Ciccarelli ch01 lecture

PSYCHOLOGYPSYCHOLOGYAN EXPLORATIONAN EXPLORATION

PSYCHOLOGYPSYCHOLOGYAN EXPLORATIONAN EXPLORATION

CHAPTER

Second EditionSecond Edition

Psychology: An Exploration, Second EditionSaundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White

the science of psychology

1


Why study psychology?Psychology not only helps you understand why people (and animals)do the things they do, but it also helps you better understand yourself and your reactions to others. Psychology can help you comprehend how your brain and body are connected, how to improve your learning abilities and memory, and how to deal with the stresses of life, both ordinary and extraordinary. In studying psychology, an understanding of the methods psychologists use is crucial because research can be flawed, and knowing how research should be done can bring those flaws to light. And finally, psychology and its research methods promote critical thinking, which can be used to evaluate not just research but also claims of all kinds, including those of advertisers and politicians.


Learning Objectives

• LO 1.1Definition and goals of psychology• LO 1.2Structuralism and functionalism• LO 1.3Early Gestalt, psychoanalysis, and behaviorism• LO 1.4Modern perspectives Skinner, Maslow and Rogers• LO 1.5Psychiatrist, psychologist, and other professionals• LO 1.6Psychology is a science; steps in scientific method• LO 1.7Naturalistic and laboratory settings• LO 1.8Case studies and surveys• LO 1.9Correlational technique• LO 1.10Experimental approach and terms• LO 1.11Placebo and the experimenter effects• LO 1.12Elements of a real-world experiments• LO 1.13Ethical concerns in conducting research• LO 1.14Principles of critical thinking


What is Psychology?

• The scientific study of behavior and mental processes.– Behavior

Overt actions and reactions

– Mental processes Internal, covert activity of the mind

– Scientific Prevent possible biases from leading to

faulty observations Precise and careful measurement

LO 1.1 Definition and goals of psychology


Goals of Psychology

• Description– What is happening?

• Explanation– Why is it happening?– Theory

Explanation of a set of observations or facts



Goals of Psychology

• Prediction– Will it happen again?

• Control– How can it be changed?



Structuralism

• Structuralism– Focused on structure or basic elements

of the mind.

LO 1.2 Structuralism and functionalism


Structuralism

• Wilhelm Wundt– Established first psychology laboratory

Leipzig, Germany in 1879

– Developed objective introspection Examine and measure personal thought

and mental activities



German physiologist Wilhelm Wundt participates in an experiment in his laboratory as students look on. Courtesy of General Information Center


Structuralism

• Edward Titchener– Wundt’s student– Brought structuralism to America.

• Margaret Washburn– Titchener’s student– First woman to earn a Ph.D. in

psychology.

• Structuralism died out in early 1900s.



Functionalism

• Functions in the real world• How people to adapt, live, work, and

play• Proposed by William James• Influenced modern fields:

– Educational psychology– Evolutionary psychology– Industrial/organizational psychology



Gestalt Psychology

• Max Wertheimer– Perception can only be understood as a

complete event.– Understanding patterns, whole figures

• Gestalt– German translated as “organized whole”

LO 1.3 Early Gestalt, psychoanalysis, and behaviorism


Gestalt Psychology

• Ideas are now part of modern cognitive psychology – Field focuses on perception, learning,

memory, thought processes, and problem solving



Figure 1.1 A Gestalt PerceptionThe eye tends to “fill in” the blanks hereand sees both of these figures as circles rather than as a series of dots or a broken line.


Psychoanalysis

• Developed by Sigmund Freud– Trained as a physician– Worked with patients with nervous

disorders



Psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud walks with his daughter Anna, also a psychoanalyst. © Hulton Archive/Getty Images


Psychoanalysis

• Main Ideas– Unconscious (unaware) mind

Where threatening impulses and desires are repressed

– Repressed urges create nervous disorders



Psychoanalysis

• Freud’s concepts– Stressed importance of early childhood

experiences– Formed the basis for modern therapy



Behaviorism

• Ivan Pavlov– Russian physiologist– Studied digestive processes– Reflex can occur with new and unrelated

stimulus – Conditioned dogs to salivate to

metronome



Physiologist Ivan Pavlov uses a dog to demonstrate the conditioned reflex to students at the Russian Military Medical Academy. © Bettmann/Corbis


Behaviorism

• John B. Watson – Developed the “science of behavior” – Psychology should focus on observable

behavior Must be directly seen and measured Ignore notion of unconscious

– Believed phobias were learned through conditioning. Case of “Little Albert”

– Child conditioned to fear a white rat



American psychologist John Watson is known as the father of behaviorism. Behaviorism focuses only on observable behavior. Courtesy of Underwood & Underwood/Bettmann/Corbis


Modern Perspectives

• Psychodynamic perspective – Modern version of psychoanalysis– Focus on development of a sense of self – Discover motivations behind behavior

No emphasis on sexual motivations

LO 1.4 Modern perspectives Skinner, Maslow, and Rogers


Modern Perspectives

• Behavioral perspective – B. F. Skinner

Developed theory of how voluntary behavior is learned

Introduced concept or reinforcement

– Perspective was major force in the twentieth century



Behaviorist B. F. Skinner puts a rat through its paces. What challenges might arise from applying information gained from studies with animals to human behavior? Courtesy of Nina Leen/Time Life Pictures/Getty Images


Modern Perspectives

• Humanistic perspective– People have free will to choose destiny– Early contributors:

Abraham Maslow Carl Rogers

– Self-actualization Achieving one’s full potential or actual

self



Modern Perspectives

• Humanistic perspective– Modern Humanism

Used in psychotherapy Assists in self-understanding



Modern Perspectives

• Cognitive perspective– Major force emerging in 1960’s– Focus on memory, intelligence,

perception, problem-solving, and learning.

– Cognitive neuroscience Physical workings of brain and nervous

system Use imaging techniques

– MRI, PET



These scans show loss of gray matter in the brains of individuals with very early-onset, adolescent schizophrenia over a five-year period, highlighting one focus of the biological perspective. Courtesy of The University of California, Los Angeles


Modern Perspectives

• Sociocultural perspective– Examines relationship between social

behavior and culture



Modern Perspectives

• Biopsychological perspective – Behavior is a result of biological events

in the body Genetic influences, hormones, and the

activity of the nervous system



Modern Perspectives

• Evolutionary perspective – Examines biological bases of universal

mental characteristics that all humans share Seeks to explain mental strategies and

traits Mind is seen as set of information-

processing machines



Psychologists with an evolutionary perspective would be interested in how this couple selected each other as partners. Photo credit: Bill Aron/PhotoEdit


Types of Psychological Professionals

• Psychiatrist – Medical doctor (M.D.)– Specializes in the diagnosis and

treatment of psychological disorders.

• Psychoanalyst – Psychiatrist or a psychologist – Special training in Freudian theory and

psychoanalysis.

LO 1.5 Psychiatrist, psychologist, and other professionals



• Psychiatric social worker – Social worker trained in therapy

methods – Focus on the environmental conditions

impacting mental disorders Poverty, overcrowding, stress, and drug

abuse.




• Psychologist – Academic degree and specialized

training in psychology– Work in counseling, teaching, and

research– Specialization can include clinical,

counseling, developmental, social, personality theory



Figure 1.2 Work Settings and Subfields of Psychology(a) There are many different work settings for psychologists. Although not obvious from the chart,many psychologists work in more than one setting. For example, a clinical psychologist may work in a hospital setting and teach at a university or college. (Tsapogas et al., 2006) (b) This pie chart shows the specialty areas of psychologists who recently received their doctorates. (Hoffer et al., 2007)


Scientific Methodology

• Scientific Method – System of gathering data – Bias and error in measurement are

reduced

LO 1.6 Psychology is a science; steps in scientific method


Scientific Methodology

• Steps in the Scientific Method:1. Perceive the question2. Form hypothesis

– Tentative explanation of a phenomenon based on observations

3. Test the hypothesis4. Draw conclusions5. Report results

– Allows for replication• Demonstrate reliability of results

LO 1.6 Psychology is a science; steps in scientific method


The Scientific MethodLO 1.6 Psychology is a science; steps in scientific method


Descriptive Methods

• Naturalistic Observation – Watch animals or humans behave in

their normal environment– Advantage:

Realistic picture of behavior

LO 1.7 Naturalistic and laboratory settings


Descriptive Methods

• Naturalistic Observation – Disadvantages:

Observer effect – People or animals behave differently when

they know they are being observed– May reduce observer effect through

participant observation



Descriptive Methods

• Naturalistic Observation – Disadvantages:

Observer bias – Observers see what they expect to see– May reduce observer bias through use of

blind observers Each naturalistic setting is unique

– Observations may not hold



This researcher is studying the behavior of a group of lemurs. Is this naturalistic observation? Why or why not? Photo credit: Cyril Ruoso/Photolibrary


Descriptive Methods

• Laboratory Observation – Watching animals or humans in a

laboratory setting

• Advantages:– Control over environment– Allows use of specialized equipment– Can lead to the development of

hypotheses



Descriptive Methods

• Disadvantage:– Artificial situation that may result in

artificial behavior



The researcher in the foreground is watching the children through a one-way mirror to get a description of their behavior. Observations such as these are just one of many ways that psychologists have of investigating behavior. Why is it important for the researcher to be behind a one-way mirror? Photo credit Jeff Greenberg/The Image Works


Descriptive Methods

• Case study – Study of one individual in great detail– Advantages:

Tremendous amount of detail Good for studying rare conditions

– Disadvantages: Cannot apply results easily

to similar individuals Vulnerable to bias of researcher

LO 1.8 Case studies and surveys


After a gunpowder explosion, Phineas Gage ended up with a steel rod in his head. A model of Gage's head is shown next to his actual skull. Visible above the left side of his mouth is the entry point of the steel rod, and the exit point is at the top of the skull. Courtesy of The Francis A. Countway Library of Medicine


Descriptive Methods

• Survey– Researcher asks a series of questions

about the topic under study Given to a representative sample Population

– Randomly selected sample of subjects from a larger group



Descriptive Methods

• Survey– Advantages:

Data from large numbers of people Study covert behaviors

– Disadvantages: Have to ensure representative sample (or

results not meaningful). People not always accurate (courtesy

bias)



Finding Relationships

• Correlation – Measure of the relationship between two

variables– Variable

Anything that can change or vary

LO 1.9 Correlational technique



• Correlation – Correlation coefficient (r)

Mathematical calculation Measures

– Direction of the relationship– Strength of the relationship

– Knowing the value of one variable allows prediction of the value of the other variable




• Correlation coefficient ranges from –1.00 to +1.00.

• Closer to 1.00 or -1.00, the stronger the relationship– No correlation = 0.0.– Perfect correlation = -1.00 OR +1.00.




• Positive correlation – Variables are related in the

same direction. As one increases, the other

increases As one decreases,

the other decreases




• Negative correlation – Variables are related in

opposite directions– As one increases, the other

decreases

• Correlation does not prove causation



Figure 1.3 These scatterplots show direction and strength of correlation. It should be noted that perfect correlations, whether positive or negative, rarely occur in the real world.


The Experiment

• Allows researchers to determine cause and effect

• Deliberate manipulation of variables• Holding constant other variables

LO 1.10 Experimental approach and terms


The act of hitting each other with toy swords could be part of an operational definition of aggressive behavior. Photo credit Bill Aron/PhotoEdit


Features of the Experiment

• Operational definition– Specifies steps or procedures used to

control or measure the experimental variables

• Independent variable (IV)– Variable manipulated by experimenter

• Dependent Variable (DV)– Represents measured response of the

experimental manipulation




• Experimental Group– Receives the manipulation

• Control Group– Not subjected to the independent

variable– Controls for other factors (confounds)

that may affect the outcome




• Random Assignment– Participants are assigned randomly to

control or experimental group– Each participant has equal chance of

assignment to experimental or control groups



Placebo and Experimenter Effects

• Placebo effect – Expectations of the participants can

influence their behavior– Classic control-give placebo to control

group

• Experimenter effect– Experimenter’s expectations

unintentionally influence study

LO 1.11 Placebo and the experimenter effects


Placebo and Experimenter Effects

• Single-blind study– Subjects do not know if they are in the

experimental or the control group – Reduces placebo effect

• Double-blind study– Neither experimenter or participants

know if in experimental or control group– Reduces placebo and experimenter

effects

LO 1.11 Placebo and the experimenter effects


Experimental Example

• Stereotypes, athletes and college test performance– High stereotype threat question asked

before intellectual assessment (experimental group)

– High stereotype threat question asked after intellectual assessment

– Before test group scored lower on intellectual assessment than after group

LO 1.12 Elements of a real world experiment


Experimental Example

• Stereotypes, athletes and college test performance– Questions to consider:

What extraneous variables might be affecting the students’ test performance?

What might educators do to try to prevent the effect of the “dumb jock” negative stereotype on college athletes?

LO 1.12 Elements of a real world experiment


Ethics in Psychological Research

• Institutional review board– Professional group that reviews the

safety, consideration of participants

LO 1.13 Ethical concerns in conducting research



• Common ethical guidelines:1. Rights and well-being of participants

must be weighed against the study’s value to science.

2. Participants must be allowed to make an informed decision about participation.

3. Deception must be justified. 4. Participants may withdraw from the

study at any time.




• Common ethical guidelines:5. Participants must be protected from

risks or told explicitly of risks. 6. Investigator must debrief participants,

telling the true nature of the study and expectations of results.

7. Data must remain confidential.




• Animal research– Attempt to answer questions not

obtainable with human research– Avoid exposure to unnecessary pain or

suffering– Animals are used in approximately 7% of

psychological studies



Critical Thinking

• Is making reasoned judgments about claims.

LO 1.14 Principles of critical thinking


Critical Thinking

• Four Basic Criteria:1. There are very few “truths” that do not

need to be subjected to testing.2. All evidence is not equal in quality.3. Just because someone is considered to

be an authority or to have a lot of expertise does not make everything that person claims automatically true.

4. Critical thinking requires an open mind.

LO 1.14 Principles of critical thinking

Ciccarelli ch01 lecture

Education

Transcript of Ciccarelli ch01 lecture