tape for flexibility and strength. Case-bound books lie flat and are extremely durable.

Pamphlet stitchThe cover and pages are sewn together with thread and then tied off. The knot and ends remain visible. This is a process done by hand and is typically used for publications with 36 pages or fewer. Pamphlets lie flat.

PerfectLoose pages are adhered with glue along their bound edge. The cover is then wrapped around and glued. Perfect bound books do not lie flat.

Plastic combProbably the least aesthetically pleasing binding method of them all. The plastic comb looks cheap and the books do not lie flat.

Saddle stitchThe cover and pages are folded and stapled. As the entire book is folded in half there is a maximum thickness of roughly half an inch for effective saddle stitch binding. Saddle stitched books lie flat and are a low cost binding technique.

Screw and postCovers and pages are drilled and bound with a threaded post and screw. The cover then turns on itself to hide the fastening. Pages can added and subtracted. Books have to be hand assembled, screw and post bound books do not lie flat.

Side stitchPages and covers are stapled through from front to back. As the binding runs on the edge of the book. This means that a lot of space is lost on the inner margins. Side stitched books do not lie flat.

SpiralHole are punched through the pages with a machine, and then a wire coil is spun up the spine of the book. Spiral bound books lie flat.

StabStab is also referred to as Japanese binding. Sheets are sewn together so that the thread is visible on the spine and sides of the book.

TapeA cloth tape is treated with heat-senstive glue is wrapped around the assembled covers and pages. Heat is applied, causing the glue to adhere to the pages and cover. Tape bound books lie flat.

Special finishesSpecial finishes can range from die-cuts to varnishes.

Die-CutA process that uses a steel die to cut away a section of a page. Die-cuts have many uses and are mainly used for decorative purposes to enhance the visual performance of a design. They may also serve a physical function, such as making unusual shapes or creating apertures that allow users to see inside a publication. Die-cuts produce a range of effects from the striking to the subtle.

Die-StampThe traditional way to emboss, using an engraving plate or die. The die is pressed into contact with the paper. Inks used in die-stamping have traditionally been oil based and slow drying. A die can be used without ink, this procedure is called blind embossing. Die stamping, like thermography offers an alternative to more conventional print processes, creating a tactile and luxurious finish.

Dip MouldingDip moulding lends itself to low-volume production runs and the development of projects. It is versatile enough to cope with high volume production when needed. It has cheaper tooling costs for both prototypes and production tooling. The preferred material for tooling is aluminium, with more complex shapes being made with a wooden pattern then cast in aluminium. The dip-moulding process does not lend itself to forming text out of the tooling as it is difficult to strip the finished mould without damaging the finished product. The surface can be printed, with silk-screen offering the greatest flexibility. Pad printing can be employed for more complex, 3 dimensional surfaces.The process offers a very specific finish and feel. Given it’s synthetic and tactile nature.ing a tactile and luxurious finish.

Embossing and DebossingPaper is pressed between two moulds called dies. The moulding of paper between the dies results in a raised impression. If an impression is moulded so that it is lower than the paper’s surface it is called a deboss. Embossing can be combined with a printed image or foil stamping to enhance the three-dimensional appearance of an image. An embossed impression made independend of a printed or foil-stamped image is called a blind emboss. Soft, uncoated papers generally take a better embossed impression than hard or smooth coated papers.

Foil BlockingFoil blocking operates as an addition to other printing methods, allowing metallic finishes to be applied to a surface. There is a huge range of foils including metallic, colour and clear and some holographic or decorative foils. There are strict rules to follow for foil block, this should ne be ignored. You cannot foil on top of foil; if you apply foil on the reverse side, the foil on the front will be removed.Foil blocking can be used on stationary and letterheads. A potential is that the foil reheats and peels away from the paper depending on the printer used. If planning to use this method for such purposes, it is important to check compatability with all office printers on-site beforehand.Foiling can sometimes be considered an overdecorative process.

HF WeldingHF (or high-frequency) welding is also known as RF (radio-frequency) welding or dielectric sealing. The principle behind the process is the use of high-frequency radio energy to produce a molecular agitation in the materials being processed to the point that they melt and weld together, typically forming a bond as strong as the original

or a wheel so that an embossed ridge is formed on the substrate. Heavy substrates that are to be folded should always be scored. Scoring is also important to avoid cracked ink on fold lines when using coated stocks with heavy ink coverage.

Folding methodsFolding is used for almost all multi-page print jobs in some form or another.

MountainOne of the two basic folds that are the basis of all the other folds. In a mountain fold, you fold the paper towards yourself.

Valley The second of the two basic folds that are the basis of all the other folds. In a valley fold, you fold the paper away from yourself.

GatefoldA gatefold has extra panels that fold in to the central spine of the publication with parallel folds so that they meet in the middle of the page. The extended pages are folded and cut shorter that the standard publication pages so they can nest correctly.

Throw-outs/Throw-upsThrow-ups and throw-outs are sheets of paper folded into a publication. They allow for larger scale images than can be used in the original design size.

Tip-inA tip-in is a means to attach an insert into a book or magazine by gluing along the binding edge.

ConcertinaEach fold runs opposite to the previous one to obtain a pleated result. The outer panel needs to be bigger than the inner panels, this hides the rough folding edges of the final piece.

Back/Front FolderWings either side of the central panel have a double parallel fold so that they can fold around and cover both sides of the central panel.

Double GatefoldThe double gatefold has three panels that fold in towards the centre of the publication.

Duelling Z-FoldZ-Fold wings fold in to the centre panel and meet in the middle.

Front/Back AccordionThree parallel folds, the two panel outer wings fold in to and out of the centre. The double panel centre serves as the cover.

Front/Back GatefoldThe same as a normal gatefold, but with an extra panel inside the front or back.

Half Cover from BehindAn accordion fold where the penultimate panels forms a back cover that the other panels fold in to to create a book. The other half size panel folds around the book from behind to cover the front with the first half size panel.

Harmonica Self-Cover FolderAn accordion fold where the first two panels form a cover that the other panels fold into. The first two panels need to be larger than the others to allow for creep.

Mock Book FoldEssentially an accordion fold, where the penultimate two panels form a cover that the other panels then fold in to to create a book.

Triple ParallelParallel folds that create a section that nests within the cover panels, with a front opening. This type of fold is commonly used with maps.

Binding techniquesBinding is needed for multiple page documents. There is a wide variety of binding techiniques, ranging from simple to elaborate solutions.

CapacityWhen a planning a publication, the capacity of a cover to contain its pages. The dimensions of the spine will vary depending upon the number of pages in the publication.

BellybandA plastic or paper substrate that wraps around the ‘belly’ of a publication.

CaseThe pages form signatures that are sewn using thread and then glued to linen

Pearlescent and Iridescent InksThese inks can be printed on all substrates and create a different shade of metallic colour depending on how close the viewer is to the print.

Rub-Removable InksNormally used on scratch cards or other promotional items, rub-removable ink is latex based. It is supplied as a metallic, as it’s function it to obliterate what it overprints. The ink is quite fragile and difficult to work with, but it can be effective when printed in solid areas. It gives a rubberised feel and communicates that the area should be handled with care.

Scented InksScented inks can be supplied in a wide selection of smells and can also be synthesised to use a specific fragrance. As scented inks are water based they can only be printed on unsealed paper (paper not plastics). On other surfaces water-based ink does not adhere to it and will scratch off. The scent has will usually lose potency over time.

Soy-Based InksInks derived from soy bean oil as opposed to petroleum.

Vegetable-Based InksInks that are made with vegetable based oils (as opposed to mineral-based such as pertoleum) and that, as a result, are more environmentally friendly.

Proofing methodsProofing is one of the most important aspects in the artwork stage of the printing process.

Soft/Screen ProofA proof used to check layout and colour information and to check the screen structures of a print.

AdvantagesIntended to eliminate moire, rosette and other undesired effects.

DisadvantagesScreening must be erformed before a screen proof is printed and printing data contains no screen information.

Laser proofA black and white computer print.

AdvantagesShows photos, text and position. Cheaper than a blueline.

DisadvantagesLow resolution and may not reprduce at actual size.

Pre-Press ProofAn analogue or digital proof that gives an approximation of what the finished piece will look like.

AdvantagesInexpensive, particularly digital proofs.

DisadvantagesColour not as accurate as press proof as does not use actual printing inks.

Blueline, Dylux or Salf ProofA contact print produced from film.Shows imposition, photos and text as will appear when printed, together with trim and binding edges.

AdvantagesRapid as no processing is involved and pages can be folded, trimmed and stitched to approximate the finished job.

DisadvantagesOne colour and does not reflect paper stock or true colour. Proof has a blue colour and the image fades with time.

Scatter ProofA proof of an individual photo or group of photos not included as part of the individual page layout.

AdvantagesFor checking colour before the final proof. Many photos can be proofed at once to save time and materials.

DisadvantagesImages not seen in the layout.

Composite Integral Colour ProofHigh quality proofs (such as match print of chromalin) produced using 4 sheets (one for each colour) laminated together in register.

AdvantagesVery accurate colour proof produced from the colour separation film used to make printing plates.

DisadvantagesTime consuming and labour intensive as an additive proof takes about 30 minutes to produce.

Press or Machine ProofsA proof produced using the actual plates, inks and paper.

AdvantagesRealistic impression of the final print. Can be produced on actual print stock.

DisadvantagesCostly as the plates have to be set up, particularly if another proof is required following changes.

Contract ProofA colour proof used to form a contract between the printer and the client, final proof before going to press.

AdvantagesAccurate representation of the final print job.

DisadvantagesN/A

Production processesThere are seven basic printing methods that are used to produce most of the printed material you see around you in the world today.

Digital

Digital printing refers to methods of printing from a digital based image directly to a variety of media. It usually refers to professional printing where small run jobs from desktop publishing and other digital sources are printed using large format and/or high volume laser or inkjet printers. Digital printing has a higher cost per page than more traditional offset printing methods but this price is usually offset by the cost saving in avoiding all the technical steps in between needed to make printing plates.

AdvantagesThe printing set-up is quicker as no plates are needed. Print-runs that require limited quantities are best suited to digital printing.

DisadvantagesThe digital file need to be available, unlike other print methods which can be produced from a physical plate.

Flexography

Flexography (often abbreviated to flexo) is a form of printing process which utilises a flexible relief plate. It is essentially a modern version of letterpress which can be used for printing on almost any type of substrate, including plastic, metallic films, cellophane, and paper. It is widely used for printing on the non-porous substrates required for various types of food packaging (it is also well suited for printing large areas of solid colour).

AdvantagesThe relief printing plate is suitable for printing on non-porous surfaces, such as metal. It is used to print drink cans, plastic bags and much more.

DisadvantagesLarge print runs are required using this process.

Offset-lithography

A printing process where

100 standard business cards (85mm x 55mm) Sheets can fit on a B1 press sheet.

B2 pages per viewB2 (707mm x 500mm) is a common format used in commercial offset-lithography printing. This gives trim and bleed for most A series paper sizes. Below are examples of pages-per-view on a B2 sheet.

1 A2 594mm x 420mmSheet can fit on a B2 press sheet.

2 A3 420mm x 297mm Sheets can fit on a B2 press sheet.

4 A4 297mm x 210mmSheets can fit on a B2 press sheet.

9 A5 210mm x 148mm Sheets can fit on a B2 press sheet.

16 A6 148mm x 105mm Sheets can fit on a B2 press sheet.

30 A7 105mm x 74mm Sheets can fit on a B2 press sheet.

49 A8 74mm x 52mm Sheets can fit on a B2 press sheet.

100 A9 52mm x 37mm Sheets can fit on a B2 press sheet.

182 A10 37mm x 26mm Sheets can fit on a B2 press sheet.

49 standard business cards 85mm x 55mm Sheets can fit on a B2 press sheet.

ResourceA useful resource for imposition plans can be found at www.re-nourish.com.

Special process coloursThe 4-colour printing process can produce a wide range of colours, however it is sometimes desirable to use a special process (spot) colour. The are specially made inks.A special colour is solid colour, rather than made a CMYK colour which is created by using a series of dots. As a result the colour is much more vibrant than CMYK mixed colours.Special colours are also used to produce metallic and flourescent colours. When using special colours an extra plate needs to be used in the production process. This means extra cost to a project. Such things must be taken into account when considering the use of special colours.

FlourescentsThese are special colours that have a particular vibrancy and cannot be produced using the standard 4-colour process inks.

MetallicsMetallic inks are made with copper, zinc and aluminium pigments in order to produce copper, bronze, silver and gold colours which cannot be produced by standard process inks.

Pantone PMS ColoursThe Pantone Colour Matching System (PMS) has developed to include a wide range of different colours, including special solid, hexachrome, metallic and pastel colours.

The circled ‘C’ refers to the stock the colour will be printed on. There are four options available in the colour matching system;Uncoated (U) Coated (C)Euro-Coated (EC) Matte (M)

SolidA range of solid metallic, pastel and process colours that can be used on different paper stocks and substrates. The flourescent opposite would be Pantone 806U, 806C or 806M depending on whether it is to print on uncoated, coated or matte stock.

PastelsA range of flat, solid, but very pale colours. These are different to tints as they print as a solid colour without visible dots. They are available in both coated and uncoated swatches.

HexachromeA range of 6 colour process colours used for hexachrome printing. In addition to the CMYK process colours, the system adds green and orage process colours allowing it to reproduce 90% of the Pantone PMS colours.

MetallicsA range of over 300 special colours that give a metallic effect including copper, silver and gold colours. Metallics are available in both varnished and unvarnished coated swatches.

Inks

Heat-Sensitive InksThese inks are supplied in a limited range of colours. Black is the preferred colour as it creates dramatic results. Heat sensitive inks are suspended in a semi-clear base and works best when screen printed. The reactive temperature can be varied according to climactic conditions. As with scented inks, the system is water based and is supplied for printing on paper based substrates. It can be used on plastics but a number of layers of varnished will need to be applied for it to key in. This is time consuming and not very cost-effective. Heat-sensitive ink also has a tendency to scuff if not properly sealed.

Cyan PlateCyan is the first press plate to be printed.

Magenta PlateMagenta is the second press plate to be printed.

Yellow PlateYellow is the third press plate to be printed.

Black (Key) PlateThe black plate, often referred to as key, is applied to print last.

Final Printed ImageThe image when all the colours have been printed.

Types of sheet workSheet work refers to how a press sheet is turned to enable double-sided, multi-page documents to be printed in the correct order.

Work and turnPrinting one side of a sheet, turning it from front to back and printing the second side with same sheet-edge alignment on the press.

Work and tumbleBoth sides of the sheet are set on one plate. The sheet is printed and turned over side to side to be printed again (backed up).

Work and twistPrinting one half of the sheet, turning it 180º and then going back through to print the other side.

B1 pages per viewB-1 (1000mm x 707mm) is a common format used in commercial offset-lithography printing. This gives trim and bleed for most A series paper sizes. Below are examples of pages-per-view on a B1 sheet.

1 A1 841mm x 594mm Sheet can fit on a B1 press sheet.

2 A2 594mm x 420mm Sheets can fit on a B1 press sheet.

4 A3 420mm x 297mm Sheets can fit on a B1 press sheet.

9 A4 297mm x 210mm Sheets can fit on a B1 press sheet.

16 A5 210mm x 148mm Sheets can fit on a B1 press sheet.

32 A6 148mm x 105mm Sheets can fit on a B1 press sheet.

64 A7 105mm x 74mm Sheets can fit on a B1 press sheet.

121 A8 74mm x 52mm Sheets can fit on a B1 press sheet.

210 A9 52mm x 37mmSheets can fit on a B1 press sheet.

360 A10 37mm x 26mm Sheets can fit on a B1 press sheet.

image so that when an image that overlaps it is printed, it appears without interferance from the other ink

Undercolour additionThe black produced by the black printing plate can look pale and washed out. To overcome this large areas of black can be given a 50–60% cyan bouncer.

BlackThe black produced when using 100% ink on the black printing plate.

Cyan and BlackThe black produced when using 100% ink on the black printing plate with a 50% cyan kicker.

Cyan, Magenta, Yellow and BlackThe black produced when using 100% ink on the black printing plate with a 50% cyan, magenta and yellow kicker.

GradientsA gradient is a fill colour that allows colour to be applied and creates a transitional effect that flows from one colour to the other.

The above three images show examples of gradients. Between the three subtractive primaries.

Process colour tintsThe production of colour is achieved by screening the the three trichromatic process colours, cyan, magenta and yellow. There are 1,300 tints available from these three process colours. Nearly 15,000 are available when incorporating black also.

The above graphic shows tints of cyan, magenta, yellow and black in 10% increments.

The chart to the left shows combination of cyan and magenta. They are shown in 10% increments. When both process colours are combined at 100% values purple is created.

The chart to the left shows combination of cyan and yellow. They are shown in 10% increments. When both process colours are mixed at 100% value green is created.

The chart to the left shows combination of magenta and yellow. They are shown in 10% increments. When the process colours are mixed at 100% value red is created.

The chart to the left shows combination of cyan and black. They are shown in 10% increments. You can see how the value of a colour changed when mixed with white and black.

The chart to the left shows combination of magenta and black. They are shown in 10% increments. You can see how the value of a colour changed when mixed with white and black.

The chart to the left shows combination of yellow and black. They are shown in 10% increments. You can see how the value of a colour changed when mixed with white and black.

Printing plate orderIn commercial printing, similar to screen printing, screen colours are printed separately. In commercial printing cyan, magenta, yellow and black are deposited on the substrate on separate plates. The order the colours are printed is;

CyanMagentaYellowBlack

Registration black is made from 100% cyan, magenta, yellow and black. This means that registration marks will appear on every plate.Press plates are made from aluminium or copper depending on the printing process being used. Printing processes will be explained in the next chapter.

reproduction of pastel colours and light tints can be achieved.

Flat TintA flat tint features dots of the same size and spacing.

First Order Stochastic PrintingThis method features a fixed dot size but varied spacing.

Conventional Half-ToneVaried dot size with fixed dot spacing.

Second Order Stochastic PrintingVaried dot size and spacing.

Colour layersThere are three techniques that can be used to combine or layer foreground and background elements. These are explained below.

SurprintA surprint is two elements which print on top of each other, and that are tints of the same colour.

Reverse OutA reverse out removes part of the flood colour, leaving white space in a part of the design.

OverprintAn overprint describes two elements that are printed on top of each other, usually a darker colour is printed over a lighter colour.

RegistrationRegistration is the alignment of two or more printed images that will appear on the same page.

Mis-registrationThe two colours have become misaligned, leaving an unsightly overlap of colours.

RegistrationThe two colours have aligned, the word is clear with no unsightly overlap of colour.

SolutionInk trapping, spread and choke are all techniques to avoid mis-registration. This can be seen on the next page.

Ink trappingThe overlapping of coloured elements to account for misregistration on the printing press. This process is required because the halftone dots that form printed images are made up of different size dots which are arranged at different angles. The colours being overlapped prevent the appearance of white gaps where colours were supposed to meet.The main trapping options used to prevent small gaps appearing between blocks of colour are spread choke and centred trapping.

Mis-registrationThe yellow circle has misaligned with the blue background. This leaves an unsightly white gap.

SpreadThe yellow circle is enlarged slightly. This will help stop the risk of mis-registration.

ChokeThe apeture in the blue background is tighten. This reduces the risk of mis-registration.

CentringThe yellow circle is enlarged and the blue aperture is reduced slightly, this is the most consistent way to avoid mis-registration.

Knock-out & overprint

OverprintWhen you print one element of a design over another. Overprinting different inks will create different colours.

KnockoutA knockout is the gap left in the bottom layer

is possible to reproduce a palette of 256 colours. This is used for basic screen reproduction and was used for older computer monitors.

16-Bit (Original Image)16-bit pixel depth means that each of the RGB colour channels has 16 bits. The result is a 48-bit image. This file is capable of containing billions of colours. 16-bit channels contains the maximum amount of colour information.

24-Bit (RGB)24-bit pixel depth produce about 16 million colours. This gives a more realistic continuous tone image than 8-bit images.

32-Bit (CMYK Print Image)32-bit images are used for printing. The image contains 8-bit more, this is because the CMYK colour mode has once extra colour than RGB. The image will be duller than the RGB alternative.

Resolution termsDPI (Dots Per Inch)The number of dots a printers deposits on the substrate per inch. 300 dpi is required for standard offset printing.

LPI (Lines Per Inch)Measures the number of cells in a half-tone grid. Half-tone grids are used to reproduce continuous tone images. The more lines per inch the smoother an image reproduction will be.

PPI (Pixels Per Inch)The number of pixels, both horizontally and vertically, displayed per inch in a digital image. The higher the value the more information an image contains. This makes pixelation less likely.

SPI (Samples Per Inch)Refers to the number of samples a scanner head takes as it passes over the source image. The higher the number of samples the more information the scanned image will contain.

ScanningScanning is a process that converts and image into an electronic file. There are different types of scanning methods that give varying results.

Drum ScanningA drum scanner uses photomultiplier tubes rather than a charged couple device to obtain an image. Drum scanners can produce very high resolution results from both artwork and transparencies but are more expensive to use.

Flatbed ScanningFlatbed scanners are cheap and are commonly used with home computers. This method is cheap, easy to use and produces good reproductions of flat tone artwork. It is not suitable for high quality reproduction as flatbed scanners have lower resolution capacity when compared to other scanning methods.

Bleed, trim & register marks

BleedThe printing of a design over and beyond it’s trim marks, this reduces the likelihood of unwanted white borders. 3mm bleed is the commercial standard for printers in the UK.

TrimThe process of cutting away the waste stock around a design to form the final format once the job has been printed.

Register MarksCross-hair lines or marks on film, plates, and paper that guide strippers, platemakers, pressmen, and bindery personnel in processing a print order from start to finish.

ImpositionImposition simply means the order in which a series of pages are printed. Imposition for a one or two page document is obvious, however imposition becomes more complicated when extra pages are added, and/or different stocks, finishes and spot colours are used throughout a document.

PlanningPlanning is an important part in any print job. Communicating details of the print job with the printer can enable an imposition that saves money. This can be down to print order, having monotone pages printed on the same print sheet can heavily reduce the cost of a print job.

Printed PagesPrinted Pages (PP) refers to the total number of pages that will be printed in a document.

Pages to ViewPages to view refers to the pages that will be printed on one side of the press sheet.

Colour FallThe pages of a publication which will receive a special colour, varnish or will be printed on a different stock.

Screen anglesScreen angle refers to the inclination or angle of the rows of half-tone dots that are used to form colour images in the 4-colour printing process.

Why angles?Rows of half tone dots are set at different angles to prevent them from interfering with each other. If the dots were set at the same angle moire patterns would form. By setting the rows of half-tone dots at different screen angles this interference can be avoided, and it gives each colour a better coverage of the printed surface.

Stochastic printingStochastic or frequency modulation printing is a method that uses different dot sizes and placements as alternative method to help prevent the appearance of moire patterns. The overall effect is similar to the grain in photographic film. It can give a very good continuous tone. This isbecause half tone dots in prints have very little visibility and produce a high quality, detailed reproduction. As stochastic printing removes the barriers of screen angles you can print with more than the 4 process colours. Such as the hexachrome system. Stochastic printing also allows for more accurate

Self adhesive materials are made with a water-based adhesive, this is roller coated on a silicone-coated backing or release paper. The adhesive is allowed to dry off and the nominated top sheet applied. The adhesive then transfers itself to the top sheet.The range of adhesives available is very wide, from industrial to domestic, it is advisable to state the application you will need the material for. This helps avoid overpaying for the material. Self adhesive materials are available in a number of finishes and colours. All self adhesive products can be printed and finished by any process, and do not pose any problems.

TyvekA synthetic material made of high-density polyethylene fibres, these make tyvek lightweight yet strong, resistant to moisture and tear resistant. Tyvek resembles paper as it can be written and printed upon, it was used for New Zealand driver’s licences between 1986 and 1999, some countries have printed their currency on it. Tyvek cannot be recycled in noral recycling facilities.Very few printers have a set-up that allows for tyvek to be printed on lithographically. It has a tendency to curl if the wrong inks are used when screen printed. Whilst it can be foil blocked, the heat of the process can cause the material to cockle. Rigid versions are available, but these are often used for clothing. Tyveks application is limited to jobs that require a futuristic or industrial feel currently.

VelcroVelcro has many applications across a spread of industries. In design it can be used as an alternative closure device, it being readily available in strip and dot form. It is available in a wide variety of colours from pastels to brights. Further development from velco companies is velcro that can be printed on digitally, lithographically or by silk screen.

WoodIn the majority of cases where wood is used it needs to be thin, have a grain and be capable of being printed on. A type of wood that is suitable for print work is tulipwood, which can be stained and varnished to look like any wood and has a good grain to it.Silk-screen printing is a tried and tested method of applying ink to wood, if the wood is hard enough it should be possible to foil block it. Shop-fitting companies will be able to give you valuable information and help you understand issues surrounding getting the right sizes and finish you require.

Sustainable materialsSustainability is a key concern in modern society. Methods that reduce the environmental impact of production are highly sort after by manufacturers, including printers, worldwide.

FSC (Forest Stewardship Council)FSC is an international, non-governmental organisation dedicated to promoting responsible management of the world’s forests. It was founded in 1993 in response to public concern about deforestation and demand for a trustworthy wood-labelling scheme. There are national working groups more than 50 countries including the UK. FSC UK is a registered charity. It is supported by NGOs including WWF, Greenpeace and the Woodland Trust.

ArtworkingArtworking, sometimes referred to as reprographics, encompasses a range of different processes through shich the raw for which the raw elements of a design are brought together and prepared for the printing process.

File formats

Capture

RAW The format for capturing maximum continuous-tone colour information when taking photographs. RAW captures the maximum output from the sensor in a digital camera and can produce files with many times the size of a JPEG file as the file is not compressed or processed. RAW files need to be converted to RGB files to be used.

Saved

BMPA format for uncompressed 24- or 32-bit colour image file sused for graphic manipulation.

EPS A file format for scalable graphic elements. used for web applications.

GIFA file format for compressing line art and flat colour images that are to be used for web images.

JPEGA continuous-tone file format for lossy compression images that are to be used for web images.

PSD Photoshop file format, which stores all of its layer and selection and miscellaneous other image data.

TIFFA continuous-tone file format for lossless compression of images to print.

Portable

PDF A portable document used for sending files from the designer to the client for checking and the printer for printing. A PDF embeds all the necessary font and graphic files for the design.

Print resolutionPrinting requirements are dictated by the final quality and detail required. Posters usually print at a minimum of 100dpi and a maximum of 150dpi. Print jobs such as flyers and brochures print with a minimum resolution of 300dpi and a maximum of 2400dpi. Resolution is also determined by pixel depth: the number of bits available to generate a colour for each pixel. Greater bit depth means that more colours are avaiable and a more accurate colour reproduction can be expected.

1-Bit (Bitmap)1-bit pixel depth means the image is made up of black and white pixels only. This means that continuous tones are not achievable, bitmaps are best suited to line art for this reason.

8-Bit (Greyscale)8-bit pixel depth means it is possible to reproduce 256 shades of grey. 8-bit pixel depth can reproduce a continuous tone photograph.

8-Bit (Indexed)8-bit pixel depth means it

by different wavelengths of light.

SaturationThe purity of a colour. At maximum saturation the colour contains no grey, and so is vivid and bright. At low saturation the colours tend to be dull and muted.

ValueHow light or dark a colour is. A colour that is mixed with white is called a tint, a colour mixed with black is called a shade.

Colour symbolismColours possess a wealth of symbolic meanings that are derived from cultural and social associations. For this reason people from different countries will have different reactions to colours.

Colour combinationsThe colour wheel can be used to select combinations of colour for a design. Colours chosen from different points of the wheel will provide a variety of complementary colours or analogous colours.

SubordinateA visually weaker colour that complements or contrasts with the dominant colour.

DominantThe principle colour that is used to capture the viewers attention.

AccentA colour that is used to provide a visual detail.

BoldA palette that uses black with one or two authoritative colours. These colour combinations make a statement.

PastelThis combination creates diffused colours that are subtle. The combination can express immaturity and vulnerability.

RefinedColours close to black are combined with cream, greys and metallics to make a powerful contrast.

RefreshingA clean and crisp combination. Deep blues are contrasted white shades of white, the green is there to add warmth to the colours.

VibrantA loud colour combination. The bright and vivid tones give this combination a childlike quality.

CalmUses light to midtones of blue, green and lavender, they are contrasted with white or off-white. The colours are quiet unassuming and serene.

MysticalUses blues, purples and greys. These colours exide energy and suggest forms of spirituality and/or religion.

NaturalUses warm, earthy colours that are rich in tone. These combinations have a rustic feel.

NeutralUses drab greys which are combined with neutral creams and greens. The combination offers simplicity that works with most other colour combinations.

The bezold effectThe Bezold effect is an optical illusion in which two colours, juxtaposed in small doses, distort the impression of each colour’s shade, just by proximity to another hue.

Both cyan bars above are the same hue, however the background is different. The background colour changes how the cyan bar appears. The cyan almost vibrates when placed on the magenta background. When placed on the yellow background the colours are harmonious.

Format

ISOThe ISO system is based on a height-to-width ratio of the square root of 2 (1:1.4142) which means that each size differs from the next or previous by a factor of 2 or 0.5.The ISO standard provides for a range of complementary paper sizes in order to cater for most common printing needs,as shown in the tables above. Generally speaking, A sizes are used for printing everything from posters and technical drawings to magazines, office paper, notepads and postcards; B sizes are used for printing books; while C sizes are used for envelopes that will hold the A sizes.

DLTh DL envelope allows for an A4 sheet with 2 horizontal, parrallel folds to fit comfortably inside. The DL compliment slip are the same as A4 sheet of paper.

RA and SRA seriesThese 2 paper sizes are based on the ISO printers that are slightly larger than the A series to provide the grip, trim and bleed. To produce an A1 full bleed poster you need to print on an SRA1 sheet of paper to allow for trimming.

The above image visualises the mathematical formula behind the paper sizes. Each size is scaled by 141%, the paper sizes are

VertexThe angle that forms at the bottom of a letter where the left and right stroke meet.

Typeface classification

Block, Blackletter, Gothic, Old English, Black or Broken typefaces are based on the ornate writing style prevalent during the middle ages. They tend to be difficult to read in large text blocks and seem antiquated.

Roman type has proportionatly spaced letters and serifs, it was derived from Roman inscriptions. It is the most readable type and is commonly used for body text.

Gothic, sans serif or lineale typefaces do not have the decorative touches that typify Roman typefaces. Their clean and simple design makes them ideal for display text, but make them more difficult to read in long passages.

Roman type has proportionatly spaced letters and serifs, it was derived from Roman inscriptions. It is the most readable type and is commonly used for body text.

Typeface Styles

A typeface family contains the range character styles and weights which can be applied to the same basic typeface. The typeface I have used for examples below is Helvetica Neue.

Originates from inscriptions found on Roman monuments.

A version of the Roman cut that slopes to the right. Most typefaces have an italic version.

A middle weight between the Roman and Bold.

Uses a wider stroke than Roman and is also called black, super and poster.

A variation of the Roman cut with a lighter stroke.

A narrower version of the Roman cut.

Absolute measurementsAbsolute measurements are measurements of fixed values. A millimetre is a precise measurement. Points and pica, the basic typographic measurements have fixed values. Absolute measurements are shown in finite terms and cannot be altered.

The Point SystemThe system was developed in the 19th century by Pierre Fournier and Francis Didot. The modern point is 1/72 of an inch.

Type Point SizeThe point size of a typeface is measured from the ascent line (highest ascender) to the descent line (lowest descender). The point system was created for metal type. Metal type blocks leave space at the top and bottom to allow space, the point size is a measure of the block, not the letter.

Relative measurementsIn typography many measurements such as character spacing are linked to type size. Ems and Ens are relative measurements that have no prescribed absolute size. Their size is relative to the size of type that is being set.

EmAn em is a unit of measurement derived from the width of a of the cast upper case ‘M’. The em equals the size of a given type (the em of 60 point type is 60 point, the em of 12 point is 12 points). It is used to accurately space paragraph indents.

EnAn en is a unit of measurement equal to hald of one em. It can be used to mean ‘to’ in phrases such as chapters 10–11, and years 1989–2012. An en rule is also used to mean ‘and’.

HyphenA hyphen is typically one-third the length of an em. It is used to separate parts of compound words, to link the words of a phrase in adjectival hyphenation and to connect the sylabbles of a word that is split across two lines.

X-HeightThe ‘x-heght’ is a term applied to the distance between the baseline and the mean line of non-ascending or lower case letters. The letter ‘x’ is used as a gauge because it is flat at both the top and bottom. The X-height is a relative measure specific to the typeface in question.

Cap Height and Ascender HeightCap height (the height of capital letters) and ascender height (the height of ascenders, such as the ‘h’). They can be equal height although in some typefaces the heights vary slightly.

Letter spacing

LeadingLeading is a hot-metal printing term that refers to the strips of lead that were inserted between text measures in order to space them correctly. Leading is specified in points and refers to the space between the lines in a block of text.

TrackingTracking refers to the amount of space that exists between letters. This can be adjusted to make characters more or less distinguishable. Reducing the tracking lessens the space between letters, this condenses the text, if the tracking is too tight the letters will crash into one another which can affect legibility.

KerningKerning is the space between two letters. Certain letter combinations have too much or too little space between them, this can make some words difficult to read.

Two Rules of KerningOneAs the type gets bigger you will need to reduce the space to compensate.

Legibility is… the ability to distin-guish one letterform from another.

Readability is… the ability to understand a piece of type or design.

A typeface is… a collection of charac-ters, letters, numbers, symbols and punctuation which have the same dis-tinct design.

A font is…the physical means to cre-ate a typeface, be it com-puter code, lithographic film, metal or woodcut.

Typeface anatomy

ApexThe point formed at the top of a letter, such as the ‘A’, where the left and right strokes meet.

ArmA horizontal stroke that is open at the end, as seen on the ‘T’, ‘F’ and ‘E’.

Ascender The part of the letter that extends above the x-height.

BracketThe curved part of the serif that connects it to the stroke.

ChinThe angled terminal part of the ‘G’.

CounterThe empty space inside the body of a stroke.

CrossbarA horizontal stroke on the ‘A’ or ‘H’. The crossbar joins to stems together.

Cross StrokeThis is sometimes called a crossbar. A cross stroke intersects a singles stem.

CrotchWhere the leg and arm of the ‘K’ and ‘k’ meet.

DescenderThe part of the letter that falls below the baseline.

EarThe right side of the bowl of the ‘g’, also the end of the ‘r’ and ‘f’ for example.

HairlineThe thinnest stroke in a typeface that has varying widths.

LegThe lower, downward sloping stroke of the ‘K’, ‘k’ and ‘R’.

LinkThe part that joins the 2 bowls of the double-storey ‘g’.

LoopThe stroke that encloses, or partially closes a counter in a roman.

SerifThe small stroke at the end of a main vertical or horizontal stroke.

ShoulderThe arch formed on the ‘h’ or ‘n’.

SpineThe left-to-right curving stroke in the ‘S’ and ‘s’.

StemThe main diagonal or vertical stroke of a letter.

StressThe direction is which a curved stroke changes weight.

StrokeThe diagonal portion of letters such as ‘N’, ‘Y’ and ‘M’. Stems, bars etc are collectively referred to as strokes.

TailThe descending stroke on the ‘Q’.

TerminalThe finish of a stroke.

ROMAN

GOTHIC

SCRIPT

ROMAN

ITALIC

MEDIUM

BOLD

CONDENSED

10 point type.

Leading is the space between

lines of type.

Tracking is the space between l e t t e r s .

Kerning is the space between t wo letters.

PrintColour ModeCMYKResolution 300dpi

Simplicity

Peace

Home

Energy

Royalty

Passion

Reliability

Sophisticated

Optimism

TwoDo not kern type until the tracking values and typeface selections have been set. Kerning can be a time consuming practice and kerning values rarely transfer between typefaces.

Type alignmentType can be set in a variety of horizontal alignments. When used effectively alignment can harmonise text with other elements in the design. Large blocks of text that are not left aligned may become tiring and confusing to read.

Left-AlignedType can be set in a variety of horizontal alignments. When used effectively alignment can harmonise text with other elements in the design. Large blocks of text that are not left aligned may become tiring and confusing to read.

Centre-AlignedType can be set in a variety of horizontal alignments. When used

effectively alignment can harmonise text with other elements in the design. Large blocks of text that

are not left aligned may become tiring and confusing to read.

Right-AlignedType can be set in a variety of horizontal alignments. When used

effectively alignment can harmonise text with other elements in the design.

Large blocks of text that are not left aligned may become tiring and

confusing to read.

JustifiedType can be set in a variety of horizontal alignments. When used effectively alignment can harmonise text with other elements in the design. Large blocks of text that are not left aligned may become tiring and confusing to read.

Type hierachyType hierachy is a logical and visual guide. It distinguishes headers from body text, and can highlight the importance of text through using varying; typefaces, type weights, point size or colour. Below I will show the hierachy used throughout this publication.

A-HeadThe A-head is a primary heading usually reserved for the titles in the text. In this publication I use 16 point type for the main header.

B-HeadThe B-head is a secondary heading, in this publication the B-Head is 8 point and bold. I am using this for sub-headers and pull quotes.

C-HeadThe C-Head in this publication is used in the body text. The point size is point as with the B-Head, however, the type is set to regular rather than bold. This allows the headers and sub-headers to be distinguished.

ImageIn modern design images tend to be supplied in an electronic format, even if they have been hand-rendered and later scanned in. The following section of the book will go through the setting required for an image that is to be printed.

RasterA raster image is any that is composed of pixels within a grid, each pixel contains colour information for the reproduction of the image. Rasters have a fixed resolution, which means that an enlargement of the image results in a quality decrease. Raster images are usually saved as TIFF or JPEG files for print, and JPEG or GIF for use on the web.

Vector A vector image contins many scalable objects that are defined by mathematical formulae (bezier curves) or paths rather than pixels. Vectors are scalable and not affected by resolution. Vectors can be enlarged indefinitly and remain crisp and clear. Vector files must be saved as EPS format to retain their scalability. They are used for corporate logos and other graphics as they are easily portable and cannot be altered within publishing programs.

Print & screen images

CMYK ModeCMYK images are made from Cyan, Magenta, Yellow and Black subtractive primaries and have 4 channels, one for each colour. An image stored as CMYK is larger than a RGB file as it has one extra channel. CMYK images are used for printing as each colour corresponds to one of the printing plates.

DPIDots per inch, a measure of the resolution of an image on screen or the printed page. Printed images typically require a setting of 300dpi.

RGB ModeRGB images are made from red, green and blue additives, they have 3 channels, one for each colour. RGB images are smaller than CMYK images as they have one fewer channel. RGB files are used on screen because of their lower file size.

PPIPixels per inch, a measure of the resolution of an image on screen. Images to be used on screen typically have 72 pixels per inch.

BitmapA bitmap or raster is any image that is composed of pixels in a grid. The images are a fixed resolution so quality will be affected . Converting a greyscale image in to a bitmap will reduce the tonal palette to black and white only.

GreyscaleA greyscale is a tonal scale or series of achromatic tones that have varying levels of white and black to give a full range of greys. A greyscale is used to reproduce contious tone photographs. It does this by converting colours into the most approximate levels of grey. Up to 256 shades. The intensities of these greys are reproduced on the printing plate throught he use of a half-one screen.

Half-toneA half tone image is created by reproducing a continuous tone image as a composition of dots. This can be seen in enlarged image above.

Line artA line art image is one that is drawn with only lines and has no fill colour or shading. A line image has no tonal variation so rquires no screening for print.

Layout & gridLayout concerns the placement of text and image elements within a design. How these elements are positioned, both in relation to one another and within the overall design scheme will affect how the content is viewed and received. Layout can help or hinder the communication of information in a piece of design.

IntensityIntensity refers to how crowded a layout is.

Verso is…The left-hand page of an open book.

Recto is…The right-hand page of an open book.

The golden sectionThe golden section forms the basis for paper sizes and it’s principles can be used to achieve balanced designs. The golden section was deduced by ancients to represent the infalable proportions of beauty.

OneTake a square.

Two Dissect it.

ThreeForm an isocseles triangle.

Four Extend an arc from The apex of the triangle to the baseline.

FiveDraw a line perpendicular to the baseline from the point at which the arec intersects it and complete the rectangle to form a golden section.

Fibonacci numbersFibonacci number sequences are a series of numbers in which each number is the sum of the two proceeding numbers. Fibonacci numbers are linked to the 8:13 ratio in the golden section.

Three different page sizes are formed using sequential pairs of fibonacci numbers. 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89, 144, 233, 377, 610, 987, 1597, 2584, 4181, 6765, 10,946…

GridsThe grid is used as a way to consistently organise elements on a page. There are two common types of grid, module based and column based.

ColumnsA column is an area into which text is flowed so that it is presented in an organised manner.

ModuleA single square or field that comprise a grid.

Running headsRunning heads, the header, running title or straps are the repeated lines of text that appear on each page of a work or section, such as the title of a chapter or publication.

MarginA margin is the empty space that surrounds the text block.

Folio numbersFolio or page numbers are usually placed at the outer edge of the bottom margin. This makes them noticeable when flicking through a book.

CaptionsDifferentiated by the use of italics, captions are positioned so they align horizontally with the body text.

FootThe foot or bottom margin is usually the largest margin on the page.

Head marginThe head or top margin is the space at the top of the page.

HierachyHierachy is the range of typographic styles that differentiate text with varying degrees of importance.

ImagesAs text blocks contain text, image boxes contain images. These can be vector or raster based images.

The layout above was pioneered by Jan Tschibold, is based on paper proportions of 2:3. The simplicity of the layout is created by the spatial relationships that ‘contain’ the text block in harmonious proportions. The grid is dependant on proportions rather than measurements.

Column-based gridThe three column symmetrical grid uses two columns for text and an outer column for captions. The recto and verso pages mirror each other.

Module-based gridThe module-based grid above is formed by evenly sized and spaced fields. A module based grid allows for greater flexibility of placement. A module grid is used in this document.

ColourColour is perhaps the first element that people register when we look at something for the first time. Our cultural development and conditioning mean that we make associations based upon the colours we see, this provides the basis in how we will react to a design that incorporates those colours.

Colour gamutThe gamut describes the spectum of colours that a particular system, device or process can produce.

based on the fibonacci number sequence mentioned in the layout section of the book. Each paper size is halfed vertically to create the next paper size along.

A SeriesA paper sizes are the most commonly used paper sizes in print. A4 is arguably to most widely used paper format in the world.

4A0 2378mm x 1682mm2AO 1682mm x 1189mmA0 1189mm x 841mmA1 841mm x 594mmA2 594mm x 420mmA3 420mm x 297mmA4 297mm x 210mmA5 210mm x 148mmA6 148mm x 105mmA7 105mm x 74mmA8 74mm x 52mmA9 52mm x 37mmA10 37mm x 26mm

B SeriesB paper sizes are most commonly used in the printing of books and on commercial litho printing machines.

B0 1414mm x 1000mmB1 1000mm x 707mmB2 707mm x 500mmB3 500mm x 353mmB4 353mm x 250mmB5 250mm x 176mmB6 176mm x 125mmB7 125mm x 88mmB8 88mm x 62mmB9 62mm x 44mmB10 44mm x 31mm

C SeriesC paper sizes are used to print envelopes that will contain folded a series sheets of paper.

C0 1297mm x 917mmC1 917mm x 648mmC2 648mm x 458mmC3 458mm x 324mmC4 324mm x 229mmC5 229mm x 162mmC6 162mm x 114mmC7 162mm x 81mmC8 81mm x 57mmC9 57mm x 40mmC10 40mm x 28mmDL 220mm x 110mm

RA and SRA SeriesThese sizes are slightly larger than the A series pages. This allows space for trimming.

RA0 1220mm x 860mmRA1 860mm x 610mmRA2 610mm x 430mmRA3 430mm x 305mmRA4 305mm x 215mmSRA0 1280mm x 900mmSRA1 900mm x 640mmSRA2 640mm x 450mmSRA3 450mm x 320mmSRA4 320mm x 225mm

US Paper SizesThese paper sizes are used throughout North America. They are the only first world countries not using ISO paper.

Super 483mm x 330mmLedger 432mm x 279mmLegal 356mm x 216mmLetter 279mm x 216mm

Outdoor Poster SizesThese sizes are used in the printing of billboards. Billboards are made from several sheets that create the full design, rather than one large sheet of paper

4-Sheet 1016mm x 1524mm12-Sheet 1524mm x 3048mm16-Sheet 3048mm x 2036mm32-Sheet 4046mm x 3048mm48-Sheet 6096mm x 3048mm64-Sheet 8128mm x 3048mm96-Sheet 12192mm x 3048mm

Modern Book SizesBook sizes that are common since the birth of the paperback book.

Demy 229mm x 152mmRoyal235mm x 191mmCrown Royal280mm x 210mm C-Format222mm x 143mmB-Format198mm x 129mm

Traditional Book SizesTraditional book sizes tend to be larger than modern book sizes. B series paper sizes were standardised in order for traditional book formats to be printed more economically.

Imperial Folio550mm x 390mmRoyal Folio500mm x 320mmImperial Quarto300mm x 280mmCrown Folio300mm x 250mmRoyal Quarto320mm x 250mmMedium Quarto300mm x 240mmDemy Quarto290mm x 220mmFoolscap Folio340mm x 210mmImperial Octavo280mm x 190mmCrown Quarto250mm x 190mmFoolscap Quarto210mm x 170mmRoyal Octavo250mm x 150mmMedium Octavo240mm x 140mmDemy 8vo222mm x 143mmLarge Crown Octavo198mm x 129mmCrown Octavo190mm x 127mmFoolscap Octavo171.5mm x 108mmPulp Fiction175mm x 111mm

StockA that is being printed on, it is commonly referred to as stock. Substrates can be differentiated by type (metal, wood), thickness (weight), texture and more qualities. The next few pages will be a basic guide to the stocks available.

How paper is madePreparing the woodBark is removed from the logs in large, rotating drums and then made into wood chips ready for pulping.

How is the pulp made?The pulping process breaks down wood chips into usable fibres and waste products. Mechanical pulping uses a grinding process to separate the fibres and is mainly used for low cost, short life products like newspapers. Chemical pulping‘cooks’ the chips to separate the fibres and is used mainly for high quality products.

Preparing the pulpAfter making the pulp, it is prepared for the paper machine. This involves ensuring the mix of fibres is correct, refining the pulp, mixing in additives like fillers and chemicals and finally cleaning.Sheet formationThe pulp slurry (pulp, chemicals and water) is sent on a wire, or most commonly between 2 wires. The fibres are positioned due to the speed difference between the pulpflow and wire(s).

Removing the waterAt the start of the process the pulp slurry isapproximately 98% water. The water is removed by three methods: suction, pressure on the paper sheet and heat.

Creating the right surfaceSizing agent solution (usually starch) is added to the paper on the size press. The paper is sized by roller pressure in the calendaring section size press. This optimises the printing surface. Sometimes additional treatments are made (off machine), e.g. oating and / or supercalendaring.

Making the rolls of paperThe finished paper is wound into jumbo reels, then split into smaller customer reels. The individual reels are finished with a protective wrapper for transport and storage.

How paper is describedGSM, grain and paper direction are key physical characteristics to consider when selecting

PANTONE®Warm Red C

and using a stock for publication.

GSM (Grams per Square Metre)A weight measurement that is part of the paper specification based on the weight of paper per square metre of the stock. The higher the gsm value, the more weighty a stock feels. An A0 page is equal to one metre square, meaning that grams per square metre equates to the weight of a single A0 sheet.

Paper GrainPaper produced on a paper machine has a grain because the the fibres from which it is made line up during the manufacturing process in the direction that it passes through the paper making machine. The grain is in the direction in which most of the fibres lay. This characteristic means that paper is easier to fold, bend or tear along it’s grain direction.

DirectionThe direction of the fibres in paper for laser printers such as those found in offices, typically has a grain that runs parallel to the long side of the paper. This allows the paper to pass more easily through the printer.

Paper characteristicsPaper characteristics that affect printability include; smoothness, absorbency, opacity and ink holdout.

SmoothnessThe smooth surface of these stocks is obtained through the use of filler elements that may be polished with calendering rollers. These are typically glossy as well.

AbsorbencyStocks have different absorbency levels, which is the degree to which the ink penetrates it. Printing inks tend to dry quicker on absorbent stocks, but absorbency may cause problems such as dot gain.

OpacityOpacity is used to describe the extent to which whatever is printed on one side of a sheet shows through and is visible on the other. High-opacity papers have no show through.

Ink HoldoutThis is the degree to which a stock resists ink penetration die to its relative lack of absorbency. Coated stocks may be particularly prone to ink holdout as the ink sits on the surface, which in turn increases drying time.

Basic paper typesLaid PaperPremium quality paper with textured pattern or parallel lines. Often used for business stationery.

Wove PaperThis premium quality paper has a smooth surface and is mostly used for business stationery.

Bond PaperThis is usually cheap uncoated wove paper and is used for photocopiers and faxes.

Coated PaperThis has a smooth finish because it has a coating (usually china clay) and is available in gloss, silk (or satin) or matt. It is used for leaflets, glossy brochures etc and are sometimes called ‘art’ paper.

Uncoated PaperIs it doesn’t have a coating it is less smooth and therefore is suitable for laser printing and photocopying. Premium quality uncoated paper is used for business stationery, but it can also be used for brochures etc. Available in a range of finishes.

Alternative substratesAcrylicAvailable in a large range of colours and thicknesses, acrylic tends to have a high gloss finish and is prone to scratching. For this reason it is supplied with a protective film on both sides of the material. It is available in cast and extruded acrylic sheets. Cast acrylic sheet is produced between two sheets of glass, it is more rigid that extruded acrylic, easier to cut and glue and is available in a wider variety of colours and finishes. Extruded is made from granules of plastic and is the preferred material for thermoforming.

Bible PaperAn extremely thin printing paper, and has been made from a variety of materials, from rags to wood pulp. It is exceptionally strong and retains a reasonable degree of opacity. Bible paper foil blocks very well but care needs to be taken because of it’s lightness. The strength of the paper allows it to be creased and folded many times without the print cracking.

Book ClothWoven cotton that is coated in a starch and pigment mixture then subjected to live steam before being spread across the cloth. The granules of starch burst open and thicken , causing the material to thicken, giving the starched effect. Drying is usually done by a steam heated drum, cloth is wrapped around it during its journey through the spreading machine. The heat dries the starch the starch on to the cloth. When the material is glued, the process is reversed as water in the glue softens the starch granules, making the material pliable and easy to wrok with. The starch prevents the glue from penetrating through the cloth.It is more common to find paper-backed or tissue-lined book cloths on the market. These differ from cotton book cloths on the market. These differ from cotton book cloth as their material is predominantly from a synthetic source, such as rayon. Cotton book cloth has the disadvantage that adhesive will penetrate the cloth when glued. Rayon has a flexible backing or lining that prevents this, and is cheaper than cotton. A further disadvantage is the availability of much brighter colours and more variances of weave. Cotton book cloth tends to be associated with dry legal or medical tomes, whereas as rayon with art or design based projects. Cotton cloth is more durable than rayon.

CorkCork is the bark of the cork tree. Cork is extremely bouyant as more than 50% of the structure is air, yet it remains solid. This makes cork very compressible without breaking, making it flexible and resilient. As the surface is naturally uneven finish can be problematic,particularly when attempting to print fine text or complex logos. Cork can be die-cut and guillotines with relative ease.

Corrugated CardboardCorrugated cardboard consists of flat outer sheets sandwiching a central core or filling of corrugated fluted paper (called a medium) that resists crushing under compression. When used in a box this gives cushioning to the boxes contents. The liner and medium are glued together along the outsides of the peaks and valleys of each flute, boxes are usually designed with the flutes running vertically for stacking strength.

FeltFelt is made from wool matted together into fabric by beating, rolling, suction and pressure. The most common wool used in felt manufacture is sheep wool. Some felts can be dyed in a veriety of colours. Felt is available direct from the manufacturer, brighter colours tend to be available at handicraft markets. The largest palette tends to be supplied to a thickness of 1mm. It is rare to find thicker felt in colours other than black. This is partly because you cannot dye the felt consistently. A more limited palette of colours, but one with a far more interesting texture is provided by ‘industrial’ felts. Usually supplied in off-white, grey and brown, this industrail felt is used to polish and finish jewellery and metalwork and can be found encasing the strikers of church bells. Industrial felt could be seen as having a texture and finish aligned to materials such as grey board and corrugated cardboard.Printing methods tend to be restricted to screen printing, and it is difficult to achieve a fine print as the material is quite fibrous. Felt

AFdT

OAfKpfvKgpAhsToYQT

v

G

makes an interesting covering material and can be converted into book jackets as an alternative to book cloth. It cannot be used as a covering material in box making as it cannot be glued.

Flexible PVCFlexible PVC (Polyvinyl chloride) is a variant of rigid PVC. The introduction of plasticesers to the substrate makes the material more pliable. Flexible PVC is now commonly used in the manufacture of stationary such as binders and holders for car-parking permits. There are unusually uses of flexible PVC. For instance, a thin, black, embossed flexible PVC is appropriate for coffin linings, where as it’s white counter part is used to line babies prams. There is a semi-translucent version that is used for blood bags, while thicknesses of up to 5mm are used for factory-door curtains.

High-Density FoamHigh density foam has a 3-stage production process, commencing with polymer being blended in line and extruded into solid sheet or slab form. This sheet is then cross-linked to create a lattice-like structure at a molecular level within the material. This allows the material to be thermal moulded, as cross-linked foams can be stretched and compressed, and retain their shape when cooled.High density foam has a range of applications but can principally be employed by the designer as a packaging material to house a series of items securely and attractively without having to resort to over-engineered cardboard executions.

LeatherThere is an almost infinite choice of leather to use. It is an expensive material to use, and decisions based on expectation of how leather should feel and smell will lead you to higher-priced skins. Leather is mainly available at specialist merchants who normally supply skins to make handbags and belts and therefore are structured towards this market.The use of leather in a project generally denotes wealth, tradition and luxury. Leather can be screen printed, embossed and foil blocked. It should be noted that, as leather is animal skin the surface and texture of leather is a variable which could hamper the application of a design. Care should be taken when glueing as leather has a tendency to contract when mounted or bonded. More rigid leather will die-cut and trim far better than softer pig-skin or goat-skin leather.If cost is an issue there are a number of synthetic materials that mimic the grain of leather, and some have even been developed to smell like it too.

MetalMetal could be regarded as a material that has very limited applications with the design process. It has a look, feel and density that will rarely be appropriate.Cost is an important factor when considering using metal for a project. A reason for this is the extra processes that metal has to go through prior to being ready to work with. The materials most commonly used by designers are aluminium and stainless steel, both of which are easily cut, creased and screen printed.Stainless steel is much harder than aluminium and can be supplied in very thin gauges. The thinner the gauge the sharper the edges become. Stainless steel is good for having designs etched in to or through it’s surface.Aluminium is a lightweigh popular substrate for binders. Its edges do need to be sealed or anodized by immersing the material in an anodizing solution and running an electric current through it, otherwise it is prone to oxidisation and marking from fingers. There are not many suppliers or manufacturers who can produce high quality finished goods from metal.

Mirri-boardMirri-board is manufactured by laminating thin films of metalised polyester to different base papers and boards. It’s metallic and reflective surface lends itself principally to specialty packaging such as perfume cartons. The wide variety of colours and finishes should allow you to specify it’s use for other applications.There is also a range of holographic boards utilizing metalised polyester film that carriers a micro-embossed holographic pattern. There is no choice beyond those patterns already available. Despite their highly reflective and smooth surfaces, these materials can still be printed conventionally. With lithographic printing, inks must be selected that dry on non-absorbent substrates. UV curable inks are also preferred. Caution needs to be exercised when handling more reflective boards as they have a tendency to scratch and mark. This laminated surface is soft, with any minor blemish being obvious because of the reflective quality of the material. Inks must be selected that will dry on non-absorbent surfaces. Certain inks needs to cure for up to 48 hours, or they will scratch.Foil blocking and blind embossing both produce amazing results , and it is worth exploring different foil combinations on this stock. Overprinting in translucent tints can produce interesting results on more iridescent versions of the material.

PolystyreneCommonly referred to as expanded polystyrene (EPS), has many uses from ceiling tiles through to transportations packaging and use as a building material. It remains largely unexplored for design based applications.The mould of polystyrene is a three part process. In the first part tiny spherical EPS beads are expanded up to forty times their original size. In the second stage the boards are stored in huge canvas silos and are left to absorb air for 24 to 48 hours. In stage three the freshly expanded beads are poured into manufactured moulds where steam and pressure are applied, softening the beads and compressing them so that they bond together into the required shape and density.A black variant of EPS exists that is used in thermoinsulation. The colour comes from introducing carbon flakes into the beads to enhance its thermal performance. This is an more aesthetically pleasing variant of the standardised white EPS.Sheet polystyrene is moulded in large locks that are cut using hot wiring cutting machines. The cell structure of this material means that in appearance the material seems quite smooth but printing will achieve mixed results.

Rigid PVCPVC (Polyvinyl Choride) is one of the most commonly used and widely available substrates. It is one of the most valuable products in the petro-chemical industry. The majority of PVC is used in construction and heavy industry. It’s ease of manufacture and huge number of varieties make PVC a quick fix choice for numerous applications beyond these industries.

RubberRubber is used throughout a wide variety of industries, however it is not as avaiable as you might expect. Rubber is not something you would use for a printed project as you would paper. Rubber is highly flexible so is very difficult to print on as the ink needs to be as flexible as the substrate itself. Supply of flexible inks is very limited and the choice of colours remains highly restrictive. It is not possible to deboss the material as it is too dense. There are flexible PVCs avaiable as alternatives.A good source for coloured rubber is domestic floor tiles. These tend to be more rigid that black flooring rubber, but the reverse of the tile can be too uneven to allow flooring glue to be applied. Latex is a very thin alternative to rubber. Commonly used in fetish clothing, latex can be glued or bonded together to form pches or covers. Latex is very fragile and has a tendency to dry out and fall apart. Rubber bands are a good alternative for binding if you do not want to use staples.Self-adhesive

an inked image from a printing plate is transfered or offset on to a rubber blanket roller, which is then pressed against the substrate. Litho uses a smooth printing plate and works on the basis that oil and water will repel each other. When the plate passes under the ink roller, non image areas that have a water film repel the oily inks that stick to the image area.Litho produces good photographic reproduction and fine linework on a veriety of stocks. The printing plates are easy to prepare and high speeds are available,. These reasons make it a cost effective way to print.Offset litho is available in sheet and roll fed form. Sheet fed is more appropriate for smaller print runs such as flyers, brochures and magazines while web printing is more appropriate for higher run jobs like newspapers, magazines and reports.

AdvantagesUses an engraved printing plate. Can print on a wide variety of substrates. One of the most cost-effective and commin methods in commercial print today.

DisadvantagesReasonably high start-up costs for low print-run jobs. The plates can wear out quickly compared to other print processes.

Pad printing

Pad printing is a printing process that can transfer a 2-D image onto a 3-D object. This is accomplished using an indirect offset (gravure) printing process that involves an image being transferred from the cliché via a silicone pad onto a substrate. Pad printing is used for printing on otherwise impossible products in many industries including medical, automotive, promotional, apparel, and electronic objects, as well as appliances, sports equipment and toys. It can also be used to deposit functional materials such as conductive inks, adhesives, dyes and lubricants.Physical changes within the ink film both on the cliché and on the pad allow it to leave the etched image area in favor of adhering to the pad, and to subsequently release from the pad in favor of adhering to the substrate.The unique properties of the silicone pad enable it to pick the image up from a flat plane and transfer it to a variety of surfaces, such as flat, cylindrical, spherical, compound angles, textures, concave, or convex surfaces.

AdvantagesThe ability to print on 3 dimensional substrates, golf balls, tv controls, keypads and more.

DisadvantagesHigh start-up costs.

Rotogravure

Rotogravure (Roto or Gravure for short) is a type of intaglio printing process; that is, it involves engraving the image onto an image carrier. In gravure printing, the image is engraved onto a cylinder because, like offset printing and flexography, it uses a rotary printing press. Once a staple of newspaper photo features, the rotogravure process is still used for commercial printing of magazines, postcards, and corrugated (cardboard) product packaging.

AdvantagesLong lasting printing plates. Good image reproduction. Low cost per unit if using very high print runs.

DisadvantagesHigh start-up costs. Slightly pixelated lines and text. Very high print-runs are needed to make it profitable.

Screen printing

Screen printing offers a lot of versatility for the designer. It gives scope to experiment with a lot of different inks and materials. Screen printing can be an automated process, or hand done.The screen is made of a piece of porous and finely woven fabric stretched over a rectangular frame. Areas of the screen are blocked off allowing a stencil of the image to be printed through.The screen is placed on top of the substrate to be printed, a squeegee or rubber blade is used to press the ink through the stencil and on to the substrate. The screen can be used many times.The screen printing process has an immediacy that other print processes don’t.

AdvantagesHigh quality finish. Hand made feel.

DisadvantagesA very time-consuming process. Low print runs can be expected when using this process as each screen is pulled by hand.

Web-offset

Web printing prints from a roll of paper rather than separate sheets. This allows for higher printing volume and speed with a lower production cost. Web can be used with litho but most commonly with relief printing methods such a rotogravure and flexography as the plates are more durable. Due to the scale and cost of this production method, it is not suitable for low volume printing.

AdvantagesVery high print runs can be achieved using this process, for a relatively low cost. Typically used for newspaper printing.

DisadvantagesLimited image reproduction quality. Very expensive if being used for small print runs.

Print finishingFinishing techniques are applied to a job after it has been printed. They create special effects which cannot be achieved with ink.

Cutting and TrimmingAs most commercial printing jobs use paper that is slightly larger than the finished design will be, there will need to be cutting and trimming to achieve the final desired format. Trim lines are identified by crop marks, these marks are also used to help with registration of the printed page. Trimming is paid for in the printing of a design, so no extra charge is incurred. This is different to other finishing techniques, such as folding, which cost extra.

Drilling and PunchingDesigns that are ring or post bound require holes ranging between 1/8 inch and 1/4 inch. Commercial printers use a drill to make these holes according to size and placement specifications. Spiral and plastics comb binding require puching holes, a process that costs a bit more than drilling.

PerforatingPeforating involves punching a line of holes to make tearing easier. It can be done as part of the binding process to make signatures easier to fold before they are bound and trimmed. Peforation is used as a means to facilitate tear-offs on designs that require a response, such as business reply cards.

ScoringTo make folding more efficient a crease is applied using a metal rule

material.This approach could be considered as a packaging alternative, although 3D constructions do tend to stretch the capabilities of this process.

Injection MouldingUsed to make items such as shampoo bottle tops and CD cases.This process is a great deal more expensive than processes like thermoforming. As a process it can be sourced and used internationally and nationally. The outcomes are well worth the extra expense associated with the process.

Kiss-CutA method of die-cutting whereby the face material of a self-adhesive substrate is die cut but not all the way through to the backing sheet. This enables the face material to be easily removed from the backing sheet.

LaminatesLamination provides the best protection of all methods. Lamination creates an exceptionally strong surface that repels moisture, this means the design can be washed wthout being damaged. The process involves applying a layer of polyester, polypropylene or nylon film to one or both sides of a printed sheet. Laminates are available in dull and glossy finishes.

Nylon LaminatesNylon laminates are the most durable and expensive type of laminate available. Nylon laminates are recommended for lightweight substrates such as paperback covers and designs where metallic inks are involved.

Polyester LaminatesPolyester laminates have are hard surface and are reasonably priced makes polyester laminates appropriate for case-bound books and for designs where durability and longevity are important.

Polypropylene LaminatesLaminates made of this material are often used on dust jackets and packaging. They are more likely to be scratched and scuffed, polypropylene laminates are the least expensive. Polypropylene laminates can also be applied to lightweight substrates and surfaces printed with metallic inks with-out the risk of paper curling.

Rigid Box MakingAmong the most luxurious and desirable forms of packaging. The boxes are often handmade. Versions of this packaging can be made by machine but the choice of material and construction is more limited. A rigid box consitst of a hard base material, which is cut to shape, fixed together to form a box and covered in cloth, paper or vinyl. The box can be lined, usually using a coloured, uncoated paper. Larger boxes are more difficult to cover and therefore more expensive. It is very difficult to make a rigid box any shallower than 15 to 25mm, for these cases it is better to use a cardboard carton.

ThermoformingA method used in processing plastic-based substrates. The material is heated to its thermoforming temperature and then immediatly shaped. Pressure is maintained on the material until it has cooled. The tooling used in this process is cheaper than that used in injection moulding. The tooling is is generally made from aluminium. As the process is generally used for industrial applications it tends to be ignored for more aesthetic reasons. Thermoforming is a very precise process, the material has to be consistent and the sheet must be heated evenly to the correct processing temperature. The initial costs of this process can make it prohibitive. The process does offer alternative possibilites to a project.

ThermographyThermography or relief printing, is used to raise a design off the paper and adds another dimension to the design. A potential problem with thermographic printing is thermographic ink can melt if put through the same temperature twice (i.e laser printing, as could be used with a letterhead paper).

Varnishes and CoatingsThe three main types of varnishes and coatings that are used are;

Spot VarnishA clear coating is applied on press or in line. Spot varnishes cost the same as applying an extra ink would cost. Spot varnishes come in glossy or dull finishes and can be lightly tinted with other inks. Spot gloss varnishes are usually used to enhance photographs and other types of image by giving them a high sheen and richness. Dull varnishes are often applied to areas of text on a glossy, coated paper to prevent glare. Spot varnishes offer little protection against scuffing.

Aqueous CoatingA gloss coating made from a mix of polymers and water that is often applied to magazine and brochure covers as a means of protection against scuffing, dirt and water. Aqueous coatings are applied as a flood varnish, meaning the entire page is covered. Aqueous coatings require a special coating unit and cost roughly twice as much as spot varnishes.

UV CoatingA UV light-cured process that involves a platic liquid, ultraviolet coating offers more protection and a higher degree of gloss that aqueous coating. Some printers apply UV coating in the press line but often it is supplied separate from the printing process.

Commercial costingsEverything discussed in this book up to now costs a price. If you want to add finishes such as folding, binding or specials to a job it will increase the cost. If you want your design printed on A2, rather than A4 paper it will cost extra. This section of the book will discuss basic costing considerations when deciding the print and finishes your design requires.

Pricing a print jobThe six key areas that will affect the overall cost of a printed job are; format, colours, quantity, material, printing method and finishes.

FormatThe final size of the printed document will affect the price of a print run. Most commercial print on B1 or B2 sheets or use a roll, such as web-offset, the larger the format of the final design the more press sheets will be needed to print the job, thus increasing costs.

ColoursIn most commercial printing processes colours are added in separate layers. As this is the case the more colours used in a design will increase the number of plates that need preparing and inks being used. This will increase the cost. Where special (spot) colours are being used an extra plate is needed, this increases the cost even further. For this reason it is important that colour usage is managed closely.

QuantityThe quantity of a print-run, will affect the cost of a print run in a similar way the format will. The higher a print run, the more press sheets are needed, this increases the cost.

MaterialThe material a design is printed on will affect the cost. For example, it will cost more to print on gold than paper. The material used will affect the drying time of the ink, this again, will increase the cost of the print job. These are things that need to be considered before sending a job to print.

Printing MethodChoosing between offset-lithography, digital, roto and other printing methods can greatly affect the price of a print job. Some methods are best used for high print runs (roto) and other for small (digital). The printing method is one of the most important things to consider.

FinishesFrom binding, folding and specials when finishes are used the cost of a printing job will increase.

Printing print.A beginners guide to commercial print.Content and design.David Mathew.

Black

LIGHT

ScreenColour ModeRGB Resolution 72ppi

RgbThese work with additive colours, rgb refers to the primary colours of light. This system is used for on-screen graphics.

HexachromeA 6-colour separation process that was developed by pantone in 1994. It adds orange and green to the standard cmyk process colours, producing more effective purples, greens, oranges and flesh tones for vibrant and saturated colours. Produces 90% of the pantone pms colours.

CmykA printed image is typically printed using cyan, magenta, yellow and black printing inks. This is a subtractive process. Each colour is made using percentages between 0 and 100%. Produces 50% of the pantone pms colours.

Additive & subtractive

Additive primariesThis diagram shows the additive primaries. Where two additive primaries overlap one secondary primary is visible. Where all three additive colours overlap, white is produced, this is because additive colours are light based.

Subtractive primariesThis diagram shows the subtractive primaries. Where two subtractive primaries overlap one additive primary is visible. Where all three subtractive colours overlap, black is produced because no light escapes.

Primary coloursThere are two types of primary colours. Additive primaries are used for screen-based graphics, subtractive primaries are used for print-based graphics.

Secondary coloursA secondary colour is made when two primary colours are combined in equal proportions.

Tertiary coloursThese colours are made when combining a secondary colour with the one remaining primary colour.

Colour wheel selections

AnalogousThe two colours on either side of the first selected colour. They are three consecutive colours segments around the wheel. Analogous colours schemes provide a harmonious and natural blend of colours.

ComplementaryComplementary or contrasting colours are those that face each other on the colour wheel. Complementary colours provide a strong contrast.

Double complementsThese are two consecutive colours and their complementary colours which appear on the opposite side of the colour wheel.

MonochromeA monochrome colour is any single colour on the wheel.

Mutual complementsA set of mutual complements comprises of a triad of complementary colour. The first selcted colour, green here, and three colours on the opposite side of the colour wheel.

Near complementsA near complimentary colour is the colour adjacent to the first selected colours complementary colour.

Split complementsThese are two consecutive colours and their complementary colours which appear on the opposite side of the colour wheel.

TriadsThree colours that contrast with each other.

Describing colourEvery colour corresponds to a unique light wavelength, however a list of different wavelength values do not provide a particularly useful description of a colour. Hue, saturation and value are used to describe colours in more detail.

HueThe characteristics of a colour that distinguishes it from another, such as cyna, magenta and yellow. Hues are formed