurring. Therefore, a weather forecaster must know about global winds and pressure systems as well as temperature, precipitation, and moisture content in the air. For these conditions, he/she needs a small-scale map or one that provides a global perspective. A weather forecaster must know these properties for several hundred miles around his/her own weather station. A national map, or one of intermediate scale, is useful for this analysis and forecasting. Those levels of data will help him/her predict what changes may occur over the next few hours, days, or weeks. But even over a few square miles, atmospheric conditions vary. Thus, a weather forecaster needs a map for the immediate community, or a large-scale map.


Creating Population Pyramids Answer for Step 3: Vertical lines should have been drawn in each of the age groups as follows: For the United States: For males: 0-9: 7.4; 10-19: 7.3; 20-29: 6.7; 30-39: 7.8; 40-49: 7.7; 50-59: 5.5; 60-69: 3.4; 70+: 3.5. For females: 0-9: 7.1; 10-19: 7.0: 20-29: 6.5; 30-39: 7.6; 40-49: 7.7; 50-59: 5.7: 60-69: 3.8; 70+: 5.4. For Mexico: For males: 0-9: 11.4; 10-19: 10.6; 20-29: 9.6; 30-39: 6.9; 40-49: 4.7; 50-59: 3.0; 60-69: 1.9; 70+: 1.7. For females: 0-9: 11.0; 10-19: 10.3; 20-29: 9.8; 30-39: 7.3; 40-49: 5.1; 50-59: 3.3; 60-69: 2.1; 70+: 1.7. For Japan: For males: 0-9: 4.9; 10-19: 5.7; 20-29: 7.4; 30-39: 6.7; 40-49: 6.6; 50-59: 7.5; 60-69: 5.6; 70+: 4.5. For females: 0-9: 4.7; 10-19: 5.4; 20-29: 7.1; 30-39: 6.6; 40-49: 6.6; 50-59: 7.6; 60-69: 6.1; 70+: 7.1. United States: 1. Look at the population pyramid. What can you say about the age structure of this population? Are there more babies, young children, adults, or very old people? The age structure of the population is generally balanced among all age groups. That does not mean that all groups have the same proportion of the total population. There are proportionately more people in the 30 to 49 year-old age group. The smallest proportion is old people, ages 60 and higher. Babies and young children represent a slightly smaller proportion than young to middle-age adults. 2. What do you think will happen to the size of the population as the years go on and the children grow into adults? If child-bearing habits remain the same, there will be a slight decline in the birth rate. There are slightly fewer people in the pre-childbearing ages than in the childbearing ages. These younger people will grow into adults. Even if they have the same number of children as their parents, if their childbearing habits remain the same, the number of births will decline, because fewer of them exist compared to their parents. However, the population of the whole country could still grow if immigration continues to add to the population. 3. Is the population balanced between males and females? Are there more male or female babies? Why? For most age groups, the population is generally balanced between males and females. From ages 0 to 39, the proportion of males is a little higher than that for females. For older ages, the situation is reversed, increasingly significantly in the 70+ group. There are slightly more male babies. Several reasons may exist to explain the difference. In many societies, males are considered more important than females. Sometimes, female births are not registered. However, it is highly unlikely that a significant number of baby girls are not registered at birth in the United States. Another reason is biological. The probability of having a boy versus a girl is about 50:50. But, baby boys are more fragile at birth and are less likely to survive until they are one year old. To compensate, evidently, the number of boys conceived is naturally slightly higher than the number of girls. In the United States and other developed countries, modern medical care can prevent more baby boys from dying than in the past. As a


result of this improved care, the greater number of boys conceived translates into a larger number of young boys surviving. 4. Why are there more women age 70+ than there are men of the same age? Women have a longer life expectancy than men. This may be caused by genetics. It might also be a result of environmental influences and choices of lifestyle. For this particular year, 2000, and for the next few years, the age group 70+ represents the World War II generation. Part of the difference may be the result of deaths during the war. 5. Do you think that this country will be able to take good care of its young people over the next 20 years? How about the older people? In terms of numbers and proportions, the country should be able to take care of its young people over the next 20 years. If the adults now have good jobs and practice good spending habits, then the young people should be taken care of. However, if the economy does not operate well, then today’s adults will not be able to provide adequately for their children. The national care of older people has become controversial. The baby boom generation, children born between 1945 and 1965, will be reaching retirement age around the year 2007 (if retirement age is 62). A national debate has arisen about the availability of social security funds at that time. Concern exists as to the number of people who will be working and the level of funds they will supply compared to the number of people receiving social security payments starting in 2007. Another serious consideration is the management of health-care costs. As these have exploded over the last few years, many older people cannot afford medicines to stay alive and to have a good quality of life. 6. Will this country have a sufficiently large workforce in the next 10 years? 20 years? Why or why not? If we consider only the statistics provided by the population age-structure diagram, in the next 10 years and 20 years, the workforce may be a bit smaller than it is now. The proportion of the population below childbearing age is a little smaller than is currently at childbearing age. This decline is not of much concern because the structure of the U.S. economy is constantly changing. Many industries are becoming more labor-efficient, which means that fewer workers are needed than before. Many jobs that were performed within the U.S.’s borders are now being done overseas, usually at much cheaper wages. (These changes may help some industries, and may be good in the long run, but the changes hurt a large number of workers and their families.) Another contributor to the workforce is labor from immigrants. Even if the birthrate of people currently in the country declines, immigration has and will continue to more than make up the difference. 7. Construct population pyramids for Mexico and Japan. Answer the above questions for these two countries. Students should follow the same steps to create a population pyramid. Answers will vary depending on the country (answers for Mexico and Japan are below). Mexico: 1. Look at the population pyramid. What can you say about the age structure of this population? Are there more babies, young children, adults, or very old people? The population pyramid for Mexico has a larger proportion of babies and young children.


2. What do you think will happen to the size of the population as the years go on and the children grow into adults? This population will most likely grow as the proportion of the population below childbearing age is higher than that currently at childbearing age. If childbearing habits remain the same, larger number of adults in the future will have more children as a whole than their parents are now. Hence the population will grow. 3. Is the population balanced between males and females? Are there more male or female babies? Why? The population is basically balanced between males and females. However, for the younger ages, males make up a slightly greater proportion of the population. There are more male than female babies, although the difference is small (0.4 percentage points). Two reasons for the slightly greater number of male babies are the naturally higher birthrate for boys than girls and the possibility that fewer female babies may be registered than male babies. 4. Why are there more women age 70+ than there are men of the same age? The reason that more women are 70+ than are men is that women seem to have longer life expectancies, perhaps because of genetics. It should be noted that the difference between the numbers of women 70+ compared to men is very small. 5. Do you think that this country will be able to take good care of its young people over the next 20 years? How about the older people? Since the proportion of younger people in the population can be expected to grow, this country should be able to take care of its older people and its young people over the next 20 years. Governmental social policy will also have some influence. 6. Will this country have a sufficiently large workforce in the next 10 years? 20 years? Why or why not? All else being equal, Mexico should have a sufficiently large workforce in both the next 10 and next 20 years. However, immigration and changes in the world supply of labor should also be taken into account in predicting the future. Japan: 1. Look at the population pyramid. What can you say about the age structure of this population? Are there more babies, young children, adults, or very old people? Japan’s population age structure is unbalanced towards older people. It is different from the traditional population pyramid in which babies make up the largest proportion of the population. In Japan, older people, 70+, represent a larger proportion than do babies. Women who are 70+ represent 7.1% of the population; men of the same age represent 4.5%. Male babies represent 4.9% and female babies 4.7%. Similarly, in Japan people in the 60 and over and 50 and over age groups make up a larger proportion of the population than is typical. 2. What do you think will happen to the size of the population as the years go on and the children grow into adults? This population can be expected to decline. The proportion of children is much smaller than people now having children. In approximately a generation, there will not be enough child bearers to replace the current child bearers.


3. Is the population balanced between males and females? Are there more male or female babies? Why? The population is not balanced between males and females in the older age groups. It is especially lopsided for 70+, with many more women than men. The number of male babies is slightly more than female babies, presumably because of natural causes. Biologically, more male babies are conceived on average than girl babies. 4. Why are there more women age 70+ than there are men of the same age? One reason may be biological as the average life span of women, for all societies, is greater than for men. Another reason may be related to deaths of soldiers during World War II. The cohort, or age-group, that served during World War II, was generally in their 70s in 2001, the year of this table. Since more men than women died during the war, one could expect the number of men surviving to age 70 to be less than the number of women. 5. Do you think that this country will be able to take good care of its young people over the next 20 years? How about the older people? Numbers by themselves seem to indicate that Japan should be able to take care of its young people over the next 20 years. The proportion of babies and children is small compared to the proportion of adults. On the other hand, the numbers indicate that too few young people may be available to take care of older adults. For some countries, immigration might add to the proportion of younger people. But Japan allows relatively small numbers of immigrants to enter each year. Japan’s social and economic policy will greatly influence the care of older people. 6. Will this country have a sufficiently large workforce in the next 10 years? 20 years? Why or why not? The numbers alone indicate that the workforce will be declining in both 10 and 20 years as the children of today’s workers are a smaller proportion of the population than are their parents. Whether this decline will result in too small a workforce depends on changes in labor-efficiency; where work is done (domestically or overseas); and governmental economic and social policy. 8. Use the Internet or other resources to find population data for another country. Construct a population pyramid for that country. Answer the above questions for that country. Students should follow the same steps to create a population pyramid. Answers will vary depending on the country. 9. Do you think a population pyramid is useful for describing the population characteristics of different societies, and for predicting future growth trends? Explain your answer in an essay. Essays should have an introduction, at least two paragraphs, and a conclusion. A population pyramid is useful for describing the population characteristics of different societies. It is also useful to predict future growth trends. However, it is not perfect. A population pyramid provides a graphical or pictorial view of numbers and statistics. The picture of what the numbers represent allows better understanding of the overall population structure of one society. Comparing the statistics and the population pyramids of different societies allow better understanding and more means of comparison. By having the information available, better decisions about social and economic policies that might affect population can be made.


Even though a population pyramid provides useful information, factors other than age and sex distribution are part of population characteristics. Immigration is one very important component that is not part of a population pyramid. And beyond statistics are government and social policies which are important influences on population change.

Maps

World Map 1. Which four oceans of the world are labeled on the map? The Arctic, Atlantic, Indian, and Pacific Oceans are labeled on the map. 2. Name a country in the Western Hemisphere. Many choices are possible, including United States, Canada, Mexico, Peru, Brazil... 3. Name a country in the Eastern Hemisphere. Many choices are possible, including France, Germany, Russia, Australia, India, China, Bangladesh, Algeria, Iraq... 4. Name a country that is in both the Eastern Hemisphere and the Southern Hemisphere. Many choices are possible, including Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, Namibia... 5. Name a country that is located on the equator. Many choices are possible: Ecuador, Peru, Colombia, Brazil, Gabon, Zaire (Democratic Republic of Congo), Kenya, Somalia, Uganda, Indonesia. 6. Use an encyclopedia or the Internet to find out what map projections their pilots and navigators use to plot their routes across the country or from one country to another. (Hint: Use the keywords "great circle navigation.") They use Gnomonic and Mercator projections. 7. Look at a world atlas. Compare the shape of countries on an equal-area projection with their shapes on a globe. Why do they differ? A round globe cannot be transferred onto a flat surface without any distortion. Either shape or size or both must be distorted. With an equal-area projection, the size or area of the country is the same as that on the globe or in the real world. To preserve that size, the shape must be distorted. 8. What kind of map projection is used for the map of the United States? Read the description in the atlas about that kind of projection. Most good atlases have such explanations in their first few pages. Use the explanation provided to explain why that projection is used for the United States. A conic projection is usually used for a map of the United States. The map is shaped like a cone. One line of latitude of the globe touches the cone. Along that line the scale is true or the same for both the globe and the map. As one moves away from the line of latitude, the tangent line, the


scale increases and the map becomes distorted. This map is useful for the United States because the country has a great east-west extent. Along the latitude line, the scale is true. Although some distortion occurs in a north or south direction, the distortion is within reason. Please know that the map does not stay as a cone. It is unrolled to make a flat surface.

World Time Zones 1. How many time zones does the United States have? Four time zones cover the contiguous 48 states. Alaska includes two time zones and Hawaii covers only one time zone. Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands are in another time zone. 2. If it is noon in New York City, what time is it in Los Angeles? It is 9 am, or three hours earlier. 3. If it is noon in Shanghai (on the east coast of China) what time is it in Urumqi (in the western part of China)? It is noon. China has only one time zone. 4. If it is Tuesday in London, what day is it in Hong Kong? The time in Hong Kong depends on the time of day in London. The day could be either Tuesday or Wednesday. Hong Kong is eight hours ahead of London. Therefore any time before 4 pm, London time, the day is still Tuesday in Hong Kong. After 4 pm, even one minute after, will make the time in Hong Kong after midnight, and the next day, Wednesday.

Graphs

Geography Subdivisions 1. How many regions are there in the world? This table divides the world into seven regions, the continents. Geographers usually divide the world into smaller regions, based on the type of work they want to do. There are an infinite number of regions in the world. Although the regions may be based on natural features, their definitions are based on human ideas. 2. What are the subcategories under the heading "Human Geography"? Economic geography, cultural geography, urban geography, population geography, political geography, and historical geography. 3. How is cultural geography subdivided? Cultural geography is subdivided into geography of religion and geography of language. 4. How is this program organized? (What do the various chapters emphasize, a topical or regional approach?) This program is organized following a regional approach. The chapter headings are the names of


major regions of the world.

World Population 1. Which continents are shown on the graph? North America, South America, Asia, Africa, and Europe are shown on the graph. 2. What trends in population are occurring for all continents? The population has been increasing in all continents. 3. Which continent is the most populous? Why do you think it is the largest? The most populous continent is Asia. Its population grew because births were greater than deaths. More babies survived and grew to become adults because of greater food supplies, better medical care, and improved sanitary conditions. Another reason is because large numbers of people have been living on Asia for a very long time. Those large numbers of people have produced more babies for centuries. 4. Choose any continent. Describe the growth in population. Explain why the changes occurred. Students may choose any of the following: South America grew relatively slowly until the middle of the 20th century. In the latter part of that century, its population growth increased largely because of scientific and technological innovations that people in more economically advanced countries developed. These improvements led to increased food supply, better medical care, and improved sanitary conditions. Africa’s population grew relatively slowly until the middle of the 20th century. The population grew more quickly in the closing decades of the century. Its population increased as fewer babies died. Expanded food supplies, improved sanitary conditions, and better medical care helped people of all ages. These advances came from the Western world and generally not from within the African countries. Unfortunately, AIDS has been especially virulent in Africa. As a result, many people are dying at relatively young ages and many people are very sick. The population of North America started to grow rapidly towards the end of the 19th century into the 20th century. Millions of migrants from Europe came to the United States and Canada looking for better jobs and freedom. Natural increase, or births compared to deaths, also grew from better medical care and improved sanitary conditions. Expanded food supply from the flourishing farms contributed to more growth. In the latter part of the 20th century into the early 21st century, the pattern of population growth changed as many Americans chose to have fewer children. Americans generally viewed children differently than had the generations before. With industrialization and urbanization, children did not work on the farms. They also needed more education and were more expensive to support overall. Yet, as the rate of natural increase declined, the rate of immigration stayed the same or increased. Thus, the population of North America continues to grow in the early 21st century. Europe’s population grew in the 18th and 19th century as more babies survived to adulthood because of better medical care, improved sanitary conditions, and expanded food supplies. So many more people were added that many Europeans left the continent to go to the United States and Canada in search of better economic conditions and political freedoms. In the latter part of


the 20th century and the beginning of the 21st century, the rate of natural increase in most European countries has declined. With industrialization and urbanization and child-labor laws, children do not bring in income and they have become more expensive to support. However, the decline in natural increase has been counteracted to some extent by immigration from Asia, Southwest Asia, and from other European countries. 5. What are some problems resulting from too rapid population growth? Problems resulting from too rapid population growth include insufficient resources to meet people’s needs and to help economic growth. Food shortages are a severe problem that can come about with a large increase in the numbers of babies and small children. If a society has to spend most of its income supporting young children, then it probably will not have enough money to invest in improvements. Sometimes too rapid population growth can lead to congestion and unhealthy living conditions, including drinking water being contaminated by sewage. Disease can also spread rapidly. This pressure on resources can lead to violent conflict, as people fight over who gets what.

Population Pyramids 1. Which country is more likely to have a bigger population in the future, Country A or Country D? Why? Country D is more likely to have a bigger population in the future because its base is large. The lower parts of the graph represent the proportion of the population made up of young children and babies. With a larger proportion of young children and babies than people currently having children, this population can be expected to grow. 2. Which country is more likely to have a smaller population in the future, Country A or Country D? Why? Country A is more likely to have a smaller population in the future. The proportion of the population made up of young children and babies is relatively small. When these children grow up, they are likely to produce smaller numbers of children than their parents’ generation did. 3. Country B's population is more or less evenly distributed. Do you think that in the future, Country B's population will (a) grow, (b) shrink, or (c) remain stable? Country B’s population will probably remain stable. The proportion of people below childbearing age is generally the same as those at childbearing age. Thus, when they start having children, the population should stay pretty much the same. However, the prediction is assuming that immigration does not have any impact. It is also assuming that childbearing habits remain the same, that people who are children now decide to have similar numbers of children as their parents did. 4. Country C has a "bulge" in the middle of its population pyramid. What are some of the reasons that could account for this large generation? One reason for the bulge is that people who are grandparents now, people in their 60s and 70s, chose to have more children than their parents did. In the United States, this phenomenon, occurring from around 1945 to 1963, is called the baby boom. After World War II ended, people had more children, first because the soldiers came home and started families immediately. Later, as the country was prosperous, people decided to have more children. The narrower bands for the younger ages result because people who are in their childbearing ages now (the baby boomers) decided to have fewer children than their parents.


5. What effect do you think immigration and emigration could have on a country's population? Would such factors show up on a population pyramid? Why or why not? Immigration would cause the population to increase. The population pyramid would probably widen in the age blocks of the 20s and 30s, because most migrants are of those ages. Emigration would cause the population to decrease. The age blocks of the 20s and 30s would narrow because most migrants are of those ages. It is very difficult to predict what would happen to the other age groups. Overall, they would probably shrink by a very small amount. Immigration and emigration will change the population distribution a bit, but probably not overwhelm it. Countries have laws to control who passes through their borders, thus limiting the overall numbers of people who enter and leave.

Population-Age Structure 1. What is the percentage of the population in the United States that is female between the ages of 0 and 9? 7.1% of the population in the United States that is female is between the ages of 0 and 9. 2. What is the percentage of the population in Mexico that is male between the ages of 30 and 39? 6.9% of the population in Mexico that is male is between the ages of 30 and 39. 3. What is the percentage of the population in Japan that is female over the age of 70? 7.1% of the population in Japan that is female is over the age of 70. 4. What do you think accounts for the differences between the populations of these three countries? Mexico is a developing country and its people are poorer than those in the United States and Japan. People in developing countries tend to have more children as parents need the children to provide labor and other forms of economic support. In Japan and the United States, people tend to have fewer children. In these countries, with higher demands for more education, children are generally more expensive to bring up.

Art

Bands of Latitude 1. What is the latitude of the equator? The latitude of the equator is 0 degrees. 2. What is the latitude of the Tropic of Cancer? The latitude of the Tropic of Cancer is 23.5 degrees North (23.5 N). 3. What line has a latitude of 66.5 degrees South? The Antarctic Circle has a latitude of 66.5 degrees South.


4. What line has a latitude of 23.5 degrees South? The Tropic of Capricorn has a latitude of 23.5 degrees South. 5. Is a place with a latitude of 40 degrees North classified as low, middle, or high latitude? It is classified as mid-latitude. 6. Is a place with a latitude of 55 degrees South classified as low, middle, or high latitude? It can be classified as either high or mid-latitude, but it is at the upper zone of mid-latitude. 7. Is a place with a latitude of 20 degrees North classified as low, middle, or high latitude? It is classified as low latitude.


Chapter 2: The Earth

Case Studies

Biosphere 1. What is a biome? Name the major biomes of the Earth. Write one or two sentences describing the major characteristics of each biome. A biome is a large land-based ecosystem. An ecosystem is a group of different species living and interacting with each other in a physical environment. The five major biomes are forest, savanna, grassland, tundra, and desert. Forest consists of trees which grow close together; their crowns touch. The trees form a canopy. Forests contain other plants including shrubs which are woody plants with several branches growing from the base. Savanna is a combination of trees, shrubs, and grasslands. It can be considered a transition between the forest and the grassland. It grows primarily in low latitude, tropical climates where temperatures are warm all year. The seasonality of rainfall, with periods of weeks or months with little rain, prevents more tree growth, resulting in the combination of trees, shrubs, and grasses. Savannas in many parts of the world have been converted into grazing land for livestock. Grasslands, as the name indicates, are dominated by grasses and herbaceous plants. They exist in the tropics and sub-tropics and the mid-latitudes. The two major types of mid-latitude grasslands are tall-grass or short-grass. Tall-grass completely (or just about) cover the surface and are annuals that die every year. They produce extremely fertile soils and most have been converted to grain farming regions. Grasslands in areas which receive less rainfall are composed of short grasses, which do not completely cover the land. These are also used for growing wheat and other grains. Because they do not receive as much rain as the tall-grass prairies, wheat crops can fail, resulting in severe economic problems for farmers. Short-grass prairies grow in the mid-latitudes and the tropical and subtropical region. The plants of tropical grasslands are largely perennial. Since they do not die every year, their nutrients do not enrich the soil as much as the mid-latitude grasses. The soils are not so fertile. (Many definitions exist for grasslands and these definitions are not always used consistently.) Tundra is primarily herbaceous vegetation found in cold regions at high latitudes, called Arctic tundra, and high altitudes, called Alpine tundra. The cold temperatures limit plant growth. The soils are rocky and not fertile. Even in the Arctic where the sun provides many hours of daylight for several months during the high-sun season, plants are not able to grow much. Many of the plants go through their whole life cycle in a few weeks. Vegetation growth in the desert biome is limited by sparse water supplies. A desert by definition receives no more than 10 inches of rain per year on average. Most plants cannot live with that little water. Ground coverage is sparse, with large areas containing no plants. Plants in the desert have adapted to the arid conditions. Some have small leaves to limit transpiration (evaporation of water from the plant to the atmosphere). Others have roots that reach deep to underground water supplies. Other plants have broad and shallow root systems to enable the plants to collect as much water as possible after a rain. 2. Name and describe three major types of forests. Tell where they are located and discuss their features.


Many types of forests exist. Some remain green all year long, such as the rainforest. The vegetation is layered or stratified. The top-most layer is the canopy, consisting of the crowns of tall trees. Next lowest is an intermediate layer supporting slightly shorter trees growing where their leaves can find light. There are few plants on the lowest level on the forest floor because little light shines through the crowns of the trees. As the name hints, rainforests are found in areas that have large amounts of precipitation. Equatorial and tropical areas, including the Caribbean, northeast South America, Indonesia, and parts of India, support this type of vegetation. Many species and many plants and animals live and grow in the rainforest, supported by high temperatures and large amounts of precipitation. People have not yet been able to identify all of them. The low-latitude forests have poor soils. Since the temperatures and humidity are high, dead plants and animals are quickly decomposed by bacteria and transferred into the vegetation. Most of the nutrients are therefore in the vegetation and not the soil. Rainforests can also be found in temperate areas. These temperate rainforests support some of the tallest trees in the world. Parts of the forests in the northwestern United States and southwestern Canada remain even though the wood from their redwood and Douglas fir trees is important commercially. Rainforests on the South Island of New Zealand and in southeastern Australia support trees with woody trunks as well as fern trees, which can be described as giant ferns. Mid-latitude deciduous forests consist of deciduous trees and coniferous trees. These are found in mid-latitude areas with four distinct seasons. The deciduous trees grow during the spring and summer and shed their leaves in the fall, remaining dormant in the winter. The coniferous trees are largely evergreen and do not shed their leaves or needles during the cold season. The proportion of deciduous to coniferous trees varies with latitude. Lower latitudes with warmer temperatures are largely deciduous; as latitude and the temperatures get cooler and the number of days of winter increases, the proportion of coniferous trees increases. The boreal forest grows in high latitudes and high altitudes. Like the trees in the rainforest, trees in the boreal forest keep their leaves or needles during the cold season. Unlike the rainforest, the trees do not grow and the leaves do not photosynthesize during those months. The presence of the green leaves or needles allows photosynthesis to start once sunlight hours increase and temperatures are sufficiently warm. The boreal forest consists mostly of uniform stands, where only one type of tree grows. 3. What is desert vegetation? Explain three ways that plants in the desert have adapted to their environment. Desert vegetation consists of plants that have adapted to dry conditions, specifically to less than 10 inches of rainfall per year on average. Desert vegetation does not cover the land surface. Desert plants have adapted to their surroundings in different ways. Some have small leaves to limit transpiration (evaporation of water from the plant to the atmosphere). Others have roots that reach deep to the groundwater, underground water supplies. Other plants have broad and shallow root systems to enable the plants to collect as much water as possible after a rain. 4. Explain how the major components of climate as well as latitude and altitude affect natural vegetation. The major components of climate are temperature and precipitation. Generally the warmer the temperature, the more plant growth can occur. However, plants also need precipitation. Thus, in the tropical deserts where temperatures are high but rainfall is low, little plant growth occurs. Precipitation generally encourages plant growth. Rainforests are the most densely vegetated areas on Earth. Plants have developed adaptations to excessive amounts of water. For example, water lilies float on the water.


Generally, the lower the latitude the more vegetation there is (again with the major exception of the tropical deserts). Even though the higher latitudes have longer hours of sunlight during the summer time, the angle of the sun is not sufficiently high to provide as much heat as in the lower latitudes. The effects of altitude on vegetation are not as direct as with latitude and temperature. Generally, the higher the altitude, the less vegetation can grow because of the combination of cold temperatures and dry conditions prevents the growth of trees. But one cannot say that plant growth always declines with altitude. On the windward side of mountains because of orographic precipitation, vegetation may be denser a few thousand feet in altitude than at sea level. On the other side, the leeward side, at the same altitude, vegetation may be very sparse because as the air sinks it turns into a warm, dry wind. 5. Compare and contrast mid-latitude grasslands and tropical grasslands. Mid-latitude and tropical grasslands are similar in that both are composed primarily of herbaceous vegetation. They grow in areas where rainfall is not plentiful, around 15 to 30 inches per year. Differences: mid-latitude grasses, especially in areas where precipitation is higher, are often annuals. The plants die and are decomposed, which adds nutrients to the soil, resulting in extremely fertile soils. Tropical grasses are usually not annuals. As perennials, they do not decompose and add nutrients to the soil. Their soils are therefore less fertile. 6. Why are grasslands so important to the economy of the United States? Hint: Look at a map of the United States and see where there are natural grasslands. Then either look at a map of agricultural regions of the United States or think about what type of farming occurs in the natural grasslands areas. Grasslands, especially tall-grassland prairies, are very fertile. They are now used largely to grow grains, including wheat, corn, and soybeans. These crops contribute greatly to the United States economy. In the past few decades, farmers have realized the value of the natural prairie vegetation. They have countered the trend of removing all the natural vegetation. Instead, some farmers are allowing the prairie grasses to grow, which is renewing the fertility of the soil. 7. Which region of the world has the most plants and animals? Why? The rainforests have the most plants and animals. This region has high temperatures and large amounts of precipitation, which contribute to dense and varied plant growth. These in turn facilitate large numbers and varieties of animals. 8. Explain why animal life differs in the various parts of the rainforests. Animal life differs because the plants, temperatures, and availability of light differ. The floor of the rainforest has little light while the tops of the trees have much more. The leaves, fruit, flowers, and sheltered areas of the upper layer attract a wide variety of birds, insects, and mammals, including bats. Some parts of the rainforest are warmer or cooler, or moister or drier than others. In response, the plant life varies. Thus the animal life varies. Although many animals eat plants, carnivores live in the rainforest too. They have to adjust to where their prey lives. 9. How have animals in temperate grasslands adapted to the climate? To the vegetation? Herbivorous animals eat plants. They also use the plants for shelter for protection against predators and changes in temperature. For example, prairie dogs dig holes and connecting tunnels for shelter at night. They even build mounds around the holes to prevent much rainfall from entering the tunnels. 10. Explain why rivers are important to wildlife, regardless of the climate.


Rivers are important to wildlife because they supply water, a basic need of all living things. Rivers also lead to the growth of more lush vegetation along their banks. Rivers allow animals to cool off and they also allow animals to clean themselves. 11. How have animals in the rainforests adapted to the climate? Some animals try to live where it is cooler, on or near the floor of the rainforest. Others take advantage of the sunlight and live in the canopy. Animals often have developed specialized niches, or ways of life, responding to the layers of the rainforest. 12. Choose another vegetation region and discuss the wildlife found there. Desert: Animals, such as the kangaroo rat, may hide in underground holes or burrows or in cracks in rocks during the day to escape the high temperatures. They move around at dawn, dusk, and night when temperatures are cooler. Reptiles and insects are able to store water because of their thick outer layers. Some animals are dormant during the hottest times of day and during drought. Arctic tundra: Small herbivores, such as hares and ground squirrels, eat the green plants. Some use underground burrows to keep warm and to avoid predators. Most arctic animals have thick fur coats as protection against the cold. They often have compact bodies to minimize heat loss to the surroundings.

Physical Systems 1. Name and describe the four systems of the Earth. The four systems of the Earth are the atmosphere, the lithosphere, the hydrosphere, and the biosphere. The atmosphere is the envelope of gas that surrounds the solid earth. It is composed primarily of nitrogen, followed by oxygen, and other gases, including carbon dioxide and water vapor. It also contains solids, such as dust particles and snow flakes, and liquids, including cloud droplets and raindrops. The lithosphere is the solid Earth layer. It includes the crust, rocks, mountains, hills, and valleys. The hydrosphere is the water layer of the Earth. It includes lakes, streams, oceans, rivers, glaciers, icebergs, and underground water. The biosphere is the life sphere of the Earth. It includes all life on Earth and its components are found in the other spheres. 2. Describe two ways that water moves through the hydrologic cycle. Water evaporates from the oceans changing to vapor in the atmosphere. There it may condense and turn to cloud droplets. Water falls from the clouds as precipitation. It may be absorbed by the oceans. If it falls on land, it may infiltrate the soil, down into the rocks where it will be groundwater. Alternatively, it may run off the land or be channeled as a stream or river. Some scientists include the cryosphere as one of the systems. This is the frozen sphere. We can keep it in mind, recognizing that water in the form of snow and ice (the cryosphere) is part of the hydrosphere. The cryosphere is important for several reasons. One is that by identifying it we are showing that the Earth’s systems are complicated and distinguishing one from the other


may not be so simple. Another reason is that the cryosphere includes all the snow and ice on the Earth, including snowpacks in the mountains, icebergs in the oceans, glaciers on land, and permafrost in high latitudes and high altitudes. The changes in the size of the cryosphere result from energy movements and are one way to measure possible climate change. 3. Describe two ways that carbon moves through the carbon cycle. Carbon moves through the carbon cycle when plants use sunlight to turn carbon dioxide into a form of sugar or food for the plants. Oxygen is produced as a by-product and released into the atmosphere, which is useful for breathing by other life on Earth. Another way that carbon moves through the carbon cycle is when plants or animals die, their bodies are decomposed as the carbon they contain is converted into carbon dioxide and enters the atmosphere. 4. Draw up a food chain for yourself. Write down the foods that you eat and see where they get their energy. You may find that the food chain becomes very complicated, especially if you include a lot of packaged snacks. You might want to start with foods such as fruits, meats, and cheeses. These are examples; many, many possibilities exist. Corn fed to you (an omnivore) as corn on the cob Corn fed to a cow (an herbivore), which is then fed to you (an omnivore) as a steak Corn made into corn syrup, used in making soda Small fish feed on plankton or algae, and then get eaten by larger fish, which get eaten by you 5. Explain how a compost pile recycles nutrients. A compost pile is made of discarded organic material, such as food scraps (orange peels, egg shells, coffee grinds, etc.) and leaves. Bacteria decompose the organic material, turning the chemicals composing the food and leaves into simpler forms of carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, and other substances. As simpler forms, these nutrients can be used by other bacteria in the soil and plants as fertilizer or food for plants. 6. Animals that eat plants are called herbivores (not vegetarians). Animals that eat other animals are called carnivores. Why are there fewer carnivores than herbivores in a food chain? When an animal eats a plant or another animal energy is transferred. Only a very small percentage of the energy that is transferred is useful. Most of it, around 70% to 90%, is wasted as heat energy. Only about 10% to 30% is transferred as useful chemical energy. Therefore, a smaller amount of useful energy is transferred when an animal eats another animal than when an animal eats a plant. Because of this inefficient energy transformation, much plant mass is necessary to convert to an equivalent amount of animal mass. Perhaps 100 pounds of plant mass are needed to produce 30 pounds of animal mass. Similarly, when a carnivore eats another animal, perhaps 100 pounds of animal mass are needed to produce 10 pounds of useful animal mass. Since the amount of material and useful energy declines as one moves up the food chain, the number of carnivores, which are higher on the food chain, must be smaller than the number of herbivores. 7. Explain how snow is part of the hydrologic cycle. Since the hydrologic cycle is a cycle, it has no beginning and it has no end. We can choose to start any place in our discussion of snow. Snow is formed in the atmosphere when water vapor turns directly to a solid through a process called deposition. Snow can fall from the clouds, melting on the way down to the surface to fall as rain or it can remain as a solid and reach the surface as snow. Snow can also melt and re-freeze during its downward journey forming other


forms of precipitation, including sleet and freezing rain. Snow on the surface may melt and become water (surface runoff) or it may evaporate, turning directly to vapor, to enter the atmosphere. 8. Describe three parts of the carbon-oxygen cycle. Discuss two ways that human beings have interfered with the carbon-oxygen cycle. For this question, students may use the answer to question 3 to provide two parts of the carbon-oxygen cycle. A third part is the burning of fossil fuels. Fossil fuels include petroleum, coal and natural gas. These were formed millions of years ago from dead plants and/or animals. When fossil fuels are burned in cars or in electric power plants or in steel mills, the carbon combines with oxygen, emitting heat and carbon dioxide. Two ways that human beings have interfered with the carbon-oxygen cycle are the burning of fossil fuels and the destruction of forests. Burning of fossil fuels hastens the removal of carbon from storage and its re-entrance into the active carbon-oxygen cycle. Without people burning fossil fuels, the carbon would have very slowly entered the atmosphere. However, with the use of fossil fuels by people, carbon dioxide enters the Earth’s atmosphere in relatively large quantities. This addition of carbon dioxide is believed responsible for the apparent warming of the Earth’s atmosphere for more than a century. The process is sometimes called the intensification of the greenhouse effect, or global warming. Another way that human beings have interfered with the carbon-oxygen cycle is by burning forests. Again, carbon and thus carbon dioxide enters the atmosphere more rapidly than it would if only natural forces were at work. The burning of forests is also believed to be a contributor to the rising temperature of the atmosphere.

Maps

Plates and Plate Movement 1. Which plate do we live on? We, in the United States, live on the North American plate. 2. According to the map of plates and plate movement, how do tectonic plates move relative to each other? Tectonic plates move towards each other, away from each other, and past each other. 3. Is the North American plate made only of land? No, the North American plate is made of continental crust and plate and oceanic crust and plate. 4. What type of geologic actions do you think happen at the boundaries of tectonic plates? Earthquakes and volcanoes occur at the boundaries of tectonic plates. 5. Where is the boundary between the North American plate and Eurasian plate? At the boundary, how are the two plates moving relative to each other? The boundary between the North American plate and the Eurasian plate is in the middle of the Atlantic Ocean. At the boundary, the plates are moving apart from each other. They are said to be diverging. (Technically, portions of the plates are sliding past each other, thus the zig-zag of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, running through the middle of the Atlantic Ocean.)


6. How are the Nazca plate and the South American plate moving with respect to each other? How are the Juan de Fuca plate and the North American plate moving with respect to each other? What geologic features are being formed in these two zones? The Nazca plate and the South American plate are moving towards each other. The Juan de Fuca plate and the North American plate are moving towards each other. Volcanic mountains are being formed in these two zones. Earthquakes also occur.

World Climate Zones 1. What does this map show? This map shows the major climate regions of the world. 2. What are the major groupings of climate types used on this map? The major groupings of climate types are: high latitude, mid-latitude, tropics (or low latitude), and dry climates. 3. Which climate group(s) are found in more than one latitude zone? Dry climates are found in more than one latitude zone. 4. Choose any climate type and describe its characteristics. Examples: Tropical rainforest is a low-latitude climate. It has rainfall and high temperatures throughout the year. Tropical savanna is a low-latitude climate. It has high temperatures all year long, but with some variation. Precipitation is largely seasonal. It rains primarily during the warm or high-sun season and is generally dry during the cooler or low-sun season, with some variation. The Mediterranean climate is a mid-latitude climate. It is hot during the high-sun season and, depending on location, can be cool or mild during the low-sun season. Its rainfall is seasonal, with the low-sun season being wet and the high-sun season being dry. The humid sub-tropical climate is a mid-latitude climate. Its temperatures vary over the year and it has four distinct seasons. It is generally warm to hot and humid with significant amounts of precipitation in the summer time, although snow does fall in the winter. The humid continental climate is a mid-latitude climate. Its name provides clues to its properties. Humid indicates that rain occurs and continental indicates that the annual temperature range or variation is large. The marine west coast climate is a mid-latitude climate and, as its name indicates, is located on the west coasts. Its location along the Pacific Ocean makes its temperature range relatively small for a mid-latitude climate. The moist air masses from the Pacific Ocean lead to high precipitation levels throughout the year, although winter receives more. The subarctic climate is a high latitude climate. Of all the climates, it has the greatest range of temperature over the year for two reasons relating to location. It is a continental climate, meaning that its location is primarily inland and not coastal. Land cooling off and heating up more quickly than maritime areas contributes to the large annual range. The second locational factor is its


property of high latitude. The variation of the angle of the sun combined with the variation in day length contributes to places at high latitudes tending to having greater ranges of temperature. The subarctic climate’s temperature ranges may be as great as 100 degrees Fahrenheit. This climate does not have hot summers, but it does have cold winters. Although snow covers the ground for much of the year, the precipitation levels are not high because moisture content of cold air is limited. Tundra is a high latitude climate which has a short warm season, but most of the year the temperatures are below freezing. Tundra can also exist at high altitudes, where temperatures are cold throughout the year. Although tundra is at a higher latitude than the subarctic, tundra has a smaller temperature range because its coastal location modifies the air temperature. Tundra regions have snow-covered ground, but have small precipitation levels because moisture is limited in cold air. Tundra has little precipitation, often less than 10 inches per year, so that tundra is often classified as a desert. The icecap climate has the highest latitude. Its average temperatures are below freezing for all months of the year. It is ice-covered, as its name indicates, but precipitation in the cold air is very low. Desert climates are defined by limited precipitation, less than or equal to 10 inches of precipitation per year. They can be associated with warm and hot temperatures and are thus found in both middle and low latitudes. Sometimes, very cold climates such as tundra are classified as desert, because little precipitation, less than 10 inches per year, falls from the cold air. Precipitation is highly variable in deserts. An area can go for years with little to hardly any rain or several inches of rain can fall in a few hours. Deserts usually have large annual ranges of temperature, partly because of their moderate latitude and some variation in the height of the sun over the year. Additionally, land areas heat up and cool off more quickly than the oceans. Deserts have high daily temperature ranges because there are few, if any, clouds in the sky. Sunlight during the day can come in easily and heat up the surface, which then heats the atmosphere. At night, again with hardly any clouds, the heat from the surface can escape easily, cooling the surface and the overlying air. Steppe climates, defined on the basis of small to moderate annual precipitation, are found in middle and low latitudes. The low latitude steppe often has a short wet season during the cooler season. The mid-latitude steppe also has a short wet season, often in the summer time. The difference in timing of the wet season is related to the differing importance and location of pressure systems and air masses in the two latitude zones. Regardless of when in the year the precipitation falls, it is unreliable in its occurrence. 5. Precipitation patterns of mid-latitude climates are influenced by their positions on the continent. Choose two mid-latitude climates and explain their precipitation patterns and the impact of an eastern or western location. Here are three climates; students should explain two: The humid continental climate receives precipitation all year long, with a little more in the summer. Its location in the polar front zone leads to precipitation as cold air masses and warm air masses conflict. This climate type is located on the east coasts and extends inland. Its annual temperature range is generally larger than expected for a maritime location. Much of the weather comes from the west, blown in with the westerlies, which have crossed the continent. Mediterranean climates have a dry summer which is warm or hot, depending on latitude, and a cool or mild, moist winter. The rain comes from the belt of the westerlies, in the polar front zone, which moves in southward following the sun. The dry summer is the result of the northward movement, again following the sun, of the high pressure systems, which are found over the great deserts of the world. Mediterranean climates are found on the west coasts, which lead to their


having a relatively small range of temperatures from the influence of the adjacent ocean waters. Marine west coast climates have rain and moderate temperatures throughout the year. The ocean waters to the west, from which their weather is carried by the belt of the westerlies, bring rain. The ocean also has a moderating effect on temperature. 6. Explain why dry climates in the mid-latitudes have larger temperature ranges than those in the low latitudes. The greater variation over the year in the angle of the sun in the mid-latitudes results in more change in temperature. Thus mid-latitude dry climates have larger temperature ranges than those in low latitudes. 7. What are the three types of high latitude climates? Explain the major characteristics of each. The three types of high latitude climates are ice cap, tundra, and subarctic. The subarctic climate has the greatest range of temperature over the year for two reasons relating to location. It is a continental climate, meaning that its location is primarily inland and not coastal. Land cools off and heats up more quickly than maritime areas, leading to the large annual range. The second locational factor is its property of high latitude. The variation of the angle of the sun combined with the variation in day length contributes to places at high latitudes tending to having greater ranges of temperature. Its temperature ranges may be as great as 70 or 100 degrees F. This climate does not have hot summers, but it does have cold winters. Although snow covers the ground for much of the year, the precipitation levels are not high because moisture is limited in cold air. Tundra has a short warm season, but most of the year the temperatures are below freezing. Tundra can also exist at high altitudes, where temperatures are cold throughout the year. In this case, it is called alpine tundra. Although tundra is at a higher latitude than the subarctic, tundra has a smaller temperature range because its coastal location modifies the air temperature. Temperatures are not so cold in the wintertime. The ground in tundra regions is snow-covered, but precipitation is small because moisture is limited in cold air. Tundra’s very small levels of precipitation, often less than 10 inches per year, frequently result in its being officially classified as a desert. The icecap climate has the highest latitude. Its average temperatures are below freezing for all months of the year. It is ice covered, as its name indicates, but precipitation in the cold air is very low. 8. Compare and contrast the two types of low latitude climates. Two types of low latitude climates in this classification scheme are tropical rainforest and tropical savanna. Tropical rainforest has high precipitation all months of the year. Its temperature range is small and the average temperature is high, around 80 degrees Fahrenheit. Tropical savanna also has high temperatures all year long, but with some variation. Precipitation is largely seasonal. It rains primarily during the warm or high-sun season and is generally dry during the cooler or low-sun season, with some variation.

Art

Winter and Summer Solstice


1. On which day is the Southern Hemisphere pointed most towards the sun? The Southern Hemisphere is pointed most towards the sun on December 21 or 22. That day is called the December solstice. It marks the first day of winter in the Northern Hemisphere and the first day of summer in the Southern Hemisphere. 2. Which day marks the beginning of summer in the Northern Hemisphere? The June solstice, either June 21 or June 22, marks the beginning of summer in the Northern Hemisphere. 3. On which day is the whole North Pole bathed in sunlight? The whole North Pole is bathed in sunlight from the March equinox (March 21 or 22) to the September equinox (September 21 or 22). 4. What two factors about the sun contribute to June 21st being called the first day of summer in the Northern Hemisphere? The sun is highest in the sky, resulting in its rays being strongest for the year. The length of day, or the number of hours the sun is above the horizon, is longest on June 21st.

Latitude Zones and Wind Patterns 1. What winds are found in the lower latitudes (between 30 degrees N and 30 degrees S)? The trade winds and the doldrums are found in the lower latitudes. The trade winds are steady winds which come from the northeast in the Northern Hemisphere and from the southeast in the Southern Hemisphere. They meet in the equatorial region. In the equatorial zone, the winds are not dependable; the direction from which the winds come, or if they blow at all, varies. This zone of winds is called the doldrums. 2. What is a prevailing wind? A prevailing wind is a wind that blows over an area mostly from a particular direction. 3. From what direction do the westerly winds come in each hemisphere? They come generally from the west. In the Northern Hemisphere, they are likely to blow from the southwest and in the Southern Hemisphere from the northwest. 4. Why are the trade winds cool? Trade winds are cool because they blow from higher latitudes to lower latitudes. Higher latitudes generally have colder temperatures than lower latitudes. 5. Why are the polar winds cold? Polar winds are cold because they blow from either the North Pole or the South Pole to places in the corresponding hemisphere at lower latitudes. They therefore carry cold air. 6. Along which front do the westerlies and polar easterlies meet? The westerlies and the polar easterlies meet along the polar front.


7. Why are the trade winds given that name? Trade winds are steady winds, which generally blow consistently throughout the year. Sailing ships depended on the winds to travel across the ocean, especially the Atlantic Ocean. Therefore these winds, located in the lower latitudes, were called trade winds, because the winds helped sea-going ships to participate in trade.

Glaciers 1. What is a glacier? A glacier is land ice that moves. It is made of snow that has been compacted for many, many years. 2. Compare and contrast the two types of glaciers. The two main types of glaciers are: 1) mountain glaciers and 2) continental glaciers or ice sheets. They are both composed of compacted snow. They are both formed on land when temperatures are cold for prolonged periods of time. However, they differ in their shape and the amount of area they cover, as well their location. Valley or mountain glaciers form in river valleys at high altitudes and usually high latitudes. As they grow and move, they widen the original river valley by removing and carrying away soil and rocks. Continental ice sheets today exist in very high latitudes and cover Antarctica and Greenland. But they once covered even larger sections of the Earth at lower latitudes when the temperatures were much colder than today. 3. How far south on the North American continent did the glaciers extend 15,000 years ago? They extended as far south as Wisconsin and Kansas and parts of New York State. 4. What are the two processes by which glaciers change the landscape? One process is erosion, in which glaciers break off rocks and soil and transport or carry them away. Deposition is the other process. Glaciers leave behind or deposit rocks and soil that they picked up elsewhere. 5. Explain how these glacial landforms were created: kettle lakes, Finger Lakes of New York State, drumlins, Niagara Falls, U-shaped valleys, Long Island (New York), and aretes? (Hint: Look up the terms in the glossary.) A drumlin is a long hill made of glacial till. Till is unsorted material left by a glacier. A drumlin looks like an upside-down teaspoon. It was formed when a glacier moved over the already-deposited till. Kettle lakes were formed when a chunk of ice was left by a glacier and melted. The hole that results was filled with water, forming a lake. The Finger Lakes of New York State were formed by a glacier gouging or carving out the land. Openings were left to the north so that water filled the grooves, creating lakes which look like the fingers of a hand. A u-shaped valley is formed when a glacier is formed in a pre-existing river valley. As the glacier moves through the valley it widens and deepens the valley as it removes rock material from the sides and bottom.


Aretes are formed when glaciers erode backwards. The freeze-thaw action expands cracks in the rocks causing them to eventually break loose. After a long time, a knife-like wall is formed. Niagara Falls was formed when the North American continental ice sheet melted or retreated about 10,000 years ago. A great wall or escarpment between Lake Erie and Lake Ontario was revealed. The Niagara River flows over that wall. Many of the surface features of Long Island in New York State were formed from deposition of glacial material. The beaches on the south shore resulted when the continental ice sheet melted and sands and gravels were deposited by the water resulting from the melting ice. The hilly areas, or moraines, in the middle and northern parts of Long Island, are made of rocks, soil, and other debris. They were formed when the glacier stopped and just deposited material because the glacier could not carry it any further. 6. Locate the Matterhorn on a map of the world. What kind of glacial landform is it? Explain how it was formed. What movie company uses it as part of its trademark? The Matterhorn in Switzerland is a horn. It was formed when three or more glaciers eroded backwards, breaking up the back walls of the glaciers. A three-walled peak, or pyramid-shaped hill, was formed. Paramount Pictures uses the Matterhorn as part of its trademark.

View from Space: Aswan High Dam 1. Where is the river wider, in front of or behind the dam? (Remember, the Nile River flows to the north.) The river is wider behind the dam, to the south. The area immediately behind the dam is Lake Nasser. 2. What is the advantage to damming the Nile River and irrigating the land from the reservoir rather than from annual floods? By damming the Nile River, the lands along the river could be irrigated all year long. Farmers did not have to depend on annual floods and could grow more crops. More land was also made available for farming. 3. The Nile River flows to the north with its mouth in the Mediterranean Sea. Do you think that the Aswan High Dam changed plant and animal life in the Mediterranean Sea? Why or why not? The Aswan High Dam changed plant and animal life because it no longer allowed the Nile River to deposit as many nutrients in the Mediterranean Sea. Plants and fish that had depended on the nutrients carried by the river could not survive as well. For example, it is believed that the sardine industry was hurt by changing the flow of the Nile. 4. How does the damming of the Nile River and the formation of Lake Nasser extend beyond the domestic concerns of Egypt? Since the damming of the Nile River and the formation of Lake Nasser did not economically advance Egypt as much as expected, Egypt remained a poor country. One reason Egypt may have officially recognized Israel in 1979 was that the United States offered a considerable amount of aid – had Egypt not been economically deprived, it might not have accepted the deal.


When Lake Nasser was formed, some archaeological treasures were drowned. The world lost those forever. Others were taken to foreign museums, including the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City. The damming of the river affected the ecology of the Mediterranean Sea, and thus the coast lines of all the countries bordering it.

Topographical Features 1. Do any of the topographical features in the diagram match those found in the area where you live? Answers will vary depending on location. 2. How do you think topographical features affect patterns of human settlement? Some topographical features, such as flat areas, like plains, attract people. Others, such as mountainous areas with their steep topography, which limit the building of homes, usually do not attract people so much. Yet, some mountainous areas are so beautiful or are so close to urban areas that people build homes on steep slopes, ignoring the problems that may arise. 3. How do you think topographical features affect other activities, such as industry, tourism, and trade? Rivers and coastal areas are attractive to trade because of the lower transportation costs usually associated with water. Rivers and coastal areas are similarly popular for tourism for their beauty and their opportunities for relaxation and recreation. Deltas are frequently good farming areas because the river floods the land, providing nutrients to fertilize the soil. 4. Draw a picture of the most prominent topographical feature in your area. Answers will vary depending on location.

Loma Prieta Earthquake 1. Look at the image of the earthquake damage in California. Write an essay describing how you might have felt if you had experienced the earthquake and its damage. Essays should include an introduction, a paragraph on the earthquake, a paragraph on the damage, and a conclusion. 2. Think of another type of natural disaster, such as a volcano or flood. Explain how it has global implications. A volcano might have global implications because the erupted material blown into the atmosphere can circulate around the globe, blocking sunlight. This occurred in 1883 when Krakatoa erupted. It also occurred in 1991 when Mt. Pinatubo in the Philippines sent out so much volcanic dust that the average global temperature declined by one degree Fahrenheit over the next year. A flood could destroy crops which would have been sold overseas. It might also result in so much destruction that people from around the globe might want to offer assistance in the recovery. A global relief effort occurred with the South Asian Tsunami of December 26, 2004.


3. Why do people live where they know an earthquake might occur? People live where they know an earthquake might occur because that is their home and they are familiar with and probably like the area. Earthquake-prone areas are sometimes scenic. Some major earthquake-prone areas, as along the San Andreas fault in California or in Seattle, Washington, are places of great economic viability. Many people are willing to risk the damage from an earthquake. People often feel that they are invulnerable to earthquakes or that their construction techniques will protect them. 4. Explain how an electrical power outage is a problem that involves geography. Geography involves the interaction of people and their environments. When an electrical power outage occurs in an industrialized area, people have difficulty meeting their needs. Electrically powered public transportation will not carry passengers. Travel on the roads becomes even more hazardous than usual because traffic signals will not work. Factories cannot manufacture goods. If the power disruption is prolonged then global demands for those goods cannot be met. With the computerization of banking and other financial operations as well as communications, businesses in many locations can be brought to a standstill. Electricity is delivered through a grid of power lines. Depending on how many lines are involved, an outage could be local or more widespread.

Document

Hurricanes 1. What direction did the winds come from at the beginning of the storm? Why did the winds then shift to another direction? What was that direction? The winds came from the north at the beginning of the storm. They shifted to the southwest, which means the winds came from the southwest. The winds changed direction because the hurricane passed over Hamilton’s observation point. Winds move into the center of the hurricane, which is a low pressure center. First the winds came from the north into the low. As the low moved to the north of Hamilton, the winds moving inward to the low started coming from the southwest. 2. Hamilton described great destruction on the island. Hurricane winds are very strong (at least 74 miles per hour) and the flooding from the ocean waters is very destructive. What were some of the destructive effects of that hurricane? Short-term destructive effects included many people who were killed and injured. Long-term destructive effects included the leveling of many buildings, including homes. Families were left homeless. Also, ships in the harbor were destroyed, damaging the island’s economy. 3. Write a letter to one of your relatives describing severe weather that you have experienced or seen on television. Give the location of the event. Include information about the weather, including the winds, temperature, and precipitation. Answers will vary according to the event chosen.


Chapter 3: United States: Physical Geography

Case Studies

The Everglades 1. Where are the Everglades? The Everglades are located in southern Florida. 2. What economic activities affected the health of the Everglades? Urban and agricultural activities affected the health of the Everglades. 3. What river flows into the Everglades? The Kissimmee River flows into the Everglades. 4. What kinds of habitats do the Everglades support? The Everglades support marine and estuarine wetlands habitats. (An estuary is a coastal location where fresh water from a river meets salt water. These are some of the most productive areas on earth.) Tropical and temperate plants grow in the Everglades. Animals include large wading birds, panthers, alligators, and crocodiles. 5. What changes occurred in the Everglades in the early 19th century and into the 20th century? The natural wetlands were changed into farmlands and towns. What was water turned into dry land. When the Everglades were drained and railroads were built during the 19th century, towns such as Miami, Fort Myers, and Fort Lauderdale grew. Farms, including citrus groves and sugar cane fields, thrived. 6. What did the United States Army Corps of Engineers do in 1948 that led to great changes in the ecology of the Everglades? The United States Army Corps of Engineers built roads, levees, canals, and other water-control facilities to control the natural flow of water in the Everglades. This project was called the Central and South Florida Project. Its object was to preserve the natural habitat and provide water for the newly formed Everglades National Park. But, by pumping water for the cities and farms, the natural seasonal wet-dry pattern was upset. The water quality declined. 7. What changes did the Army Corps of Engineers make in the Kissimmee River in the 1960s? What happened to the way the water flowed in the Everglades? The Army Corps of Engineers shortened and straightened the course of the Kissimmee River. The natural flooding of the water was stopped, which helped the region economically, but led to a decline in wildlife. 8. How did the population of south Florida grow in numbers and in location in the 20th century?


The population grew from 500,000 people in the early 1900s to 6,000,000 in 1990. Urban and suburban areas grew the most. 9. What levels of government are working on the restoration of the Everglades? The state and federal governments are working on the restoration of the Everglades. 10. What is CERP? What new balance is it trying to create? What is its goal? CERP stands for the Comprehensive Everglades Restoration Plan. It is trying to create a balance between the needs of the ecosystem and those of urban and agricultural activities, including water supply and flood protection. Its goal is to restore the Everglades to its pre-drainage character, while still providing water for farms and cities. 11. Why do you think the Everglades is called the River of Grass? The Everglades is called the River of Grass because the shallow water of the sheetflow allows sawgrass to grow in the water, creating a wetland prairie.

U.S. Geologic-Related Natural Disasters 1. What are the two major geologic hazards in the United States? Earthquakes and volcanoes are the two major geologic hazards. 2. Which two states have the most volcanoes? Alaska and Hawaii have the most volcanoes. 3. What is an earthquake? What is a fault? An earthquake is a sudden movement of the Earth’s crust. A fault is a crack or fracture in the Earth’s crust, along which rock moves. 4. What two types of plate movements cause earthquakes in the United States? Subduction, in which oceanic plate moves under continental plate, is one type of plate movement in the United States. The other is horizontal movement; the North American plate and Pacific plate are moving past each other. 5. When did the big earthquake occur in San Francisco, California? The big earthquake in San Francisco occurred on April 18, 1906, killing more than 3,000 people. More recently, a significant earthquake in 1993 in Northridge caused few deaths, but billions of dollars of damage. 6. How large an area was affected by the New Madrid, Missouri, earthquakes in 1811-1812? Describe some of the damage that occurred. How is this earthquake different from the ones on the West Coast? About 600,000 square miles were affected by the New Madrid, Missouri, earthquakes. It changed the course of the Mississippi River. It knocked chimneys off buildings. Buildings in Boston and Washington, D.C. shook. This earthquake was caused by faults within a tectonic plate. Earthquakes on the West Coast


are caused by movements on the edges of plates, a plate either moving underneath another, subduction, or two plates moving horizontally past each other (also known as transform faults). 7. How does the occurrence of volcanoes in the contiguous United States differ from that of other natural disasters? Volcanoes are extremely rare in occurrence, while other disasters are more frequent. The United States experiences blizzards, floods, ice storms, hurricanes, and tornadoes several times each year. In contrast, Mt. St. Helens, the last volcano in the contiguous to erupt in the United States, did so in 1980. 8. Where is Mt. St. Helens? When did it erupt? What kind of damage did it cause? Mt. St. Helens is located in eastern Washington, and erupted on May 18, 1980. It killed more than 50 people. Its lava and mud flows killed acres of trees; its ash darkened the skies and caused damage to surrounding areas. However, after a few weeks the volcanic ash was tilled into the farmland, increasing the fertility of the soil. 9. About how many active volcanoes exist in Alaska? There are more than 40 active volcanoes in Alaska. 10. Explain why and how active volcanoes in Alaska can cause problems for airplane flights. The air space over Alaska, with thousands of flights each year, is a major airplane flight path. The ash from active volcanoes can reduce visibility and sometimes clog engines. Since the eruption of active volcanoes cannot be predicted, airplanes have to be on the alert constantly. 11. How do volcanoes in Alaska and in Hawaii differ? Alaska’s volcanoes have more violent eruptions, while Hawaii’s volcanoes erupt more quietly. The chemical composition of the underlying rock in Alaska (oceanic plate subducting or moving under continental plate) results in more violent eruptions than occur in Hawaii. Composed of oceanic rock, Hawaiian lava moves more slowly and more quietly when volcanic eruptions occur. 12. What measures are being taken to minimize death and destruction from earthquakes? Governments in states where earthquakes are likely have instituted requirements that buildings, roads, and other structures be constructed to be earthquake resistant. Similar building codes do not exist in states where earthquakes are not likely to occur. But, as illustrated by the New Madrid earthquakes, few places are completely safe from earthquake damage. 13. What measures are being taken to minimize death and destruction from volcanoes? Volcanoes are monitored with instruments so that warnings can be given if an eruption seems imminent. Hawaii has used zoning restrictions to restrict land use where lava flows might cause damage after a volcanic eruption. 14. What can you do to protect yourself, your family, and your property from natural disasters? You can read and study about geography and geology so that you understand the processes involved in natural disasters. You can try not to put yourself in a dangerous situation. You should heed government agency warnings if a prediction is made for a natural disaster.


U.S. Weather-Related Natural Disasters 1. Natural disasters can be classified into three groups. What are these? Natural disasters can be geological, weather-related (atmospheric), or biological. 2. Which type of disasters are most prevalent in the United States? What are some examples? Weather-related or atmospheric disasters are most prevalent in the United States. They include ice storms, floods, hurricanes, drought, blizzards, thunderstorms, and tornadoes. 3. What are two reasons that the United States has so many extreme weather events? Reasons the United States has so many extreme weather events include its location in the mid-latitudes, the location of large bodies of water on its borders, and its large size. 4. Where do the most dangerous hurricanes to affect the United States originate? They originate in the Atlantic Ocean, a few degrees north of the Equator, a bit west of the African shore. 5. What is the primary cause of death from hurricanes? The primary cause of death is drowning. When the hurricane makes landfall, the combination of high winds, rain, and large waves can cause severe flooding. This combination is called a storm surge. People who are nearby can die even in their own homes. 6. Choose three damaging hurricanes. Explain where they occurred and describe the damage they caused. Answers will vary, below are some examples. The Galveston Hurricane of 1900 hit Galveston, as its name indicates. It killed more people than any other hurricane in recorded history before or since. (In actuality, it probably killed more than any other hurricane because before written records were kept not so many people lived in coastal areas. Therefore, it would have been unlikely for them to have been killed.) Hurricane Camille in 1969 hit Mobile, Alabama. Its tremendous storm tide of about 25 feet killed about 256 people. Hurricane Andrew in 1992, a category 5 hurricane, swept across south-central Florida. Then it regained strength from the warm waters of the Gulf of Mexico and continued into Louisiana. It resulted in about 23 deaths, destroyed about 25,000 homes, damaging about 100,000 homes, and causing about $26 billion in damage. Hurricane Katrina in 2005 was (as of this writing) the most expensive storm in the United States; the storm weakened New Orleans’ levee system, causing the city to be flooded. More than 1,300 people died and damage to property was estimated at up to $130 billion. First hitting Florida as a Category 1 hurricane, it crossed the Gulf of Mexico and hit Louisiana and Mississippi as a Category 4 hurricane. Katrina adversely affected millions of people, including over a million people who were displaced, over an area of about 90,000 square miles. The storm also did tremendous damage to the oil industry, as drilling, importing, and refining capacity for the country are concentrated in the region -- the impact of Katrina was felt at gasoline pumps across the country.


7. What are three characteristics of a tornado? Answers should include three of the following: tornados are land-based storms; they are often, but not always associated with thunderstorms; they are usually associated with cold fronts; and their winds can reach very high speeds, sometimes upwards of 250 mph. 8. Choose a tornado or a tornado outbreak. Explain where it occurred and describe the damage it caused. Four possible answers, but there are more: a. The Tri-state tornado of March 18, 1925, moved through Missouri, Illinois, and Indiana. It killed 695 people, making it the deadliest tornado recorded. b. From April 3 to 4, 1974, about 147 tornadoes traveled through 13 states, including Kentucky, Alabama, Iowa, Illinois, Ohio, Indiana, Michigan, Tennessee, New York, West Virginia, Georgia, North Carolina, and Virginia. It killed more than 300 people and injured more than 5,400. c. In January 1999, tornadoes killed about 17 people, caused around $1.3 billion in damage, over six days, moving across Arkansas and Tennessee. d. In May 1999, 55 people were killed as tornadoes moved through Texas, Oklahoma, Kansas, and Tennessee, resulting in more than $1 billion in damage. 9. Why are flash foods so dangerous? Flash floods occur very quickly and are very intense. The volume of water they produce is much greater and flows much more quickly than normal floods. Therefore, people not only in the floodplain (the area where rivers normally overflow), but also in regions distant from the floodplain are frequently surprised. Unprepared for the tremendous amount of water, they may die in their cars or their homes.

Maps

Physical Map: North America 1. Name two major rivers in North America. Mississippi, Missouri, Platte, Ohio, Colorado, McKenzie, Rio Grande, and Columbia are all on the map, although students may provide other names. 2. Name two mountain ranges in North America. Appalachians, Rocky Mountains, and the Alaska Range are all on the map, but students may list others. 3. Use an atlas to look up various kinds of maps: Mercator projection, great circle maps, cylindrical and conical projections. Determine what kind of map you are looking at. Answers will vary. 4. Print out a copy of the Physical Map of North America. Turn it upside-down. How does changing the perspective change the way a viewer thinks about topography?


People in the Northern Hemisphere, and quite frankly in Australia and New Zealand, think of north as up and south as down. Turning the map upside down upsets this perspective. East-west perspective is also changed by flipping the map. Locating places can be confusing. One must be retrained to be properly oriented.

Natural Vegetation: U.S. and Canada 1. What does this map show? This map shows the regions of natural vegetation in the United States and Canada. 2. What biomes exist in the United States and Canada? All five biomes can be found in the United States and Canada. Forest, savanna, grassland, tundra, and desert all exist. 3. What types of forest grow in the United States and Canada? What kinds of forest do not grow in the two countries? Deciduous, coniferous, and mixed deciduous coniferous forests are found in the two countries. Equatorial and tropical rainforests do not grow in the two countries, although temperate rainforest, including coniferous trees such as Redwoods and Douglas fir, can be found in northwestern United States and southwestern Canada. 4. What type(s) of vegetation dominate in the northeastern United States? Southwestern United States? Southeastern United States? Does the natural vegetation still grow undisturbed in those regions? Northeastern U.S.: Deciduous and coniferous forests and a combination of both. Southwestern U.S.: Desert Southeastern U.S.: Coniferous In some sections of these regions, the natural vegetation grows undisturbed. However, much of the vegetation, especially the forests, is not the original or primary vegetation. Those forests were cut down for farms and towns. The forests have grown back (sometimes with different species of trees) as land uses have changed. 5. What are the Everglades? How have human beings changed their natural characteristics? The Everglades, sometimes called a river of grass, are grasslands with water running through the vegetation. Located in southern Florida, this wetlands ecosystem supported a wide variety of wildlife and plants. These included large wading birds, panthers, crocodiles, and alligators along with tropical and temperate climate plants. The vegetation and animals depended on a natural flow of water and rainy and dry seasons. Settlers in Florida diverted and changed the natural flow of water to irrigate farms and to provide water for people in new and growing cities. Even though the Everglades were declared a national park in 1934, many of the animals, especially the birds, have not been able to flourish. Plants that are not native have replaced some of the natural vegetation. In recent years, the state and federal governments have tried to work together to restore the natural workings of the ecosystem. But, conflicting interests and problems in funding have limited successful implementation. 6. Why does California support Mediterranean vegetation?


Southern California supports Mediterranean vegetation because of the climate. A Mediterranean climate has two seasons: a dry and warm or hot summer and a mild and moist winter. Vegetation that grows in the Mediterranean region of Europe and southern California (as well as in parts of western Chile and western Australia) is adapted to this climate. Many plants stay green through the dry summer months so that they can start to grow immediately with the winter rains. Many plants have leaves which store water and do not allow much water to escape through evaporation and transpiration. 7. Where are grasslands located on this map? Why are they important? Grasslands are located in the interior of North America, extending from southern Texas to the southern part of Canada. On the map, they are contained within the area that has a yellow-green color and is labeled Great Plains. The grasslands, especially the eastern parts, are naturally very fertile. (When the grasses died each year, they decomposed and their nutrients became part of the soil.) They are now important agricultural regions. The eastern zone receives more precipitation and in the United States can support wheat, corn, and other grains. Livestock graze in the western zone.

Graphs

U.S. Petroleum Consumption 1. How much petroleum did the United States consume in 1950? In 2000? In 1950, the United States consumed around 6 million barrels a day. In 2000, it consumed about 19 million barrels a day. 2. How much petroleum did the United States consume in 1975? Was that amount higher or lower than the year before? In 1975, the United States consumed about 16 million barrels a day, which was lower than the approximately 17.5 million barrels it had consumed the year before. 3. In what year (approximately) did imports surpass domestic supply? Around 1996, imports surpassed domestic supply. 4. How much petroleum does the United States use each year? The United States uses about 19.5 billion barrels of petroleum each year. 5. Is the United States dependent on foreign supplies of petroleum? Yes. The United States depends on about 19 billion barrels of petroleum from domestic suppliers and imports about 11 billion barrels per year. 6. Explain why even though the United States has to import petroleum, it also exports petroleum. The United States sells a small amount of petroleum to customers in foreign countries. 7. Find out which states are the greatest producers of petroleum. The leading producers include Texas, Alaska, Louisiana, and California.


8. What are some ways that the United States can lessen its imports of petroleum? The United States can lessen its imports of petroleum by conserving more energy. American motor vehicle manufacturers could produce more fuel-efficient cars, trucks and buses. They could also improve and make cheaper the production of hybrid cars, those that interchange the use of gasoline and electricity. Americans could insist on buying either of these more efficient types of vehicles. Americans could turn down the thermostats in their homes and offices in the winter, saving heating fuel, and raise them in the summer, saving electricity for air conditioning. Americans could also use alternative forms of energy, such as wind and solar power. An alternative approach, but more costly in the long run, is for Americans to use more of their domestic supplies. Known petroleum deposits in such areas as Alaska could be removed. Although the gains might be economically beneficial in the short run, the reserves would then be gone forever. The damage done to the natural environment in those fragile ecosystems may be immeasurable.

U.S. Petroleum Overview 1. How many million of barrels per day of petroleum was produced in the United States in 2000? 10.4 million barrels of petroleum each day were produced in the United States in 2000 (9.4 for domestic supplies and 1.0 for exports). 2. How many million of barrels per day of petroleum was consumed in the United States in 2000? Total United States consumption was 19.4 million barrels per day. 3. If you add domestic supplies to imports, the total number is 20.5 million barrels per day. Why is total consumption a smaller value? Total consumption is a smaller value because the United States exported about 1.0 million barrels. Subtracting 1.0 million barrels of exported petroleum from the total of domestic supply and imports leaves about 19.4, a bit off because of rounding.

U.S. Petroleum Imports 1. How much petroleum did the United States import from Canada? 1.7 million barrels per day. 2. How much petroleum did the United States import from Latin America (Venezuela, Mexico, and Colombia)? The United States imported 3.2 million barrels Latin America (1.5 from Venezuela, 1.4 from Mexico, and 0.3 million barrels from Colombia). 3. How much petroleum did the United States import from the Middle East? The United States imported 2.2 million barrels from the Middle East (1.6 from Saudi Arabia and 0.6 from Iraq).


4. How much petroleum did the United States import from all of the countries, excluding the Middle East? The United States imported 6.1 million barrels from all the countries, except those from the Middle East (1.5 from Venezuela, 1.4 from Mexico, 1.7 from Canada, 0.3 each from Norway and Colombia, and 0.9 from Nigeria).

Art

Painting: Estes Park 1. What kind of landscape is shown in this painting? A mountainous landscape is shown in the painting. 2. What evidence of glacial action is shown in the painting? Several u-shaped valleys are present, including one that dominates the central part of the painting. In the background on the right-hand side are two horns; three-sided pyramids created by glacial erosion. The tops of the mountains generally are sharp or jagged. 3. How do you feel when you look at this painting? Answers will vary, as feelings depend on the observer. Some might feel in awe and might appreciate the beauty of the scene. Others might think it is too wild and harsh. 4. Why was Rocky Mountain National Park created? What are some of its attractions? Rocky Mountain National Park was created to preserve beautiful scenery including mountains, lakes, and forests. At the end of the 19th century, several men and organizations worked to ensure that the beauty of the land was preserved. Land was protected, compromises were made, and Rocky Mountain National Park was established by President Woodrow Wilson in 1915. 5. What are the advantages and disadvantages of a national park being located near a large city? Advantages of a national park being located near a large city include relatively easy accessibility for many people. A disadvantage is that too many people may visit the park, perhaps damaging part of the natural environment through overuse, ignorance, and carelessness.

Repairing River Levee 1. How did floodwaters change the surrounding landscape? Floodwaters deposited silt, sand, and rocks where plain soil and plants had been before. 2. Why do you think that the Mississippi River floods in the springtime? The Mississippi River drains a large portion of the United States. When the snow melts, the water flows into and along the ground. Some of that melted snow ends up in the tributaries and the main channel of the Mississippi.


3. Do you think that it is wise for people to live along the river when they know that the river is likely to flood each year? Why do people do so? Why do they come back even after their homes have been destroyed by the floodwaters? Living along the river where a flood is likely can be a wise decision if the expected gains are more than the costs. If one knows that the fertile soils will produce good crops year after year, then it is probably worth one’s while to live in the flood zone. However, if one’s house is greatly damaged or destroyed each year, living in the flood zone is not a good idea. People live in areas where floods are likely partially because that is their home and they like where they live. They may not be able to move easily to another location. They may perceive advantages from living in the floodplain, including pretty scenery or access to the river and its economic and recreational benefits. 4. Do you think that a levee should be rebuilt after it has been broken or breached? Rebuilding a levee after it has been breached may lead to an even bigger flood in the future. However, if one’s house is on the other side of the breached levee, one might want that protection against any flood! The question of who pays for the rebuilding is an important one. Sometimes the government subsidizes the building of new homes. Since the money comes from taxpayers, other Americans are paying to rebuild homes and businesses in areas prone to flooding.

Documents

America the Beautiful 1. "America the Beautiful" is a song of geography. Explain how it intertwines the human world with the physical world. The phrases, “For amber waves of grain, For purple mountain majesties above the fruited plains,” describe interactions of the human-made and physical environment. The purple mountains are natural, and human beings have changed the plains into farmland including regions of grain production. The description, “A thorough-fare for freedom beat/Across the wilderness” shows that people in search of freedom were willing and able to cross the wilderness. 2. Although the song is patriotic, mention is made of imperfections. Give a few examples. One passage says, “God mend thine ev'ry flaw, Confirm thy soul in self control, Thy liberty in law.” This passage refers to the importance of the rule of law to the maintenance of civil liberties. It says that while God is necessary to correct our individual flaws, we must still exercise self-control, and for that society must construct laws. Two passages speak of sacrifices made. One, “Thine alabaster cities gleam, Undimmed by human tears,” is referring to the great work and hardship necessary to build our cities and their tall buildings. The other passage, “O beautiful for heroes prov'd/In liberating strife, Who more than self their country lov'd/And mercy more than life,” is referring to the conflicts and dangers involved in securing liberty. It is referring to people who loved their country more than themselves and were willing to give up their own lives.


Another passage warns of the dangers of being too greedy with the natural resources. It says, “May God thy gold refine/Till all success be nobleness, And ev'ry grain divine.” The passage is indicating that as wonderful and as rich as the natural resources of the country are, greater importance should be given to recognizing God’s work. 3. Explain how Manifest Destiny is included in the song. Manifest Destiny, or the belief that God had determined that the lands between the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans should belong to people of European descent, is included by inference. Although people of European descent are not specifically mentioned, their accomplishments and culture are. The fruited plain and amber waves of grain were created by European culture; the Indians of the Plains did not grow crops. The reference to alabaster cities, undimmed by human tears, is talking about European culture. The combination of these accomplishments with “And crown thy good with brotherhood/From sea to shining sea” strongly hints at Manifest Destiny. 4. Give specific examples of events or accomplishments to which the lyrics are referring. “O beautiful for pilgrim feet/Whose stern impassion'd stress/A thorough-fare for freedom beat/Across the wilderness.” These words refer to the accomplishments of the Pilgrims and their way of life in overcoming the wilderness. “Thine alabaster cities gleam, Undimmed by human tears.” This passage refers to the hard work and suffering by people who built cities and their tall buildings. (Alabaster is a form of gypsum -- a mineral and a main component of gypsum board or wallboard. It is whitish in color and translucent. Sometimes it looks like marble.) The human tears and hard work were substantial, but they do not take away from the great works that were created. 5. Suppose you were hired to write a fifth stanza. Follow Bates's style in your composition. Answers will vary, but should be singable to the same tune. 6. Which do you think should be our national anthem, the "Star Spangled Banner" or "America the Beautiful"? Why? Answers will vary. Arguments for “America the Beautiful” include: a vivid picture of the variety of American landscapes in words, a less warlike picture of Americans, and an easier-to-sing tune. 7. Katherine Lee Bates wrote about the success of her hymn. "That the hymn has gained, in these twenty odd years, such a hold as it has upon our people, is clearly due to the fact that Americans are at heart idealists, with a fundamental faith in human brotherhood." Give some examples to support her statement. The words, “O beautiful for patriot dream/That sees beyond the years,” show how important love of the good of one’s country is to the future development of the country. The words, “And crown thy good with brotherhood/From sea to shining sea,” interconnect God’s good works with brotherhood of the American people. The passage, “O beautiful for heroes prov'd/In liberating strife, Who more than self their country lov'd/And mercy more than life,” shows that people were willing to give their lives to provide liberty for others.

Lewis and Clark's Journal


1. What geologic forces formed the cliffs and shaped the rocks? Water and wind erosion formed the cliffs and shaped the rocks. As the water moved over the rocks, it removed rock particles, resulting in cliffs and shaping the rocks. Similarly, wind also removed rock particles, making elaborate shapes of the rocks. 2. How did the sandstone cliffs resemble buildings? The water had turned the sandstone into shapes which resembled columns, pedestals, and capitals (which are the tops of columns). The rocks had been transformed to appear like parapets (protective walls) with statuary (statues). Other rocks looked like long galleries with supporting columns. 3. Why is Lewis correct in changing his mind that nature had attempted to rival the human art of masonry? Lewis recognized that nature had started the process. Although human beings could build massive structures, nature had first created the rocks and other raw materials with which human beings worked. 4. Draw pictures of the landforms Lewis is describing. Answers will vary. 5. Why do you think this area has been untouched and remains the same since 1805? This area is harsh and difficult for people to live in and modify. It is used primarily for ranching and a little for farming. The river has not been dammed and flows naturally, not under the control of people. 6. What reasoning did the majority of the party use in thinking that the north fork was the true Missouri? The north fork had similar properties to the main waters of the Missouri. These properties included the color of whitish brown, the bed of the stream composed of gravel and mud, and the waters which were rolling and boiling. 7. Why did Lewis and Clark think that the south fork was the true Missouri? They thought that its waters were not clear enough to have flowed through the Rocky Mountains. They felt that the north fork originated in the open plains and not the mountains. 8. What did Lewis think about the information provided by the Native Americans in the area? Lewis and Clark were amazed that the Indians did not mention the south fork and its large falls. 9. What is another name for the juncture of the Missouri and Marias? The juncture of two rivers is called a confluence. Near the confluence of the Missouri and Marias is Fort Benton, and farther upstream is Great Falls, Montana. 10. Locate on a map of Montana the fork of the Missouri and Marias. Trace the paths of each of the streams to their sources.


The sources of the Missouri River are the Gallatin, Madison, and Jefferson Rivers which together form the headwaters or beginning of the Missouri near Three Forks, Montana. The Marias River flows from streams starting in northwest Montana.


Chapter 4: United States: Human Geography

Case Studies

U.S. Conservation 1. What is the name of the first national park in the world? Yellowstone National Park in the United States, established in 1872, was the world’s first national park. 2. Define the following terms: sustainable yield, multiple use, no-tillage, and minimal tillage. Sustainable yield: production or use of a renewable resource at a very high rate so that sufficient amounts remain for future use and production. Multiple use: use of land for more than one purpose. No-tillage: planting crops without plowing the soil. Seeds instead are injected into the soil. This process lessens soil erosion. Minimal tillage: often said to be the same as no-tillage. Minimal tillage more precisely involves planting seeds by disturbing the soil as little as possible. 3. Name two acts of Congress and explain how they helped conserve the environment. Many acts of Congress have helped to conserve the environment. Here are a few: Water Quality Act: Protected bodies of water from pollution. It regulated the quality of drinking water. Clean Air Act: Set federal regulations restricting air pollution produced by automobiles and factories. Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA): Regulated hazardous waste disposal. Superfund: Also called Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA). Identified hazardous waste sites and required polluters to pay for their clean up. Endangered Species Act: Protected animals and plants that are endangered or threatened, that is, species that are likely to become extinct without protection. National Environmental Policy Act: Established the policy, set goals, and authorizes ways to implement the policy. It led to the formation of the Environmental Protection Administration (EPA) and initiated the environmental impact statement. In effect, the act made environmental concerns a part of any decision involving the interaction of people and the environment. Wilderness Act: Authorized the federal government to protect undeveloped public land. The act established the National Wilderness System which consists of protected areas which are not to be developed and where people are only visitors. 4. What are the costs of using gasoline as a source of energy?


Gasoline is refined from petroleum which is a non-renewable resource. Using gasoline lessens the amount available for future use. Refining petroleum pollutes the air. Transporting petroleum involves building pipelines or using oceanic shipping or trucks. Pipelines are ugly and upset migration patterns of animals. Petroleum from ocean ships and pipelines can leak, which wastes oil and can kill wildlife and contaminate water bodies. Gasoline is flammable; accidents have killed many people. Burning gasoline as fuel in an engine also pollutes the air.

Spatial Distribution of Religions in the U.S. 1. What percentage of Americans are members of an organized religion? Approximately 70% of Americans are members of an organized religion. 2. What religion predominates in the Southwestern United States? Why? Roman Catholicism predominates in the Southwestern United States because many of the people living there are Latin American or descended from people from Latin America. 3. Explain the connection between religion and ethnicity. Religion is one component of ethnicity or the culture of a people. Ethnicity is not easy to define, but it refers to the cultural and national identity of a group of people. It often includes a shared religion, language, and history. People of an ethnic group often follow the same religion. However, sometimes people of the same nationality, or ethnicity, are not of the same religion, as in Ireland, where some Irish are Catholic and others are Protestant. 4. Choose two religions. Explain where they are most common and why. Answers will vary according to religions chosen. Below are some examples. Lutheranism: Lutheranism is found largely in the northern Great Plains and Midwest. German and Scandinavian immigrants looking for physical environments similar to their home countries settled in this region in the mid-19th century, taking their religion with them. Catholicism: The southwestern United States is dominated by Roman Catholicism as many people from Latin America or their descendants settled in this area. Roman Catholicism is found in southern Louisiana largely because French Canadians or Cajuns migrated there. They were expelled from Canada during the middle 18th century. Mormons or Church of the Latter Day Saints: Mormons are concentrated in Utah and adjacent parts of neighboring states. The religion originated in New York State, but its followers were forced to leave and finally settled around the Great Salt Lake in Utah. The Mormons were able to turn this desert environment into productive farmland. Over the years, the Mormon population has grown by natural increase, migration, and conversion. Judaism: Jews are located primarily in urban areas around the country. Their occupations tend to be associated with city life; thus their numbers are high in cities and suburbs. 5. American Muslims are found in very different areas, and have different ethnic backgrounds. What explains these differences? The number of American Muslims has increased significantly over the past few decades. Some have come from other countries, partially because of political problems. Others have come to the United States for similar reasons that people have been immigrating for hundreds of years. A


large number of African-Americans have converted from Christianity to Islam because they feel that the belief in Islam is more appropriate for them. Some African-Americans starting in the middle of the 20th century became members of the Nation of Islam, as a way to lessen racial inequality. A large proportion of American Muslims live in cities, especially in the states of Michigan and Illinois. As with other religions, new migrants tend to move to where their family or people of similar ethnic groups live. Small clusters tend to grow into larger ones in that manner. 6. How are various religious groups distributed through Texas? Texas is predominantly Christian. Baptists are prevalent in northern and central Texas. Catholics are in the South. However, Baptists are spreading southward and Roman Catholics are moving into formerly Baptist areas. Other Protestant groups are spread throughout the states, with Lutherans particularly concentrated in a zone between the Catholic and Baptist regions. Many Eastern Orthodox live in Houston and along the Gulf Coast. Many Jews live in Houston.

Human Migration-A Special Topic: Texas 1. When and why did migrants from Germany first come to Texas? German migrants came to Texas in the 1830s. They were encouraged by German land developers who described a place with fertile soils, many game animals to hunt, and warm weather year-round. 2. What about Texas landscapes attracted many German migrants? Where did most of these migrants settle? They were attracted by the fertile soils and the plentiful animals for hunting and fishing. Most German migrants settled in south-central Texas. This area was called the German Belt. After the Civil War, successful settlements of German migrants grew in northern, north-central, and western Texas. At the end of the 19th century, Germans who had first settled in the Midwest came to Texas. More Germans and German-Americans were settling in cities, including Houston, San Antonio, and Galveston. 3. What is an ethnic island? Ethnic islands were areas that were predominantly German. While containing a large proportion of Germans, the settlements were spatially distinct or separated from other German communities. 4. From which two ethnic groups are Mexican-Americans descended? Mexican-Americans are descended from Native Americans, also called Indians, and Spanish migrants. They were called Mestizo, which means persons of mixed parentage, children of Spanish and Native American parents. 5. Where did Mexican-Americans move in the early and late 19th century? Why? Mexican-Americans in central Texas moved to the area east and southeast of San Antonio. They were looking for jobs. In southern Texas, they moved from the Rio Grande to the area along the Nueces River for ranching jobs. 6. How did the settlement patterns of Mexican-Americans change with the modernization of agriculture? Many Mexican-Americans became seasonal and migrant workers. Some did not have permanent homes, but moved where jobs were available at different times of the year. Generally Mexican-


Americans lived in small communities in rural areas. Some picked cotton in southeast Texas, north Texas, and later northwest Texas and the Panhandle. Others moved into the south and central part of the state. However, some Mexican-Americans left farming and moved into cities. 7. How did the intermingling of Spanish and Indian cultures lead to innovations in cooking? The combination of Spanish foods and recipes with Indian foods led to a different style, often called Tex-Mex. Tex-Mex food did not stay in Texas, as it proved attractive to people across the United States (and eventually the world). 8. Describe some of the ways cultural patterns diffused through Texas. What are some of the cultures that are found in San Antonio? Cultural patterns diffused or spread through Texas similarly to the way they spread in other places. People migrating from one area to another brought their cooking, music, and arts with them. With modern transportation and communication, aspects of culture could spread more quickly and more widely. Radio and television contributed greatly to the spread of Texas music. San Antonio is home to several cultural groups, including Mexican, German, Mestizo, and Spanish. These and other cultures are spread out throughout the city, but some elements are concentrated in a few areas. Mexican ways of life are especially prevalent in the barrio section, in western San Antonio. The German Hill country, to the north and northwest of the city, is a center of German culture. Music, one major component of culture, can be found in many varieties all over the city. German music, with its accordions and polkas, is played, as is Tejano, a combination of German and Mexican music. San Antonio’s culture is also influenced by the presence of air force bases. 9. Describe the landscape around Houston. How do landscapes encourage people to be innovative? The landscapes around Houston were largely prairie and Buffalo Bayou. Prairies are grasslands with fertile soils and were attractive to farming. Cotton and corn were grown and livestock were raised, primarily for their hides. Buffalo Bayou was a swamp, greatly inhibiting movement. Landscapes which are difficult to cross or to use for economic activities present challenges. People want to overcome the challenges in order to improve their economic situation and sometimes just to meet the challenge. Hilly areas are often turned into farmlands by changing the hills to a series of flat areas, called terraces. This transformation involves a tremendous amount of work moving soil. Landscapes that are muddy can be drained by digging ditches; sometimes pumping is necessary. 10. How did technological innovations help Houston develop into a major city? What modifications to the landscape contributed to Houston's prosperity? The coastal prairies around Houston were muddy in some places, making crossing difficult. At first, farm produce was transported on ox carts to Houston, and then transferred to small river steamships to be taken to Galveston, on the Gulf of Mexico. From Galveston, the cargo was shipped to New Orleans. Railroads were built in the middle decades of the 19th century; they were more efficient than the ox carts. The Buffalo Bayou was also difficult to cross. People tried to dredge the bayou and build a navigable waterway. The Houston Ship Canal was completed by the federal government in 1914, making Houston accessible to ocean-going vessels around the world. In the 1920s, Houston became an even more important commercial center with the construction of paved highways.


One vital technological innovation was air conditioning. Air conditioning made the naturally hot and humid climate of Houston more habitable and greatly contributed to population growth. 11. How did the heat in Texas contribute to an innovation in sports? Major league baseball came to Texas in 1962. However, the heat and humidity made playing and watching uncomfortable. The Houston Astros built the air-conditioned Astrodome in 1965, the first enclosed baseball and football stadium. Other teams copied the idea, including the Minnesota Twins who built a domed stadium not because the weather was too hot, but as protection against the cold and the snow. Since natural grass had difficulty growing in a domed stadium, the Houston Astros introduced astroturf in 1966. This artificial surface looked like grass, but was harder and did not need the same type of care. Other teams copied that innovation, even if they did not have domed stadiums. The new, harder surface allowed the batted ball to travel more quickly, leading teams to change their baseball strategy both in fielding and in hitting. 12. When different cultures meet, often there is a creative burst of innovation. Using the Internet or your library's resources, determine some of the new ideas in architecture, language, dress, food, and recreation that have come about from the meeting of Spanish and North American cultures in Texas. Answers will vary according to student research strategies. Accept any that appear reasonable. Two references are provided below: The Houston Institute for Culture (http://www.houstonculture.org/index.html) The Institute of Texan Cultures at the University of Texas at San Antonio (http://www.texancultures.utsa.edu/public/index.htm)

Landscape and Agriculture-A Special Topic: Texas 1. Explain why Texas is considered an important agricultural state. What factors influence regional specialization of agriculture in Texas? Texas is considered an important agricultural state because it has more farms or farmland than any other state in the United States. The total value of its farms, including land and structures, at the beginning of the 21st century was more than $77 billion. Texas is one of the leaders in the production of several crops, including rice, cotton, wheat, and sorghum. Regional specialization of agriculture in Texas is influenced by the shape of the land: whether it is hilly or flat. It is also influenced by the amount and timing of rainfall as well as temperature patterns over the year. Soil type will also influence the type of crops or livestock in an area. Regional specialization is also affected by accessibility and ease of transport as well as choices made by people in deciding what crops they want to grow and what livestock they want to produce. 2. Choose a crop that is grown in Texas. Explain why it is grown in a particular region of Texas. Answers for four crops are provided; students should select one. Rice: Although rice is grown in several regions of Texas, the rice belt is centered near Houston. Modern technology greatly influenced the growing of rice in this location. Irrigation was vital to the success of rice growing in this part of Texas. Airplanes started in 1946 to sow the seeds;


fertilizers and pesticides were also sprayed from the air. Combines, which cut and threshed the crop, dominated rice harvesting by 1950. Another important rice-growing region is the northern section of the Coastal Plains, along the Louisiana border. As with the rice belt around Houston, here irrigation and machinery are very important in this capital intensive approach to farming. Cotton: Cotton production is significant in several parts of Texas. On the Great Plains, in western Texas near Lubbock, cotton farmers take advantage of irrigation from a large supply of ground water. Cotton flourishes in eastern Texas in the southern parts of the Coastal Plains, in the lower Rio Grande Valley. Fertile soil and surface water used for irrigation are combined with mechanized cotton harvesting. New types of cotton, which could be mechanically harvested and processed, were hybridized, leading to even more production and profits. Pecans: Pecans are grown in west Texas where the dry and hilly to mountainous terrain does not make growing other crops easy. Pecan production makes use of irrigation and harvesting with mechanical shakers. Sorghum: Sorghum is grown in several locations in Texas. On the High Plains, the flat landscape allows for easy mechanization. Water from the Ogallala Aquifer is used for irrigation. Scientists bred hybrid sorghums to increase yields per acre and overall production. Sorghum is also grown on the South Plains, along the coast, on the Blackland Prairies, on the Rolling Plains, the Panhandle, and in the Rio Grande valley. The sowing and reaping vary with the particulars of the temperature, precipitation, and characteristics of the growing season. Sorghum production grew with the cattle industry, which used sorghum as a feed crop. 3. How did the different landscape patterns in Texas influence agricultural innovation? Three examples are discussed: Texas has a variety of landscapes and agricultural innovation has developed accordingly. In west Texas, cattle are grown in the central region and hogs in the western region. The region is too hilly and dry to support most crops. The Coastal Plains are flat and allow for mechanization. Surface water is available and used for irrigation. Starting in the 1940s and running through the 1990s, as cotton harvesting was mechanized and new varieties of cotton were developed, the lower Rio Grande valley grew as a major cotton producer. The Texas Hill Country, which includes the Blackland Prairies, runs between the Coastal Plains and the Great Plains. Its fertile soils, slightly hilly topography, and access to irrigation waters contribute to its production of such grains as sorghum and corn as well as cotton, and cattle. 4. What revolution in cattle marketing occurred in the 1960s and early 1970s in the Great Plains of Texas? Did other parts of the country incorporate similar changes? In the 1960s and early 1970s, farmers planted grains specifically to feed to cattle. In the High Plains of Texas, sorghum production increased greatly as it was used as feed for cattle in feedlots, large areas where animals are fattened before they are slaughtered. This revolution spread to other parts of the country, especially the Great Plains. 5. Water today is becoming a scarce resource in Texas. What technological and cultural innovations do you think water scarcity will encourage? Plant scientists may develop new varieties of crops that need less water to survive. More efficient irrigation techniques, which use less water, may be developed. Another possibility is for the federal government to charge farmers more money for the use of irrigation waters and facilities. Currently, irrigation is greatly subsidized by the federal government. Since farmers do not pay


the true cost of the water, they often use it wastefully. 6. How is farming in Texas the same as in other areas of the United States? How is it different? Farming in Texas is similar to other areas in the United States in several ways. It is highly mechanized and depends on fertilizers and pesticides. Farming is highly productive, with high yields per acre. Texas produces a wide variety of crops, most adapted to their natural environment, at least to some extent. However, differences with the rest of the country do exist. Farming that depends on a tremendous amount of heavily subsidized irrigation water is similar to some parts of the United States, such as parts of California. Yet farmers in other parts of the country do not grow crops which need large amounts of water in areas which are naturally arid. Texas farms are generally very large; other parts of the United States have smaller farms. Along with the large size of the farms, some Texas farmers depend on airplanes for sowing seed, fertilizing the soil and applying pesticides. This dependence is not widespread throughout the country; many farming regions do not contain farms that are sufficiently large to justify airplane flights. 7. Explain how technological innovations in agriculture have resulted from specific landscape patterns. Irrigating crops growing along the Rio Grande valley using surface waters is one technological innovation resulting from a specific landscape pattern. In the cold and semi-arid High Plains, irrigation, crop breeding, and large farms have led to productive agriculture. West Texas is an important cotton growing region because of innovative tapping of ground water. Most cotton today is grown in the plains around Lubbock, in western Texas. Sorghum is grown on the High Plains, taking advantage of naturally fertile soils. However, the climate is semi-arid. The technological innovation of tapping ground water from the Ogallala aquifer led to high yields and productivity.

Maps

Map of the United States 1. What does this map show? The map shows physical features and political boundaries of the United States. 2. What countries and bodies of water make up the borders of the United States? Canada is to the north and Mexico is to the southwest of the United States. The Great Lakes form part of the northern boundary with Canada and the Rio Grande forms part of the border with Mexico. The Atlantic Ocean forms the eastern boundary, the Pacific Ocean the western boundary, and the Gulf of Mexico the eastern part of the southern boundary. 3. How are mountains shown on the map? What are the major mountain ranges shown on the map? Mountains are shown as shaded areas. The Appalachians in the east and the Rockies in the


west are the major mountain ranges shown on the map. 4. What are the latitude and longitude boundaries of the continental United States? What are the latitude and longitude readings of Alaska and Hawaii? The latitude of the continental United States ranges from about 25 N to about 50 N. The lines of longitude run from a little less than 70 W to around 125 W. Alaska and Hawaii also have ranges of latitude and longitude. Alaska is centered on 65 N 150 W and Hawaii is centered on 20 N 155 W. 5. Explain the importance of the river border with Mexico and the Great Lakes border with Canada. The Rio Grande is important as a border between Mexico and the United States. Its properties as a river have led to political, economic, and ecological adjustments. As a river, its course is not constant, thus resulting in a shifting border and disputes between the two countries. One area near El Paso was stabilized through the building of a concrete channel. Mexicans who try to migrate illegally to the United States sometimes try to swim across the Rio Grande. The river has been managed for economic and ecological purposes through dams which control flooding and river flow as well as providing irrigation waters. Located in the heart of North America, the Great Lakes have contributed to the economic development of both the United States and Canada. Compared to other modes, water transportation is relatively cheap, allowing the easy movement of natural resources and finished products. The Great Lakes were once great fishing and recreational areas. However, in recent decades, pollution has contaminated fish, resulting in health warnings about human consumption.

Population Density: U.S. and Canada 1. What two population features does this map show? The map shows the population size of selected cities and the population density patterns in the United States and Canada. 2. What letter is associated with cities with populations of between one million and two million people? Name two cities that have such a population. Letter C. San Diego, Houston, San Antonio, Dallas, Boston, and Philadelphia all have a population between one and two million people. 3. Describe the pattern of population density of the United States and Canada. The population is not evenly distributed. The interiors of both countries are sparsely populated. In the United States, the northeastern region from Boston to Washington has the highest population density; parts of the West Coast and Gulf Coast of the United States also have high densities. While density for Canada is high along the border with the United States, the same is not true for the United States and its border with Canada, as population density is generally low on the northern border. Population density is the number of people per unit area. This map shows the number of people per square mile. The map shows us that the population of the two countries is not evenly distributed. Most of Canada's population lives in the southern section of the country, close to the United States. We can also see that the most densely populated region is the northeastern United States, in particular the area from Boston to Philadelphia. The West, East, and Gulf


Coasts generally have high population densities. In contrast, much of the interior of the United States and Canada has relatively low population densities. We can also see that a very large proportion of Canada has extremely small population densities, with the northern sections having practically no inhabitants at all. The cold winters and difficulty of transportation are major contributors to the sparse population in the north. 4. Why are the population densities high along the coasts? The East Coast was first settled by Europeans and as trade with Europe continued and expanded cities grew and overall population increased. The West and Gulf Coasts grew in population because of low costs associated with ocean transport, new and growing trading opportunities with Asia (especially for the West), drilling for oil (especially along the Gulf), and generally pleasant climate. 5. Why are the population densities lower in the interior of the continent? The population densities are lower in the interior of the continent because of higher transportation costs. Higher ranges in temperature over the year as well as less annual rainfall contribute to the overall low population densities.

Manufacturing/Agriculture: U.S. and Canada 1. What does this map show us about the United States and Canada? The map provides a general picture of the locations of a variety of manufacturing and agricultural production in North America. 2. Why is dairy farming located in the Northeast and in the West? Dairy farming is located in the Northeast because of the relatively cool climate combined with a dense population. The dense population provides a market for the milk and other dairy products. The cool climate contributes to good conditions for dairy farming while it makes other types of farming less attractive. The dense population of the West, especially California, forms a good market for dairy farming. The dairy industry has responded by developing large-scale production techniques. 3. Describe and explain the spatial distribution of livestock other than dairy cattle. Livestock other than dairy cattle include beef cattle and hogs. Beef cattle are grown in the Great Plains, the western states, and Texas. The cattle feed first on natural grasslands and then are taken to feedlots where they eat large amounts of specially designed grains before slaughter. Hogs are grown in the area centered around Iowa as well as in North Carolina. They eat corn which grows in Illinois, Iowa, Indiana, and neighboring states. Over the last few years, hog farmers, especially in North Carolina, have changed hog raising through intense mechanization. The result has been more efficient pork production, accompanied by problems of waste removal, including water contamination. 4. Where is manufacturing located? Why? How has this changed? Manufacturing was concentrated in the northeastern United States and southeastern Canada from the beginning of the Industrial Revolution into the second half of the 20th century. A large market, ocean accessibility to Europe, and availability of labor and raw materials all contributed to the region’s dominance. In the latter part of the 20th century, industry changed in several ways, including becoming less dependent on large quantities of raw materials. The western, southwestern, and Gulf states became increasingly attractive. Their relatively mild climates, less


expensive labor, and general attractiveness, led to new and old industries moving into these areas. 5. Where is rice grown? What physical features of the landscapes and cultural characteristics of the population contributed to that region specializing in rice production? Rice is grown largely in the western part of the southern United States and in California. The warm, moist climates of Louisiana and Arkansas combined with traditions of high rice consumption contributed to high production there. Texas and California have been able to take advantage of warm climates and federally subsidized pricing and irrigation water to grow large volumes of rice. 6. Where are the important regions of fruit production? Why? Important regions of fruit production include California, much of Washington and Oregon, parts of the Southwest, Florida, parts of Texas, and along the Great Lakes. In all these areas, mild climates and variety of soil combined with modern farming techniques and in many cases cheap labor and subsidized irrigation have led to efficient and profitable fruit growing. Cheap labor, frequently from illegal immigrants who are exploited by the landowners and managers, has significantly contributed to the success of fruit production, especially in the southern and western states. 7. Most of the corn in the United States is not grown for human consumption. Where is corn grown? Explain why corn is grown where it is. Corn is grown throughout the United States. One major area of specialization is the Midwest, centering around Iowa and Illinois. The soil here is very fertile and the climate, with hot and moist summers, combined with the flat topography, allowing easy mechanization, all contribute to high corn yields. Hogs are raised in the region and are fed the corn. In fact, the region is sometimes referred to as the corn belt or as the hog belt, because of the final product.

A Planned City: Washington, D.C. 1. In what pattern are the streets of Washington, D.C. laid out? The streets are laid out in a grid-iron or rectangular pattern on which circles and diagonals were superimposed. 2. What building is in the center of the city? The Capitol is in the center of the city. 3. Who designed Washington, D.C.? Pierre L’Enfant designed Washington, D.C. 4. Where is the White House in relation to the Washington Monument? The White House is directly north of the Washington Monument, across the Ellipse. 5. What is the name of the park across from the White House? Lafayette Park is across from the White House.


Graphs

Immigration to the U.S. 1. What does the graph show? The graph shows immigration into the United States by decade. The numbers are in millions and the years run from 1820 through the 1980s. 2. Which decade had the smallest number of immigrants? The 1820s had the smallest number of immigrants. 3. Which decade had the largest number of immigrants? The 1900s (1900 to 1910) had the largest number of immigrants. 4. Why did immigration drop from 1920 to 1960? Immigration dropped from 1920 to 1960 largely because the United States passed restrictive immigration laws which severely limited the total numbers of people allowed to enter the country and their countries of origin. 5. Use United States Census documents to find out where immigrants came from during each of the decades. During the period 1840 to 1860, from which countries did most immigrants come? During the period 1880 to 1920, from which region did most immigrants come? From 1840 to 1860, most immigrants came from Germany and Ireland. From 1880 to 1920, most immigrants came from southern and eastern Europe.

U.S. Urbanization 1. What does this graph show? The graph shows the percentage of people in the United States living in urban areas for selected years from 1790 to 1980. 2. What proportion of the population of the United States lived in cities in 1790? Five percent of the population of the United States lived in cities in 1790. 3. Why did the number of people living in cities increase? What changes occurred in our society? People move to where jobs are located. In 1790, our society was agrarian. The economy was based on agriculture and most people lived on farms. In the 1800s, our country industrialized and more people moved to cities. This movement continued into the 1900s as manufacturing and service activities grew in importance. 4. Was the country considered urban during the Civil War (1861-1865)? Why or why not?


The United States was not considered urban during the Civil War because less than 50% (15% in 1820 and 35% in 1890) of the population lived in cities. A country is considered urban if at least 50% of its population lives in cities. 5. During the Great Depression (1929-1941) was the country classified as urban or rural? Why or why not? The country was classified as urban as the proportion living in cities and suburbs was 55%. A country is considered urban if at least 50% of its population lives in cities. 6. What proportion of the population lived in cities in the 1980s? What proportion lived in the countryside? Does that mean that life in the countryside was not important to the economic and social health of the United States? In the 1980s, 75% of the population lived in cities and 25% lived in the countryside. Life in the countryside remains important to the economic and social health of the United States. Agriculture is vital to the American economy. It feeds the domestic population and is a major part of foreign trade. Life in the countryside is especially important because American heritage is very much intertwined with the land and natural resources.

America Work Force 1. What does the graph show us about women in the workforce? The graph shows us that the number of women in the workforce has grown from 1900 to 2000, although not always at the same rate. 2. How many women were in the workforce in 1900, at the beginning of the 20th century? What are two reasons for the low number? In 1900, about five million women were in the workforce. One reason for the low number is that there were fewer women in the United States as the population of the whole country was smaller. A second reason is society’s structure and expectations at the time led to women not being regular participants in the workplace. Cultural norms emphasized women’s work in the home, not as part of the paid labor force. 3. Why did the number of women in the workforce increase in the 1940s? When men went off to fight in World War II, their jobs needed to be filled. Women did so. 4. How many women were in the workforce in 1970? How many in 1980? Give three reasons to explain why the number changed. There were about 30 million women in the workforce in 1970; by 1980, the number had risen to about 42 million. One reason for the increase is that the population of the country as a whole rose. Another reason is that as women became more educated, many chose not to stay at home and take care of the children solely; many chose to pursue a career in the workplace. A third reason was the growing economy needed more workers, including women. A fourth reason is that many households needed greater income than one wage earner could provide. Therefore, many women worked outside the home. 5. How many women were in the workforce at the beginning of the 21st century?


About 62 million women were in the workforce at the beginning of the 21st century. 6. What do you think will happen to the number of women in the workforce during the 21st century? Students in composing this answer should use their own thoughts about society, women’s goals, men’s goals, changes in the structure and size of the economy, and changes by employers in providing benefits.

Art

Painting: The Smoke Signal 1. What are the Native Americans doing in the painting? They are burning some fuel to send a smoke signal or message. 2. Why were smoke signals a good way to send messages from one group to another? At this time, the Native Americans did not have more technologically advanced means of communication. Smoke signals could be seen from long distances. They could be sent from almost any location, although a high point would be better than a valley location. 3. What are some problems in using smoke signals to send messages from one group to another? On a cloudy day, the signal might not be easily visible. The smoke signals might be blown away by the winds. Smoke signals were limited in their visibility. Smoke signals probably did not allow for subtlety of messages. 4. What fuel do you think the Native Americans used for the fire? They probably used grass or a small amount of green wood to create the smoke. 5. What can you tell from the painting about the climate of the area? The climate appears to be fairly dry, as indicated by little plant life other than grass. 6. Look for other paintings by Remington of Native Americans. What do they tell you about the American West? Answers will vary, and students should draw their own conclusions. However, they should keep in mind that Frederic Remington’s paintings are considered to be accurate depictions of life on the Plains. The paintings show an understanding of the people and their ways of life. His subjects included Indians, soldiers, cowboys, and horses.

Painting: The Fall of the Cowboy 1. What are the two cowboys doing in the painting? One cowboy seems to have gotten off his horse and is either opening or closing a wooden gate at a fence made of barbed wire. The other cowboy is sitting on his horse waiting while the first


cowboy opens or closes the gate. 2. How does the artist set the mood of the painting? The colors provide a somber image. The heads of the cowboys are bent slightly downward, perhaps indicating sadness. The white horse appears slightly tired. There does not seem to be much desire by the cowboys or the horses for fast or lively movement. 3. Explain how the coming of the railroad and the homesteader led to the demise of the traditional cowboy. The railroad could transport cattle to the slaughterhouses and markets more quickly than could the cowboys. Therefore, the cowboys were not needed to drive the cattle. Homesteaders did not want cattle and cowboys crossing their fields and croplands. The homesteaders built fences, usually with barbed wire, which greatly restricted movements across the farmlands. 4. Why did ranchers and farmers fence in their land? By fencing in their land, ranchers and farmers were able to limit other people and animals from using their land. In particular, cowboys were unable to drive their cattle across private property. 5. Look for other paintings or sculptures made by Remington. What is Remington trying to depict in each of the pieces of artwork? Answers will vary, depending on the artworks chosen.

Dust Bowl 1. What is happening in the picture? Massive amounts of dust are being blown across the landscape. At first glance one might think that one is seeing clouds. But these objects are not clouds as they are hugging the surface and do not reach as high in the sky as clouds usually do. They are, however, very tall for dust, perhaps 30 or more feet high. 2. What do you think people living in the town thought when they saw the wall of dust coming at them? They were probably scared, concerned about being able to breathe and concerned about what the dust would do to their crops, their animals, and their homes. 3. Describe three ways that dust might have affected people directly. Dust made breathing difficult. It smothered the plants and animals. It made the soil useless as crops could not reach nutrients. 4. Describe three ways that nature (including animals, sunlight, and plants) was affected by the dust. The dust led to less sunlight reaching the ground, limiting plant growth. Animals were smothered or buried. Plants were also buried by the dust. Soil was blown away by the winds, limiting natural plant growth as well as crop production. 5. Read the novel (or watch the movie) "The Grapes of Wrath." Then write your own essay describing the impact of the enormous amounts of dust blowing across the landscape.


Answers will vary. Essays should include an introduction, at least two paragraphs, and a conclusion.

Southwestern Architecture 1. What architectural styles do these buildings represent? These buildings were built in the Greek Revival and Spanish Mission styles. 2. How does the availability of building materials influence architectural styles? Architectural styles may change to incorporate building materials, such as particular types of rocks that are readily available. If a desired type of rock is not available or nearby, then the architect and the customer have to decide whether it merits the additional cost of transportation. An alternative rock might fit into the architectural style just as well. The building of the State Capitol was planned to be made of limestone in imitation of the United States Capitol. But, sufficient quantities of limestone were not available. Red granite from Texas was used instead. 3. How does culture influence choice of architectural style? Architects, government employees, and private interests choose among the cultural influences in their building. In Texas, Hispanic heritage, classical European styles, Greek Revival building styles (also called Southern Colonial), and religious traditions all influenced architectural styles. 4. How does climate influence architectural style? Climate influences architectural style in terms of the orientation of the building, with respect to the position of the sun. The material used is influenced by the temperature, winds, and amount of snow or rain expected. Building design should take into account how much hot or cold weather is expected. In hot areas, buildings would have porches and breezeways. In colder areas, buildings would probably have smaller windows and fewer openings for winds to breeze through.


Chapter 5: Canada

Case Studies

Historical Settlement of Canada 1. Explain how a cooling in the climate contributed to people migrating from Asia to Canada thousands of years ago. Migrations from what is now known as Asia to what is now known as Canada occurred during one or more periods of cooling of the Earth’s climate thousands of years ago. Sea level lowered as snow fell on the continents forming glaciers. Sea level was around 500 feet below present-day levels. Therefore, surfaces that are at the bottom of the ocean today were not covered by water during the period of glaciation. The cold temperatures may also have allowed people to migrate over solid sheets of ice in the polar regions. 2. How did Canada get its name? Who was the first European to use the name Canada? Jacques Cartier was the first European to use the name Canada. He is the first known white person to have traveled on the St. Lawrence River. It is said that when he was near the present-day site of Montreal, one of the Indians told him that the place was called Kanata, which means “settlement” in the Huron-Iroquois language. 3. England was able to control Canada after it defeated France in a series of wars ending in 1763. Explain why Canada did not become a completely English speaking country with only English culture. Canada did not become a completely English-speaking country with only English culture even after France lost a series of wars to England largely because the French-speaking people did not leave. Many of the people who remained were clergy. The British government realized that the French culture, including their Roman Catholic religion, could not be ignored. The passage of the Quebec Act of 1774 implemented French civil law, but not French criminal law; it also gave the French Church considerable powers. 4. Which were the first original provinces to form the Dominion of Canada? Why did they do so? How were the remaining provinces formed? Ontario, Quebec, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick were the original provinces to form the Dominion of Canada. The people living in these areas wanted to unite western British North America with the East using a railway. They recognized the problems between the French and English speakers and wanted to resolve them. They also wanted a common defense. The western provinces and the Northwest Territories were formed from lands Canada purchased from the Hudson’s Bay Company. Newfoundland, which had decided not to become part of the Dominion of Canada when it was first formed in 1869, remained part of Great Britain. However, 80 years later, in 1949, it voted by a very close margin to join, thus becoming the 10th province. 5. Why did people from foreign lands come to Canada in the late 1800s and 1900s? From which countries did most of these immigrants come? Immigrants came to Canada to acquire free land, especially on the prairies, which were largely transformed into wheat farms. Others came for manufacturing jobs in the cities, and still others sought gold in Yukon.


The countries of origin included the United Kingdom, Russia, Ukraine, countries of central Europe and the United States. 6. Where do most current immigrants to Canada come from? Why? Once in Canada, where do most immigrants settle? Why? Current immigrants arrive in Canada from the British Islands, Hong Kong, India, Pakistan, parts of West Africa and the former British Caribbean. These countries and Canada are members of the Commonwealth of Nations. This organization, derived from the British Commonwealth, is composed of the United Kingdom and former British colonies that are now independent countries. The Commonwealth of Nations facilitates movements from one member country to another. The new immigrants settle in cities, largely because jobs are most available there. Canada and its immigrants are no different in this respect from most other places on Earth. People migrate mostly for better economic conditions and opportunities.

Canadian Government and Economy 1. Explain the structure of the government of Canada. Tell how it includes the parliamentary system of Great Britain as well as the federal system of the United States. Canadian government has three branches of government: legislative, executive, and judicial. Parliament is the legislative branch, composed of two houses, and makes the laws. The members of the House of Commons are elected; the members of the Senate are appointed for life. The leader of Parliament is the prime minister. He or she is the leader of the party with the most members of Parliament in the House of Commons. The prime minister is the head of government, thus making him or her the chief executive and, as leader of the legislature, the head of the legislative branch. This dual role resembles the parliamentary system of Great Britain. Since the national government shares power and responsibility of government with the provinces, Canada’s system of governance is similar to the federal system of the United States. 2. What are the responsibilities and powers of the prime minister of Canada? The prime minister as head of government is the chief executive of the country. He or she is responsible and has the power to make sure the laws are carried out. As head of the legislature, he or she is responsible and has the power to introduce bills to the legislature in order to pass laws. 3. What is the role of the Queen of England in Canada? The Queen of England is head of state and is represented by the Governor General. Her role is totally ceremonial. She has no real power. 4. Name the two houses of Parliament. Explain how each functions. The House of Commons and the Senate are the two houses of Parliament. The Senate does not have much political power, although its members are appointed for life. The House of Commons passes the laws. Members of Parliament are elected and serve until the next election. Unlike in the United States, national elections are not held at regular intervals. The prime minister chooses the timing, with a few restrictions, of national elections. 5. What are the names of the provinces and three territories of Canada?


Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island, Manitoba, Saskatchewan, Alberta, Quebec, Ontario, and British Columbia are the 10 provinces. Yukon, Northwest Territories, and Nunavut are three territories. 6. What are the names of the four Maritime Provinces? How are their physical environment and economy related? The four Maritime Provinces are Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and Prince Edward Island. The Atlantic Ocean borders all of them. Their terrains are hilly and rocky, their coastlines are indented, and they have significant forested areas. Because of their high latitude, their growing seasons are short. Farming is made difficult by the rocky soils and hills as well as the cool summers, so these provinces depend heavily on fishing and trade. 7. Choose any two provinces. For each, tell about its major physical characteristics. Then explain how its culture and economy are related to each other and its physical geography. Students will choose two of the following: Quebec: Quebec is largely underlain by the Canadian Shield in the north. Few people live in this remote area. Hydroelectric plants powered by streams flowing from the southern end of the Canadian Shield into lower elevations provide electricity for other parts of Canada and some regions of the United States. Its northern area is largely forested, while its southern area, near the St. Lawrence River, has cities and farmland. The St. Lawrence River on its east has helped farming, commerce, and industry. Mineral deposits, including nickel and aluminum, have been used to support industrial activities. The Laurentian Mountains on the north side of the St. Lawrence River attract skiers in the wintertime. Early in Canada’s history, the Quebecois, largely French-speaking and Roman Catholic, decided not to join in the westward expansion of the rest of Canada. Thus Quebec, even today, remains culturally distinct from the rest of the country. This distinction continues to attract many tourists each year. Ontario: Parts of Ontario are flat, some hilly and some Canadian Shield. Rivers, especially the St. Lawrence, lakes, and other water bodies have contributed to its economic growth. Ontario is bordered by all five Great Lakes on the south and Hudson’s Bay in the north. Ontario’s mild climate and good soils in the southern region contribute to productive farming. Ontario is part of the industrial heartland of Canada, partially because of mineral deposits combined with accessibility to other parts of Canada and especially the United States, largely through the Great Lakes. None of this growth could be possible without human ingenuity and investment. New Brunswick: New Brunswick is largely flat, but has some hilly areas. Farming is generally limited by thin soils and a short growing season. Potatoes have been an important crop; grains and fruit are also grown there. Large parts of New Brunswick are forested, so that forestry and paper mills are important industries. Other industries are supported largely by hydroelectric power. Fishing remains important, but overfishing, pollution, and competition from large factory-like ships have limited current productivity. Nova Scotia: Nova Scotia is known for its beautiful coastline. The indented and rocky shores adjacent to deep blue waters attract large numbers of tourists. Its location on the Atlantic has contributed to Nova Scotia’s fishing industry. Newfoundland and Labrador: Newfoundland and Labrador is composed of two main parts: the island of Newfoundland, and Labrador, which is on the mainland. Newfoundland’s coast is indented, which contributed to early growth of the fishing industry. Trees in the forests are transformed into pulp and paper. Labrador has a cold climate, which limits agriculture and settlement. Its mineral deposits have attracted extracting and processing industries. The Churchill Falls hydroelectric plant provides much electricity to other parts of Canada.


Prince Edward Island: Prince Edward Island has generally flat topography. It has fertile soils which have supported agriculture. With few energy resources and minerals, its manufacturing has been primarily food processing. Its existence as an island within the Gulf of St. Lawrence, a good fishing area, has allowed fishing to contribute to the economy. Manitoba: Manitoba is the eastern-most of the Prairie Provinces of Canada. It has fertile soils and flat topography. It grows large amounts of wheat. Manitoba also contains some oil deposits as well as minerals, including nickel and zinc. Its hydroelectric power has contributed to manufacturing growing in importance. Saskatchewan: Saskatchewan is a prairie province with flat topography and fertile soils. It grows more than half of Canada’s wheat. It contains minerals, such as aluminum and copper, as well as oil and natural gas. Extracting of these has grown into significant industry. Alberta: Alberta is the western-most prairie province. However, only the southern part is truly prairie. The rest is forested. It is an important wheat and cattle producer. It supports food-processing industries and coal and mineral extraction. With the discovery of oil and the development of an oil-extracting industry, Alberta’s economy has also diversified into more high-tech investments. British Columbia: British Columbia, on the west coast of Canada, is mostly mountainous. Little arable land exists, but farms still produce fruits and vegetables and poultry and cattle. Located on the Pacific Ocean, British Columbia leads the Canadian provinces in fishing, although its catch, as with other areas, has been lessened by overfishing. Mining of mineral resources, including copper and lead, is important. Much of its power comes from hydroelectricity. The Rocky Mountains have restricted British Columbia’s connections with the rest of Canada. Instead, British Columbia has emphasized trade with the states of Washington and Oregon to the south and with Asia to the east. 8. Canada has three territories. What are their names? How did they become part of Canada? Which is the newest territory? When and why was it formed? The three territories are Yukon, Northwest Territories, and Nunavut. The lands from which the territories were created were bought from the Hudson’s Bay Company by the Canadian government in 1870. From these lands, called the Northwest Territories, three provinces were carved from 1870 to 1905, and some lands were transferred to Quebec and Ontario. Yukon Territory was created from the western segment in 1898. The newest territory is Nunavut, which was created in 1999 to provide the First Nations with their own lands and allow them self-government.

Multiculturalism in Canada 1. What is bilingualism? What is the difference between anglophones and francophones? Bilingualism is the ability to use two languages. For a country, bilingualism means that two languages are equally important; the country has two official languages. Anglophones speak English and francophones speak French. 2. Is bilingualism evenly spread across Canada? Why? Bilingualism is not evenly spread across Canada. Most people in Canada speak English. Most of the 16% of the Canadian population who are bilingual live in Quebec.


3. What ethnic group is most important economically and politically in Canada? Is its importance changing? People of British descent are most important economically and politically in Canada. Their importance is declining as Canada becomes more multicultural with more and more immigrants entering the country. 4. What are the three Aboriginal groups recognized by the Canadian Constitution? What do their names mean? Inuit, First Nations peoples, and Metis are the three Aboriginal groups recognized by the Canadian constitution. Inuit means the people. Indians refer to the people of India. When Columbus arrived in America, he thought he was in India and called the natives Indians. Since this is inaccurate, the terms “First Nations” and “First Nations peoples” are now used. Metis are people of French-Indian heritage, descended from male French fur traders and Indian women, frequently Cree, but sometimes Ojibway or Saulteaux. (Their name is probably derived from the name of their language, mechif, which is a combination of Cree and French.)

Maps

Political Map: Canada 1. What does this map show? This map shows the capitals and boundaries of the provinces and territories of Canada along with the international boundary with the United States. Other political entities, such as Greenland, Iceland, and part of Russia, are depicted as well as physical features, including the Pacific Ocean and Hudson Bay. 2. What are the political borders of Canada with other countries? What are the political borders within Canada? The United States and the Great Lakes form the southern boundary of Canada. The political boundaries within Canada include those of the provinces and the territories. 3. What physical features form boundaries of Canada? The Pacific Ocean forms the western boundary; the Atlantic Ocean is to the East; the Arctic Ocean is to the north. The Great Lakes form part of the southern boundary with the United States. 4. In what province is the federal capital of Canada located? Ottawa, the federal capital of Canada, is located in Ontario. 5. Although the federal capital is located in one province, it is located close to the border of another. What is the name of that neighboring province? Why is the federal capital located where it is? Ottawa is located close to the border of Quebec, the neighboring province of Ontario. The choice of location indicated the mutual importance of French and English heritage to Canada. Its location, at some distance from the United States, was thought to provide a bit of protection in case of invasion by the United States.


6. What technique does the map use to indicate to the viewer that Canada is located at high latitudes? The presence of the Arctic Circle (66.5 degrees N) indicates that Canada is located at high latitudes. 7. Canada currently contains three territories. Before 1999, it contained only two. Explain why and how the third territory was formed. The third territory, Nunavut, was formed to make up for the mistreatment of the original peoples of Canada. Nunavut was carved out of the Northwest Territories and provides land and self-government for the Inuit peoples.

Physical Map: Canada 1. What does this map show? The map shows some of the major physical features of Canada. 2. Name two lakes in Canada. What are their major features? Canada has many, many lakes. A few are shown on the map. One is the Great Bear Lake which is the largest in Canada and fourth largest in North America. Another is the Great Slave Lake, the second largest in Canada and the deepest in North America. Lake Winnipeg is the third largest and Lake Athabasca, at the southern end of the Canadian Shield, is the fourth largest lake in Canada. Reindeer Lake is another large lake. Lake of the Woods is shared with the United States. All of these were formed by glaciers. A few, including Lake Winnipeg and Athabasca, were part of the much larger Lake Agassiz. The map also shows parts of the Great Lakes, although the individual lakes are not labeled. These five lakes contain about one-quarter of the fresh water in the world. 3. How much of Canada lies above the Arctic Circle? What is the main physical feature of this part of Canada? By looking at the map, it appears as if about one-eighth of Canada’s area lies north of the Arctic Circle. But, we cannot tell for sure as we do not know what kind of projection this is and therefore how true the scale is. The main physical feature of the northern part of Canada is many islands and a corresponding long coastline. 4. How does Canada's location and topography affect its climate? Canada’s location in the high latitudes results in generally cold temperatures. Temperatures in the high altitudes of the Rocky Mountains are low. The Rocky Mountains also prevent warm air from the Pacific Ocean from reaching the interior of Canada. Thus the west coast is mild, while the interior can be bitterly cold in the winter. Much of the interior is the Canadian Shield, which is relatively flat, but rugged. Atlantic coastal regions are more mild than the interior, but not as mild as the Pacific coastal regions. The Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence lowlands have a comparatively moderate climate.

Population Density: U.S. and Canada


1. What two population features does this map show? The map shows the population size of selected cities and the population density patterns in the United States and Canada. 2. What letter is associated with cities with populations of between one million and two million people? Name two cities that have such a population. Letter C. San Diego, Houston, San Antonio, Dallas, Boston, and Philadelphia all have a population between one and two million people. 3. Describe the pattern of population density of the United States and Canada. The population is not evenly distributed. The interiors of both countries are sparsely populated. In the United States, the northeastern region from Boston to Washington has the highest population density; parts of the West Coast and Gulf Coast of the United States also have high densities. While density for Canada is high along the border with the United States, the same is not true for the United States and its border with Canada, as population density is generally low on the northern border. Population density is the number of people per unit area. This map shows the number of people per square mile. The map shows us that the population of the two countries is not evenly distributed. Most of Canada's population lives in the southern section of the country, close to the United States. We can also see that the most densely populated region is the northeastern United States, in particular the area from Boston to Philadelphia. The West, East, and Gulf Coasts generally have high population densities. In contrast, much of the interior of the United States and Canada has relatively low population densities. We can also see that a very large proportion of Canada has extremely small population densities, with the northern sections having practically no inhabitants at all. The cold winters and difficulty of transportation are major contributors to the sparse population in the north. 4. Why are the population densities high along the coasts? The East Coast was first settled by Europeans and as trade with Europe continued and expanded cities grew and overall population increased. The West and Gulf Coasts grew in population because of low costs associated with ocean transport, new and growing trading opportunities with Asia (especially for the West), drilling for oil (especially along the Gulf), and generally pleasant climate. 5. Why are the population densities lower in the interior of the continent? The population densities are lower in the interior of the continent because of higher transportation costs. Higher ranges in temperature over the year as well as less annual rainfall contribute to the overall low population densities.

Manufacturing/Agriculture: U.S. and Canada 1. What does this map show us about the United States and Canada? The map provides a general picture of the locations of a variety of manufacturing and agricultural production in North America. 2. Why is dairy farming located in the Northeast and in the West?


Dairy farming is located in the Northeast because of the relatively cool climate combined with a dense population. The dense population provides a market for the milk and other dairy products. The cool climate contributes to good conditions for dairy farming while it makes other types of farming less attractive. The dense population of the West, especially California, forms a good market for dairy farming. The dairy industry has responded by developing large-scale production techniques. 3. Describe and explain the spatial distribution of livestock other than dairy cattle. Livestock other than dairy cattle include beef cattle and hogs. Beef cattle are grown in the Great Plains, the western states, and Texas. The cattle feed first on natural grasslands and then are taken to feedlots where they eat large amounts of specially designed grains before slaughter. Hogs are grown in the area centered around Iowa as well as in North Carolina. They eat corn which grows in Illinois, Iowa, Indiana, and neighboring states. Over the last few years, hog farmers, especially in North Carolina, have changed hog raising through intense mechanization. The result has been more efficient pork production, accompanied by problems of waste removal, including water contamination. 4. Where is manufacturing located? Why? How has this changed? Manufacturing was concentrated in the northeastern United States and southeastern Canada from the beginning of the Industrial Revolution into the second half of the 20th century. A large market, ocean accessibility to Europe, and availability of labor and raw materials all contributed to the region’s dominance. In the latter part of the 20th century, industry changed in several ways, including becoming less dependent on large quantities of raw materials. The western, southwestern and Gulf states became increasingly attractive. Their relatively mild climates, less expensive labor, and general attractiveness, led to new and old industries moving into these areas. 5. Where is rice grown? What physical features of the landscapes and cultural characteristics of the population contributed to that region specializing in rice production? Rice is grown largely in the western part of the southern United States and in California. The warm, moist climates of Louisiana and Arkansas combined with traditions of high rice consumption contributed to high production there. Texas and California have been able to take advantage of warm climates and federally subsidized pricing and irrigation water to grow large volumes of rice. 6. Where are the important regions of fruit production? Why? Important regions of fruit production include California, much of Washington and Oregon, parts of the Southwest, Florida, parts of Texas, and along the Great Lakes. In all these areas, mild climates and variety of soil combined with modern farming techniques and in many cases cheap labor and subsidized irrigation have led to efficient and profitable fruit growing. Cheap labor, frequently from illegal immigrants who are exploited by the landowners and managers, has significantly contributed to the success of fruit production, especially in the southern and western states. 7. Most of the corn in the United States is not grown for human consumption. Where is corn grown? Explain why corn is grown where it is. Corn is grown throughout the United States. One major area of specialization is the Midwest, centering around Iowa and Illinois. The soil here is very fertile and the climate, with hot and moist summers, combined with the flat topography, allowing easy mechanization, all contribute to high corn yields. Hogs are raised in the region and are fed the corn. In fact, the region is sometimes referred to as the corn belt or as the hog belt, because of the final product.


Physical Map: North America 1. Name two major rivers in North America. Mississippi, Missouri, Platte, Ohio, Colorado, McKenzie, Rio Grande, and Columbia are all on the map, although students may provide other names. 2. Name two mountain ranges in North America. Appalachians, Rocky Mountains, and the Alaska Range are all on the map, but students may list others. 3. Use an atlas to look up various kinds of maps: Mercator projection, great circle maps, cylindrical and conical projections. Determine what kind of map you are looking at. Answers will vary. 4. Print out a copy of the Physical Map of North America. Turn it upside-down. How does changing the perspective change the way a viewer thinks about topography? People in the Northern Hemisphere, and quite frankly in Australia and New Zealand, think of north as up and south as down. Turning the map upside down upsets this perspective. East-west perspective is also changed by flipping the map. Locating places can be confusing. One must be retrained to be properly oriented.

Natural Vegetation: U.S. and Canada 1. What does this map show? This map shows the regions of natural vegetation in the United States and Canada. 2. What biomes exist in the United States and Canada? All five biomes can be found in the United States and Canada. Forest, savanna, grassland, tundra, and desert all exist. 3. What types of forest grow in the United States and Canada? What kinds of forest do not grow in the two countries? Deciduous, coniferous, and mixed deciduous coniferous forests are found in the two countries. Equatorial and tropical rainforests do not grow, although temperate rainforest, including coniferous trees such as Redwoods and Douglas fir, can be found in northwestern United States and southwestern Canada. 4. What type(s) of vegetation dominate in the northeastern United States? Southwestern United States? Southeastern United States? Does the natural vegetation still grow undisturbed in those regions? Northeastern U.S.: Deciduous and coniferous forest and a combination of both. Southwestern U.S.: Desert Southeastern U.S.: Coniferous


In some sections of these regions, the natural vegetation grows undisturbed. However, much of the vegetation, especially the forests, is not the original or primary vegetation. Those forests were cut down for farms and towns. The forests have grown back (sometimes with different species of trees) as land uses have changed. 5. What are the Everglades? How have human beings changed their natural characteristics? The Everglades, sometimes called a river of grass, are grasslands with water running through the vegetation. Located in southern Florida, this wetlands ecosystem supported a wide variety of wildlife and plants. These included large wading birds, panthers, crocodiles and alligators along with tropical and temperate climate plants. The vegetation and animals depended on a natural flow of water and rainy and dry seasons. Settlers in Florida diverted and changed the natural flow of water to irrigate farms and to provide water for people in new and growing cities. Even though the Everglades were declared a national park in 1934, many of the animals, especially the birds, have not been able to flourish. Plants that are not native have replaced some of the natural vegetation. In recent years, the state and federal governments have tried to work together to restore the natural workings of the ecosystem. But, conflicting interests and problems in funding have limited successful implementation. 6. Why does California support Mediterranean vegetation? Southern California supports Mediterranean vegetation because of the climate. A Mediterranean climate has two seasons: a dry and warm or hot summer and a mild and moist winter. Vegetation that grows in the Mediterranean region of Europe and southern California (as well as in parts of western Chile and western Australia) is adapted to this climate. Many plants stay green through the dry summer months so that they can start to grow immediately with the winter rains. Many plants have leaves which store water and do not allow much water to escape through evaporation and transpiration. 7. Where are grasslands located on this map? Why are they important? Grasslands are located in the interior of North America, extending from southern Texas to the southern part of Canada. On the map, they are contained within the area that has a yellow-green color and is labeled Great Plains. The grasslands, especially the eastern parts, are naturally very fertile. (When the grasses died each year, they decomposed and their nutrients became part of the soil.) They are now important agricultural regions. The eastern zone receives more precipitation and in the United States can support wheat, corn, and other grains. Livestock graze in the western zone.

Graph

Canada's Population 1. Which Canadian province or territory had the most people in 1996? In 2001? Ontario had the most people in both 1996 and 2001. In 1996, its population was 10,753,573 and in 2001, the population was 11,410,046. 2. Which Canadian province or territory is the largest in square miles? Northwest Territories, with 1,304,903 square miles, is the largest territory. Quebec, with 594,860 square miles, is the largest province.


3. What is the population density for each province and territory? These answers are found by dividing the population in 2001 by the area in square miles. Province Population Density

(persons/square mile)

Ontario 27.66

Quebec 12.17

British Columbia 10.67

Alberta 11.65

Manitoba 4.46

Saskatchewan 3.89

Nova Scotia 42.38

New Brunswick 25.73

Newfoundland and Labrador 3.28

Prince Edward Island 61.947

Northwest Territories 0.03

Yukon 0.14

Nunavut 0.03

Prince Edward Island 61.947


Chapter 6: Europe: Physical Geography

Case Studies

European Natural Disasters 1. Why can severe weather develop over the North Atlantic Ocean? Severe weather can develop over the North Atlantic Ocean when cold air masses from the north clash with warm air masses from the south. The storms come from the west. They often start as low pressure systems from the coast of the northeastern United States and move across the Atlantic Ocean. The storms are fueled by the contrast in temperature between the cold and warm air masses combined with moisture rising from the ocean. 2. Why is the Netherlands especially threatened by severe storms from the North Atlantic? A good proportion of the land surface of the Netherlands is below sea level. The Dutch have reclaimed land from the sea and have reinforced dunes, and built dikes and other structures as protection from floods. Their efforts have lessened the possibility of flooding from the ocean. However, inland flooding from rivers is possible. Urbanization, more roads, more canals, and fewer forests are some of the factors that have lessened the ability of the ground to absorb runoff. Heavy rainfall can lead to serious floods. The Rhine and Maas waterways overflowed in 1993 and 1995, causing great damage. The challenge of lessening the potential damage from flooding remains for the Netherlands and its neighbors. 3. Explain why earthquakes occur mostly in mountainous regions. Earthquakes occur primarily because of the movement of tectonic plates. Most of the mountains in Europe were formed from plate movement. Since plates in some areas remain active, earthquakes can occur in the mountains. 4. What is lava and where does it come from? Lava is molten or partially melted rock that has risen to the surface. Lava comes from magma which is also molten or partially melted rock but exists below the surface of the Earth. Several processes can result in magma or lava. One involves a lithospheric tectonic plate moving under another. A second occurs when two plates move apart from each other, accompanied by the partial melting of the upper part of mantle rock (which exists below the crust and lithosphere). In a third way, magma can be formed by a heat source, originating well below the lithosphere of the Earth.

European Environmental Problems 1. What are the main causes of air pollution? The main causes of human-made air pollution are burning of fuels, especially coal and hydrocarbons. Coal is burned in factories, for steel production, and for producing electricity. Hydrocarbons are burned to power cars (as gasoline) and in power plants (as oil and natural gas) to produce electricity. 2. What are the effects of air pollution?


Air pollution can cause smog, which is a combination of smoke and fog. Burning of coal produces little particles, called soot. It also produces sulfur-oxygen compounds which can cause respiratory problems. The burning of hydrocarbons produces nitrogen-oxygen compounds, which can also cause respiratory problems and lung damage. Sunlight reacts with the products from the burning of hydrocarbons and produces secondary pollutants, including ozone. Both coal and hydrocarbon pollution can damage buildings. Air currents can transport the pollution hundreds of miles away where the chemicals can kill trees and other plants and organisms even in lakes. This type of damage is called acid rain. 3. Explain why the seas around Europe are especially subject to pollution. Seas, as enclosed bodies of water, do not have the same “flushing” action as oceans. They are also smaller and are therefore more likely to feel the effects of contamination. The ratio of the size of the shore and the population living on the shore compared to the size of the body of water is much smaller for a sea than an ocean. Pollution is more likely to have a greater effect on a sea than on an ocean. 4. Why do many people believe that using nuclear reactors is not the answer to Europe's energy needs? Nuclear reactors use nuclear fuel. After the fuel has produced electricity in the plant, it has to be disposed of. There is no absolutely safe way to dispose of the fuel and keep it stored for thousands of years until it is no longer harmful or radioactive. Unauthorized people could obtain the spent fuel, illegally, and perhaps use it to create weapons. Another reason for concern is that nuclear reactors can explode or leak, thus releasing radiation to an unsuspecting public. 5. How can Europe's air and water pollution be reduced? Europe’s air and water pollution can be reduced in several ways. Air pollution could be lessened by developing more efficient technologies to result in the burning of smaller amounts of fuels. Automobiles could be designed to have higher fuel efficiency. Electric power plants could be built to produce more electricity with smaller amounts of coal, natural gas, or petroleum, or with solar, wind, and water power. Similarly, manufacturing processes could be devised that burn smaller amounts of fuel. People could conserve more; they could drive less, thus leading to fewer emissions. Water pollution can be reduced by farmers using smaller amounts of fertilizers and pesticides. Less of these chemicals would then be carried away by surface runoff to natural bodies of water. Industry could dispose of its hazardous wastes carefully, in a confined area. Operators and designers of ship and rail oil tankers and pipelines could be extra careful to avoid leaks. People should not consider their rivers, lakes, and seas as sewage pipes (although many have done so). 6. Why does Eastern Europe have more air and water pollution than Western Europe? As Eastern European countries industrialized in the 20th century, their governments did not care about air and water pollution. The air, rivers, and lakes were used as convenient dumping grounds. Cleaning up wastes cost too much money and was therefore not done. Government leaders wanted to produce jobs rather than clean up the environment. Now, perhaps, people may recognize that environmental management, itself, produces jobs. Nowadays, Eastern European countries burn more coal than in Western Europe. Western European countries have more pollution-control legislation, and more ways of producing energy from renewable resources. 7. What is being done to protect Europe's environment?


European countries have established regulatory agencies, both domestic and international. They have also signed treaties and other international agreements to lessen pollution and emissions in general. Organizations have been established to advance the goal of sustainable development, using natural resources in smaller amounts than in the past and at the same time, allowing for economic well-being. European countries also use renewable resources (such as solar, wind, and water power) to generate electricity.

Maps

Land Forms of Europe 1. What does this map show? The map shows four major landform regions of Europe. 2. What are the four major landforms of Europe? The Western Uplands, North European Lowland, the Central Uplands, and the Alpine System are the four major landforms of Europe. 3. Which landform is geologically the youngest? How can you tell? The Alpine System is the youngest region geologically as indicated by its tall mountains which are jagged and steep. 4. Research the ways of life of people in the Northern European Lowland. The Northern European Lowland has generally moderate temperatures and rainfall, good soils, low relief, and navigable rivers. People have used these natural features to develop agriculture, industry and service activities. The cities in the Northern European Lowland include Zurich, London, Berlin, Warsaw, Paris, and Hamburg. These world-renowned cities are finance, commercial, tourism, and cultural centers. Industry, including steel manufacturing and automobile production, provide jobs and income. Coal mines and oil refineries, along with pipelines, are plentiful. Superhighways, rail lines, canals, oceanic shipping ports, as well as country roads, contribute to accessibility and transport of people and goods, but congestion is significant. Agriculture is productive, with crops ranging from grains to fruits and vegetables as well as livestock and dairy production. 5. What economic activities developed in the Central Uplands? Why? In the Western Uplands? Why? The Central Uplands, in the interior of Western Europe including large parts of France and Germany, support productive farming, coal mining, and industry. The rich soils in valleys, the forests on the mountain slopes, and coalfields were developed by people as farming areas and manufacturing zones. As economic development progressed, cities grew and farmlands were replaced by industrial activities. The Western Uplands include the western part of the British Isles and Ireland, Portugal and the central part of Spain, along with much of Scandinavia and Finland. In England, these areas, with their rich deposits of coal combined with human ingenuity, grew into industrial regions. Ireland, known for its sheep raising and farming, has in recent years developed service industries. These include telecommunications, especially being a center for toll-free telephone calls in Europe, as well as a healthy tourist industry. Portugal is relatively poor compared to the rest of Western Europe. Its farms are small and generally not productive, resulting in the country having to import


a large proportion of its foods. Portugal exports wine, corks, fish, and textiles, but it has a trade deficit. Spain, as a whole, is more prosperous. However this part in the Western Uplands is not so well off because of small levels of natural resources and farming problems, largely from land-reform difficulties. The northern parts of Scandinavia and Finland are remote areas. Yet industry has been growing in Sweden, fishing and fish farms in Norway and Iceland, and forestry and manufacturing of machinery and telecommunications supplies in Finland. Norway has had a boom to its economy since the 1970s with the harvesting of natural gas and petroleum from the North Sea. 6. Why are the Ural Mountains lower than the Caucasus Mountains? The Ural Mountains are older than the Caucasus Mountains. The Urals have been worn down over millions of years by weathering and erosion. 7. Choose one of the regions. Find out its history. How have people used the environment to advance their culture? Students may research this question on their own.

Natural Vegetation: Europe 1. What does this map show? The map shows the natural vegetation of Europe. Natural vegetation consists of plants that grow without the assistance of human beings. 2. What are the major types of natural vegetation on the map? The major types of natural vegetation include tundra, coniferous forest, mixed coniferous and deciduous forest, Mediterranean forest (which can also be called sclerophyllous forest), woodland and steppe, and temperate grasslands. 3. What factors affect the types of natural vegetation that dominate a region? Climate is a major influence on natural vegetation. The amount and pattern of precipitation greatly affects vegetation. Similarly the length and intensity of sunlight combined with temperature values and ranges influence plant growth. Soil affects vegetation for relatively small areas, although for large areas, the interactions of climate and vegetation generally yield soil type. Another factor affecting vegetation is landform; the shape of the land. Bottomlands, with deeper soils, are more productive than mountain slopes, with thin soils. 4. Does most of this natural vegetation grow in Europe today? Which natural vegetation still exists in very large areas? Why? Much of the vegetation growing in Europe today is not natural. That means the plants are dependent on human beings. In very cold areas, tundra still grows naturally. The cold conditions make economic activities and living in general difficult and unpleasant. Since people have generally found tundra not useful or of limited use, the vegetation remains generally untouched. 5. Find out how soils and vegetation are related in any vegetation region. Soils are composed of mineral and organic matter. The mineral matter comes from the rocks underlying the soil; over time they get broken down through physical and chemical weathering.


The organic matter comes largely from the plants that grow in the soil. When the plants die, they decompose and become part of the soil. The type of plants and the weathering processes are related to climatic factors, including temperature and precipitation. All of these factors combine in soil development. 6. What kinds of plants grow naturally in the Mediterranean forest? What crops do people grow in this region? The plants that grow in the Mediterranean have to adjust to summer droughts and mild wet winters. The vegetation generally stays green throughout the year so that when the moist mild winter season starts, the plants can start growing without having to wait first for the leaves to be produced. Sclerophyllous, one type of plant that grows in the Mediterranean forests, has various adaptations, including hard leaves with a waxy surface, which limit water loss through evaporation and transpiration. The Mediterranean forests are, for the most part, technically not true forests. True forests have a closed canopy, with the top parts of the trees (the crowns) touching. Mediterranean forests are more accurately called woodlands because the trees are not so tall and their crowns do not always touch. Now people grow grains in this region, such as wheat and barley, and drought-resistant crops, such as olive trees and grapevines. They also irrigate the fields to grow a wide variety of fruits, vegetables, and flowers.


Chapter 7: Europe: Human Geography

Case Studies

Changing Borders in Europe 1. What different groups invaded or attacked some regions of Europe during the Middle Ages? During the Middle Ages, Muslim peoples gained control of the Iberian Peninsula. Vikings colonized coastal areas and Magyars moved into central Europe. 2. What was the impact of nationalism on Europe? In the 19th century, many nationalist feelings were ignored. Political entities were created with little concern for ethnic differences and similarities. People with different cultures were often included within the same country. Wars have been fought and borders redrawn to satisfy nationalist desires for a separate country. 3. Describe the border changes in Europe after World War I and World War II. After World War I, new states were formed, some in recognition of nationalistic feelings of ethnic groups. Poland was re-established. Finland, Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania emerged from the Russian Empire. Yugoslavia and Czechoslovakia were created from the Austro-Hungarian Empire. At the beginning of World War II, the U.S.S.R. annexed the Baltic republics, Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania, and eastern Poland, thus ignoring nationalist feelings. After the war, Poland, in compensation, was given territory from Germany to its west. Although Eastern European countries nominally became independent and had new borders, they were under the control of the Soviet Union. The people and their governments were forced to go along with the political, economic, and foreign policies of the U.S.S.R. 4. Discuss how the creation of the European Union is very different from border developments in Europe in the preceding 2,000 years. The European Union is aiming for economic, cultural, and political integration. Its member countries understand the value and benefit of working together rather than working against each other. In the preceding 2,000 years, for the most part, European countries were concerned almost exclusively for the well-being of their own people (or in many cases only a few of their own people).

Evolution of the English Language 1. Why is English regarded as an expressive, rich, and complex language? English is regarded as an expressive, rich, and complex language because a large number of influences, including many cultures, have shaped it for over 2,000 years. English is adaptable and has included many different words to express fine shadings of meaning. 2. Explain why French words like chef, chauffeur, coiffure, chapeau, and elite have been incorporated into the English language when cook, driver, hairdo, hat, and best could just as well be used.


English-language speakers have been open minded and willing to accept new words, especially when they have a slightly different meaning from existing ones. The result has been an enrichment of the language. With an enrichment of language comes the ability to express ideas more precisely, thus contributing to the advancement of thought and knowledge. The French words refer to similar objects, but they express the connotations of wealth and privilege. 3. Describe the three different ways that Latin had an impact on the evolution of the English language in the years from 43 to 1600. Latin affected the evolution of the English language through movements of people and ideas. The Romans brought Latin with them when they invaded Britain in 43 CE. Christian missionaries came from Rome from the 6th century on, bringing new words with them. Finally, the revival of interest in classical learning in the Renaissance led to more Latin in the language. 4. Why did English spread worldwide in the 20th century? English spread around the world as England became a colonial and commercial power from the 16th century onward. In the 20th century, American dominance of commerce and science made it necessary for speakers of other languages to learn English in order to do business or pursue scientific careers. 5. What are some ways that English has affected other languages? How have the speakers of other languages reacted? New technologies, American business, and American entertainment have all contributed new words to non-English languages. Words, such as internet, download, fast-food, and shopping mall, have become well-integrated into other languages. Speakers of other languages have frequently accepted the new English words. Others have not been so willing to include the new English words as part of their language. Some countries, including France, have created new French-rooted words, to replace English terms. One example is “la fin de semaine” (end of the week) being used to replace “le weekend.” 6. How is the English language an example of cultural diffusion? How is it an example of cultural convergence? English is an example of cultural diffusion because it spread around the world with English colonization and commercialization and later with American dominance in economic and political affairs. The use of English is an example of cultural convergence because many English words and phrases have become part of other vocabularies. It is also an example of cultural convergence because it adopts words from other languages.

Cultural Influences in Europe's Past 1. Describe the impact of the Germanic invasions on the culture, social organization, and languages of Western Europe. The destruction of libraries and public buildings by the Germanic tribes resulted in declines in art, formal education, and the general spread of knowledge, all important parts of culture. The tribal economy was based on agriculture, making commerce and cities unimportant. The Germanic languages of the tribes merged with the languages, including Latin and Celtic, of the original inhabitants.


2. What was the impact of the Crusades on the political, economic, and social development of Europe? Europeans in general became more aware of the advanced cultures of the Middle East. European scholars, newly exposed to the superior information available, studied in Muslim universities. People became more aware of the peoples and lands in the Middle East. As trade with the Middle East increased, towns became more important. Monarchies in Europe gained political power as the secular leaders made more and more decisions instead of the pope. 3. Identify and discuss three different influences on European culture since 1500. One influence was the Renaissance which emphasized humanism and intellectual. The commercial revolution led to more trade, which in turn led to more exchange of ideas. The scientific revolution led to an interest in reasoning and advances in human knowledge. The colonial empires established by several European countries influenced culture, by introducing new foods and new raw materials. The wealth acquired from the colonies raised the standard of living of some Europeans. The Industrial Revolution led to a greater availability of goods and foods. It changed family life by fostering separation of workplace and home. It led to more people living in cities. Expansion in food supply and some advances in hygiene and medical care resulted in a decline in the death rate. The population of Western Europe grew, but not enough jobs were readily available. Many people left Europe, migrating to the Americas. People in the Americas, especially the United States and Canada, greatly influenced intellectual thought, especially about democracy and equality. This is not to say that the ideals developed in a vacuum; they were based on European thoughts. The American Revolution and the French Revolution changed European culture forever.

Map

Modern Europe 1. What features of Europe does this map illustrate? This map shows political features of Europe, including national boundaries and capital cities. 2. Why are mountains and rivers not shown on this map? This is a political map. Mountains and rivers are topographic features, although political boundaries may run along rivers and through mountains. 3. What is the longitudinal and latitudinal range of Europe? The latitudinal range is about 35 degrees N to about 75 degrees N while the longitudinal range is from about 23 degrees W to 60 degrees E. 4. What is the capital of France? Bosnia? Romania? The capital of France is Paris. The capital of Bosnia is Sarajevo. The capital of Romania is Bucharest. 5. What countries are landlocked? Why is this a disadvantage? Switzerland, Austria, Czech Republic, Hungary, Slovakia, Macedonia, and Moldova are landlocked. Landlocked countries do not have access to countries beyond their borders, other


places except through other countries, making transportation costs high. 6. What countries and physical features form the eastern border of Europe? Official agreement has not been reached about the eastern political border of Europe. The eastern border of Europe is composed of the physical features of the Urals and the Caspian Sea and the Black Sea in the south. The country Russia forms the eastern border -- note that the Urals are contained within Russia -- so that part of Russia is in Europe and part is in Asia.

Graph

Population of Europe 1. Which nation in Europe showed the largest increase in population between 1900 and 2000? Why is the population of Russia in 1950 shown with two population figures? In terms of numbers of people, Germany’s population grew the most. It grew by 27 million people from 56 million in 1900 to 83 million in 1950. The larger of the two Russian population figures, 181 million, includes the people living in all of the 15 republics of the U.S.S.R. in 1950. The smaller figure, 104 million, is for Russia alone. 2. Why should these population figures be viewed with caution? Despite these cautions, why can they still be used to draw conclusions and comparisons about population changes? The collection of data was unreliable. First, the data were not collected consistently within individual countries and collection techniques varied from one country to another. Second, some countries did not take official censuses before the 19th century. A third reason is that national boundaries changed over the period. 3. Why did the populations of some countries in Europe grow more rapidly than others between 1800 and 1900? The population of Great Britain and Germany grew more rapidly because the Industrial Revolution had a greater impact than in other European countries. 4. Look in the World Almanac to see population predictions for the years 2025 and 2050 for these same countries. What do you notice about the projected populations of all six European countries in comparison with that of the United States? How do you account for the differences? The projected populations of all six European countries are expected to decline while the population of the United States is expected to grow. One reason for this contrast is that the birth rates in the European countries have declined as people have decided to have fewer children than their parents and grandparents had. The birthrate in the United States also has declined, but not as much as in those European countries. Counteracting the decline in birthrate in Europe and the United States is immigration, which is higher in the United States, leading to a growth in population. 5. What resources does Europe have, and how have Europeans used them? How has this contributed to Europe's relative importance in the world?


Several countries in Europe had and still have coal; some countries have plentiful supplies of petroleum and natural gas. Others have none. Many countries had forests and fertile soils. They had access to running water for water power. Differences in how Europeans used their resources started in the 18th century, the beginning years of the Industrial Revolution. People in some countries used their resources to develop economically. England led the way in improving crops, animal breeding and production, textile (cloth) manufacture, the iron and steel industry, and means of transportation. The natural resources were important, but so were human ingenuity and the ability to think independently to develop new ideas.

Art

The Berlin Wall 1. Looking at the image, how effective a barrier do you think this wall was to the movement of people and goods? How effective do you think it was in relation to the movement of ideas? The image of the (broken) wall may not truly show how effective a barrier the Berlin Wall was. It was thick, reinforced concrete, that effectively prevented the movement of goods and people, especially when combined with the guards shooting people who attempted to climb the wall. The wall also limited some movement of ideas. It blocked the distribution of reading material, such as books, magazines, and newspapers. The government of East Germany also limited communications by restricting or providing unbalanced information about the country and other parts of the world. 2. What about the political situation had to change before the Berlin Wall could be destroyed? The government had to be open to allowing new ideas to flow in and out of East Germany. Alternatively, the government could have given up on its idea of physically blocking movement in and out of the city.


Chapter 8: Russia and Other Countries of the CIS: Physical Geography

Case Study

Russia and the Commonwealth of Independent States 1. Which of the members of the Commonwealth of Independent States are in Asia? Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Turkmenistan, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan are the members of the Commonwealth of Independent States which are in Asia. 2. Why was the Commonwealth of Independent States formed in 1991? The Soviet Union (U.S.S.R.) consisted of soviet socialist republics (SSRs). As the Soviet Union was disintegrating, in order to keep some of the ties between the former SSRs and Russia, the Commonwealth of Independent States was formed. The hope was to continue, through this voluntary association, connections that had existed within the Soviet Union. 3. What is the relationship between the Russian Federation and the Commonwealth of Independent States? The Russian Federation is the largest unit of government formed from the original U.S.S.R. It consists of many internal political units. Other units of government outside of the Russian Federation, but part of the original U.S.S.R., have joined with the Russian Federation to form the Commonwealth of Independent States.

Map

Physical Map: Russia and Eurasia 1. What does this map show? The map shows features of the physical geography of the region once called the Soviet Union. It includes mountains, plateaus, rivers, oceans, and seas. 2. What bodies of water form the northern border of the Commonwealth of Independent States? The Arctic Ocean, including its arms, the Barents Sea, the East Siberian Sea, and the Bering Sea, make up the northern border of the Commonwealth of Independent States. 3. What are the names of the relatively flat regions in the CIS? The relatively flat regions are called lowlands if they are low in elevation and include the West Siberian Plain and the eastern part of the North European Lowlands. Flat areas of high elevation are called plateaus; the Central Siberian Plateau is found in the central part of the CIS. 4. Read about the North European Lowlands and about the West Siberian Plain. Are these regions where large numbers of people live? Why or why not?


The North European Lowlands is home to large numbers of people as industry has grown here taking advantage of natural resources and river routes. Moscow and St. Petersburg are major cities in the region. This is a vibrant economic and cultural region. The West Siberian Plain is less densely populated. Its climate is colder than in the west and arctic winds make conditions more unpleasant. The landscape presents problems as the soils are rocky. The northern part of the region is marshy while the southern zone is hilly. However, industry has been increasing in the region, fed by the harnessing of hydroelectric power, along with oil refining, coal mining and iron and steel manufacturing. Agriculture is also important, with rail lines providing transportation. 5. What are the names and locations of mountain ranges in the CIS? Research the occupations of people who live in these regions. Mountain regions in the CIS include the East Siberian Uplands in the east (as the name hints). The Caucasus Mountains in the southwest are located between the Black and Caspian Seas. The Ural Mountains to the east and north are considered the dividing zone between Europe and Asia. In the south are the Pamirs, Altai, and the Yablonovy Mountains. (Although the Tien Shan and Sayan ranges are not depicted on this map, they are on the southern border.) Answers to the second part of the question will vary; some occupations in the region include: jobs in the metallurgy, mining, timber, and petrochemicals industries in Siberia; and machinery, agriculture, and petrochemicals in the Caucasus. 6. What is the geographical and political significance of the Ural Mountains? The Ural Mountains are considered the border between Asia and Europe. They are not very high in elevation and have not inhibited movement across them. They do contain many natural resources, including iron ore and other metals. During World War II, the Urals were far enough away from Germany to be protected from enemy airplanes and ground troops. That secure position was useful to the Soviet Union later as well. 7. Trace the movements of two rivers in the CIS. Answers are provided for three rivers; students should select two. The Ob River is the fourth longest river in the world. It begins in southern Siberia, near the city of Biysk, at the confluence or meeting of the Biya and Katun Rivers. These rivers start in the Altai Mountains. The Ob can be divided into three sections: the upper, middle, and lower. The upper Ob, the first part, flows from its beginnings to the northwest and then the northeast, through the lowlands of Western Siberia. When it meets the Tom River, it is considered to be the middle Ob. As it continues flowing northwestward through swamps and forests in the Western Siberian Lowlands, it is fed by Chulym, Ket, and Irtysh Rivers. The Irtysh River, the main tributary of the Ob, is a significant river in its own right. Called the lower Ob as it moves towards the north and east; its waters flow towards its mouth, Obskaya Guba, an estuary of the Arctic Ocean. The Lena River starts near Lake Baikal in southeastern Siberia. Its course runs to the northeast and north. It flows along the base of the Verkhoyansk Range following the eastern edge of the Central Siberian Uplands. Its tributaries include, in the southern reaches, the Olekma which joins the Lena at Olekminsk, and later, the relatively large Aldam and relative small Vilyuy, flowing into the river north of Yakutsk, on the eastern flanks. It forms a delta as it flows into its mouth, the Laptev Sea of the Arctic Ocean. The Lena’s channel is fairly wide, about eight miles, along part of its course, and its delta is about 250 miles wide. The Yenisey River starts on the border of Russia and Mongolia in the East Sayan Mountains. It begins where the Bolshoi Yenisei and Maly Yenisei Rivers meet near Kyzyl in the Tuva Republic. It runs to the west and then north passing Minusinsk, Yeniseisk, and Igarka and is fed by the Angara and Tunguska Rivers. It flows into the Kara Sea of the Arctic Ocean.


8. Read about the Ob, Yenisey, and Lena Rivers. What happens to them over the year? What impact does this have on the economy of the region? At least part of each of the courses of the Ob, Yenisey, and Lena Rivers freezes each year. The delta of the Lena River freezes for around seven months. This natural cycle of freezing during part of the year and fertile wetlands during five months of the year supports a wealth of wildlife. The Lena Delta Reserve was established to officially protect wildlife. However, pollution from mining and forestry, as well as grazing, farming, and irrigation, threatens the water quality and volume in the delta. Rarely, the thawing of the frozen waters can cause significant problems for people along the river. In May 2001, hundreds of thousands of people were affected by flooding not only from the thawing of ice, but also from the ice not completely thawing. Blocks of ice can prevent waters from flowing downstream; these blocked waters can cause truly unexpected floods. This was the worst flooding in around 100 years. The Ob River is frozen for around five or six months every year. When its lower course freezes, the ice causes flooding in the middle parts of the river. The Ob is important during the other months for transportation and trade. It is also harnessed for hydroelectric power. Its once great fishing areas have been contaminated by pollution. The Yenisey River freezes during the winter. The ice does not melt evenly resulting in the upper part of the river flooding. Parts of the river are navigable for some of the year and parts have been tapped for hydroelectric power. Its waters have been contaminated by radioactivity from plutonium. 9. What environmental challenges have affected this region? The Aral Sea, naturally a freshwater lake, has shrunk in size because of damage done by human beings. Water from rivers that fed it was diverted for irrigation of crops, including cotton, starting in the 1950s. Without the input of water, combined with losses from evaporation, the Aral Sea became smaller and smaller, and more and more salty. Its shoreline receded about 80 miles in some locations. Commercial fishing is gone as are many plant and animal species.

Art

Lake Baikal (Russia) 1. What kind of tree appears to be growing on the shores of the lake? The trees appear to be conifer and evergreen trees. 2. By what geological processes do you think this lake was formed? The lake was probably formed by plate motion. Plate spreading or divergence is occurring in the region. Thus the crust may sink down as the plate spreads, resulting in an area of low elevation which can fill with water, forming a lake.


Chapter 9: Russia and Other Countries of the CIS: Human Geography

Case Studies

Changing Borders of Russia 1. What was the impact of the Mongol invasion on Kievan Russia? Kievan Russia was almost completely destroyed by the Mongol invasion of 1240. The Tatar (Mongol) kingdom, called the Golden Horde, permitted local Slavic rulers to remain in office. In turn, Slavic rulers had to pay tribute and acknowledge Tatar dominance. 2. How far did Russia expand in the 1600s and the 1700s? In the 1600s, Russia expanded from the Ural Mountains eastward across Asia all the way to the Pacific Ocean. Russia dominated and controlled people and lands in Ukraine, Mongol nomads in the south, Siberians to the east, and Inuit to the north. At the end of the 1600s and into the 1700s, Peter the Great was able to control the area around the Baltic Sea, including establishing the city of St. Petersburg. He also conquered part of Central Asia. Later in the 1700s, Catherine the Great was able to establish a port on the Black Sea. Under her control, Russia obtained the present-day Baltic countries and part of Poland. 3. Why was the U.S.S.R. able to expand its borders westward before and after World War II? Before WWII and, for a while during it, the Soviet Union had a non-aggression pact with Nazi Germany. Germany would not attack the U.S.S.R. and the U.S.S.R. would not attack Germany. The Soviet Union used this agreement as an opportunity to take over governments and lands of weaker peoples. In February 1945, during WWII, Roosevelt, Churchill, and Stalin agreed that after the end of the war, the U.S.S.R. could and would have Eastern Europe, while the United States and Great Britain would control Western Europe. This Yalta Conference is believed by some to have contributed to the Cold War.

Cultural Influences on Russia 1. How did Russia become more culturally diverse in its early history? By the 9th century Vikings, who invaded from Scandinavia and imposed their rule on the native Slavic peoples, had established the first Russian state. Eastern Orthodox Christianity was another cultural element introduced in the 10th century. Trading with the Byzantine Empire led to new ideas being exchanged. In the 13th century, Mongol (Tatar) invasions contributed elements of Asian culture, but also brought war and accompanying death and destruction. Over the next few centuries, Slavs away from the Mongol centers of government were able to establish political and economic power. First as grand dukes and later as tsars, over the next centuries Russian rulers expanded their influence and territory, including more peoples and cultures. 2. What cultural influences came from Western Europe in the 18th and 19th centuries? Cultural influences from Western Europe included the arts and architecture. French dress and home furnishings were most popular. Russian literature and music were influenced by European


ideas. 3. How did the communists influence cultural development in Russia and the non-Russian republics? Communism suppressed freedoms. It encouraged uniformity. As a result, creativity suffered and the arts stagnated. The communist government sought to spread Russian culture into the non-Russian republics. Russians were given positions of power in those republics. School children were required to learn Russian; their native language was considered secondary. The cultures of the people in the non-Russian republics were generally suppressed.

Minorities in Russia and the CIS 1. Why have many Russians chosen to relocate back to European Russia? During the Communist Era, many Russians moved out of the Russian Republic into other Soviet republics to take privileged positions of authority. Many of the people in the republics resented having Russians rule them, but had little power to do anything. When the Soviet Union broke up and the republics and their citizens gained more political power, the local people could now express their built-up resentments. Many Russians, finding themselves in a hostile political and social climate, relocated to the Russian Federation. 2. What do Chechnya, Nagorno-Karabakh, and Abkhazia have in common? Chechnya, Nagorno-Karabakh, and Abkhazia are all former units of the Soviet Union. The people in these areas have used violent means to attempt to become independent. They are all home to separatist movements. Over the years since the break-up of the Soviet Union, many lives have been lost as rebels fight against government forces. Legitimacy of any of the disputes has not been determined and all remain unresolved. Many people of Chechnya, a former republic of the Soviet Union, did not want to become part of the Russian Federation. Nagorno-Karabakh, an autonomous region, with a large number of ethnic Armenians, claimed its independence in 1991. Many people did not want to be part of the Azerbaijan Republic, but rather part of Armenia. Abkhazia, an autonomous region in Georgia, claimed independence in 1992. In 2002, Abkhazia announced that it wanted to become part of Russia. 3. Why have so many Jews emigrated from their homelands in the CIS countries? Jews were consistently subject to violence and discrimination first in Russia and later in the Soviet Union. Many Russian Jews tried to leave the U.S.S.R. but were denied exit visas. With the collapse of communism, a new type of anti-Semitism arose, one supported by right-wing, ultra-nationalist political organizations. Unlike the government of the Soviet Union, the governments of the Russian Federation and other CIS countries have allowed Jews to emigrate, and many have, moving mostly to Israel and the United States. As a result, it is estimated that the number of Jews in these countries has declined from 1.8 million in 1985 to about 500,000 at the beginning of the 21st century.


Map

Political Map: Russia and Eurasia 1. What does this map show? The map shows the borders and capital and important cities of the countries that were formed from the previous Soviet Union. Twelve of these 15 countries now belong to the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS), while three do not. 2. Which country on this map is the largest? Russia is the largest country. 3. From which country did all these countries originate? These countries all originated from the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, abbreviated USSR and also called the Soviet Union. 4. Aside from Russia, what are the three major subregions of the Commonwealth of Independent States? The other major subregions are the area previously called Soviet Central Asia, the Baltic States, and the southwest zone. The countries in Soviet Central Asia are Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, and Kyrgyzstan. The Baltic States or republics are Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania. The southwest zone includes three countries that are on the plains: Belarus, Ukraine, and Moldova; and three countries that are in the Caucasus Mountains region: Georgia, and Azerbaijan, and Armenia. 5. Choose one of the countries. Describe its ethnic composition and its economic resources. Answers will vary. 6. Choose one of the cities. Describe what life is like in that city. Answers will vary.


Chapter 10: Oceania: Physical Geography

Case Studies

The Origin of Atolls 1. What are some of the organisms that create reefs? Coral reefs are created by large numbers of small animals called polyps. The polyps have a symbiotic, or mutually beneficial, relationship with single-cell algae. The polyps build shelter for the algae; the algae, through photosynthesis, produce food and oxygen for the polyps. 2. How does coral create a reef? Coral produce reefs by secreting an exoskeleton (outside skeleton) or crust of calcium carbonate, also called limestone. After the coral die, the crusts remain. Over thousands of years, the limestone structures have allowed more coral growth. The results are elaborate and colorful homes for wide varieties of fish, sponges, and many small organisms. 3. What are the three environments of a coral reef? Many ways exist to describe the environments of a coral reef. One way is to divide the coral reef into the reef slope, the reef surface, and the lagoon. The reef slope consists of algae, sponges, and corals. It is the transition zone between the ocean and the second environment, the reef surface. The reef surface may consist of sand “islands,” composed of skeletons that were crushed by waves. Sometimes exposed during low tide, the reef surface is home to algae, fish, mollusks, and many varieties of coral originally from the reef slope. The third environment, the lagoon, consists of calm and warm waters. It is protected from the open ocean by the surrounding reef. It too supports a variety of organisms, including more delicate ones that thrive in the protected environment. 4. What plants and animals do coral reefs contain, and why? Coral reefs contain a wide variety of plants and animals. They are said to be as biologically diverse as the rainforests. Some of the organisms form the reef itself; these include the polyps, algae, and sponges. Other organisms, including fish, sea worms, jellyfish, and turtles, swim through and around the reef. Some species attach themselves to the reef; others hide within the reef and others push themselves into the reef structure. These plants and animals use the coral reefs for protection from predators. Some animals use the coral reefs for food. Many organisms interact with each other, forming symbiotic relationships. 5. What was Darwin's theory of subsidence? How does it explain how reefs are formed? Charles Darwin said that atolls, one type of coral reef, are formed from the subsidence or sinking of extinct volcanoes in the ocean. An atoll is a circular reef, which surrounds a lagoon. Darwin said that originally a volcanic island had a fringing reef around it. A fringing reef is attached to the island. Over time, the volcano started to shrink or subside. The organisms composing the reef continued to build their reef upward, even as the volcano subsided. This explanation helped to solve the mystery of how coral reefs that live in warm, shallow water could be found in the deep ocean.


Australian Plants and Animals 1. What were the names of the large landmasses during the Devonian era? When did they become the giant landmass Pangaea? The names of the large landmasses during the Devonian era were Laurasia and Gondwana. They moved together to become the giant landmass Pangaea during the Permian period. 2. What are marsupials? How are they different from other animals? Marsupials are a type of mammal whose offspring are born in an immature state and then live in a pouch (or marsupium), where they get milk from their mothers while they continue to develop. 3. Why does Australia have so many marsupials, especially when compared to other continents? Australia has so many marsupials because mammals evolved after what is now Australia became separated from the rest of Gondwana. Marsupials had spread over large areas before Gondwana started to split into the present-day continents or parts of continents of the Southern Hemisphere. On all the other continents, the non-marsupial mammals were generally better able to survive than the marsupials. As a result, the marsupials, with one or two exceptions, such as the opossum in North America, died out. On Australia, the marsupials did not face this competition and were able to survive. 4. Name two species of plants and animals that are native to Australia. Kangaroo, koala, wombat, and wallaby are native to Australia. (The dingo, a wild dog, was probably brought to Australia when the Aboriginal peoples arrived from northern islands about 40,000 years ago. It did not evolve in Australia.) Native plants include eucalyptus. Other native plants include the grass tree, the wattle, and acacia, as well as many different types of grasses. 5. Explain how humans have impacted the plant and animal life of Australia. The Aboriginal peoples, who arrived about 40,000 years earlier than the Europeans, made many fewer changes in the natural plant and animal life of Australia than did the Europeans and their descendants. The Aboriginal peoples were gatherers and hunters who lived generally in balance with their surroundings. They did not bring in new animals, except for the dingo, and they did not domesticate animals. The Europeans and their descendants brought in non-native animals for domestication, for hunting, and by accident. They also brought in new plants. With no natural predators or enemies, many of these introduced plants and animals were able to compete successfully against the native species. Several marsupials have become extinct or endangered. Naturally vegetated areas have been replaced by domesticated plants.

Maps

Physical Map: Australia and New Zealand 1. Where is the Great Dividing Range found? The Great Dividing Range is found in the northeastern part of Australia. It is inland and generally, but not precisely, parallels the coast.


2. What is the topography of the western half of Australia? The western half of Australia is largely a plateau. However, mountains rise above the plateau. The plateau does not end at the coast, but a few miles inland, where it drops about 1,000 to 2,000 feet to sea level. 3. Which is more mountainous, New Zealand's North or South Island? South Island is more mountainous.

International Date Line: Oceania 1. If it is Tuesday in New Zealand, what day is it in Australia? Why? The answer to this question depends on the time of day in New Zealand. For most of the hours of the day, New Zealand and Australia are on the same day. However, one has to take into account the difference in time caused by longitudinal distance. Thus, when it is 2 am on Tuesday in New Zealand, which is all in one time zone, the time in western Australia is 10 pm Monday. Four time zones, as determined by about 60 degrees of longitude, separate New Zealand and western Australia. Even though the two countries are on the same side of the International Date Line, the day in each can be different. Australia is a bit complicated in time zones, because it does not follow the standard longitudinal pattern, including having time zones with half-hour differences. 2. If it is Wednesday in Papua New Guinea, what day is it in the United States? Why? The day will depend on the hour in Papua New Guinea and the place in the United States. For much of Wednesday, the day in several time zones in the United States will be Tuesday. But for several hours, the day will be the same, Wednesday. Although Papua New Guinea and the United States are on opposite sides of the International Date Line, they are not always separated by a day.

Papua New Guinea 1. What is the capital city of Papua New Guinea? Port Morseby is the capital city of Papua New Guinea. 2. Where is the island of Bougainville in relation to the mainland? The island of Bougainville is east of the main part of Papua New Guinea. 3. What is the other country that shares the island of New Guinea with Papua New Guinea? Indonesia shares the island of New Guinea with Papua New Guinea. 4. What physical features are located in the middle of Papua New Guinea? Mountains are located in the middle of Papua New Guinea.

Ocean Currents 1. In what direction do the currents flow in the Southern Hemisphere? Why?


Surface currents in the Southern Hemisphere generally flow in a counterclockwise direction. Winds are the primary factor causing surface ocean currents. The winds blow on the ocean waters, but the current does not flow in the direction of the wind. The current is deflected slightly to the left by the Coriolis Effect. The continual deflection to the left results in a counterclockwise direction to the currents. 2. What factors combine to create ocean currents? The major factors that influence the motion of surface ocean currents are winds and the Coriolis Effect. Winds blow on the surface of the ocean, causing the water to move. But, because of the Coriolis Effect, the water cannot move in the original direction of flow; it is deflected to the left of its original direction of movement. Deep ocean currents are driven by the density and salinity differences of the waters. These deep ocean currents move much more slowly than the surface currents. They transfer heat from warmer, lower latitudes to colder, higher latitudes. The deep ocean currents can rise to the surface, when surface waters are blown away from the coast by winds near the edges of continents. This rising or upwelling of water brings cold water and nutrients from the depths of the ocean to the surface. The nutrients are important to fish and thus to birds that fly above. 3. In which direction does the North Equatorial Current flow? In which direction does the South Equatorial Current flow? Why? The North Equatorial and South Equatorial Currents both flow towards the west. They are blown by the trade winds, which come from the northeast in the Northern Hemisphere and the southeast in the Southern Hemisphere. The Coriolis Effect results in the currents being at first deflected to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere. However, as the waters approach the Equator, the Coriolis Effect gets smaller, until at the Equator, there is no Coriolis Effect. 4. What temperature is the East Australian current? Why? The East Australian current is a warm current. It comes from the north, or from lower latitudes, in the Southern Hemisphere, and carries warmer water to the higher and colder latitudes. 5. What current flows past the islands north of the Equator (in the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans)? The North Equatorial current flows westward. But it reaches the western coasts of continents where the water literally piles up. The height of this higher water is about six inches. The piled-up water then moves northward or southward through restricted areas along the eastern coasts of continents. The result in the Atlantic is the Gulf Stream and, in the Pacific, the Kuroshio Current. Both of these strong and fast currents carry warm waters northward.

Art Gallery

Volcanic Islands 1. What is a "hot spot"? What happens there? A hot spot is an area on the Earth’s crust which is heated from the mantle below. The plate and overlying crust melts, causing volcanoes.


2. How does plate movement contribute to the formation of a volcanic island? Plates can move over hot spots. The hot spot heats the plate and crust on top, causing a volcano. 3. How does plate movement contribute to the formation of island chains? As a plate continues to move over a hot spot, more volcanoes are formed. The group of volcanoes can be called an island chain. Another way that an island chain can be formed is by subduction of oceanic plate under oceanic plate. As one plate, the older one, is forced under the newer oceanic plate, molten material rises to the surface. Individual volcanic cones are formed. Together, they are called a volcanic island arc. 4. Which island chains were formed by plate movement? The Hawaiian Islands were created by the Pacific plate moving over a hot spot. The Tonga Islands were formed by two oceanic plates converging.


Chapter 11: Oceania: Human Geography

Case Studies

Education and Literacy in Oceania 1. What is Australia's literacy rate? Australia claims a literacy rate of 100%. 2. What unique feature of Australian education is directly related to the geographical dispersion of the population? For children in remote areas, the government provides satellite television communications and lesson plans to allow children to be home-schooled. 3. What is New Zealand's literacy rate? New Zealand claims its literacy rate is 99%. 4. Are schools in New Zealand segregated? No, not deliberately. 5. What is Papua New Guinea's literacy rate? Is it different for men and women? Papua New Guinea has a literacy rate of 65%. The rate is considerably higher for men than women. 6. Where is Papua New Guinea's university located? Papua New Guinea's university is located in Port Moresby. 7. What is the range of literacy in the Pacific Islands? The range of literacy is 50% to 99%. 8. What languages are taught in the Pacific Islands? Why? Instruction is in English, except in the French dependencies, where French is taught. English is viewed as a more important language.

Aboriginal Art 1. How did you select the symbols for your story? Answers will vary. 2. Did you have to leave anything out, or did you make up new symbols to say what you wanted? Answers will vary.


3. What are the most important symbols in your story or map? Answers will vary. 4. What do the symbols mean? Answers will vary. 5. What materials do you think the Aboriginal peoples used for their artwork in different areas of Australia? Why? Aboriginal peoples painted on bark and rock as well as their own bodies. To paint and draw they used charcoals and ochers, which are made of clays and iron oxides. The Aborigines took materials from the earth. Their artwork and the materials they used were intertwined with the Dreaming.

Oceania Art, Architecture, and Religion 1. How many people consider themselves Christian in Australia? In New Zealand? In Papua New Guinea? In the Pacific Islands? In New Zealand, about 25% of the population does not consider themselves affiliated with any religion. About 45% identify themselves as Christian. In Papua New Guinea about 66% are Christian and in the Pacific Islands most are Christian, although the case study does not give any statistics. 2. What is the Dreaming? How is it represented in Aboriginal art? It can be said to be a description of Creation and explains the relationships and rules among people, the environments, and the animals and objects around them. The Creation ancestors also left ceremonies and rules for the Aboriginal people to follow in their lives. Aboriginal peoples depict their Creation ancestors, the first peoples, including Lightning Man (Namarrgon), Earth Mother (Warramurrungundji), and Rainbow Snakes, in their art including rock paintings. Aboriginal art reflects these ancestors and their works. (The Dreaming does not have one meaning for all Aboriginal peoples.) 3. What is one way in which New Zealand's Maori express their religious beliefs? They tattoo their bodies, including their faces. They also sing chants and songs and carve stone and wood. 4. What are ceremonial houses used for in Papua New Guinea? Ceremonial houses in Papua New Guinea are used for traditional rituals including male initiations and the rituals for planting and harvesting yams. 5. What are some of the similarities in art forms in Micronesia, Melanesia, and Polynesia? What are some of the differences? The art forms in Micronesia, Melanesia, and Polynesia all used materials from the natural environment in their artwork, including stone, bone, bark, hair, and feathers. Wood carving, mask making, and weaving as well as carving human forms were common to all. These people were aware of climatic characteristics and designed their architecture appropriately. Buildings were


often created to take advantage of the tropical winds, which provided a natural form of air conditioning. Differences include the simplicity of design of Micronesians. Their sculpted abstract figures representing deities were highly detailed and polished. Melanesians used bright colors in making their carved ritual masks. They carved birds and spiral decorations and placed them on the prows of their canoes. The Polynesians carved large human figures, decorated and dressed them. They often inlaid mother-of-pearl or other shell fragments into their carvings of war, clubs, shields, and canoes. They often decorated their own bodies, frequently with tattoos. They are probably most famous for their large stone carvings, including those found on Easter Island.

Mutiny in the South Pacific 1. Why is the saga of the "Bounty" and its crew such a popular subject for books and motion pictures? The saga of the mutiny of the “Bounty” and the adventures of its crew afterwards have been a popular subject for books and motion pictures because the ways the men overcame the challenges are amazing. Traveling through the very vastness of the Pacific Ocean was awe-inspiring. The men faced the adversity of sailing in an open boat and settling on an uninhabited island. Their stories are fascinating. Students may also mention another reason that the case study does not make explicit: The saga of the “Bounty” is the story of the common man winning against tyranny. Captain Bligh was a cruel man who treated his crew terribly. The case study hints at this when it mentions that the men were flogged. 2. What does the story of the "Bounty" reveal about indigenous culture in the late 1700s? The story of the “Bounty” indicates that Polynesian culture in the late 1700s was very different from European culture of that time, with different economic and social systems, and differing attitudes towards work and sex. 3. Why was the voyage of Captain Bligh and some crewmen after they were forced from the "Bounty" such a remarkable journey? [Hint: look at the Reference Map: Ocean Currents.] They sailed eastward, allowing the winds and the currents to carry them. The currents may have carried the boats close to shore, necessitating skillful navigating to avoid being shipwrecked. Traveling between New Guinea and the northern tip of Australia to the island of Timor involved extra care. In some cases, the natives of islands where the men wanted to land drove the men away. They traveled more than 3,600 miles on the open sea in 48 days. That voyage is truly amazing. 4. What does the fact that the mutineers on Pitcairn Island were not discovered for 18 years suggest about distances and Western involvement in the South Pacific 200 years ago? The distances were vast and not many Westerners traveled in that area of the Pacific Ocean 200 years ago.


Maps

Political Map: Australia and New Zealand 1. What is the capital city of Australia? New Zealand? The capital city of Australia is Canberra. The capital city of New Zealand is Wellington. 2. Which is the largest state/territory in Australia? The largest state in Australia is Western Australia. 3. Where is Auckland located? Auckland is located in the northern part, but not the most northern zone, on the North Island of New Zealand.

Cultural Areas of Oceania 1. In which culture area is Kiribati located? Kiribati is located in Micronesian culture area. 2. What is the only French dependency in Melanesia? New Caledonia is the only French dependency in Melanesia. 3. How many dependencies does the United States have in Oceania? Why do you think this is so? The United States has four dependencies in Oceania. They are Guam, Wake Island, Northern Mariana Islands, and American Samoa. Most were acquired through either the Spanish American War or World War II.

Papua New Guinea 1. What is the capital city of Papua New Guinea? Port Morseby is the capital city of Papua New Guinea. 2. Where is the island of Bougainville in relation to the mainland? The island of Bougainville is east of the main part of Papua New Guinea. 3. What is the other country that shares the island of New Guinea with Papua New Guinea? Indonesia shares the island of New Guinea with Papua New Guinea. 4. What physical features are located in the middle of Papua New Guinea? Mountains are located in the middle of Papua New Guinea.


Art

Easter Island 1. Describe the statues in the photograph. Can you tell how big they are? Why or why not? One cannot tell the height of the statues because there is no reference point or line. However, they average about 14 feet, with some reaching as high as 33 feet. 2. How do you think the Easter Islanders cut, carved, and carried the stone to create these statues? They probably used tools made of stone or bone to cut and carve the statues. To transport the statues, they may have used logs for rolling. Alternatively, they may have dragged the rocks for long distances. The creation and transportation of the Easter Island statues are one of the great mysteries of human history. No one knows for sure, although many experts have offered viable explanations. 3. What is the most commonly accepted explanation for the construction of the Easter Island statues? They were constructed from volcanic rock found in a quarry. They were then transported to their present locations. 4. Why is Easter Island considered to be part of Oceania even though it is a possession of Chile? What negative and positive roles did Chile play in the history of Easter Island? Easter Island is considered part of Oceania because the culture of the people in the region, especially the Polynesians, was the major influence on the way the island was used and the great statues that were built. One negative influence of Chile on Easter Island was slave traders capturing more than 1,000 people and taking them someplace else. Most of the slaves died. Those that returned to Easter Island brought smallpox which led to massive deaths, with only 111 of the Easter Islanders surviving. Chile annexed the island and Christian missionaries followed, which might be considered good or bad. An English company rented land from the Chilean government to develop a sheep-raising and wool industry, which similarly could be considered positive or negative. In 1967, Chile built an airport which led to increases in tourism, which might be considered positive if improvement in economic well-being is a goal. 5. Why is Easter Island called the world's most isolated inhabited island? Easter Island is distant from most areas of human occupation. It is about 2,200 miles west of Chile and 1,100 miles east of Pitcairn Island. Tahiti is about 2,000 miles west of Easter Island. 6. What was the tragic fate of Easter Islanders during the statue-building period? The population of Easter Island exceeded the capacity of the island to support the inhabitants and renew itself. The land became an ecological disaster as forests were stripped of trees, native animals and plants made extinct, and soil eroded. While social order disintegrated, poor nutrition and clan conflict led to a sharp decline in the population by 1700. The survivors began living in


caves and resorted to cannibalism. During the tribal wars, rival groups toppled each other's stone statues.

Document

Clancy of the Overflow 1. In what locations does the poem take place? How can you tell? The poem refers to Queensland, a state of Australia, the Cooper, a river in Queensland, and to Lachlan, a river in New South Wales, a state in southeastern Australia. It refers to rural locations and to a town. 2. How does the narrator feel about these different locations? How can you tell? The narrator seems envious of the rural locations. Phrases like, “the drover’s life has pleasures that the townsfolk never knew”; “the bush hath friends to meet him”, “and their kindly voices greet him”; “vision splendid of the sunlit plains”; “at night the wond’rous glory of the everlasting stars, ” all describe a place where the narrator would like to be. His descriptions of the city, “my dingy little office...the foetid air and gritty of the dusty, dirty city...spreads its foulness over all” lean towards disgust. 3. Using the library or the Internet, look up the vocabulary words "shearer" and "drover." What are these jobs? A drover takes livestock to market. A drove is a number of cattle or sheep or some other animal that are driven or moved as a group. A drover does the directing. In this poem, the drover is driving sheep. A shearer cuts the hair or wool from an animal. He (not too many women were shearers in the 19th century) uses a large scissors or shears. 4. Using the library or the Internet to do your research, write an essay describing a sheep-shearer or drover's life in the Australian Outback in the late 19th and early 20th century. Student essays should include at least four paragraphs -- an introductory paragraph, two paragraphs describing the living and working conditions of a sheep-shearer or drover, and a concluding paragraph.

Resource Answer Key Documents, Art, Graphs/Charts, Maps ...

Documents

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