From the beginning of the 4th millennium BC, the individuality of

the early village cultures began to be replaced by a more

homogenous style of existence.

By the middle of the 3rd millennium, a uniform culture had

developed at settlements spread across nearly 500,000 square

miles, including parts of Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat,

Baluchistan, Sindh and the Makran coast.

It was a highly developed civilization and derived its name from

the main river of that region— Indus.

The cities were far more advanced than their counterparts in

prehistoric Egypt, Mesopotamia or anywhere else in Western Asia.

The archaeological remains show that before the emergence of Harappan civilization

the people lived in small villages. As the time passed, there was the emergence

of small towns which ultimately led to full-fledged towns during the Harappan period.

The whole period of Harappan civilization is divided into three phases:

1. Early Harappan phase (3500 BC–2600 BC) – It was marked by some town-planning in the form of mud structures, elementary trade, arts and crafts, etc.

2. Mature Harappan phase (2600 BC–1900 BC) – It was the period in which we notice well developed towns with burnt brick structures, inland and foreign

trade, crafts of various types, etc.

3. Late Harappan phase (1900 BC–1400 BC) – It was the phase of decline during which many cities were abandoned and the trade disappeared leading to

the gradual decay of the significant urban traits.

ORIGIN

The oldest mention of the Indus Valley Civilization is found in the works of Charles Masson in 1842.

In 1856, while laying a railway track , British engineers came across an ancient city. They used the bricks from the ruined city to build the railway bed.

Finally it was Alexander Cunningham, the director of the Archaeological Survey of British India, who presented to the world a seal from this ancient civilization.

In the year 1920, Indian archaeologists Dayaram Sahni and R.D Banerjee undertook excavations on one of these mounds in Harappa.

The archaeologists expected to find something, but never imagined that a city lay beneath the earth.

Further excavation at different places in India and Pakistan, led to discovery of another large city ‘Mohenjo-Daro’ with the recovery of at least 80 villages and towns related to this newly discovered civilization.

They named it Harappan Civilization after the first city they discovered.

DISCOVERY

The archaeological excavations reveal that this culture was spread over a vast areawhich included not only the present day states of India such as Rajasthan,Punjab, Haryana, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Western Uttar Pradesh but also Pakistanand some parts of Afghanistan. Some important sites of this civilization are:

1. Manda in Jammu and Kashmir

2. Shortughai in Afghanistan

3. Harappa in Western Punjab (Pakistan)

4. Mohenjo-Daro and Chanhudaro in Sind

5. Kalibangan in Rajasthan

6. Lothal and Dholavira in Gujarat

7. Banawali and Rakhigarhi in Haryana

8. Daimabad in Maharashtra

9. Sutkagendor on the Makran Coast (near Pakistan-Iran border) is the westernmost site of the Harappan civilization.

10. Alamgirpur in western Uttar Pradesh marks its eastern most limit.

The people of these settlements subsisted on agriculture and cattle rearing.

However, they also practiced hunting and fishing.

Several evidences indicate that the Indus valley people had a resonant interest in

trade.

The main crops of the period include wheat, barley, lentils, chickpea etc.

Skeletal remains from the sites suggest the presence of domesticated and wild

animals in these cultures.

The important domesticated animals were cattle, sheep, goat, buffalo and pig.

The wild animals included boar, deer and gharial.

The bones of fish, water fowl, turtle and rodents were also discovered.

SUBSISTENCE ECONOMY

Agriculture along with pastoralism (cattle-rearing) was the base of

Harappan economy.

The granaries discovered at sites like Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro and

Lothal served as the storehouses for grains.

We do not have any clear evidence of the tools used for agriculture.

However, the furrows or plough-marks have been observed in a

field at Kalibangan. These indicate plough cultivation.

A terracotta plough has also been reported from Banawali in

Hissar district of Haryana.

The irrigation was carried on a small scale by drawing water from

wells or by diverting river water into channels.

Traces of canals have been found at the Harappan site of

Shortughai in Afghanistan.

Besides, water reservoirs found in Dholavira may have been used to

store water for agriculture.

The chief food crops included wheat, barley, sesame, mustard,

lentil, chickpea etc.

The evidence for rice has come from Lothal and Rangpur in the

form of husks embedded in pottery.

Millets have also been found from the sites of Gujarat.

Cotton was another important crop. A piece of woven cloth has

been found at Mohenjo-Daro.

Apart from cereals, fish and animal meat also formed a part of the

Harappan diet.

The most interesting urban feature of Harappan civilization is its

town-planning. It is marked by considerable uniformity, though one

can notice some regional variations as well. The uniformity is

noticed in the lay-out of the towns, streets, structures, brick size,

drains etc.

Almost all the major sites (Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro, Kalibangan

and others), are divided into two parts–

A Citadel on higher mound on the western side. The citadel

contain large structures which might have functioned as

administrative or ritual centres. Buildings were constructed on mud

brick platforms.

A Lower town on the eastern side of the settlement. The

residential buildings are built in the lower town.

The streets intersect each other at right angles in a criss-cross

pattern.

It divides the city in several residentialblocks.

Themain street is connectedby narrow lanes.

The doors of the houses opened in these lanes and not the main

streets.

The drainage system of the Harappans was elaborate and well

laidout.

Every house had drains, which opened into the street drains.

These drains were covered with manholes bricks or stone slabs

(which could be removed for cleaning) were constructed at

regular intervals by the sideof the streets for cleaning.

Generally, houses were either one or two storey high, with rooms built around a

courtyard.

The houses were built of either sun-baked or burnt bricks.

The houses of common people, however, differed in size from a single-room

house in Harappa to bigger structures.

The bigger houses had many rooms surrounding a square courtyard.

The difference in the size of the houses suggests that the rich lived in the larger

houses whereas the one-room buildings or barracks might have been intended for

the poorer section of the society.

There are no windows in the walls along the ground level.

The main entrance does not give a direct view of the interior or the courtyard.

These houses were provided with private wells, kitchens and bathing platforms.

Many houses had wells, often in a room that could be reached from the outside

and used by passer-by.

At Mohenjo-Daro the ‘Great Bath’ is the most important

structure.

It is surrounded by corridors on all sides and is approached at

either end a by a flights of steps in north and south.

A thin layer of bitumen was applied to the bed of the Bath to

ensure that water did not seep in.

Water was supplied by a large well in an adjacent room.

There was a drain for the outlet of the water.

The bath was surrounded by sets of rooms on sides for

changing cloth.

Scholars believe that the ‘Great Bath’ was used for ritual bathing.

GREAT BATH

o Another structure here located to the west of the ‘Great Bath’ is

the granary.

o It consists of several rectangular blocks of brick for storing grains.

o The granary was divided into 27 compartment in three rows.

o It was well ventilated and was possible to fill grain in from outside.

o A granary has also been found at Harappa.

o It has the rows of circular brick platforms, which were used for

threshing grains.

o This is known from the finding of chaffs of wheat and barley from

here.

GRANARY

Dead bodies were generally rested in north-south direction with their

head towards north and the feet towards south.

The dead were buried with a varying number of earthen pots.

In some graves the dead were buried along with goods such as bangles,

beads, copper mirrors. This may indicate that the Harappans believed in

life after death.

At Lothal three joint or double burials with male and female bodies

together were discovered.

Kalibangan has yielded evidence of a symbolic burial along i.e., a burial

which contains pots but no bones or skeleton.

These different practices in different regions of Harappan civilization

may reflect diversity in religious beliefs.

The Harappan society appears to have been matriarchal in nature. This view is

based on the popularity of the mother goddess as indicated by the finding of a

large number of terracotta female figurines in Punjab and Sind region.

The Harappan Society comprised of people following diverse professions. These

included the priests, the warriors, peasants, traders and artisans (masons, weavers,

goldsmith, potters, etc.)

The structural remains at sites such as Harappa and Lothal show that different

types of buildings that were used as residence by different classes.

The presence of a class of workmen is proved by workmen quarters near the

granary at Harappa.

Similarly, the workshops and houses meant for coppersmiths and bead makers

have been discovered at Lothal.

SOCIAL DIFFERENTIATION

Infact, we can say that those who lived in larger houses belonged to

the rich class whereas those living in the barracks like workmen

quarters were from the class of labourers.

Our limited knowledge about their dress styles comes from the

terracotta figurines and stone sculptures of the period.

Men are mostly shown wearing a dress wrapped round the lower half

of the body with one end worn over the left shoulder and under the

right arm.

The other garment was a skirt like dress to cover the lower portion.

They used cotton and woolen clothes.

A piece of woven cloth has been found at Mohenjo-Daro.

Spindles and needles discovered at many sites attest to the practice of

spinning and weaving.

Harappan people loved to decorate themselves.

Hair dressing by both, men and women, is evident from figurines found at

different sites.

The men as well as women arranged their hair in different styles.

The people were also fond of ornaments which mainly included necklaces,

armlets, earrings, beads, bangles, etc., used by both the sexes.

These ornaments were engraved with precious gems and stones like jade, agate,

lapis lazuli, and carnelian.

Toilet jars found in Harappa show that Harappan women were fond of applying

ivory powder and face paint as cosmetics.

Rich people appear to have used the ornaments of gold, silver and semi-precious

stones while the poor satisfied themselves with those of terracotta.

The Harappan people were aware of almost all the metals except iron.

They manufactured gold and silver objects.

The gold objects include beads, armlets, needles and other ornaments.

A large number of silver ornaments, dishes, etc. have been discovered.

A number of copper tools and weapons have also been discovered.

The common tools included axe, saws, chisels, knives, spearheads andarrowheads.

It is important to note that the weapons produced by the Harappanswere mostly defensive in nature as there is no evidence of weapons likeswords, etc.

A well-known piece of art of the Harappan period is a stone sculpture of a

bearded man discovered at Mohenjo-Daro. His eyes are half closed indicating a

posture of meditation. Across the left shoulder is an embroidered cloak. In the

opinion of some scholars it could be abust of a priest.

A large number of terracotta figurines of males and females have been discovered

from various Harappan sites.

The female figurines outnumber those of males and are believed to represent the

worship of mother goddess.

Besides these, a variety of models of birds, monkeys, dogs, sheep, cattle, humped

and hump less bulls are found.

However, the noteworthy specimen in this regard are various models of terracotta

carts.

Stone tools were also commonly used.

Wealso have the evidence of the use of the bronze though in limited manner.

The most famous specimen in this regard is the bronze ‘dancing girl’ figurine

discovered at Mohenjo-Daro.

It is a nude female figure, with right arm on the hip and left arm hanging in a

dancing pose. She is wearing a large number of bangles.

Bead-making also was an important craft. Beads were made of precious and

semiprecious stones such as agate and carnelian.

Steatite was used for making beads. The evidence of ‘bead makers’ shops have

been found at Chanhudaro and Lothal.

Gold and silver beads have also been found. Ivory carving and inlaying used in

beads, bracelets and other decorations were also in practice.

The Harappans thus showed their masterly skill in avariety of arts and crafts.

Trading network, both internal (within the country) and external (foreign), was a

significant feature of the urban economy of the Harappans.

As the urban population had to depend on the surrounding countryside for the

supply of food and many other necessary products, there emerged a village-town

(rural-urban) interrelationship.

Similarly, the urban craftsmen needed markets to sell their goods in other areas. It

led to the contact between the towns.

The traders also established contacts with foreign lands particularly Mesopotamia

where these goods were in demand.

It is important to note that various kinds of metals and precious stones were

needed by craftsmen to make goods, but as these were not available locally they

had to be brought from outside.

The presence of such raw material found at sites away from the place of its

origin naturally indicates it must have reached there through an exchange activity.

Rajasthan region is rich in copper deposits and the Harappans

acquired copper mainly from the Khetri mines located here.

Kolar gold fields of Karnataka and the river-beds of the Himalayan

rivers might have supplied the gold.

The source of silver may have been Jwar mines of Rajasthan. It is

believed that it must have also come from Mesopotamia in

exchange for the Harappan goods.

Among the precious stones used for making beads, the source of

lapis-lazuli was located in Badakshan mines in northeast

Afghanistan.

Turquoise and Jade might have been brought from

Central Asia.

Western India supplied agate, chalcedony and

carnelian.

The seashells must have come from Gujarat and

neighboring coastal areas.

Timber of good quality and other forest products

were perhaps obtained from the northern regions

such as Jammu.

The Harappans were engaged in external trade with Mesopotamia. It

was largely through Oman and Behrain in the Persian Gulf.

It is confirmed by the presence of Harappan artefacts such as beads,

seals, dice etc. in these regions.

Though the artefacts from those regions are rarely found at the

Harappan sites, a seal of West Asian or Persian origin has been

discovered at Lothal which confirms this contact.

Mesopotamian cities like Susa, Ur, etc. have yielded about two dozen

of Harappan seals.

Besides seals, other artefacts of Harappan origin which have been

discovered include potteries, etched carnelian beads and dices with

Harappan features.

The inscriptional evidence from Mesopotamia also provides us with

valuable information on Harappan contact with Mesopotamia.

These inscriptions refer to trade with Dilmun, Magan and Meluhha.

Scholars have identified Meluhha with Harappan region, Magan

with the Makran coast, and Dilmun with Bahrain.

They indicate that Mesopotamia imported copper, carnelian, ivory,

shell, lapis-lazuli, pearls and ebony from Meluhha.

The export from Mesopotamia to Harappans included items such

as garments, wool, perfumes, leather products and sliver. Except

silver all these products are perishable. This may be one important

reason why we do not find the remains of these goods at

Harappan sites.

Harappan Pottery is bright or dark red and is uniformly sturdy and well

baked.

It is chiefly wheel made, and consists of both plain and painted ware, the

plain variety being more common.

The painted designs consists of horizontal lines of varied thickness, leaf

patterns, palm and Pipal trees.

Birds, fishes and animals are also depicted on potteries.

Harappan people used different types of pottery such as glazed,

polychrome, incised, perforated and knobbed.

The glazed Harappan pottery is the earliest example of its kind in the

ancient world.

On the whole, Harappan pottery was highly utilitarian in character,

though the painted designs on some pieces show a remarkable artistic

touch.

The Harappans were literate people.

Harappan seals, copper tools, rims of jars, copper and terracotta tablets, jewelry, bone rods, signboard etc. are engraved with various signs or characters.

Recent studies suggest that the Harappan script consists of about 375-400 signs and that it was written from right to left.

However, the script has not been deciphered as yet.

It is believed that they used ideograms i.e., a graphic symbol or character to convey the idea directly.

Typical Indus inscriptions are short and are no more than 4 or 5 characters in length.

We do not know the language they spoke, though scholars believe that they spoke “Brahui”, a dialect used by Baluchi people in Pakistan today.

However further research alone can unveil the mystery and enable us to know more about the Harappan script.

They are the greatest artistic creations of the Indus people.

More than two thousand seals have been discovered from different sites.

Most commonly made of steatite (soft stone).

The technique of cutting and polishing these seals with white luster was a

unique invention of the Harappans.

The majority of the seals have an animal engraved on them with a short

inscription.

Unicorn is the animal most frequently represented on the seals.

Main type –

the square type with a carved animal and inscription,

the rectangular type with inscription only.

The people of Indus Valley Civilization achieved great accuracy in measuringlength, mass, and time.

They were among the first to develop a system of uniform weights andmeasures.

Their smallest division, which is marked on an ivory scale found in Lothal, wasapproximately 1.704mm, the smallest division of measurement for all practicalpurposes, including the measurement of mass as revealed by their hexahedronweights.

Harappans evolved some new techniques in metallurgy and produced copper,bronze, lead, and tin.

A touchstone bearing gold streaks was found in Banawali, which was probablyused for testing the purity of gold.

Exchanging were regulated by a precise system of weights, usually made of astone called chert and generally cubical, with no markings.

Metal scale-pans have also been found.

Our knowledge on the religious beliefs and practices of the Harappans is

largely based on the Harappan seals and terracotta figurines available to us.

The Harappan religion is normally termed as animism i.e., worship of trees,

stones etc.

The chief male deity was the Pashupati Mahadeva (proto-Siva), represented

in seals as sitting in a yogic posture on a low throne, and having three faces

and two horns.

He is surrounded by four animals (elephant, tiger, rhino and buffalo), each

facing a different direction, and two deer appear at his feel.

In another instance, a deity is shown with horns and flowing hair standing

nude between the branches of a Pipal tree and a worshipper is kneeling in

front. It may represent tree worship.

The chief female deity was the Mother Goddess, who has been

depicted in various forms.

A large number of terracotta figurines discovered at the Harappan

sites have been associated with the worship of mother goddess.

Many of these represent females adorned with a wide girdle, loin

cloth and necklaces. They wear a fan-shaped head dress.

In some cases the female is shown with an infant while there is

one that shows a plant growing out of the uterus of a woman.

The latter type probably symbolizes the goddess of earth.

There is sufficient evidence for the prevalence of phallic worship.

Numerous stone symbols of female sex organs (yoni worship),

besides those of the phallus(linga), have been discovered.

The worship of fire is proved by the discovery of fire altars at

Lothal and Kalibangan.

At Kalibangan, a series of raised brick platforms with pits

containing ash and animal bones have been discovered. These are

identified by many scholars as fire altars.

This also shows that the Harappans living in different areas

followed different religious practices as there is no evidence of

fire-pits at Harappa or Mohenjo-Daro.

Indus people also worshipped Gods in the form of trees

(pipal,etc) and animals (unicorn etc.)

Further they believed in ghosts and evil forces and used amulets as

protection against them.

The central figure on a seal discovered

during excavation of the Mohenjo-Daro

archeological site in the Indus Valley

Civilization was interpreted as an image

of “Pasupati” by the archeologists John

Marshall. The same figure has been

described as a possible “yogi” or “proto-

shiva”.Some described the figure as

sitting in a traditional cross-legged yoga

pose with its hands resting on its knees,

surrounded by animals and wearing a

horned head-dress. It is the one with a

horned male deity represented on it. He

has three heads and is sitting in a yogic

posture surrounded by four animals via

elephant, tiger, rhinoceros and a buffalo.

PASHUPATI MAHADEV

Archaeological records provide no immediate answers for a center of power or

of depiction of people in power in Harappan society.

But, there are indications of complex decisions being taken and implemented.

For instance, the extraordinary uniformity of Harappan artifacts as evident in

pottery, seals, weights and bricks.

These are major assumptions:

There was a single state, given the similarity in artifacts, the evidence for

planned settlements, the standardized ratio of brick size, and the establishments

near sources of raw material .

There was no ruler but several -- Mohenjo-Daro had a separate ruler, Harappa

another, and so forth.

Harappan society had no rulers, and everybody enjoyed equal status.

AUTHORITY AND

GOVERANCE

In 1927, a seated male soapstone figure was found in a building with usually ornamental brickwork and a wall-niche. Though there is no evidence that priests or monarchs ruled Mohenjo-Daro, archeologists dubbed this dignified figure a “Priest King". This sculpture is 17.5 centimeters tall. It depicts a bearded man, with a fillet around his head, an armband, and a cloak decorated with trefoil patterns that were originally filled with a red pigment. The two ends of the fillet fall along the back. The hair is carefully combed towards the back of the head but no bun is present. The flat back of the head may have held a separately carved bun, or it could have held a more elaborate horn and plumed headdress.

Two holes beneath the highly stylized ears suggest that a necklace or other head ornament was attached to the sculpture. The left shoulder is covered with a cloak decorated with trefoil, double circle and single circle designs that were originally filled with red pigment. Drill holes in the center of each circle indicated they were made with a specialized drill and then touched up with a chisel. The eyes are deeply incised and may have held inlay. The upper lip shaved, and a short combed beard frames the face.

It was discovered in the year 1922 by R.D. Banerjee on the banks of river

Indus.

In Sindhi language, the word Mohenjodaro means ‘mound of the dead’.

It is the largest of all Indus cities.

The Great Bath is the most important public place, measuring 39 feet (length)

X 23 feet (breadth) X 8 feet (depth).

Located at the center of the citadel, it is remarkable for beautiful brickwork. Its

floor is made of burnt bricks set in gypsum and mortar. It must have served as

a ritual-bathing site.

Remains have been found of an oblong multi-pillared assembly hall and a big

rectangular building, which must have served administrative purposes.

Most of Mohenjodaro houses are built of kiln-fired brick

The major streets are 33 feet wide and run north-south, intersecting

subordinate ones, running east-west at right angles.

MOHENJODARO

The evidence of Indian ships (figured on a seal) and a piece of

woven cloth has been discovered from here.

There is a large granary consisting of podium of square blocks of

burnt-bricks with a wooden superstructure.

Parallel rows of two-roomed cottages found the workmen or poor

sections of the society perhaps used these cottages.

A bronze dancing girl, steatite statue of a priest and a seal bearing

Pashupati have been found here.

It is important to remember that Mohenjo-Daro shows nine levels

of occupation towering over 300 feet above the present flood plain.

Excavation reveals that the city was flooded more than seven times.

It was discovered in the year 1961 by B.B.Lal and B.K.Thapar on

the banks of river Ghaggar.

Has pre-Harappan as well as Harappan cultural phases.

Less developed compared to Mohenjodaro.

There is evidence of mud-brick fortification.

Pre-Harappan phase here shows that the fields were ploughed

unlike the Harappan period.

Archaeologists have discovered two platforms (within the citadel)

with fire altars suggesting the practice of cult sacrifice.

The existence of wheel conveyance is proved by a cartwheel

having a single hub.

It was discovered in the year 1991 by J.P. Joshi and R.S. Bist.

It is the latest and one of the two largest Harappan settlements in

India, the other being Rakhigarhi in Haryana.

The other Harappan towns were divided into two parts — Citadel

and the Lower Town, but Dholavira was divided into three principal

divisions, two of which were strongly protected by rectangular

fortifications.

There are two inner enclosures — the first one hemmed in the

citadel (which probably housed the highest authority)and the second

one protected the middle town (meant for the close relatives of the

rulers and other officials). The existence of this middle town, apart

from the lower town, is the real exclusive feature of this city.

It was discovered in the year 1931 by M.G.Majumdar on the banks

of river Indus.

Only Indus city without a citadel.

Existence of Pre-Harappan as well as Harappan cultural phase.

A small pot was discovered here, which was probably an ink pot.

Excavations reveal that people of Chanhudaro were expert

craftsmen.

Archaeologists have discovered here metalworkers, shell-ornament

makers, and bead-makers shops

The city was twice destroyed by inundations.

Here more extensive but indirect evidence of super-imposition of

a barbarian lifestyle is seen

It was discovered in the year 1955 by S.R.Rao on the banks of river Bhogavo.

Only Indus site with an artificial brick dockyard.

This is the port city of Indus Valley Civilization.

It must have served as the main seaport of the Indus people.

It was surrounded by a massive brick wall, probably as flood protection.

Lothal has evidence for the earliest cultivation of rice (1800 BC).

The only other Indus site where rice husk has been found is Rangpur near

Ahmedabad.

Fire altars, indicating the probable existence of a fire cult, have been found.

Double burial system was noticed.

A doubtful terracotta figurine of horse is found here.

The Harappan Civilization flourished till 1900 BC.

The period following this is marked by the beginning of the post-urban phase

or (Late Harappan phase).

This phase was characterized by a gradual disappearance of the major traits such

as town-planning, art of writing, uniformity in weights and measures,

homogeneity in pottery designs, etc.

The regression covered a period from 1900 BC–1400 BC. There was also the

shrinkage in the settlement area.

For instance, Mohenjo-Daro was reduced to a small settlement of three hectares

from the original eighty five hectares towards the end of the Late phase.

The population appears to have shifted to other areas.

It is indicated by the large number of new settlements in the outlying areas of

Gujarat, east Punjab, Haryana and Upper Doab during the later Harappan

period.

It is suggested by some scholars that natural calamities such as floods andearthquakes might have caused the decline of the civilization. It is believedthat earthquakes might have raised the level of the flood plains of the lowercourse of Indus river. It blocked the passage of the river water to the sea andresulted in the floods which might have swallowed the city of Mohenjo-Daro.However, this only explains the decline of Mohenjo-Daro and not of the wholecivilization.

Increased aridity and drying up of the river Ghaggar-Harka on account of thechanges in river courses, according to some scholars, might have contributedto the decline. This theory states that there was an increase in arid conditionsby around 2000 BC. This might have affected agricultural production, and ledto the decline.

Aryan invasion theory is also put forward as a cause for the decline. Accordingto this, the Harappan civilization was destroyed by the Aryans who came toIndia from north-west around 1500 BC. However, on the basis of closer andcritical analysis of data, this view is completely negated today.

The Harappan civilization was the first urban civilization of the

Indian subcontinent.

Archaeological discoveries show that this culture evolved from the

earlier rural communities.

Harappa, Mohenjodaro, Chanhudaro, Kalibangan, Lothal, Banawali,

Rakhigarhi and Dholavira were some of the important sites of the

Harappan civilization.

Well-planned towns can be observed at some Harappan centres.

These towns were characterized by two broad divisions–a citadel on

a higher mound and the lower town.

Burnt bricks were used for building houses.

The towns had good drainage system.

Some major buildings at the Harappan towns were the Great Bath at

Mohenjo-Daro, a granary at Harappa, and a dockyard at Lothal.

The Harappans practiced agriculture along with pastoralism. Though

there were skilled craftsmen who worked in copper and other metals,

the stone tools were still in common use.

They produced beads, terracotta figurines, potteries and seals of

various kinds.

The Harappans carried out trade, both internal and external.

They had commercial links with Mesopotamian cities through Oman

and Bahrain in the Persian Gulf.

The merchants traded in various commodities of import and export.

The Harappan society seems to have been matriarchal in nature.

The people followed different professions such as those of priests, physicians,

warriors, peasants, traders and artisans.

Though the Harappans wore simple clothes made of cotton and wool, they were

fond of decorating themselves with various kinds of ornaments.

The Harappans worshipped the mother goddess, Pashupati (Proto-Shiva), trees and

animals.

They also followed different kinds of burial practices and rituals associated with

them.

The Harappans were literate and their script is in the form of ideograms. However,

the script has not been deciphered so far.

Scholars have suggested various factors such as natural calamities, increased aridity,

and the Aryan invasion for the decline of the culture. The archaeological evidence

suggests that this civilization did not face a sudden collapse but had a gradual decline.