Prehistoric India - Indus Valley Civilization

7/21/2019 Prehistoric India - Indus Valley Civilization

1/19


2/19

2 2 CHRONOLOGY

Mature Harappan Period, c. 26001900 BCE

Late Harappan Period, c. 19001300 BCE

Skull of Indus Valley inhabitants,Indian Museum

in Balochistan, Afghanistan, and the Punjab, where lo-cals talked of an ancient city extending thirteencosses"(about 25 miles), but no archaeological interest would at-tach to this for nearly a century.[note 1]

In 1856, General Alexander Cunningham, later direc-tor general of the archaeological survey of northern In-dia, visited Harappa where the British engineers Johnand William Brunton were laying theEast Indian Rail-way Companyline connecting the cities ofKarachiand

Lahore. John wrote: I was much exercised in my mindhow we were to get ballast for the line of the railway.They were told of an ancient ruined city near the lines,

called Brahminabad. Visiting the city, he found it full ofhard well-burnt bricks, and, convinced that there was agrand quarry for the ballast I wanted, the city of Brah-minabad was reduced to ballast.[32] A few months later,further north, Johns brother William Bruntons sectionof the line ran near another ruined city, bricks from which

had already been used by villagers in the nearby village ofHarappa at the same site. These bricks now provided bal-last along 93 miles (150 km) of the railroad track runningfrom Karachi to Lahore.[32]

In 187275 Alexander Cunningham published the firstHarappan seal (with an erroneous identification asBrahmi letters).[33] It was half a century later, in 1912,that more Harappan seals were discovered by J. Fleet,prompting an excavation campaign underSir John Hu-bert Marshall in 192122 and resulting in the discov-ery of the civilisation at Harappa by Sir John Marshall,Rai BahadurDaya Ram Sahniand Madho Sarup Vats,

and atMohenjo-darobyRakhal Das Banerjee, E. J. H.MacKay, and Sir John Marshall. By 1931, much ofMohenjo-Daro had been excavated, but excavations con-tinued, suchas that led bySir Mortimer Wheeler, directorof theArchaeological Survey of Indiain 1944. Amongother archaeologists who worked on IVC sites before theindependence in 1947 were Ahmad Hasan Dani, Brij BasiLal, Nani Gopal Majumdar, and Sir MarcAurel Stein.

Following the independence, the bulk of the archaeolog-ical finds were inherited by Pakistan where most of theIVC was based, and excavations from this time includethose led by Sir Mortimer Wheeler in 1949, archaeolog-

ical adviser to the Government of Pakistan. Outposts ofthe Indus Valley civilisation were excavated as far west asSutkagan DorinBaluchistan, as far north as at Shortugaion the Amu Darya (the rivers ancient name wasOxus) incurrentAfghanistan, as far east as atAlamgirpur, UttarPradesh, India and as far south as atMalwan, in moderndaySurat, Gujarat, India.[34]

In 2010, heavy floods hit Haryana in India and dam-aged the archaeological site of Jognakhera, where ancientcopper smelting furnaces were found dating back almost5,000 years. The Indus Valley Civilization site was hit byalmost 10 feet of water as theSutlej Yamuna link canal

overflowed.[35]

2 Chronology

Main article: Periodization of the Indus Valley Civiliza-tion

The mature phase of the Harappan civilisation lastedfrom c. 2600 to 1900 BCE. With the inclusion of the pre-decessor and successor cultures Early Harappan and

Late Harappan, respectively the entire Indus ValleyCivilization may be taken to have lasted from the 33rdto the 14th centuries BCE. The early Harappan cultures
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Periodization_of_the_Indus_Valley_Civilizationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Periodization_of_the_Indus_Valley_Civilizationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sutlej_Yamuna_link_canalhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jognakherahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haryanahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surathttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malwanhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alamgirpurhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afghanistanhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxus_Riverhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balochistan_(Pakistan)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sutkagan_Dorhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aurel_Steinhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B._B._Lalhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B._B._Lalhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahmad_Hasan_Danihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeological_Survey_of_Indiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mortimer_Wheelerhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rakhaldas_Bandyopadhyayhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohenjo-darohttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madho_Sarup_Vatshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daya_Ram_Sahnihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Hubert_Marshallhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Hubert_Marshallhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stamp_sealhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lahorehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karachihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_rail_transport_in_Indiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_rail_transport_in_Indiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Cunninghamhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kos_(unit)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Museum


3/19

3

Indus Valley pottery, 25001900 BC

are preceded by theMehrgarh(c.7000-3300 BCE), withBhirranaeven dating back to 7570-6200 BCE, accordingto a December 2014 report by theArchaeological Surveyof India.[3][4]

Two terms are employed for the periodisation of theIVC: Phasesand Eras.[36][37] The Early Harappan, Ma-ture Harappan, and Late Harappan phases are also calledthe Regionalisation, Integration, and Localisation eras,respectively, with the Regionalization era reaching backto the Neolithic MehrgarhII period, the discovery ofwhich changed the entire concept of the Indus civiliza-tion, according toAhmad Hasan Dani, professor emer-itus atQuaid-e-Azam University,Islamabad. There wehave the whole sequence, right from the beginning of set-tled village life.[38]

3 Geography

The Indus Valley Civilization encompassed most of Pak-istan and parts of northwestern India, and Afghanistan,extending from PakistaniBalochistanin the west toUttarPradeshin the east, northeastern Afghanistan to the northandMaharashtrato the south.[39] The geography of theIndus Valley put the civilisations that arose there in ahighly similar situation to those inEgyptandPeru, withrich agricultural lands being surrounded by highlands,

desert, and ocean. Recently, Indus sites have been dis-covered in Pakistans northwestern Frontier Province aswell. Other IVC colonies can be found inAfghanistan

while smaller isolated colonies can be found as far awayas Turkmenistan and in Gujarat. Coastal settlementsextended from Sutkagan Dor[40] in Western Baluchis-tan toLothal[41] inGujarat. An Indus Valley site hasbeen found on the OxusRiver at Shortughai in north-ern Afghanistan,[42] in theGomal Rivervalley in north-

western Pakistan,[43] atManda,Jammuon theBeas RivernearJammu,[44] India, and atAlamgirpuron theHindonRiver, only 28 km fromDelhi.[45] Indus Valley sites havebeen found most often on rivers, but also on the ancientseacoast,[46] for example, Balakot,[47] and on islands, forexample,Dholavira.[48]

There is evidence of dry river beds overlapping withtheHakrachannel in Pakistan and the seasonal Ghag-gar River in India. Many Indus Valley sites have beendiscovered along the Ghaggar-Hakra beds.[49] Amongthem are: Rupar, Rakhigarhi, Sothi, Kalibangan, andGanwariwala.[50] According to J. G. Shaffer and D. A.

Lichtenstein,[51] the Harappan Civilization is a fusionof the Bagor, Hakra, and Koti Dij traditions or 'ethnicgroups in the Ghaggar-Hakra valley on the borders ofIndia and Pakistan.[49]

According to some archaeologists, more than 500 Harap-pan sites have been discovered along the dried up riverbeds of the Ghaggar-Hakra River and its tributaries,[52]

in contrast to only about 100 along the Indus and itstributaries;[53] consequently, in their opinion, the appella-tionIndus Ghaggar-Hakra civilisationorIndus-Saraswaticivilisation is justified. However, these politically inspiredarguments are disputed by other archaeologists who state

that the Ghaggar-Hakra desert area has been left un-touched by settlements and agriculture since the end ofthe Indus period and hence shows more sites than thosefound in the alluvium of the Indus valley; second, thatthe number of Harappan sites along the Ghaggar-Hakrariver beds has been exaggerated and that the Ghaggar-Hakra, when it existed, was a tributary of the Indus, sothe new nomenclature is redundant.[54] Harappan Civi-lization remains the correct one, according to the com-mon archaeological usage of naming a civilisation afterits first findspot.

4 Early Harappan

The Early Harappan Ravi Phase, named after the nearbyRavi River, lasted from circa 3300 BCE until 2800 BCE.It is related to the Hakra Phase, identified in the Ghaggar-Hakra River Valley to the west, and predates theKot DijiPhase (28002600 BCE, Harappan 2), named after a sitein northernSindh, Pakistan, nearMohenjo Daro. Theearliest examples of theIndus scriptdate to the 3rd mil-lennium BC.[55][56]

Latest discoveries fromBhirrana, Haryana, in India since2012 onwards, by archaeologist K. N. Dikshit indicatethat Hakra ware from this area dates from as early as 7500
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hakrahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhirranahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_scripthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohenjo-darohttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sindhhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kot_Dijihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ravi_Riverhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Riverhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalibanganhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rakhigarhihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruparhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hakrahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dholavirahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delhihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindon_Riverhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindon_Riverhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alamgirpurhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jammuhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beas_Riverhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manda,Jammuhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gomal_Riverhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gujarathttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lothalhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sutkagan_Dorhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gujarathttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkmenistanhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afghanistanhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peruhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egypthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maharashtrahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uttar_Pradeshhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uttar_Pradeshhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balochistan,_Pakistanhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamabadhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quaid-e-Azam_Universityhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahmad_Hasan_Danihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mehrgarhhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeological_Survey_of_Indiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeological_Survey_of_Indiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhirranahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mehrgarh


4/19

4 5 MATURE HARAPPAN

Ceremonial vessel, Harappan, 26002450 BC.LACMA

BCE,[2][4][1] which makesBhirranathe oldest site in In-dus Valley civilization.[3]

Themature phase of earlier village cultures is representedbyRehman DheriandAmriin Pakistan.[57] Kot Dijirep-resents the phase leading up to Mature Harappan, withthe citadel representing centralised authority and an in-creasingly urban quality of life. Another town of thisstage was found at Kalibanganin India on the HakraRiver.[58]

Trade networks linked this culture with related regionalcultures and distant sources of raw materials, includinglapis lazuliand other materials for bead-making. By thistime, villagers had domesticated numerous crops, includ-ingpeas,sesame seeds,dates, and cotton, as well as ani-mals, including thewater buffalo. Early Harappan com-

munities turnedto large urban centres by2600 BCE, fromwhere the mature Harappan phase started. The latest re-search shows that Indus Valley people migrated from vil-lages to cities.[59][60]

5 Mature Harappan

By 2600 BCE, the Early Harappan communities turnedinto large urban centres. Such urban centres includeHarappa, Ganeriwala, Mohenjo-Daro in modern day

Pakistan, and Dholavira,Kalibangan,Rakhigarhi,Rupar,andLothalin modern day India.[61] In total, more than1,052 cities and settlements have been found, mainly in

the general region of the Indus Rivers and their tribu-taries.

5.1 Cities

Computer-aided reconstruction of coastal Harappan settlement

at Sokhta Koh nearPasni, Pakistan

A sophisticated and technologically advanced urban cul-ture is evident in the Indus Valley Civilization makingthem the first urban centres in the region. The qual-ity of municipal town planning suggests the knowledgeofurban planningand efficient municipal governmentswhich placed a high priority onhygiene, or, alternatively,accessibility to the means of religious ritual.

As seen in Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro and the recentlypartially excavatedRakhigarhi, this urban plan includedthe worlds first known urban sanitation systems: seehydraulic engineering of the Indus Valley Civilization.Within the city, individual homes or groups of homesobtained water fromwells. From a room that appearsto have been set aside for bathing, waste waterwas di-rected to covered drains, which lined the major streets.Housesopened only to inner courtyards and smaller lanes.The house-building in some villages in the region stillresembles in some respects the house-building of theHarappans.[62]

The ancient Indus systems of sewerage and drainage thatwere developed and used in cities throughout the In-dus region were far more advanced than any found incontemporary urban sites in the Middle East and evenmore efficient than those in many areas of Pakistan andIndia today. The advanced architecture of the Harap-pans is shown by their impressive dockyards,granaries,warehouses, brick platforms, and protective walls. Themassive walls of Indus cities most likely protected theHarappans from floods and may have dissuaded militaryconflicts.[63]

Thepurpose of thecitadel remains debated. In sharp con-

trast to this civilisations contemporaries, MesopotamiaandAncient Egypt, no large monumental structures werebuilt. There is no conclusive evidence of palaces or
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egypthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesopotamiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Granaryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Courtyardhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wastewaterhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_wellhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydraulic_engineering_of_the_Indus_Valley_Civilizationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanitationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rakhigarhihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hygienehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_planninghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pasni_Cityhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lothalhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruparhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rakhigarhihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalibanganhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dholavirahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohenjo-Darohttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ganeriwalahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harappahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domestic_buffalohttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Date_(fruit)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sesame_seedhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lapis_lazulihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalibanganhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kot_Dijihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amri_(Pre-Harappa)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rehman_Dherihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhirranahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LACMA


5/19

5.2 Authority and governance 5

So-called Priest King statue, Mohenjo-Daro, late Mature

Harappanperiod, National Museum, Karachi, Pakistan

templesor of kings, armies, or priests. Some structuresare thought to have been granaries. Found at one city isan enormous well-built bath (the "Great Bath"), whichmay have been a public bath. Although the citadels werewalled, it is far from clear that these structures were de-fensive. They may have been built to divert flood waters.

Most city dwellers appear to have been traders or artisans,who lived with others pursuing the same occupation inwell-defined neighbourhoods. Materials from distant re-gions were used in the cities for constructing seals, beadsand other objects. Among theartefactsdiscovered werebeautiful glazedfaencebeads.Steatiteseals have images

of animals, people (perhaps gods), and other types of in-scriptions, including the yet un-decipheredwriting sys-tem of the Indus Valley Civilization. Some of the sealswere used to stamp clay on trade goods andmost probablyhad other uses as well.

Although some houses were larger than others, Indus Civ-ilization cities were remarkable for their apparent, if rel-ative, egalitarianism. All the houses had access to wa-ter and drainage facilities. This gives the impression of asociety with relatively lowwealth concentration, thoughclearsocial levellingis seen in personal adornments. Theprehistory of Indo-Iranian borderlands shows a steady in-

crease over time in the numberanddensity of settlements.The population increased in Indus plains because of hunt-ing and gathering.[64]

5.2 Authority and governance

Archaeological records provide no immediate answers fora centre of power or for depictions of people in power inHarappan society. But, there are indications of complexdecisions being taken and implemented. For instance, the

extraordinary uniformity of Harappan artefactsas evidentin pottery, seals, weights and bricks. These are the majortheories:

There was a single state, given the similarity in arte-facts, the evidence for planned settlements, the stan-dardised ratio of brick size, and the establishment ofsettlements near sources of raw material.

There was no single ruler but several: Mohenjo-darohad a separate ruler, Harappa another, and so forth.

Harappan society had no rulers, and everybody en-

joyed equal status.

5.3 Technology

Further information:Indian mathematics PrehistoryThe people of the Indus Civilization achieved great ac-

Unicorn seal of Indus Valley,Indian Museum

Elephant seal of Indus Valley,Indian Museum

curacy in measuring length, mass, and time. They wereamong the first to develop a system of uniform weightsand measures. A comparison of available objects in-

dicates large scale variation across the Indus territories.Their smallest division, which is marked on an ivory scalefound in Lothal in Gujarat, was approximately 1.704
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lothalhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Museumhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Museumhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_mathematics#Prehistoryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_classhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wealth_concentrationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egalitarianismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_scripthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_scripthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steatitehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fa%C3%AFencehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artifact_(archaeology)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Bath,_Mohenjo-darohttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mature_Harappanhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mature_Harappanhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohenjo-Daro


6/19

6 5 MATURE HARAPPAN

Indus Valley seals,British Museum

mm, the smallest division ever recorded on a scale oftheBronze Age. Harappan engineers followed the dec-

imal division of measurement for all practical purposes,including the measurement of mass as revealed by theirhexahedronweights.[65]

Thesechertweights were in a ratio of 5:2:1 with weightsof 0.05, 0.1, 0.2, 0.5, 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, 50, 100, 200,and 500 units, with each unit weighing approximately 28grams, similar to the EnglishImperial ounceor Greekuncia, and smaller objects were weighed in similar ra-tios with the units of 0.871. However, as in other cul-tures, actual weights were not uniform throughout thearea. The weights and measures later used inKautilya'sArthashastra(4th century BCE) are the same as those

used inLothal.

[66]

Harappans evolved some new techniques inmetallurgyand produced copper,bronze, lead, andtin. The engi-neering skill of the Harappans was remarkable, especiallyin building docks.

In 2001, archaeologists studying the remains of two menfromMehrgarh, Pakistan, discovered that the people ofthe Indus Valley Civilization, from the early Harappanperiods, had knowledge of proto-dentistry. Later, inApril 2006, it was announced in the scientific journalNaturethat the oldest (and first early Neolithic) evidencefor the drilling of human teeth in vivo (i.e., in a living per-

son) was found in Mehrgarh. Eleven drilled molar crownsfrom nine adults were discovered in a Neolithic grave-yard in Mehrgarh that dates from 7,5009,000 years ago.According to the authors, their discoveries point to a tra-dition of proto-dentistry in the early farming cultures ofthat region.[67]

A touchstone bearing gold streaks was found in Banawali,which was probably used for testing the purity of gold(such a technique is still used in some parts of India).[68]

5.4 Arts and crafts

Various sculptures, seals, pottery, gold jewellery, andanatomically detailed figurines interracotta, bronze, and

The "dancing girl of Mohenjo Daro"

Chanhudaro. Fragment of Large Deep Vessel, circa 2500

B.C.E. Red pottery with red and black slip-painted decoration,

415/166 in. (12.515.5 cm). Brooklyn Museum

steatite have been found at excavation sites.

A number of gold, terracotta and stone figurines of girlsin dancing poses reveal the presence of some dance form.These terracotta figurines included cows, bears, monkeys,
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dancing_Girl_(Mohenjo-daro)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terracottahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Potteryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Banawalihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Touchstone_(assaying_tool)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature_(journal)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dentistryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mehrgarhhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tinhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bronzehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metallurgyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lothalhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthashastrahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kautilyahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial_units#Masshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cherthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hexahedronhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bronze_Agehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Museum


7/19

5.5 Trade and transportation 7

and dogs. The animal depicted on a majority of sealsat sites of the mature period has not been clearly iden-tified. Part bull, part zebra, with a majestic horn, it hasbeen a source of speculation. As yet, there is insufficientevidence to substantiate claims that the image had reli-gious or cultic significance, but the prevalence of the im-

age raises the question of whether or not the animals inimages of the IVC are religious symbols.[69]

Sir John Marshallreacted with surprise when he saw thefamous Indus bronze statuette of a slender-limbed danc-ing girl in Mohenjo-Daro:

When I first saw them I found it difficult tobelieve that they were prehistoric; they seemedto completely upset all established ideas aboutearly art, and culture. Modeling such as thiswas unknown in the ancient world up to the

Hellenistic age of Greece, and I thought, there-fore, that some mistake must surely have beenmade; that these figures had found their wayinto levels some 3000 years older than thoseto which they properly belonged .... Now, inthese statuettes, it is just this anatomical truthwhich is so startling; that makes us wonderwhether, in this all-important matter, Greekartistry could possibly have been anticipated bythesculptorsofafar-offageonthebanksoftheIndus.[70]

Many crafts such as shell working, ceramics, and agateand glazed steatite bead making were used in the mak-ing of necklaces, bangles, and other ornaments from allphases of Harappan sites and some of these crafts arestill practised in the subcontinent today.[71] Some make-up and toiletry items (a special kind of combs (kakai),the use ofcollyriumand a special three-in-one toiletrygadget) that were found in Harappan contexts still havesimilar counterparts in modern India.[72] Terracotta fe-male figurines were found (ca. 28002600 BCE) whichhad red colour applied to the manga (line of partitionof the hair).[72]

Seals have been found at Mohenjo-Daro depicting a figurestanding on its head, and another sitting cross-legged inwhat some call ayoga-like pose (see image, the so-calledPashupati, below).

This figure, sometimes known as a Pashupati, has beenvariously identified. Sir John Marshall identified a re-semblance to the Hindu god, Shiva.[73] If this can be val-idated, it would be evidence that some aspects of Hin-duism predate the earliest texts, the Veda.

A harp-like instrument depicted on an Indus seal and twoshell objects found at Lothal indicate the use of stringedmusical instruments. The Harappans also made various

toys and games, among them cubicaldice(with one tosix holes on the faces), which were found in sites likeMohenjo-Daro.[74]

5.5 Trade and transportation

The docks of ancientLothalas they are today

Further information:LothalandMeluhha

The Indus civilisations economy appears to have de-pended significantly on trade, which was facilitatedby major advances in transport technology. The IVCmay have been the first civilisation to use wheeledtransport.[75] These advances may have includedbullockcartsthat are identical to those seen throughout SouthAsia today, as well as boats. Most of these boats wereprobably small, flat-bottomed craft, perhaps driven bysail, similar to those one can see on the Indus River today;however, there is secondary evidence of sea-going craft.Archaeologists have discovered a massive, dredged canal

and what they regard as a docking facility at the coastalcity ofLothalin western India (Gujaratstate). An exten-sive canal network, used for irrigation, has however alsobeen discovered by H.-P. Francfort.

During 43003200 BCE of thechalcolithicperiod (cop-per age), the Indus Valley Civilization area shows ce-ramic similarities with southern Turkmenistan and north-ernIranwhich suggest considerable mobility and trade.During the Early Harappan period (about 32002600BCE), similarities in pottery, seals, figurines, ornaments,etc. document intensive caravan trade withCentral Asiaand theIranian plateau.[76]

Judging from the dispersal of Indus civilisation artefacts,the trade networks, economically, integrated a huge area,including portions ofAfghanistan, the coastal regions ofPersia, northern and western India, and Mesopotamia.Studies of tooth enamel from individuals buried atHarappa suggest that some residents had migrated to thecity from beyond the Indus valley.[77] There is some evi-dence that trade contacts extended toCreteand possiblytoEgypt.[78]

There was an extensive maritime trade network operatingbetween the Harappan and Mesopotamian civilisations asearly as the middle Harappan Phase, with much com-

merce being handled by middlemen merchantsfrom Dil-mun (modernBahrainandFailakalocated in thePersianGulf).[79] Such long-distance sea trade became feasible
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persian_Gulfhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persian_Gulfhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Failakahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahrainhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egypthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cretehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesopotamiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iranhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afghanistanhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iranian_plateauhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Asiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iranhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkmenistanhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chalcolithichttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gujarathttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lothalhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bullock_carthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bullock_carthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meluhhahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lothalhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lothalhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dicehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yogahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohenjo-Darohttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collyriumhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Marshall_(archaeologist)


8/19

8 5 MATURE HARAPPAN

with the innovative development of plank-built water-craft, equipped with a single central mast supporting asail of woven rushes or cloth.

Several coastal settlements like Sotkagen-dor (astrideDasht River, north of Jiwani),Sokhta Koh(astride Shadi

River, north ofPasni), and Balakot (near Sonmiani) inPakistan along with Lothal in western India, testify totheir roleas Harappan trading outposts. Shallow harbourslocated at the estuaries of rivers opening into the sea al-lowed brisk maritime trade with Mesopotamian cities.

5.6 Subsistence

Some post-1980 studies indicate that food productionwas largely indigenous to the Indus Valley. It is knownthat the people ofMehrgarhused domesticated wheatsandbarley,[80] and the major cultivated cereal crop was

naked six-row barley, a crop derived from two-row barley(see Shaffer and Liechtenstein 1995, 1999). Archaeolo-gistJim G. Shaffer(1999: 245) writes that the Mehrgarhsite demonstrates that food production was an indige-nous South Asian phenomenon and that the data sup-port interpretation of the prehistoric urbanization andcomplex social organization in South Asia as based on in-digenous, but not isolated, cultural developments. Oth-ers, such as Dorian Fuller, however, indicate that it tooksome 2000 years before Middle Eastern wheat was accli-matised to South Asian conditions.

5.7 Writing system

Main article:Indus script

Between 400 and as many as 600 distinct Indussymbols[81] have been found onseals, small tablets, ce-ramic pots and more than a dozen other materials, in-cluding a signboard that apparently once hung over thegate of the inner citadel of the Indus city of Dholavira.

Ten Indus Signs, dubbedDholavira Signboard

TypicalIndus inscriptionsare no more than four or fivecharacters in length, most of which (aside from theDholavira signboard) are tiny; the longest on a singlesurface, which is less than 1 inch (2.54 cm) square, is 17signs long; the longest on any object (found on three dif-

ferent faces of a mass-produced object) has a length of26 symbols.

While the Indus Valley Civilization is generally char-

acterised as a literate society on the evidence of theseinscriptions, this description has been challenged byFarmer, Sproat, and Witzel (2004)[82] who argue that theIndus system did not encode language, but was insteadsimilar to a variety of non-linguistic sign systems usedextensively in the Near East and other societies, to sym-

bolise families, clans, gods, and religious concepts. Oth-ers have claimed on occasion that the symbols were ex-clusively used for economic transactions, but this claimleaves unexplained the appearance of Indus symbols onmany ritual objects, many of which were mass-producedinmoulds. No parallels to these mass-produced inscrip-tions are known in any other early ancient civilisations.[83]

In a 2009 study by P. N. Rao et al. published in Science,computer scientists, comparing the pattern of symbols tovarious linguistic scripts and non-linguistic systems, in-cluding DNA and a computer programming language,found that the Indus scripts pattern is closer to that of

spoken words, supporting the hypothesis that it codes foran as-yet-unknown language.[84][85]

Farmer, Sproat, and Witzel have disputed this finding,pointing out that Rao et al. did not actually comparethe Indus signs with real-world non-linguistic systemsbut rather with two wholly artificial systems invented bythe authors, one consisting of 200,000 randomly orderedsigns andanother of 200,000 fully ordered signs, that theyspuriously claim represent the structures of all real-worldnon-linguistic sign systems.[86] Farmer et al. have alsodemonstrated that a comparison of a non-linguistic sys-tem likemedieval heraldic signswithnatural languages

yields results similar to those that Rao et al. obtainedwith Indus signs. They conclude that the method usedby Rao et al. cannot distinguish linguistic systems fromnon-linguistic ones.[87]

The messages on the seals have proved to be too shortto be decoded by a computer. Each seal has a distinc-tive combination of symbols and there are too few ex-amples of each sequence to provide a sufficient context.The symbols that accompany the images vary from sealto seal, making it impossible to derive a meaning for thesymbols from the images. There have, nonetheless, beena number of interpretations offered for the meaning of the

seals. These interpretations have been marked by ambi-guity and subjectivity.[87] :69

Photos of many of the thousands of extant inscriptionsare published in the Corpus of Indus Seals and Inscrip-tions(1987, 1991, 2010), edited byAsko Parpolaand hiscolleagues. The final, third, volume, republished photostaken in the 1920s and 1930s of hundreds of lost or stoleninscriptions, along with many discovered in the last fewdecades. Formerly, researchers had to supplement thematerials in theCorpusby study of the tiny photos in theexcavation reports of Marshall (1931), MacKay (1938,1943), Wheeler (1947), or reproductions in more recent

scattered sources.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asko_Parpolahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_languagehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heraldryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medievalhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_(journal)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moulding_(process)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_inscriptionshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dholavira_Signboardhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seal_(device)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_scripthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jim_G._Shafferhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barleyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mehrgarhhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pasni_Cityhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sokhta_Koh


9/19

5.8 Religion 9

5.8 Religion

The so-calledPashupati seal, showing a seated and possiblyithyphallicfigure, surrounded by animals.

Further information:Prehistoric religion

The religion and belief system of the Indus valley peo-ple have received considerable attention, especially fromthe view of identifying precursors to deities and religiouspractices ofIndian religionsthat later developed in thearea. However due to the sparsity of evidence, which isopen to varying interpretations, and the fact that the Indusscript remains undeciphered, the conclusions are partlyspeculative and largely basedon a retrospective view froma much later Hindu perspective.[88][89] An early and influ-ential work in the area that set the trend for Hindu inter-pretations of archaeological evidence from the Harrapansites[90] was that ofJohn Marshall, who in 1931 identifiedthe following as prominent features of the Indus religion:a Great Male God and a Mother Goddess; deification orveneration of animals and plants; symbolic representationof the phallus (linga) and vulva (yoni); and, use of bathsand water in religious practice. Marshalls interpretations

have been much debated, and sometimes disputed overthe following decades.[91][92]

One Indus valley seal shows a seated, possiblyithyphallicand tricephalic, figure with a horned headdress, sur-rounded by animals. Marshall identified the figure as anearly form of the Hindu godShiva(or Rudra), who isassociated with asceticism,yoga, and linga; regarded as alord of animals; and often depicted as having three heads.The seal has hence come to be known as the PashupatiSeal, after Pashupati(lord of the beasts), an epithet ofShiva.[91][93] While Marshalls work hasearned some sup-port, many critics and even supporters have raised sev-

eral objections. Doris Srinivasan has argued that thefigure does not have three faces, or yogic posture, andthat inVedic literatureRudra was not a protector of wild

animals.[94][95] Herbert Sullivan andAlf Hiltebeitelalsorejected Marshalls conclusions, with the former claim-ing that the figure was female, while the latter associ-ated the figure with Mahisha, the Buffalo God and thesurrounding animals withvahanas(vehicles) of deitiesfor the four cardinal directions.[96][97] Writing in 2002,

Gregory L. Possehlconcluded that while it would be ap-propriate to recognise the figure as a deity, its associationwith the water buffalo, and its posture as one of ritualdiscipline, regarding it as a proto-Shiva would be goingtoo far.[93] Despite the criticisms of Marshalls associa-tion of the seal with a proto-Shiva icon, it has been inter-preted as theTirthankara Rishabhaby Jains & Dr. VilasSangave[98] or an earlyBuddhaby Buddhists.[90] Histo-rians likeHeinrich Zimmer,Thomas McEvilleyare ofthe opinion that there exists some link between firstJainTirthankara Rishabha & Indus Valley civilisation.[99][100]

Marshall hypothesized the existence of a cult of Mother

Goddess worship based upon excavation of several fe-male figurines, and thought that this was a precursor ofthe Hindu sect ofShaktism. However the function of thefemale figurines in the life of Indus Valley people remainsunclear, and Possehl does not regard the evidence forMarshalls hypothesis to be terribly robust.[101] Someof thebaetylsinterpreted by Marshall to be sacred phal-lic representations are now thought to have been used aspestles or game counters instead, while the ring stonesthat were thought to symbolise yoniwere determined tobe architectural features used to stand pillars, althoughthe possibility of their religious symbolism cannot be

eliminated.[102]

Many Indus Valley seals show animals,with some depicting them being carried in processions,while others showchimeric creations. One seal fromMohen-jodaro shows a half-human, half-buffalo mon-ster attacking a tiger, which may be a reference to theSumerian mythof such a monster created by goddessAruruto fightGilgamesh.[103]

In contrast to contemporaryEgyptianandMesopotamiancivilisations, Indus valley lacks any monumental palaces,even though excavated cities indicate that the society pos-sessed the requisite engineering knowledge.[104][105] Thismay suggest that religious ceremonies, if any, may have

been largely confined to individual homes, small temples,or the open air. Several sites have been proposed by Mar-shall and later scholars as possibly devoted to religiouspurpose, but at present only theGreat Bathat Mohenjo-daro is widely thought to have been so used, as a place forritual purification.[101][106] The funerary practices of theHarappan civilisation is marked by its diversity with evi-dence of supine burial; fractional burial in which the bodyis reduced to skeletal remains by exposure to the elementsbefore final interment; and even cremation. [107][108]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Bathhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Near_Easthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egypthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gilgameshhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ninhursaghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sumerian_mythologyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chimera_(mythology)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baetylushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shaktismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jainhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_McEvilleyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinrich_Zimmerhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rishabhahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tirthankarahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gregory_L._Possehlhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vahanahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alf_Hiltebeitelhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vedashttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doris_Meth_Srinivasanhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pashupatihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pashupati_Sealhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pashupati_Sealhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yogahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudrahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shivahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ithyphallichttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yonihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Marshall_(archaeologist)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_religionshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prehistoric_religionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ithyphallic


10/19

10 7 LEGACY

6 Collapse and Late Harappan

Main article:Late Harappan

Around 1800 BCE, signs of a gradual decline began to

emerge, and by around 1700 BCE, most of the cities wereabandoned. In 1953, SirMortimer Wheeler proposedthat the decline of the Indus Civilization was caused bythe invasion of an Indo-European tribe from Central Asiacalled the "Aryans". As evidence, he cited a group of37 skeletons found in various parts of Mohenjo-Daro,and passages in the Vedas referring to battles and forts.However, scholars soon started to reject Wheelers the-ory, since the skeletons belonged to a period after thecitys abandonment and none were found near the citadel.Subsequent examinations of the skeletons by KennethKennedyin 1994 showed that the marks on the skulls

were caused by erosion, and not violent aggression.[109]

Today, many scholars believe that the collapse of the In-dus Civilization was caused by drought and a decline intrade with Egypt and Mesopotamia.[110] It has also beensuggested that immigration by new peoples, deforesta-tion, floods, or changes in the course of the river mayhave contributed to the collapse of the IVC.[111]

Previously, it was also believed that the decline of theHarappan civilisation led to an interruption of urban lifein the Indian subcontinent. However, the Indus ValleyCivilization did not disappear suddenly, and many el-ements of the Indus Civilization can be found in later

cultures. David Gordon White cites three other main-stream scholars who have emphatically demonstratedthat Vedic religion is partially derived from the Indus Val-ley Civilizations.[112]

Current archaeological data suggests that the materialcul-ture classified as Late Harappan may have persisted untilat least c. 1000900 BCE and was partially contempora-neous with thePainted Grey Wareculture.[113] Harvardarchaeologist Richard Meadow points to the late Harap-pan settlement ofPirak, which thrived continuously from1800 BCE to the time of the invasion of Alexander theGreatin 325 BCE.[110]

Recent archaeological excavations indicate that the de-cline of Harappa drove people eastward. After 1900BCE, the number of sites in India increased from 218 to853. Excavations in the Gangetic plain show that urbansettlement began around 1200 BCE, only a few centuriesafter the decline of Harappa and much earlier than previ-ously expected.[110] Archaeologists have emphasised that,just as in most areas of the world, there was a continuousseries of cultural developments. These link the so-calledtwo major phases of urbanization in South Asia.[113]

A possible natural reason for the IVCs decline is con-nected withclimate change[114] that is also signalled for

the neighbouring areas of the Middle East: The Indusvalley climate grew significantly cooler and drier fromabout 1800 BCE, linked to a general weakening of the

monsoonat that time. Alternatively, a crucial factor mayhave been thedisappearance of substantial portions of theGhaggar Hakra river system. Atectonicevent may havediverted the systems sources toward the Ganges Plain,though there is completeuncertainty about thedate of thisevent, as most settlements inside Ghaggar-Hakra river

beds have not yet been dated. The actual reason for de-cline might be any combination of these factors. A 2004paper indicated that the isotopes of sediments carried bytheGhaggar-Hakra system over the last 20 thousand yearsdo not come from the glaciated Higher Himalaya but havea Sub-Himalayan source. They speculated that the riversystem was rain-fed instead andthus contradicted the ideaof a Harappan-time mighty Sarasvati river.[115] Recentgeological research by a group led byPeter Cliftinves-tigated how the courses of rivers have changed in thisregion since 8000 years ago, to test whether climate orriver reorganisations are responsible for the decline of the

Harappan. Using U-Pb dating of zircon sand grains theyfound that sediments typical of the Beas, Sutlej and Ya-muna rivers (Himalayan tributaries of the Indus) are ac-tually present in former Ghaggar-Hakra channels. How-ever, sediment contributions from these glacial-fed riversstopped at least by 10,000 years ago, well before the de-velopment of the Indus civilisation.[116]

A research team led by the geologist Liviu Giosan ofthe Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution also con-cluded that climate change in the form of the easter-ward migration of the monsoons led to the decline of theIVC.[117] The teams findings were published inPNASin

May 2012.[118][119]

According to their theory, the sloweastward migration of the monsoons across Asia ini-tially allowed the civilisation to develop. The monsoon-supported farming led to large agricultural surpluses,which in turn supported the development of cities. TheIVC residents did not develop irrigation capabilities, rely-ing mainly on the seasonal monsoons. As the monsoonskept shifting eastward, the water supply for the agricul-tural activities dried up. The residents then migrated to-wards the Ganges basin in the east, where they estab-lished smaller villages and isolated farms. The small sur-plus produced in these small communities did not allowdevelopment of trade, and the cities died out.[120] Thereis also a Harappan site calledRojdiinRajkotdistrict ofSaurashtra. Its excavation started under archaeologicalteam from Gujarat State Department of Archaeology andUniversity of Museum of the University of Pennsylvaniain the year 1982 83.[121]

7 Legacy

Main article:Iron Age India

In the aftermath of the Indus Civilizations collapse, re-gional cultures emerged, to varying degrees showing theinfluence of the Indus Civilization. In the formerly great
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron_Age_Indiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saurashtra_(region)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rajkothttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rojdihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proceedings_of_the_National_Academy_of_Sciences_of_the_United_States_of_Americahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woods_Hole_Oceanographic_Institutionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Clifthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ganges_Plainhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tectonicshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monsoonhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_changehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_the_Greathttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_the_Greathttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pirakhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Painted_Grey_Warehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historical_Vedic_religionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kenneth_A._R._Kennedyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kenneth_A._R._Kennedyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indo-Aryan_migrationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mortimer_Wheelerhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Harappan


11/19

11

city of Harappa, burials have been found that correspondto a regionalculture called theCemetery H culture. At thesame time, theOchre Coloured Pottery cultureexpandedfromRajasthaninto theGangetic Plain. The Cemetery Hculture has the earliest evidence forcremation; a practicedominant inHinduismtoday.

8 Historical context and linguistic

affiliation

See also: Substratum in Vedic Sanskrit andHarappanlanguage

The IVC has been tentatively identified with the toponymMeluhha known from Sumerian records; the Sumeri-ans called them Meluhhaites.[122] It has been comparedin particular with the civilisations ofElam(also in thecontext of the Elamo-Dravidian hypothesis) and withMinoan Crete(because of isolated cultural parallels suchas the ubiquitousgoddess worshipand depictions ofbull-leaping).[123] The mature (Harappan) phase of the IVCis contemporary to theEarlyandMiddle Bronze AgeintheAncient Near East, in particular theOld Elamite pe-riod,Early DynastictoUr III Mesopotamia, PrepalatialMinoan Crete and Old Kingdom to First Intermediate Pe-riod Egypt.

After the discovery of the IVC in the 1920s, it was im-mediately associated with the indigenousDasyuinimicaltothe Rigvedic tribes in numerous hymns of the Rigveda.Mortimer Wheelerinterpreted the presence of many un-buried corpses found in the top levels of Mohenjo-Daroas the victims of a warlike conquest, and famously statedthat "Indrastands accused of the destruction of the IVC.The association of the IVC with the city-dwelling Dasyusremains alluring because the assumed timeframe of thefirstIndo-Aryan migrationinto India corresponds neatlywith the period of decline of the IVC seen in the archaeo-logical record. Thediscovery of the advanced, urban IVChowever changed the 19th-century view of early Indo-Aryan migration as an invasion of an advanced culture

at the expense of a primitive aboriginal population to agradualacculturationof nomadic barbarians on an ad-vanced urban civilisation, comparable to the Germanicmigrations after theFall of Rome, or theKassiteinva-sion ofBabylonia. This move away from simplistic inva-sionist scenarios parallels similar developments in think-ing aboutlanguage transferand population movement ingeneral, such as in the case of the migration of the proto-Greek speakers into Greece, or the Indo-Europeanizationof Western Europe.

It was often suggested that the bearers of the IVC cor-responded toproto-Dravidianslinguistically, the break-

up of proto-Dravidian corresponding to the break-up oftheLate Harappanculture.[124] Today, theDravidian lan-guage family is concentrated mostly in southern India and

northern and eastern Sri Lanka, but pockets of it stillremain throughout the rest of India and Pakistan (theBrahui language), which lends credence to the theory.Finnish IndologistAsko Parpolaconcludes that the uni-formity of the Indus inscriptions precludes any possibilityof widely different languagesbeingused, andthat an early

form of Dravidian language must have been the languageof the Indus people. However, in an interview with theDeccan Heraldon 12 August 2012,Asko Parpolaclari-fied his position by admitting that "Sanskrithas also pre-served a very important part of the Indus heritage andthat even Sangam Tamil had possible influences of theBrahmins .[125]

Proto-Munda(orPara-Munda) and a lost phylum (per-haps related or ancestral to theNihali language)[126] havebeen proposed as other candidates for the language ofthe IVC. Michael Witzel suggests an underlying, prefixinglanguage that is similar to Austroasiatic, notably Khasi; he

argues that theRigveda(composed by theIndo-Aryansafter the decline of the Harappans) shows signs of thishypothetical Harappan influence in the earliest historiclevel, and Dravidian only in later levels, suggesting thatspeakers of Austroasiatic were the original inhabitants ofPunjab and that the Indo-Aryans encountered speakers ofDravidian only in later times.[30]

9 See also

List of Indus Valley Civilization sites

List of inventions anddiscoveries of theIndus ValleyCivilization

Cradle of civilization

Bronze Age

Iron Age India

Synoptic table of the principal old world prehistoriccultures

10 Notes

[1] Masson: A long march preceded our arrival at Haripah,through jangal of the closest description.... When I joinedthe camp I found it in front of the village and ruinous brickcastle. Behindus wasa large circularmound, or eminence,and to the west was an irregular rocky height, crownedwith the remains of buildings, in fragments of walls, withniches, after the eastern manner.... Tradition affirms theexistence here of a city, so considerable that it extendedto Chicha Watni, thirteen cosses distant, and that it wasdestroyed by a particular visitation of Providence, brought

downbythelustandcrimesofthesovereign.[31] Note thatthecoss, a measure of distance used fromVedic periodtoMughaltimes, is approximately 2 miles (3.2 km).
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mughal_erahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vedichttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kos_(unit)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synoptic_table_of_the_principal_old_world_prehistoric_cultureshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synoptic_table_of_the_principal_old_world_prehistoric_cultureshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron_Age_Indiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bronze_Agehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cradle_of_civilizationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventions_and_discoveries_of_the_Indus_Valley_Civilizationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventions_and_discoveries_of_the_Indus_Valley_Civilizationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Indus_Valley_Civilization_siteshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indo-Aryan_migrationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rigvedahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khasi_languagehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austroasiatichttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Witzelhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nihali_languagehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paraphyletichttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Munda_languageshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanskrithttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asko_Parpolahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deccan_Heraldhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asko_Parpolahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brahui_languagehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sri_Lankahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_Indiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dravidian_languagehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dravidian_languagehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Harappanhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-Dravidianhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_transferhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babyloniahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kassiteshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fall_of_Romehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acculturationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indo-Aryan_migrationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indrahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mortimer_Wheelerhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rigvedahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rigvedic_tribeshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dasyuhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egypthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Intermediate_Period_of_Egypthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Intermediate_Period_of_Egypthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Kingdomhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minoan_Cretehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesopotamiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Third_Dynasty_of_Urhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Dynastic_Period_of_Sumerhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Elamite_periodhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Elamite_periodhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Near_Easthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Bronze_Agehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Bronze_Agehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bull-leapinghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bull-leapinghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goddesshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minoan_Cretehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elamo-Dravidianhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elamhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meluhhahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harappan_languagehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harappan_languagehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Substratum_in_Vedic_Sanskrithttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hinduismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cremationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gangetic_Plainhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rajasthanhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ochre_Coloured_Pottery_culturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cemetery_H_culture


12/19

12 11 REFERENCES

11 References

[1] Archeologists confirm Indian civilization is 2000 yearsolder than previously believed, Jason Overdorf, Global-post, 28 November 2012.

[2] Indus Valley 2,000 years older than thought.[3] Haryanas Bhirrana oldest Harappan site, Rakhigarhi

Asias largest: ASI.

[4] History What their lives reveal.

[5] What did Harappans eat, how did they look? Haryanahas the answers.

[6] Wright 2009, p. 1.

[7] Wright 2009:Quote: The Indus civilization is one ofthree in the 'Ancient East' that, along withMesopotamiaandPharonic Egypt, was a cradle of early civilization in

the Old World (Childe 1950). Mesopotamia and Egyptwere longer lived, but coexisted with Indus civilizationduring its florescence between 2600 and 1900 B.C. Of thethree, the Indus was the most expansive, extending fromtodays northeast Afghanistan to Pakistan and India.

[8] Blanc De La, Paul. Indus Epigraphic Perspectives: Ex-ploring Past Decipherment Attempts & Possible New Ap-proaches 2013 Pg 11(PDF). University of Ottawa Re-search. University of Ottawa. Retrieved 11 August 2014.

[9] http://164.100.47.132/LssNew/psearch/QResult15.aspx?qref=138704| The work on delineation of entirecourse of river 'Saraswati' in North West India was

carried out using Indian Remote Sensing Satellite dataalong with digital elevation model. Satellite images aremulti-spectral, multi-temporal and have advantages ofsynoptic view, which are useful to detect palaeochannels.The palaeochannels are validated using historical maps,archaeological sites, hydro- geological and drilling data.It was observed that major Harappan sites of Kaliban-gan (Rajasthan), Banawali and Rakhigarhi (Haryana),Dholavira and Lothal (Gujarat) lie along the RiverSaraswati ."-Ministry of Space, Government of India.

[10] http://www.iisc.ernet.in/currsci/oct25/articles20.htm |A.V.Shankaran.:"Saraswati The ancient river lost in thedesert.

[11] http://164.100.47.132/LssNew/psearch/QResult15.aspx?qref=138704 | " Indian Space Research Organi-zation (ISRO) has studied the palaeochannels in NorthWest India and related them to the channels of RiverSaraswati.

[12] http://www.iisc.ernet.in/currsci/oct25/articles20.htm |A.V.Shankaran.:"Saraswati was believed to have hadthree tributaries, Shatadru (Sutlej) arising from MountKailas, Drishadvati from Siwalik Hills and the old Ya-muna. Together, they flowed along a channel, presentlyidentified as that of the Ghaggar river, also called HakraRiver in Rajasthan and Nara in Sindh.

[13] Michel Danino:The Lost River - On the trail of the Saras-vati(Penguin Books, 2010).ISBN 978-0-14-306864-8

[14]

[15] B. B. Lal,Keynote Address. Webpages.uidaho.edu. Re-trieved on 12 July 2013.

[16] Charles Kahn (2005). World History: Societies of the Past.Portage & Main Press.

[17] Wright 2009, pp. 115125.

[18] Beck, Roger B.; Linda Black, Larry S. Krieger, PhillipC. Naylor, Dahia Ibo Shabaka, (1999). World History:Patterns of Interaction. Evanston, IL: McDougal Littell.ISBN 0-395-87274-X.

[19] Wright 2009, p. 2.

[20] "'Earliest writing' found. BBC News. 4 May 1999. Re-trieved 5 January 2010.

[21] Akhilesh Pillalamarri (18 April 2015).Exploring the In-dus Valleys Secrets. The diplomat. Retrieved 18 April

2015.[22] Morrison, Kathleen D. (Ed.); Junker, Laura L. (2002).

Forager-traders in South and Southeast Asia : long term

histories([Online-Ausg.] ed.). Cambridge [u.a.]: Cam-bridge Univ. Press. p. 62.ISBN 9780521016360.

[23] http://164.100.47.132/LssNew/psearch/QResult15.aspx?qref=138704| It was observed that major Harap-pan sites of Kalibangan (Rajasthan), Banawali andRakhigarhi (Haryana), Dholavira and Lothal (Gujarat)lie along the River Saraswati."- Ministry of Space,Government of India.

[24] Wright 2009, p. 107: Quote: Five major Indus cities arediscussed in this chapter. During the Urban period, theearly town of Harappa expanded in size and populationand became a major center in the Upper Indus. Othercities emerging during the Urban period include Mohenjo-daro in the Lower Indus, Dholavira to the south on thewestern edge of peninsular India in Kutch, Ganweriwalain Cholistan, and a fifth city, Rakhigarhi, on the Ghaggar-Hakra. Rakhigarhi will be discussed briefly in view of thelimited published material.

[25] Archana Khare Ghose (3 June 2012). Can Rakhigarhi,the largest Indus Valley Civilisation site be saved?". Eco-nomic Times. Retrieved 3 June 2012.

[26] Ishtiyaq Sibtian Joo (18 April 2015).Can 'national her-itage' Rakhigarhisurvive for long. Hindustan Times. Re-trieved 18 April 2015.

[27] Haryana to set up museum at Rakhigarhi.

[28] Ratnagar, Shereen(2006). Trading Encounters: From theEuphrates to the Indus in the Bronze Age(2nd ed.). India:Oxford University Press.ISBN 9780195666038.

[29] Lockard, Craig (2010). Societies, Networks, and Tran-sitions, Volume 1: To 1500(2nd ed.). India: CengageLearning. p. 40.ISBN 1439085358.

[30] Witzel, Michael (February 2000). The Languages ofHarappa(PDF).Electronic Journal of Vedic Studies.

[31] Masson 1842.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#CITEREFMasson1842http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~witzel/IndusLang.pdfhttp://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~witzel/IndusLang.pdfhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Witzelhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1439085358https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://books.google.com/books/about/Societies_Networks_and_Transitions.html?id=u4VOYN0dmqMChttp://books.google.com/books/about/Societies_Networks_and_Transitions.html?id=u4VOYN0dmqMChttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780195666038https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://books.google.ca/books?id=Q5tpQgAACAAJhttp://books.google.ca/books?id=Q5tpQgAACAAJhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shereen_Ratnagarhttp://www.hindustantimes.com/haryana/haryana-to-set-up-museum-at-rakhigarhi/article1-1347007.aspxhttp://www.hindustantimes.com/haryana/can-national-heritage-rakhigarhi-survive-for-long/article1-1338542.aspxhttp://www.hindustantimes.com/haryana/can-national-heritage-rakhigarhi-survive-for-long/article1-1338542.aspxhttp://articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com/2012-06-03/news/32006465_1_heritage-sites-mound-archaeological-surveyhttp://articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com/2012-06-03/news/32006465_1_heritage-sites-mound-archaeological-surveyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#CITEREFWright2009http://164.100.47.132/LssNew/psearch/QResult15.aspx?qref=138704http://164.100.47.132/LssNew/psearch/QResult15.aspx?qref=138704https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521016360https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://books.google.co.in/books?id=6IAUKE7xv_cC&dq=oriyo+timbo&q=oriyo+timbo#v=onepage&q=sutkagen-dor&f=falsehttp://books.google.co.in/books?id=6IAUKE7xv_cC&dq=oriyo+timbo&q=oriyo+timbo#v=onepage&q=sutkagen-dor&f=falsehttp://thediplomat.com/2015/04/exploring-the-indus-valleys-secrets/http://thediplomat.com/2015/04/exploring-the-indus-valleys-secrets/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/334517.stmhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#CITEREFWright2009https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-395-87274-Xhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#CITEREFWright2009http://www.webpages.uidaho.edu/ngier/lalpaper.htmhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B._B._Lalhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780143068648https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Lost_River_-_On_the_trail_of_the_Sarasvatihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Lost_River_-_On_the_trail_of_the_Sarasvatihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michel_Daninohttp://www.iisc.ernet.in/currsci/oct25/articles20.htmhttp://164.100.47.132/LssNew/psearch/QResult15.aspx?qref=138704http://164.100.47.132/LssNew/psearch/QResult15.aspx?qref=138704http://www.iisc.ernet.in/currsci/oct25/articles20.htmhttp://164.100.47.132/LssNew/psearch/QResult15.aspx?qref=138704http://164.100.47.132/LssNew/psearch/QResult15.aspx?qref=138704http://www.ruor.uottawa.ca/bitstream/10393/26166/1/Leblanc_Paul_2013_thesis.pdfhttp://www.ruor.uottawa.ca/bitstream/10393/26166/1/Leblanc_Paul_2013_thesis.pdfhttp://www.ruor.uottawa.ca/bitstream/10393/26166/1/Leblanc_Paul_2013_thesis.pdfhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egypthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesopotamiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#CITEREFWright2009https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#CITEREFWright2009http://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/what-did-harappans-eat-how-did-they-look-rakhigarhi-has-the-answers/article1-1348101.aspxhttp://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/what-did-harappans-eat-how-did-they-look-rakhigarhi-has-the-answers/article1-1348101.aspxhttp://www.livemint.com/Leisure/ljfXtPZHUSi5eG8Di1n9YO/History--What-their-lives-reveal.htmlhttp://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/chandigarh/Haryanas-Bhirrana-oldest-Harappan-site-Rakhigarhi-Asias-largest-ASI/articleshow/46926693.cmshttp://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/chandigarh/Haryanas-Bhirrana-oldest-Harappan-site-Rakhigarhi-Asias-largest-ASI/articleshow/46926693.cmshttp://www.hindustantimes.com/newdelhi/indus-valley-2-000-years-older-than-thought/article1-954601.aspxhttp://www.globalpost.com/dispatch/news/regions/asia-pacific/india/121116/indus-civilization-2000-years-old-archaeologistshttp://www.globalpost.com/dispatch/news/regions/asia-pacific/india/121116/indus-civilization-2000-years-old-archaeologistshttp://www.globalpost.com/dispatch/news/regions/asia-pacific/india/121116/indus-civilization-2000-years-old-archaeologists


13/19

13

[32] Davreau, Robert (1976). Indus Valley. In Readers Di-gest.Worlds Last Mysteries.

[33] Cunningham, A., 1875. Archaeological Survey of India,Report for the Year187273, 5: 1058 and pl. 32-3. Cal-cutta: Archaeological Survey of India.

[34] Singh, Upinder (2008). A History of Ancient and Earlymedieval India : from the Stone Age to the 12th cen-

tury. New Delhi: Pearson Education. p. 137. ISBN9788131711200.

[35] Sabharwal, Vijay (11 July 2010). Indus Valley site rav-aged by floods. The Times of India.

[36] Kenoyer, Jonathan Mark (1991). The Indus Valley tra-dition of Pakistan and Western India. Journal of WorldPrehistory5(4): 164.doi:10.1007/BF00978474.

[37] Shaffer 1992, I:441464, II:425446.

[38] Chandler, Graham (SeptemberOctober 1999).Tradersof the Plain. Saudi Aramco World: 3442.

[39] The Largest Bronze Age Urban Civilization.harappa.com. Retrieved 29 April 2013.

[40] Dales, George F. (1962). Harappan Outposts on theMakran Coast. Antiquity36(142): 86.

[41] Rao, Shikaripura Ranganatha(1973). Lothal and the In-dus civilization. London: Asia Publishing House. ISBN0-210-22278-6.

[42] Kenoyer 1998, p. 96

[43] Dani, Ahmad Hassan(19701971). Excavations in theGomal Valley. Ancient Pakistan(5): 1177.

[44] Joshi, J. P.; Bala, M. (1982). Manda: A Harappan sitein Jammu and Kashmir. In Possehl, Gregory L. (ed.).Harappan Civilization: A recent perspective. New Delhi:Oxford University Press. pp. 18595.

[45] A. Ghosh (ed.). Excavations at Alamgirpur. IndianArchaeology, A Review (19581959). Delhi: Archaeol.Surv. India. pp. 5152.

[46] Ray, Himanshu Prabha (2003). The Archaeology of Sea-faring in Ancient South Asia. Cambridge University Press.p. 95.ISBN 0-521-01109-4.

[47] Dales, George F. (1979). The Balakot Project: summaryof four years excavations in Pakistan. In Maurizio Taddei(ed.). South Asian Archaeology 1977. Naples: Seminariodi Studi Asiatici Series Minor 6. Instituto UniversitarioOrientate. pp. 241274.

[48] Bisht, R. S. (1989). A new model of the Harappan townplanning as revealed at Dholavira in Kutch: a surface studyof its plan and architecture. In Chatterjee, Bhaskar (ed.).History and Archaeology. New Delhi: Ramanand VidyaBhawan. pp. 379408.ISBN 81-85205-46-9.

[49] Possehl, Gregory L. (1990). Revolution in the Urban

Revolution: The Emergence of Indus Urbanization. An-nual Reviews of Anthropology19(19): 261282 (Map onpage 263).doi:10.1146/annurev.an.19.100190.001401.

[50] Mughal, M. R. 1982. Recent archaeological researchin the Cholistan desert. In Possehl, Gregory L. (ed.).Harappan Civilization. Delhi: Oxford & IBH & A.I.1.S.pp. 8595.

[51] Shaffer, Jim G.; Lichtenstein, Diane A. (1989). Ethnic-

ity and Change in the Indus Valley Cultural Tradition.Old Problems and New Perspectives in the Archaeologyof South Asia. Wisconsin Archaeological Reports 2. pp.117126.

[52] Gupta 1995, p. 183

[53] e.g. Misra, Virendra Nath (1992). Indus Civilization, aspecial Number of the Eastern Anthropologist. pp. 119.

[54] Ratnagar, Shereen (2006). Understanding Harappa: Civ-ilization in the Greater Indus Valley. New Delhi: TulikaBooks.ISBN 81-89487-02-7.

[55] Peter T. Daniels. The Worlds Writing Systems. OxfordUniversity. p. 372.

[56] Parpola, Asko (1994).Deciphering the Indus Script. Cam-bridge University Press.ISBN 0-521-43079-8.

[57] Durrani, F. A. (1984). Some Early Harappan sites inGomal and Bannu Valleys. InLal, B. B.andGupta, S.P.Frontiers of Indus Civilisation. Delhi: Books & Books.pp. 505510.

[58] Thapar, B. K. (1975). Kalibangan: A HarappanMetropolis Beyond the Indus Valley. Expedition17(2):1932.

[59] Evidence for Patterns of Selective Urban Migration inthe Greater Indus Valley (2600-1900 BC): A Lead andStrontium Isotope Mortuary Analysis.

[60] Indus Valley people migrated from villages to cities: Newstudy.

[61] Indus re-enters India after two centuries, feeds LittleRann, Nal Sarovar. India Today. 7 November 2011. Re-trieved 7 November 2011.

[62] It hasbeen noted that thecourtyardpattern andtechniquesof flooring of Harappan houses has similarities to the way

house-building is still done in some villages of the region.Lal 2002, pp. 9395

[63] Morris, A.E.J. (1994). History of Urban Form: Before theIndustrial Revolutions(Third ed.). New York, NY: Rout-ledge. p. 31. ISBN 978-0-582-30154-2. Retrieved 20May 2015.

[64] James Mclntosh The Ancient Indus Valley : New Per-spectives

[65] Feuerstein, Georg; Kak, Subhash; Frawley, David (2001).In Search of the Cradle of Civilization:New Light on An-

cient India. Quest Books. p. 73.ISBN 0-8356-0741-0.

[66] Sergent, Bernard (1997). Gense de l'Inde (in French).Paris: Payot. p. 113.ISBN 2-228-89116-9.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/2-228-89116-9https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8356-0741-0https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-582-30154-2https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttps://books.google.com/books?id=whBEAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA31#v=onepage&q&f=falsehttps://books.google.com/books?id=whBEAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA31#v=onepage&q&f=falsehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#CITEREFLal2002http://indiatoday.intoday.in/story/indus-river-re-enters-india/1/158976.htmlhttp://indiatoday.intoday.in/story/indus-river-re-enters-india/1/158976.htmlhttp://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/home/science/Indus-Valley-people-migrated-from-villages-to-cities-New-study/articleshow/47111875.cmshttp://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/home/science/Indus-Valley-people-migrated-from-villages-to-cities-New-study/articleshow/47111875.cmshttp://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0123103http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0123103http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0123103https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S._P._Guptahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S._P._Guptahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B._B._Lalhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-43079-8https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/81-89487-02-7https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#CITEREFGupta1995https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jim_G._Shafferhttps://dx.doi.org/10.1146%252Fannurev.an.19.100190.001401https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttp://arjournals.annualreviews.org/toc/anthro/19/1http://arjournals.annualreviews.org/toc/anthro/19/1https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/81-85205-46-9https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-01109-4https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahmad_Hasan_Danihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#CITEREFKenoyer1998https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-210-22278-6https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shikaripura_Ranganatha_Raohttp://www.harappa.com/har/indus-saraswati-geography.htmlhttp://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/199905/traders.of.the.plain.htmhttp://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/199905/traders.of.the.plain.htmhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#CITEREFShaffer1992https://dx.doi.org/10.1007%252FBF00978474https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttp://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Indus-Valley-site-ravaged-by-floods/articleshow/6153199.cmshttp://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Indus-Valley-site-ravaged-by-floods/articleshow/6153199.cmshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788131711200https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://books.google.co.in/books?id=H3lUIIYxWkEC&dq=Upinder+Singh&q=malvan#v=snippet&q=malvan&f=falsehttp://books.google.co.in/books?id=H3lUIIYxWkEC&dq=Upinder+Singh&q=malvan#v=snippet&q=malvan&f=falsehttp://books.google.co.in/books?id=H3lUIIYxWkEC&dq=Upinder+Singh&q=malvan#v=snippet&q=malvan&f=false


14/19

14 11 REFERENCES

[67] Coppa, A. et al. (6 April 2006). Early Neolithic tradi-tion of dentistry: Flint tips were surprisingly effective fordrilling tooth enamel in a prehistoric population (PDF).Nature440(7085): 7556.doi:10.1038/440755a.PMID16598247.

[68] Bisht, R. S. (1982). Excavations at Banawali: 197477.In Possehl, Gregory L. (ed.). Harappan Civilization: AContemporary Perspective. New Delhi: Oxford and IBHPublishing Co. pp. 113124.

[69] Keay, John, India, a History. New York: Grove Press,2000.

[70] John Keay (1988). India discovered. Collins. p. 172.

[71] Kenoyer, Jonathan Mark (1997). Trade and Technol-ogy of the Indus Valley: New Insights from Harappa,Pakistan. World Archaeology 29 (2: HighDefinitionArchaeology: Threads Through the Past): 262280.doi:10.1080/00438243.1997.9980377.

[72] Lal 2002, p. 82

[73] Marshall, Sir John. Mohenjo-Daro and the Indus Civili-sation, 3 vols, London: Arthur Probsthain, 1931

[74] Lal 2002, p. 89

[75] Hasenpflug, Rainer, The Inscriptions of the Indus civiliza-tion Norderstedt, Germany, 2006.

[76] Parpola 2005, pp. 23

[77] Surprising Discoveries From the Indus Civilization,

National Geographic, Traci Watson, 29 April 2013,http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2013/13/130425-indus-civilization-discoveries-harappa-archaeology-science/

[78] Doniger, Wendy (30 September 2010). The Hindus: analternative history. Oxford University Press. p. 67.ISBN978-0-1-9959334-7.

[79] Neyland, R. S. (1992). The seagoing vessels on Dilmunseals. In Keith, D.H.; Carrell, T.L. (eds.). Underwa-ter archaeology proceedings of the Society for Historical

Archaeology Conference at Kingston, Jamaica 1992. Tuc-son, AZ: Society for Historical Archaeology. pp. 6874.

[80] Jarrige, J.-F. (1986). Excavations at Mehrgarh-Nausharo.Pakistan Archaeology10(22): 63131.

[81] Wells, B. An Introduction to Indus Writing. Early SitesResearch Society (West) Monograph Series, 2, Indepen-dence MO 1999

[82] Farmer, Steve; Sproat, Richard; Witzel, Michael. TheCollapse of the Indus-Script Thesis: The Myth of a Liter-ate Harappan Civilization(PDF).

[83] These and other issues are addressed inParpola (2005)

[84] Rao, Rajesh P. N.; Yadav, Nisha; Vahia, Mayank N.;Joglekar, Hrishikesh; Adhikari, R.; Mahadevan, Ira-

vatham (May 2009). Entropic Evidence for LinguisticStructure in the Indus Script. Science324(5931): 1165.doi:10.1126/science.1170391.PMID 19389998.

[85] Indus Script Encodes Language, Reveals New Study ofAncient SymbolsNewswise, Retrieved on 5 June 2009.

[86] A Refutation of the Claimed Refutation of the Non-linguistic Nature of Indus Symbols: Invented Data Setsin the Statistical Paper of Rao et al. (Science, 2009)Re-trieved on 19 September 2009.

[87] 'Conditional Entropy' Cannot Distinguish Linguistic fromNon-linguistic SystemsRetrieved on 19 September 2009.

[88] keay.

[89] Wright 2009, pp. 281282.

[90] Ratnagar, Shereen (April 2004). Archaeology at theHeart of a Political Confrontation The Case of Ayodhya.Current Anthropology (University of Chicago Press) 45(2).

[91] Marshall 1931, pp. 4878.

[92] Possehl 2002, pp. 141156.

[93] Possehl 2002, pp. 141144.

[94] Srinivasan 1975.

[95] Srinivasan 1997, pp. 180181.

[96] Sullivan 1964.

[97] Hiltebeitel 2011, pp. 399432.

[98] Dr. Vilas Sangave (2001) In : Facets of Jainology: Se-lected Research Papers on Jain Society, Religion, and Cul-

ture. Popular Prakashan: MumbaiISBN 81-7154-839-3

[99] Zimmer, Heinrich (1969). Campbell, Joseph, ed.Philosophies of India. NY: Princeton University Press.pp. 60, 208209.ISBN 0-691-01758-1.

[100] Thomas McEvilley(2002)The Shape of Ancient Thought:Comparative Studies in Greek and Indian Philosophies.Allworth Communications, Inc. 816 pages; ISBN 1-58115-203-5

[101] Possehl 2002, pp. 141145.

[102] Mcintosh 2008, pp. 286287.

[103] Marshall 1931, p. 67.[104] Possehl 2002, p. 18.

[105] Thapar 2004, p. 85.

[106] McIntosh 2008, pp. 275277, 292.

[107] Possehl 2002, pp. 152, 157176.

[108] McIntosh 2008, pp. 293299.

[109] Edwin Bryant (2001). The Quest for the Origins of VedicCulture. pp. 15960.

[110] Indus Collapse: The End or the Beginning of an AsianCulture?". Science Magazine320: 12823. 6 June 2008.

[111] Knipe, David. Hinduism. San Francisco: Harper, 1991
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#CITEREFMcIntosh2008https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#CITEREFPossehl2002https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#CITEREFMcIntosh2008https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#CITEREFThapar2004https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#CITEREFPossehl2002https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#CITEREFMarshall1931https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#CITEREFMcintosh2008https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#CITEREFPossehl2002https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1581152035https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1581152035https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_McEvilleyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-691-01758-1https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/8171548393https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#CITEREFHiltebeitel2011https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#CITEREFSullivan1964https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#CITEREFSrinivasan1997https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#CITEREFSrinivasan1975https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#CITEREFPossehl2002https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#CITEREFPossehl2002https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#CITEREFMarshall1931http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/381044http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/381044https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#CITEREFWright2009https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#CITEREFkeayhttp://www.safarmer.com/more.on.Rao.pdfhttp://www.safarmer.com/more.on.Rao.pdfhttp://www.safarmer.com/Refutation3.pdfhttp://www.safarmer.com/Refutation3.pdfhttp://www.safarmer.com/Refutation3.pdfhttp://newswise.com/articles/view/551380/http://newswise.com/articles/view/551380/https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19389998https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifierhttps://dx.doi.org/10.1126%252Fscience.1170391https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#CITEREFParpola2005http://www.safarmer.com/fsw2.pdfhttp://www.safarmer.com/fsw2.pdfhttp://www.safarmer.com/fsw2.pdfhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-1-9959334-7https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://books.google.com/books?id=nNsXZkdHvXUC&pg=PA67http://books.google.com/books?id=nNsXZkdHvXUC&pg=PA67http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2013/13/130425-indus-civilization-discoveries-harappa-archaeology-science/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2013/13/130425-indus-civilization-discoveries-harappa-archaeology-science/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#CITEREFParpola2005https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#CITEREFLal2002https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization#CITEREFLal2002https://dx.doi.org/10.1080%252F00438243.1997.9980377https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jonathan_Mark_Kenoyerhttps://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16598247https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifierhttps://dx.doi.org/10.1038%252F440755ahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttp://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v440/n7085/pdf/440755a.pdfhttp://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v440/n7085/pdf/440755a.pdfhttp://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v440/n7085/pdf/440755a.pdf


15/19

15

[112] White, David Gordon (2003). Kiss ofthe Yogini. Chicago:University of Chicago Press. p. 28. ISBN 0-226-89483-5.

[113] Shaffer, Jim (1993). Reurbanization: The eastern Punjaband beyond. InSpodek, Howard; Srinivasan, Doris M.Urban Form and Meaning in South Asia: The Shaping of

Cities from Prehistoric to Precolonial Times.

[114] phys.org/news/2014-02-decline-bronze-age-megacities-linked.html

[115] Tripathi, Jayant K.; Tripathi, K.; Bock, Barbara; Raja-mani, V. & Eisenhauer, A. (25 October 2004). Is RiverGhaggar, Saraswati? Geochemical Constraints(PDF).Current Science87(8).

[116] Clift et al., 2011, U-Pb zircon dating evidence for a Pleis-tocene Sarasvati River and capture of the Yamuna River,Geology, 40, 211214 (2011).

[117] Charles Choi (28 May 2012). Huge Ancient Civiliza-tions Collapse Explained. LiveScience. Retrieved 29May 2012.

[118] Fluvial landscapes of the Harappan civilization.

[119] Supporting Information Fluvial landscapes of the Harap-pan civilization(PDF).

[120] Thomas H. Maugh II (28 May 2012).Migration of mon-soonscreated, thenkilled Harappancivilization. Los An-geles Times. Retrieved 29 May 2012.

[121] Harappan Civilisation and Rojdi

[122] John Haywood, The Penguin Historical Atlas of AncientCivilizations, Penguin Books, London, 2005, p.76

[123] Mode, H. (1944). Indische Frhkulturen und ihreBeziehungen zum Westen. Basel.

[124] Indus Writing Analysis by Asko Parpola

[125] Sanskrithas alsocontributed to IndusCivilization, DeccanHerald, 12 August 2012

[126] Witzel, Michael (1999). Substrate Languages in OldIndo-Aryan (gvedic, Middle and Late Vedic)" (PDF).Electronic Journal of Vedic Studies5(1).

12 Bibliography

Allchin, Bridget(1997). Origins of a Civilization:The Prehistory and Early Archaeology of South Asia.New York: Viking.

Allchin, Raymond(ed.) (1995). The Archaeol-ogy of Early Historic South Asia: The Emergence of

Cities and States. New York: Cambridge UniversityPress.

Aronovsky, Ilona; Gopinath, Sujata (2005). The In-dus Valley. Chicago: Heinemann.

Basham, A. L. (1967). The Wonder That Was India.London: Sidgwick & Jackson. pp. 1114.

Chakrabarti, D. K. (2004). Indus Civilization Sitesin India: New Discoveries. Mumbai: Marg Publica-tions.ISBN 81-85026-63-7.

Dani, Ahmad Hassan(1984). Short History of Pak-istan (Book 1). University of Karachi.

Dani, Ahmad Hassan; Mohen, J-P. (eds.) (1996).History of Humanity, Volume III, From the Third

Millennium to the Seventh Century BC. NewYork/Paris: Routledge/UNESCO. ISBN 0-415-09306-6.

Hiltebeitel, Alf(2011). The Indus Valley Proto-iva, Re-examined through Reflections on theGoddess, the Buffalo, and the Symbolism ofvhanas. In Adluri, Vishwa; Bagchee, Joydeep.When the Goddess was a Woman: Mahabharata

Ethnographies Essays by Alf Hiltebeitel. BRILL.ISBN 978-90-04-19380-2.

Gupta, S. P.(1996). The Indus-Saraswati Civiliza-tion: Origins, Problems and Issues. Delhi: PratibhaPrakashan.ISBN 81-85268-46-0.

Gupta, S. P. (ed.) (1995). The lost Sarasvatiand the Indus Civilisation. Jodhpur: KusumanjaliPrakashan.

Kathiroli et al. (2004). Recent Marine Archae-

ological Finds in Khambhat, Gujarat. Journal ofIndian Ocean Archaeology(1): 141149.

Kenoyer, Jonathan Mark(1998). Ancient cities ofthe Indus Valley Civilisation. Oxford UniversityPress.ISBN 0-19-577940-1.

Kenoyer, Jonathan Mark (1991). The IndusValley tradition of Pakistan and Western In-dia. Journal of World Prehistory 5 (4): 164.doi:10.1007/BF00978474.

Kenoyer, Jonathan Mark; Heuston, Kimberly

(2005). The Ancient South Asian World. Ox-ford/New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-517422-4.

Kirkpatrick, Naida (2002). The Indus Valley.Chicago: Heinemann.

Lahiri, Nayanjot (ed.) (2000). The Decline and Fallof the Indus Civilisation. Delhi: Permanent Black.ISBN 81-7530-034-5.

Lal, B. B.(1998). India 19471997: New Light onthe Indus Civilization. New Delhi: Aryan Books In-ternational.ISBN 81-7305-129-1.

Lal, B. B.(1997). The Earliest Civilisation of SouthAsia (Rise, Maturity and Decline).
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B._B._Lalhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/81-7305-129-1https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B._B._Lalhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/81-7530-034-5https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-517422-4https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-517422-4https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jonathan_Mark_Kenoyerhttps://dx.doi.org/10.1007%252FBF00978474https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jonathan_Mark_Kenoyerhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-577940-1https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jonathan_Mark_Kenoyerhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S._P._Guptahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/81-85268-46-0https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S._P._Guptahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-19380-2https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://books.google.com/books?id=ZupXwid01CoChttp://books.google.com/books?id=ZupXwid01CoChttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alf_Hiltebeitelhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-09306-6https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-09306-6https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahmad_Hasan_Danihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahmad_Hasan_Danihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/81-85026-63-7https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F._Raymond_Allchinhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bridget_Allchinhttp://www.ejvs.laurasianacademy.com/ejvs0501/ejvs0501article.pdfhttp://www.ejvs.laurasianacademy.com/ejvs0501/ejvs0501article.pdfhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_E._J._Witzelhttp://www.harappa.com/script/parpola0.htmlhttp://www.latimes.com/news/science/sciencenow/la-sci-sn-indus-harappan-20120528,0,1127932.storyhttp://www.latimes.com/news/science/sciencenow/la-sci-sn-indus-harappan-20120528,0,1127932.storyhttp://www.pnas.org/content/suppl/2012/05/25/1112743109.DCSupplemental/pnas.1112743109_SI.pdfhttp://www.pnas.org/content/suppl/2012/05/25/111274

Prehistoric India - Indus Valley Civilization

Documents

Transcript of Prehistoric India - Indus Valley Civilization