Levels of OrganizationLevels of Organization

Biomolecules: In this section of Biomolecules: In this section of the course we will examine the course we will examine

carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acidsand nucleic acids

BiomoleculesBiomolecules

• Our examination Our examination of these molecules of these molecules will consist of the following features. will consist of the following features. These are the features you will be These are the features you will be responsible for on the exam.responsible for on the exam.

– General CharacteristicsGeneral Characteristics– FunctionFunction– Associated FoodsAssociated Foods– No chemical structureNo chemical structure

Carbohydrates: General Carbohydrates: General CharacteristicsCharacteristics

• Carbohydrates are either small, Carbohydrates are either small, water-soluble sugars (glucose or water-soluble sugars (glucose or fructose) or chains, such as starch fructose) or chains, such as starch or cellulose.or cellulose.

• If containing:If containing:– 1 sugar molecule = monosaccharide1 sugar molecule = monosaccharide– 2 sugar molecules = disaccharide2 sugar molecules = disaccharide– 2+ sugar molecules = polysacharides2+ sugar molecules = polysacharides

Carbohydrates: General Carbohydrates: General CharacteristicsCharacteristics• Carbohydrates are important energy sources for Carbohydrates are important energy sources for

most organismsmost organisms• The general formula is The general formula is (CH(CH22 O) O)nn

• Most of carbon atoms have a hydrogenMost of carbon atoms have a hydrogen ( -H ) ( -H ) and a hydroxyl group and a hydroxyl group (-(-OH) OH) attached to themattached to them..

• When they are dissolved in water the backbone of a sugar usually When they are dissolved in water the backbone of a sugar usually “circles up” into a ring.“circles up” into a ring.

• In ring form, sugar can link together to make bigger molecules.In ring form, sugar can link together to make bigger molecules.• They are molecules rich in energyThey are molecules rich in energy..

CARBOHYDRATES(CYCLING)

H-C=O

H-C-OH

HO-C-H

H-C-OH

H-C-OH

H-C-OH

H

GLUCOSE

-C-OH + 0=C- -C-O-C-

OH

O

H2COH

CH

OH

OH

OH

OH

CARBOHYDRATES(CYCLING)

H-C

H-C-OH

HO-C-H

H-C-OH

H-C

H-C-OH

H

-C-OH + 0=C- -C-O-C-

OH

O

H2COH

CH

OH

OH

OH

OH

O

OH

Carbohydrates: General Carbohydrates: General CharacteristicsCharacteristicsMonosaccharidesMonosaccharides• Simple sugarSimple sugar• Most are either Most are either

metabolized, or are linked metabolized, or are linked together to form together to form disaccharides or disaccharides or polysaccharidespolysaccharides

• Short life span in cellsShort life span in cells• GlucoseGlucose

OTHER MONOSACCHARIDES

HCOH

HCOH

HCOH

H2COH

HC=O

RIBOSE

OHOCH2

H

H H

OH

OH

H

H

DEOXYRIBOSE

Carbohydrates: General Carbohydrates: General CharacteristicsCharacteristics

DisaccharidesDisaccharides• Short term energy storageShort term energy storage• Two monosaccharides Two monosaccharides

bonded together.bonded together.• C-C-OO-C-C• SucroseSucrose

Carbohydrates: General Carbohydrates: General CharacteristicsCharacteristics

PolysaccharidesPolysaccharides• Long term energy Long term energy

storage.storage.• They are polimers They are polimers

formed by formed by monosaccharides, that monosaccharides, that are bonded together.are bonded together.

• Starch, Cellulose, Starch, Cellulose, GlycogenGlycogen

O

H2COH

CH

O

H2COH

CH

O O

GLYCOGENGLUCOSEalfa1 beta 4

The energetic reserve of the animals is found principally in the skeletal muscle.

POLYSACCHARIDES

O

H2COH

CH

O

H2COH

CH O

POLYSACCHARIDES

CELLULOSEGLUCOSEbeta 1 beta4

Is the most abundant organic moleculein our planet.

O

Carbohydrates: FunctionCarbohydrates: Function

• Monosaccharides – Important energy source Monosaccharides – Important energy source for cells; subunit of which most for cells; subunit of which most polysaccharides are made.polysaccharides are made.

• Disaccharides – Principal sugar transported Disaccharides – Principal sugar transported throughout bodies of land plants. Energy throughout bodies of land plants. Energy Transport.Transport.

• Polysaccharides – Energy storage in plants Polysaccharides – Energy storage in plants and animals, structural material in plantsand animals, structural material in plants

Carbohydrates: Carbohydrates: AssociatedAssociated FoodsFoods

• Monosaccharides – Fruit sugarMonosaccharides – Fruit sugar

• Disaccharides – Milk sugar, Sugar for Disaccharides – Milk sugar, Sugar for your coffeeyour coffee

• Polysaccharides – Starch (plants), Polysaccharides – Starch (plants), Glycogen (animals)Glycogen (animals)

Lipids: General Lipids: General CharacteristicsCharacteristics• Lipids are a diverse assortment of Lipids are a diverse assortment of

molecules all of which share two important molecules all of which share two important features.features.

• 1st lipids contain large regions composed 1st lipids contain large regions composed almost entirely of hydrogen and carbon, almost entirely of hydrogen and carbon, with nonpolar carbon-carbon or carbon-with nonpolar carbon-carbon or carbon-hydrogen bonds.hydrogen bonds.

• 2nd these nonpolar regions make lipids 2nd these nonpolar regions make lipids hydrophobichydrophobic or insoluble in water. or insoluble in water.

Lipids: General Lipids: General CharacteristicsCharacteristics• There are three classes of lipidsThere are three classes of lipids

• 1. oils, fats, and waxes, which are similar 1. oils, fats, and waxes, which are similar in structure and contain only carbon, in structure and contain only carbon, hydrogen, and oxygenhydrogen, and oxygen

CH2-O-

CH2-O

CH-O

CO

OC

OC

FATS (Triglycerides)

Lipids : Other InformationLipids : Other Information

• The difference between saturated The difference between saturated fatty acids (fats) and unsaturated fatty acids (fats) and unsaturated fatty acids (oils) is that saturated fatty acids (oils) is that saturated have all single bonds in their carbon have all single bonds in their carbon chains (as many Hydrogens as chains (as many Hydrogens as possible) where as unsaturated fatty possible) where as unsaturated fatty acids have double bonds (not acids have double bonds (not maximum Hydrogens) creating kinks.maximum Hydrogens) creating kinks.

Lipids: General Lipids: General CharacteristicsCharacteristics• 2. phospholipids, 2. phospholipids,

structurally similar structurally similar to oils but also to oils but also containing containing phosphorus and phosphorus and nitrogen.nitrogen.

CH2-O

CH2-O-P-0-R OH

CH-OOC

CO

O

PHOSPHOLIPIDS

Lipids : Other InformationLipids : Other Information

Lipids: General Lipids: General CharacteristicsCharacteristics• 3. the fused-ring 3. the fused-ring

family of steroidsfamily of steroids

Lipids: FunctionLipids: Function

• Lipids have a wide variety of functions, Lipids have a wide variety of functions, energy-storage, water.proofing, bulk of energy-storage, water.proofing, bulk of membranes, hormonesmembranes, hormones

• Fats and Oils – are used for long-term Fats and Oils – are used for long-term energy storage in both plants and animals. energy storage in both plants and animals. Eg. ADIPOCYTES in Bears. Also provide Eg. ADIPOCYTES in Bears. Also provide protection. Eg. Kidneys and yellow marrow. protection. Eg. Kidneys and yellow marrow.

• Waxes – form a waterproof coating over the Waxes – form a waterproof coating over the leaves and stems of land plants. Animals leaves and stems of land plants. Animals also synthesize waxes for water proofing, also synthesize waxes for water proofing, as well as insects. Structures such as as well as insects. Structures such as beehives.beehives.

Lipids: FunctionLipids: Function

• Phospholipids – form the plasma Phospholipids – form the plasma membrane that separates the inside membrane that separates the inside of a cell from the outside world.of a cell from the outside world.

• Steroids – cholesterol which is a vital Steroids – cholesterol which is a vital component of the membranes of component of the membranes of animal cells. From this other animal cells. From this other horomose such as testosterone are horomose such as testosterone are produced.produced.

Lipids: Associated FoodsLipids: Associated Foods

• Fats and oils – animal fat, french friesFats and oils – animal fat, french fries

• Waxes – plants or bees waxWaxes – plants or bees wax

• Phospholipids – cell membranesPhospholipids – cell membranes

• Steroids – egg yolks (cholesterol) Steroids – egg yolks (cholesterol)

OTHER LIPID OTHER LIPID FUNCTIONSFUNCTIONS

THERMAL ISOLATORTHERMAL ISOLATORANIMALS IN COLD AREASANIMALS IN COLD AREAS

ELECTRIC ISOLATORELECTRIC ISOLATORMYELIN SHEATHS IN MYELIN SHEATHS IN NEURONSNEURONS

Proteins: General Proteins: General CharacteristicsCharacteristics• Proteins are molecules composed of Proteins are molecules composed of

one or more chains of amino acids.one or more chains of amino acids.• Proteins perform many functions, this Proteins perform many functions, this

is made possible by the diversity of is made possible by the diversity of protein sturctures.protein sturctures.

• Enzymes are one the most important Enzymes are one the most important forms of proteins and will be forms of proteins and will be discussed in detail later in the discussed in detail later in the course.course.

Proteins: StructureProteins: Structure

• Proteins are polymers of amino acids. Proteins are polymers of amino acids. Each amino acid contains the same Each amino acid contains the same basic structure.basic structure.

• This is a central carbon bonded to This is a central carbon bonded to four different functional groups, four different functional groups, amino group, carboxyl group, a amino group, carboxyl group, a hydrogen and a variable group.hydrogen and a variable group.

Proteins: StructureProteins: Structure

• The nitrogen of the amino group (-NHThe nitrogen of the amino group (-NH22) of one ) of one amino acid is joined to the carbon of the carboxyl amino acid is joined to the carbon of the carboxyl group (-COOH) of another amino acid by a single group (-COOH) of another amino acid by a single covalent bond, this bond is called a covalent bond, this bond is called a peptide bondpeptide bond..

• And the resulting chain of two amino acids is called And the resulting chain of two amino acids is called a a peptidepeptide..

• More amino acids are added one by one, until the More amino acids are added one by one, until the proteinprotein is complete. is complete.

Proteins: StructureProteins: Structure

Proteins: StructureProteins: Structure

• Proteins have four levels of structure.Proteins have four levels of structure.

• Primary structurePrimary structure is the sequence of amino is the sequence of amino acids that make up the protein. This acids that make up the protein. This sequence is coded by the genes.sequence is coded by the genes.

Proteins: StructureProteins: Structure

• Secondary StructuresSecondary Structures are formed by slight are formed by slight attractions of bonded attractions of bonded hydrogens. Some hydrogens. Some slightly positive some slightly positive some slightly negative. This slightly negative. This causes one of two causes one of two forms in many proteins.forms in many proteins.

• These structures are These structures are either a helix (like DNA) either a helix (like DNA) or a pleated sheetor a pleated sheet

Proteins: StructureProteins: Structure

• Tertiary StructuresTertiary Structures are complex three are complex three dimensional structures. dimensional structures.

• Disulfide bridges formed between cysteine Disulfide bridges formed between cysteine amino acids may bring otherwise distant amino acids may bring otherwise distant parts of a single peptide close together.parts of a single peptide close together.

• The most important result of these structures The most important result of these structures is whether they become water soluble or is whether they become water soluble or water insoluble depending on if hydrophobic water insoluble depending on if hydrophobic or hydrophillic amino acids face out.or hydrophillic amino acids face out.

Proteins: StructureProteins: Structure

Proteins: StructureProteins: Structure

• Quaternary Quaternary Structure is the final Structure is the final level of structure in level of structure in proteins and proteins and involves the involves the attraction of attraction of different tertiary different tertiary structures together.structures together.

Proteins: FunctionProteins: Function

• The functions of proteins are diverse, The functions of proteins are diverse, here are some exampleshere are some examples

1.1. Structure -Structure - collagen in skin; keratin in collagen in skin; keratin in hair, nails, hornshair, nails, horns

2.2. Movement – Actin and myosin in muscleMovement – Actin and myosin in muscle3.3. Defense – Antibodies in bloodstreamDefense – Antibodies in bloodstream4.4. Storage - Zeatin in corn seedsStorage - Zeatin in corn seeds5.5. Signals – Growth hormone in bloodstreamSignals – Growth hormone in bloodstream6.6. Catalysis – Enzymes catalyze nearly Catalysis – Enzymes catalyze nearly

every chemical reaction in our bodiesevery chemical reaction in our bodies

Nucleic Acids: General Nucleic Acids: General CharacteristicsCharacteristics

• The amino acid sequence of every The amino acid sequence of every protein in your body is specidied by the protein in your body is specidied by the genetic instructions residing in the nuclei genetic instructions residing in the nuclei of your cellsof your cells

• This brings us to the fourth biomolecules, This brings us to the fourth biomolecules, nucleic acids which make up genesnucleic acids which make up genes

• Nucleic acids are long chains of similar Nucleic acids are long chains of similar but not identical subunits called but not identical subunits called nucleotidesnucleotides

Nucleic Acids: General Nucleic Acids: General CharacteristicsCharacteristics

• All nucleotides have All nucleotides have a three part a three part structure: a five structure: a five carbon sugar (ribose carbon sugar (ribose or deoxyribose), a or deoxyribose), a phosphate group, phosphate group, and a nitrogen and a nitrogen containing base that containing base that differs among differs among nucleotides.nucleotides.

Nucleic Acids: General Nucleic Acids: General CharacteristicsCharacteristics

• There are two types of nucleotides, ribose There are two types of nucleotides, ribose and deoxyribose.and deoxyribose.

• There are four different nitrogen There are four different nitrogen containing bases for deoxyribose containing bases for deoxyribose nucleotides; adenine, guanine, cytosine, nucleotides; adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thymine. and thymine.

• There are four different nitrogen There are four different nitrogen containing bases for ribose nucleotides; containing bases for ribose nucleotides; adenine, guanine, cytosine, and uraciladenine, guanine, cytosine, and uracil

Nucleic Acids: General Nucleic Acids: General CharacteristicsCharacteristics

• Nucleotides are strung together with Nucleotides are strung together with the phosphate group of one bonding the phosphate group of one bonding to the sugar of the next.to the sugar of the next.

• Dyoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is Dyoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is formed from long chains and is the formed from long chains and is the code for genetice information.code for genetice information.

• Ribonucleic acid (RNA) is copied from Ribonucleic acid (RNA) is copied from the DNA and directs the production the DNA and directs the production of protiens of protiens

Nucleic Acids: FunctionNucleic Acids: Function

• DNA – code for proteins.DNA – code for proteins.• RNA – carries genetic code to cytoplasmRNA – carries genetic code to cytoplasm• cAMP – carries information from the cell cAMP – carries information from the cell

membrane to other molecules in the cellmembrane to other molecules in the cell• ATP – carry energy from place to place ATP – carry energy from place to place

within a cellwithin a cell• Coenzymes – promote and guide Coenzymes – promote and guide

chemical reactionschemical reactions

Different Functions Of Different Functions Of BiomoleculesBiomolecules

• Carbohydrates – energy supply, energy Carbohydrates – energy supply, energy transport, energy storage, structure transport, energy storage, structure

• Lipids – energy-storage, water.proofing, Lipids – energy-storage, water.proofing, bulk of membranes, and hormonesbulk of membranes, and hormones

• ProteinsProteins – structure, movement, defense, – structure, movement, defense, storage, signals and catalystsstorage, signals and catalysts

• Nucleic Acids – hold code for protein, Nucleic Acids – hold code for protein, carry code from one location to another, carry code from one location to another, supply energy, and assist enzymessupply energy, and assist enzymes