Campbell the Pipil Language of El Salvador
Transcript of Campbell the Pipil Language of El Salvador
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Mouton Grammar Library 1Campbell
T he Pipil La nguage
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Mouton Grammar Library 1
EditorsGeorg BossongWallace Chafe
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Lyle Campbell
T he Pipil Languageof E l Salvador
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Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication DataCampbell, Lyle.The Pipil language of El Salvador.
(Mouton grammar library ; 1)Bibliography: p.1. Pipil lang uag e-G ram ma r. I. Title. II. Series.PM4 191.C35 1985 49 7\ 4 85-11493ISBN 0-89925-040-8 (U.S.)
CIP -Kurztitelaufnah me der Deutschen Bibliothek
Campbell, Lyle:The Pipil language of El Salvador / Lyle Campbell. -Berlin ; New York ; Amsterdam : Mouton, 1985.(Mouton grammar library ; 1)ISBN 3-11-010344-3NE: GT
Printed on acid free paper. Copyright 1985 by Walter de Gruyter & Co., Berlin. All rights reserved, including those of trans-lation into foreign languages. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form by photo-print, microfilm, or any other means nor transmitted nor translated into a machine languagewithout written permission from Mouton Publishers, Division of Walter de Gruyter & Co., Berlin.Printing: Druckerei Hildebrand, Berlin. Binding: Dieter Mikolai, Berlin. Printed in Germany.
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DedicationTo my Pipil teachers, helpers, and friends.
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Acknowledgements
I owe a debt of gratitute to many for financial, intellectual, and moral support. Ithank the National Science Foundation and the State University of New York ResearchFo und ation for grants which sup ported my fieldwork and investigations in El Salvador. Iam also grateful to the Instituto de Investigaciones Filolgicas of the Universidad Nacio-nal A ut no m a de Mxico fo r support which allowed me to complete some of the histori-cal aspects of this study and to write it up.I wish to thank M ara Espe ranza A guilar de Smith-Stark fo r much help with Salvado-ran Spanish from the Pipil area. Claud ia Pa rodi also assisted me with Spanish and in theinitial version of this manuscript (which was written in Spanish, but converted to Englishfor this publication). While Una Canger did not see the manuscript of this book beforepublication, discussions with her helped me in many ways to improve both the contentand its organization.
Above all, I wish to extend my deep appreciation to my Pipil teachers and consul-tants, who shared their language with me. I hope that this work will some day in someway come to be of some benefit to them.
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Abbreviations
adj . , AD JABSOLadv.applic. , APPLIC( QCar .CAUScf.CNC O N Dconj .DIMINdir., DIRimp., IMPIMP ERFI N C H O A A Tincorp.INT POSSi. v.loc.Mol.n .Oobj .perf .pi. , PLP Nposs., POSSpres.per f . , PERFpret . , PRETpron .redup.r. v.(SD)Sp.Ssubj .t. v.unspec. obj.V
adjectiveabsolutiveadverbapplicativeCuisnahuatCarochi (form from Carochi)causativeconfer, compare, cross-reference, seeClassical Nahuatl (Colonial Nahuatl)conditionalconjugationdiminutivedirectionalimperativeimperfectiveinchoativeincorporation, incorporatedintimate possessionintransitive verblocativeMolina (form from Molina)nounobjectobjectperfectpluralProto-Nahua (also called Proto-Aztecan)possessive, possessionpresentperfectpreterite (simple past)pronoun, pronominalreduplicationreflexive verbSanto Domingo de GuzmnSpanishsubjectsubjecttransitive verbunspecified objectverb
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Table of Contents
Dedication VAcknowledgements VIIAbbreviations VIIIChapter 1Introduction 11.0. Introduction 11.1. Social and geographical position 21.2. Classification 21.2.1. "What's in a name?": Nahua and Pipil 51.3. Ethnohistory 61.4. Pipil dialectology 13Chapter 2Phonology 242.0. Introduction 242.1. The phonetic value of the orthographic symbols 242.1.1. Phonetic variants (allophones) 262.2. Phonological processes (morphophonemic rules) 28Chapter 3Grammatical Categories and Morphology 39 3.0. Introduction 393.1. Nouns 393.1.1. Absolutives 393.1.2. Possession 423.1.2.1. Plural possession 463.1.3. Other nominal suffixes 463.1.3.1. -pan 463.1.3.2. -tan 473.1.3.3. -k/-ku 473.1.3.4. -ta(:)l. 483.1.3.5. -ka 483.1.3.6. -ni 493.1.3.7. -s (-lis -wis, -was) 49
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3.1.3 .8. -tsin 493.1.3 .9. -pil 503.1.3.1 0. -JMpassive no m ina liza tion , 503.1.4 . Plu ral' 513.2. Pro nou ns 533.2.1. Independent prono uns 533.2.2. Prono mina l subject affixes 543.2.2.1. Prono mina l copula 553.2.3. Prono mina l object prefixes 553.2.4. Possessive pron om inal prefixes 563.2.5. Indefinite pron ouns 563.3. Articles and dem onstratives 56
3.3.1 . Articles 563.3.2. Demonstrative pron oun s and adjectives 563.3.3. Dem onstrative adve rbs 573.4. Qu antifiers 583.4.1. Num erals 583.5. Loca tives 593.5.1. Indepe ndent prepositions 593.5.2. Relational noun s 593.5.3 . Frozen locatives 603.6. Adjectives 613.6.1 . -k , -ti-k 613.6.2. -nah 623.6.3. -a:w a-k/ -ak 623.6.4. -tuk 633.6.5. Other adjectives 633.6.6. Ad jective plurals 643.7. Verbs 653.7.1. The order of verbal affixes 653.7.2. Tense and aspect 65
3.7.2 .1. 'Present* 653.7.2.2. 'Prete rite' (simplepast) 663.7.2.3. 'Pe rfe ct ' 663.7.2.4. 'Con ditiona l ' 673.7.2.4.1. 'Pe rfec t cond itionals' 683.7.2.5. 'Fu ture ' 683.7.2.6. 'Deside rative' 693.7.2.7. ' Im pe rfec t ' 693.7.2.7.1 . -tu-ya 'pas t pe rfec t' 703.7.3 . Verb classes 703.7.3.1. Class I ((C)VCV ) verbs 703.7.3.2. Class II verbs ((QVC CV , (Q V ka , (C)VCu) 713.7.3.3. Class III (-i a, -u a) 72
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3.7.3.4. Class IV (-CV h alternating with -CVh) 743.7.4. Pronominal affixes with verbs 743.7.4.1. 'Reflexive* (mu-) 753.7.4.2. ta- 'unspecified object' 773.7.4.2.1. Non-productive and special ta- forms 783.7.4.2.2. Reduplication of ta- 783.7.4.2.3. ta-with nouns derived from transitive verbs 793.7.4.2.4. Adjectives with ta- 793.7.4.3. te:- 'someone* 793.7.5. Reduplication in verbs 803.7.6. Other verb prefixes 813.7.6.1. (w)al- 'directional* 81
3.7.6.2. -el- 'mentation/inside* 823.7.6.3. -ah- 'buccal* 823.7.6.4. -ih- 'superficial* 833.7.7. Order of verb prefixes when (w)al- or -el- is present 833.7.8. Verb moods and voices 843.7.8.1. 'Imperative'/'Optative'/'Subjunctive' 843.7.8.2. 'Causatives' 853.7.8.3. 'Inchoatives' 863.7.8.3.1. 'Inchoatives'with-ua/-wi/-wa 863.7.8.3.2. 'Inchoatives' of "perception" or "sensation" (-ya) 883.7.8.3.3. ^ _ " t o become" 89
3.7.8.4. 'Passives' (-1, -lu, -lw, and -ua) 893.7.8.5. 'Applicatives' 903.7.8.6. 'Diffusion' 913.7.8.7. 'Repetitives' of 'diffusion' verbs (-ka 'intransitives',-tsa 'transitives' 923.7.9. Verb stems 933.7.9.1. Suppletion 933.7.9.2. Reduplication 953.7.10. Incorporation 953.7.10.1. Adjective incorporation 953.7.10.2. Instrumental noun incorporation 963.7.10.3. Object incorporation 97
Chapter 4Syntax 1014.0. Introduction 1014.1. Word order 1014.1.1. Word order conclusions 1094.1.2. Pronominal indirect objects 109
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4.2. " t o b e " 1104.2.1. Pronominal copula 1104.2.2. 0-copula I l l4.2.3. Locative nemi I l l4.2.4. 'Existential* nemi I l l4.2.5. Other "tobe" cases 1124.2.5.1. Emphatic states 1124.2.5.2. " T o b e " questions 1124.2.5.3. Irregular " t o b e " forms 113
4.3. Non-distinct arguments 1134.4. Questions 1144.4.1. Yes-no questions 1144.4.2. Wh-questions 1144.5. Imperatives 1154.5.1. Imperative and hortatory sentences 1154.5.2. Negative imperatives 1164.6. Possession 1174.6.1. Pronominal possession 1174.6.2. Nominal possession 1174.6.3. pal periphrastic possession 1184.6.4. piya " t o have" 1184.6.5. Possessive'relational noun' 1194.7. Locatives (see 3.5) 1204.8. Demonstratives (see 3.3) 1204.9. Adjective in larger constructions 1204.10. Comparatives 1214.11. Coordination 1214.11.1. Wan " a n d " 1214.11.2. Pero, pe:ro 1234.11.3. Ni, ni ke "(neither) nor " ; mas bien "rather " 1244.11.4. Sino " b u t (not)" 1244.11.5. Ma " b u t" 1254.11.6. Gapping 1254.12. Complement clauses 1254.12.1. ka(h) 1254.12.2. Tay/ta: 1274.12.3. 0 127
4.13. Cleft sentences 1274.14. Relative clauses 1284.14.1. Relativized subjects 1294.14.2. Relativized objects 1294.15. Adverbial clauses 1304.15.1. Locative clauses 1304.15.2. Time clauses 131
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4.15.3. M anne r clauses 1324.15 .4. Reason clauses 1324.15.5. Pu rpos e clauses (pal) 1344.16. Conditional sentences 1354.17. Auxiliaries 1364.1 7.1 . Nem i * progressive* 1364.17.2. Yaw['periphrastic future' 1374.17.3. Yawi " t o g o " auxiliary 1384.17.4. weli " to be able, c a n " 1394.17.5. pe:wa " to begin, st ar t" 1394.18. Complex verb phrases 1404.18.1. Wi:ts + verb 1414.18.2. Ki:sa + verb 1414.18.3. -neki + verb 1414.18.4. Other verb + verb form s (Equi-N P Delition) 1424.19. -chiwa + Spanish infinitive 143Chapter 5Pipil-Spanish-Eng lish Diction ary 1455.0. Introdu ction 145Chapter 6Span ish-Pipil Dictiona ry 5956.0. Introdu ction 595Chapter 7Texts 8667.0. Introdu ction 866Los Hu racan eros (H) 867Th e Hu rricaners (English version) 871El Arc o (A) 873
Th e Ar ch (English version) 876La Sigu anab a (S) 878Th e Sigu anaba (English version) 883El Sipitillo (Sip) 885Th e Sipitillo (English version) 886His toria de un Rey (R) 887Th e Story of a King (English version) 892El Na nah uatzin (N) 894
The Na nahu atzin (English version) 907
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Appendix 1 Pipil and Other Varieties of Nahua 911Appendix 2 Varieties of Nahua in Guatemala 936Bibliography 943
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Chapter 1Introduct ion
( ) I n t r o d u c t i o nTh e n a t i v e l a n g u a g e o f w e s t e r n E l S a l v a d o r , t h e s u b j e c t o f t h i sb o o k , i s k n o wn i n t h e l i n g u i s t i c l i t e r a t u r e a s P i p i l , a l t h o u g h i t s
s p e a k e r s c a l l i t n a : w a t i n t h e l a n g u a g e i t s e l f a n d Na h u a t e i nS p a n i s h , He r e i t i s c a l l e d P i p i l b e c a u s e t h i s u s a g e i s s o s t r o n g l ye n t r e n c h e d i n t h e s c i e n t i f i c l i t e r a t u r e t h a t i t c o u l d n o t e a s i l y b ec h a n g e d . Ne v e r t h e l e s s , i t i s t o b e h o p e d t h a t Na s wa t ( Na h u a t e ) ma yg a i n m o r e g e n e r a l a c c e p t a n c e i n h o n o r o f a n d i n d e f e r e n c e t o i t ss p e a k e r s . T h i s b o o k , t h e n , p r e s e n t s a d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h i sl a n g u a g e .T h i s c h a p t e r i s c o n c e r n e d wi t h t h e p r e s e n t a n d p a s t g e o g r a p h i c a l
d i s t r i b u t i o n o f P i p i l , i t s h i s t o r y t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t i t i s k n o wn ,i t s g e n e t i c c l a s s i f i c a t i o n , a n d i t s d i a l e c t s . Th e f o l l o wi n g t h r e ec h a p t e r s p r e s e n t a d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e l a n g u a g e ' s s t r u c t u r e : i t sp h o n o l o g y (c h a p t e r 2 ) , i t s l e x i c a l c a t e g o r i e s a n d m o r p h o l o g y (c h a p -t e r 3 ) , a n d i t s s y n t a x ( c h a p t e r 4 ) . C h a p t e r 5 c o n t a i n s t h e P i p i l -S p a n i s h - E n g l i s h d i c t i o n a r y r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e t w o m a i n d i a l e c t s ,C u i s n a h u a t ( C ) a n d S a n t o Do m i n g o d e Gu z m n ( S D) , w i t h o c c a s i o n a lf o r m s f r o m o t h e r d i a l e c t s . C h a p t e r 6 i s t h e S p a n i s h - P i p i ld i c t i o n a r y . C h a p t e r 7 c o n t a i n s f o l k l o r i c t e x t s a c c o m p a n i e d b y am o r p h e m e - b y - m o r p h e m e a n a l y s i s a n d t r a n s l a t i o n i n S p a n i s h a n d a m o r ef l o w i n g E n g l i s h n a r r a t i v e t r a n s l a t i o n . Ma n y o f t h e e x a m p l e s c i t e di n o t h e r c h a p t e r s a r e t a k e n f r o m t h e s e t e x t s , w h i c h a r e c o d e d w i t ha l e t t e r t o i d e n t i f y t h e n a r r a t i v e i n v o l v e d a n d a n u m b e r w h i c hr e f e r s t o t h e l i n e w i t h i n t h e t e x t . Th e a p p e n d i c e s c o n t a i n a d d i -t i o n a l h i s t o r i c a l i n f o r m a t i o n . Ap p e n d i x 1 c o m p a r e s P i p i l i n d e t a i lw i t h o t h e r s o u t h e r n v a r i e t i e s o f Na h u a i n o r d e r t o d e t e r m i n ep r e c i s e l y i t s r e l a t i o n s h i p t o t h e m . Ap p e n d i x 2 s o l v e s t h e c o n t r o -v e r s i a l q u e s t i o n c o n c e r n i n g t h e Na h u a o f c e n t r a l Gu a t e m a l a , w h i c hh a v e o f t e n b e e n a s s u m e d t o be P i p i l b u t w h i c h t u r n o u t t o b e i no r i g i n p o s t - Co n q u e s t a n d f r o m c e n t r a l Me x i c o .
Th e p u r p o s e o f t h i s b o o k , t h e n , i s t o p r e s e n t a b a s i c r e f e r e n c ewo r k o n P i p i l , a s o r t o f "h a n d b o o k " o f t h e l a n g u a g e .
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Th e f i e l d w o r k , c o l l e c t i o n o f d a t a , a n d a n a l y s i s u p o n wh i c h t h i swo r k i s b a s e d we r e d o n e d u r i n g s e v e r a l s t a y s i n P i p i l t e r r i t o r y i nt h e y e a r s f r o m 1 9 7 0 t o 1 9 7 6 . I n t h e s u m m e r o f 1 9 7 0 a n d a g a i n i n1 9 7 2 I c o l l e c t e d i n f o r m a t i o n on P i p i l d i a l e c t s f r o m a l l t h e l o c a -t i o n s wh e r e I c o u l d d e t e r m i n e t h a t t h e r e w e r e s t i l l s p e a k e r s ( c f .s e c t i o n 1 . 4 ) , I w o r k e d i n S a n t o Do m i n g o d e Gu z m n d u r i n g t h es u m m e r s o f 1 9 7 3 a n d 1 9 7 6 , a n d f o r s e v e r a l m o n t h s i n 1 9 7 4 .Cu i s n a h u a t d a t a w e r e o b t a i n e d d u r i n g v i s i t s i n t h e s u m m e r o f 1 9 7 5a n d i n a l o n g e r s t a y i n 1 9 7 6 . Th e wo r k wa s c o m p l e t e d , i t s h o u l d b ep o i n t e d o u t , b e f o r e t h e r e c e n t u p s u r g e o f v i o l e n c e a n d p o l i t i c a lt u r m o i l , a n d s h o u l d t h e r e f o r e h a v e n o p o l i t i c a l c o n s e q u e n c e s .Ne v e r t h e l e s s , g i v e n t h e s e n s i t i v i t i e s o n a l l s i d e s o f t h e c o n f l i c ta n d t h e p o t e n t i a l f o r m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g , i t s e e m s w i s e s t f o r t h es a k e o f a l l wh o wo r k e d w i t h me t o p r e s e n t n o m o r e s p e c i f i c i n f o r m a -t i o n a b o u t s p e a k e r s , b u t r a t h e r i n i t s p l a c e t o o f f e r t h e d e e p e s th o p e f o r i m p r o v e d c o n d i t i o n s a nd a n e nd t o v i o l e n c e .
1 . 1 . S o c i a l a n d g e o g r a p h i c a l p o s i t i o n . To d a y P i p i l i s l i t t l eu s e d , s p o k e n by o n l y a f e w , e l d e r l y p e o p l e i n a s m a l l n u m b e r o ft o w n s m a i n l y i n t h e d e p a r t m e n t s o f S o n s o n a t e a n d Ah u a c h a p a n o fe a s t e r n El S a l v a d o r : Co m a z a g u a , Co n c e p c i n d e At a c o , Cu i s n a h u a t ,C h i l t i u p a n , I z a l c o , J i c a l a p a , J u a y u a , Na h u i l i n g o , Na h u i z a l c o , Sa n t aCa t a r i n a Ma z a g u a t , S a n t a I s a b e l I s h u a t n , S a n t o Do m i n go de Gu zm n ,T a c u b a , a n d T e o t e p e q u e ( s e e s e c t i o n 1 . 4 . f o r d e t a i l s ) . T h e e x a c tn u m b e r o f s p e a k e r s i s u n k n o w n , s i n c e m a n y a r e r e l e c t a n t t o b ei d e n t i f i e d a s s p e a k e r s . T h i s i s d u e t o d i s t r u s t c o n d i t i o n e d b yP i p i l e x p e r i e n c e i n r e c e n t h i s t o r y , n o t t h e l e a s t o f w h i c h wa s t h es o - c a l l e d "m a t a n z a " o r m a s s a c r e o f I n d i a n s i n 1 9 3 2 c o u p l e d wi t h t h eg o v e r n m e n t d e c r e e t h a t I n d i a n l a n g u a g e s c o u l d n o l o n g e r l e g a l l y b es p o k e n . Th u s o n l y v e r y r o u g h e s t i m a t e s o f t h e n um b e r o f s p e a k e r sa r e a v a i l a b l e . I n m o s t v i l l a g e s o n l y t wo o r t h r e e e l d e r l y i n d i v i -d u a l s s t i l l s p e a k t h e l a n g u a g e . Th e g r e a t e s t c o n c e n t r a t i o n s a r e i nCu i s n a h u a t ( C) a n d Sa n t o Do m i n go d e Gu zm n ( SD) . I n a n y c a s e , t h el a n g u a g e i s q u i t e m o r i b u n d , wi t h n o f u l l y f l u e n t y o u n g e r s p e a k e r s .Wh i l e c e n s u s a n d o t h e r o f f i c i a l r e p o r t s s o m e t i m e s p l a c e t h e nu m b e ra s h i g h a s 2 , 0 0 0 , my o wn g u e s s i s t h a t i t i s m uc h l o w e r , p e r h a p s a sl o w a s 2 0 0 .
F o r m e r l y , P i p i l w a s s p o k e n i n a w i d e a r e a i n c l u d i n g s c a t t e r e dl o c a t i o n s f r o m Gu a t e m a l a t o P a n a ma ( c f . S t o n e 1 9 4 9 , F o wl e r 1 9 8 1 ) .I t i s n o w e x t i n c t e v e r y w h e r e e x c e p t f o r t h e s e f e w p l a c e s i n E lS a l v a d o r .
1 . 2 . C l a s s i f i c a t i o n . P i p i l b e l o n g s t o a b r a n c h o f l a n g u a g e st h a t h a s b e e n c a l l e d v a r i o u s l y Na h u a , A z t e c , N a h u a t l a n , Az t e c a n ,e t c . , w h i c h i s i t s e l f a s u b g r o u p o f t h e Ut o - Az t e c a n f a m i l y ( o f t e n
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c a l l e d Yu t o - Na h u a i n L a t i n Am e r i c a n s o u r c e s ) . F o r m o r e d e t a i l s ,s e e C a m p b e l l a n d L a n g a c k e r 1 9 7 8 , Ca n g e r 1 9 8 0 , L a s t r a d e S u r e z1 9 7 5 , a n d S u l l i v a n 1 9 8 0 . Th e l e a s t c o n t r o v e r s i a l c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o fUt o - Az t e c a n h a s e i g h t b r a n c h e s o r s u b g r o u p s :UTO- AZTECANI . Nu m i c ( P l a t e a u Sh o s h o n e )1 . Mo n o ( Mo n a c h i ) , P a v i o t s o2 . P a n a m i n t , Sh o s h o n e3 . K a w a a i s u , U t eI I . TUb a t u l a b a l ( Ke r n Ri v e r )I I I . Ta k i c (S o u t h e r n C a l i f o r n i a So s h o n e )1 . S e r r a n o , +Ki t a n e m u k , +Va n y u m e , + Al l i k l i k2 . +F e r n a n d e o , + Ga b r i e l e o , + Ni c o l e o3 . C a h u i l l a , Lu i s e o , Cu p e o , +J u a n e oI V . H o p iV . P i m a n1 . P i m a , P a p a g o2 . No r t h e r n Te p e h u a n , So u t h e r n Te p e h u a nV I . T a r a c a h i t i c1 . T a r a h u m a r a
2 . C a h i t a , Va r i h i o ( Gu a r i h i o )3 . O p a t aV I I . Co r a - Hu i c h o l ( Co r a c h o l )1 . C o r a2 . H u i c h o lV I I I . Na h u a ( Az t e c a n , Na h u a t l a n )1 . + P o c h u t e c2 . P i p i l3 . Co r e Na h u a ( a l l o t h e r Na h u a v a r i e t i e s )
No t e : + = e x t i n c t .Ma n y p r o p o s a l s e x i s t f o r h i g h e r - o r d e r , m o r e i n c l u s i v e g r o u p i n g s ,a n d t h e r e i s n o w a n e a r c o n s e n s u s t h a t t h e f a m i l y f i r s t s p l i t i n t ot w o b r a n c h e s , No r t h e r n Ut o - Az t e c a n ( w h i c h i n c l u d e s g r o u p s I - I Vh e r e ) a n d So u t h e r n Ut o - Az t e c a n (g r o u p s V- VI I I ) . Mo r e c o n t r o v e r s i a lp r o p o s a l s h a v e b u n c h e d Ta k i c , Nu m i c , a n d TUb a t u l a b a l i n a p r o p o s e d
S h o s h o n e a n g r o u p a n d h a v e l i n k e d P i m a n a n d T a r a c a h i t i c , a n d a tt i m e s C o r a - Hu i c h o l a n d Na h u a a l s o , i n a g r o u p c a l l e d S o n o r a n .Mi l l e r ' s ( 1 9 8 4 ) r e c e n t c l a s s i f i c a t i o n i s i n t e r m e d i a t e t o t h e s e :
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UTO- AZTECAN1 . N u m i ca . We s t e r n N u m i c : Mo n o , P a v i o t s o ( o r No r -t h e r n P a i u t e ) (Ba n n o c k )b . C e n t r a l N u m i c : P a n a m i n t , S h o s h o n i ,C o m a n c h ec . S o u t h e r n N u m i c : K a w a i i s u , U t e(Ch e m e h u e v i , So u t h e r n P a i u t e , U t e )2 . T u b a t u l a b a l3 . T a k i c
4 . H o p i5 . S o u t h e r n Ut o - Az t e c a nA . S o n o r a na . T e p i m a n : Up p e r P i m a n ( P a p a g o ,P i m a , N e v m e ) , L o w e r P i m a n ,No r t h e r n Te p e h u a n , S o u t h e r nTe p e h u a n ( S o u t h e r n T e p e h u a n ;T e p e c a n o )b . T a r a c a h i t i a n( 1 ) T a r a h u m a r a n : Ta r a h u m a r a( E a s t e r n T a r a h u m a r a ,We s t e r n Ta r a h u m a r a ,S o u t h e r n T a r a h u m a r a ) ,G u a r i j i o ( U p l a n dG u a r i j i o , L o w l a n dG u a r a j o )( 2 ) Op a t a n : Op a t a , Eu d e v e( 3 ) C a h i t a ( M a y o , Y a q u i )c . T u b a rd . Co r a c h o l : Co r a , Hu i c h o l8 . A z t e c a n
a . G e n e r a l A z t e c : P i p i l , A z t e c( C l a s s i c a l A z t e c ,T e t e l c i n g o , Z a c a p o a x t l a ,a n d o t h e r s )b . P o c h u t e cNa me s i n p a r e n t h e s i s a r e d i a l e c t s o f t h e p r e c e d i n gl a n g u a g e . ( Mi l l e r 1 9 8 4 : 1 2 1 . )
S e r r a n o - Ga b r i e l i n o( 1 ) S e r r a n : S e r r a n o , Ki t a n e m u k( 2 ) G a b r i e l i n o ( G a b r i e l i n o ,F e r n a n d i n o )C u p a n( 1 ) C u p e o , C a h u i l l a( 2 ) L u i s e o
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1 . 2 . 1 . " Wh a t ' s i n a n a m e ? " : Na h u a a n d P i p i l . T h e n a m e "N a h u a "i s u s e d h e r e t o r e f e r t o a n y v a r i e t y , b e i t a d i a l e c t o r i n d e p e n -d e n t l a n g u a g e , o f t h e Na h u a s u b g r o u p . T h i s t e r m i s p u r p o s e f u l l yn o n s p e c i f i c t o a v o i d t h e c o n f u s i o n t h a t o t h e r n a m e s u s e d i n t h el i t e r a t u r e h a v e p r o d u c e d . I t i s i m p o r t a n t t o e x p l a i n s o m e o f t h e s et e r m s i n o r d e r t o u n r a v e l s o m e o f t h i s c o n f u s i o n .No r t h Am e r i c a n l i n g u i s t s t e n d t o s p e a k o f t h e "Az t e c " l a n g u a g e .T h i s , h o w e v e r , i s u n c l e a r b e c a u s e t h e l a n g u a g e i s n o t a d i r e c tr e f l e c t i o n o f Az t e c c u l t u r e , s i n c e i t w a s s p o k e n c o n t e m p o r a n e o u s l ya l s o b y n o n - Az t e c s ( e . g . t h e T l a x c a l a n s ) . Ot h e r n a m e s wh i c h h a v eb e e n u s e d i n r e f e r e n c e t o v a r i e t i e s o f Na h u a a r e : Na h u a t l , Na h u a t ,Na h u a t e ( Na g u a t e ) , Me j i c a n o ( Me x i c a n o ) , Me j i c a n o Co r r u p t o (Co r r u p tMe x i c a n ) , P i p i l N i c a r a o , e t c . P o c h u t e c o f Oa x a c a ( n o w e x t i n c t ,s e e Bo a s 1 9 1 7 ) i s t h e m o s t d i v e r g e n t l a n g u a g e o f t h e s u b g r o u p .Wh i l e t h e c a s e i s l e s s c l e a r , I b e l i e v e t h a t Ce n t r a l Am e r i c a n P i p i ls h o u l d a l s o b e c o n s i d e r e d a d i s t i n c t l a n g u a g e , b u t m o r e s i m i l a r t oo t h e r v a r i e t i e s t h a n P o c h u t e c i s . Al l o t h e r s a r e c o n s i d e r e d d i a -l e c t s o f a s i n g l e l a n g u a g e , c a l l e d h e r e "C o r e N a h u a " . ( F o r m o r ed e t a i l s c o n c e r n i n g Na h u a d i a l e c t o l o g y , s e e Ca m p b e l l a n d La n g a c k e r1 9 7 8 , C a n g e r 1 9 7 8 , 1 9 8 0 , 1 9 8 3 , L a s t r a d e S u r e z 1 9 7 4 ; c f . a l s oa p p e n d i c e s 1 a n d 2 . )
Ab o v e a l l , i t i s i m p o r t a n t t o c l a r i f y t h e t e r m " P i p i l " . F o rs o m e s c h o l a r s "P i p i l " s i g n i f i e s o n l y t h e P i p i l l a n g u a g e o f Ce n t r a lAm e r i c a ; t h i s i s i t s m os t c o m mo n i n t e n d e d m e a n i n g i n t h e s c i e n t i f i cl i t e r a t u r e a n d i t i s t h e u s a g e p r o p o s e d h e r e a s t h e o n l y c l e a r a n da c c e p t a b l e m e a n i n g f o r t h e t e r m . Ne v e r t h e l e s s , f r e q u e n t l y " P i p i l "h a s b e e n e m p l o y e d n o t o n l y f o r Ce n t r a l Am e r i c a n P i p i l , b u t a l s o f o rr e f e r i n g t o Na h u a d i a l e c t s o f s o u t h e r n Ve r a c r u z , Ta b a s c o , a n dCh i a p a s ( s o u t h e r n Me x i c a n s t a t e s ) ; c f . , f o r e x a m p l e , F o wl e r 1 98 1 ,1 9 8 4 , Ga r c a d e Le n 1 9 7 6 , H a s l e r 1 9 5 8 a , 1 9 5 8 b , 1 9 6 1 , 1 9 7 6 , Kn a b1 9 8 0 , La w 1 9 5 6 , N a v a r r e t e 1 9 7 5 : 2 7 9 , R e y e s G a r c i a 1 9 5 8 , S w a d e s h1 9 5 4 - 1 9 5 5 , e t c . A d e t a i l e d a n a l y s i s ( s e e a p p e n d i x 1 ) o f t h ea v a i l a b l e d a t a s h o w s t h a t a t o n e l e v e l t h e s e t h r e e v a r i e t i e s ,C e n t r a l Am e r i c a n P i p i l , C h i a p a s Na h u a , a n d d i a l e c t s o f s o u t h e r nVe r a c r u z a n d Ta b a s c o , s h a r e c e r t a i n t r a i t s wh i c h s u g g e s t a p o s s i b l ec l o s e r h i s t o r i c a l c o n n e c t i o n a m o n g t h e m ( C a n g e r 1 9 8 0 , L a s t r a d eS u r e z 1 9 7 4 ) . On t h e o t h e r h a n d , C e n t r a l Am e r i c a n P i p i l i s i ns e v e r a l r e s p e c t s q u i t e d i s t i n c t f r o m t h e s e a n d a l l o t h e r Na h u av a r i e t i e s . At i s s u e , t h e n , i s b o t h t h e n a m e a n d t h ec l a s s i f i c a t i o n . T h e d i f f e r e n c e s a r e s u f f i c i e n t t o r e q u i r e ad i s t i n c t n a me i n o r d e r t o a v o i d c o n f u s i o n . Ho we v e r , t h e q u e s t i o no f c l a s s i f i c a t i o n i s c o m p l i c a t e d b y t h e n e e d t o i n t e r p r e t b o t h t h es h a r e d s i m i l a r i t i e s a n d t h e d i f f e r e n c e s . Th o s e wh o e m p h a s i z e t h es i m i l a r i t i e s c l a s s i f y C e n t r a l Am e r i c a n P i p i l c l o s e r t o t h e s e
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v a r i e t i e s , b u t i t s d i f f e r e n c e s s u g g e s t a c l a s s i f i c a t i o n w h i c hr e f l e c t s g r e a t e r d i s t a n c e a n d d i v e r g e n c e .Amo n g t h e m o r e m a r ke d d i f f e r e n c e s , i t i s wo r t h p o i n t i n g o u t t h e
f o l l o w i n g :1 ) P i p i l h a s - _t f p l u r a l f w h e r e o t h e r s h a v e - h ( o rw h i c h c o r r e s p o n d s t o h i n o t h e r d i a l e c t s ) ; c f . s e c t i o n3 . 1 . 4 .2 ) I n P i p i l - t u - k i s t h e ' p e r f e c t * o r ' p a s tp a r t i c i p l e ' ( c f . s e c t i o n 3 . 7 .2 .3 ) , w h i l e i n o t h e r s - t u k/ - t o k i s a p r o g r e s s i v e e n d i n g , s o m e t i m e s u s e da d j e c t i v a l l y . F o r e x a m p l e , i n P i p i l wa :k - t u k m e a n s "d r y "( ' a d j e c t i v e ' ) o r " i t h a s d r i e d " ( ' p e r f e c t ' ) , b u t i nP a j a p a n , V e r a c r u z c o r r e s p o n d i n g w a : k - t o k m e a n s " d r y "( ' a d j e c t i v e ' ) b u t a l s o " i t i s d r y i n g " ( ' p r o g r e s s i v e ' ) .3 ) P i p i l h a s n o a b s o l u t i v e s u f f i x w i t h n o u n s t h a t e ndi n - 1 a n d i t s o c c u r r e n c e w i t h p o l y s y l l a b i c n o u n s e n d i n gw i t h o t h e r c o n s o n a n t s i s v e r y l i m i t e d . T h e s e o t h e rv a r i e t i e s h a v e t h e a b s o l u t i v e s u f f i x i n t h e s e c o n t e x t s .4 ) I n P i p i l t h e s e q u e n c e k wa w g e n e r a l l y d i d n o t b e c o mek o a s i t d i d i n s e v e r a l o f t h e s e o t h e r v a r i e t i e s .5 ) P i p i l h a s a n u m b e r o f l e x i c a l a n d o t h e r s p o r a d i cd i f f e r e n c e s , f o r e x a m p l e : n u : t s a " t o s p e a k "( c o r r e s p o n d i n g f o r m s me a n "t o c a l l " i n o t h e r s ) , n e m i "t ob e " ( " t o l i v e " i n o t h e r s ) , a t i m e - t " l o u s e " ( a t e m i - t o ra t i m i - t i n o t h e r s ) , e t c . ( c f . a p p e n d i x 1 f o r m o r ed e t a i l s ) .
Wh i l e t h e s e d i f f e r e n c e s a r e c l e a r l y s i g n i f i c a n t , t h e i rh i s t o r i c a l w e i g h t i s n o t c l e a r i n e a c h c a s e , s i n c e i t i s i np r i n c i p l e p o s s i b l e t h a t t h e s e v a r i e t i e s c h a n g e d a f t e r P i p i l s p l i to f f ( a p o s s i b i l i t y i n 4 , f o r e x a m p l e ) o r t h a t P i p i l i n n o v a t e d a f t e ri t s s e p a r a t i o n ( p o s s i b l e i n 5 ) . Wi t h s u c h d i f f e r e n c e s i t i s c l e a rt h a t t h e t e r m " P i p i l " s h o u l d b e u s e d w i t h c a u t i o n . I t i sp r e f e r i b l e t o r e s e r v e i t s u s e s o l e l y f o r Ce n t r a l Am e r i c a n P i p i l i no r d e r t o a v o i d c o n f u s i o n . T h e c o m p l i c a t e d q u e s t i o n o f P i p i l ' sc l a s s i f i c a t i o n w i t h i n Na h u a i s t a k e n up i n d e t a i l i n Ap p e n d i x 1 .1 . 3 . E t h n o h i s t o r y . Ha v i n g c o n s i d e r e d t h e p o s i t i o n o f P i p i l , In o w t u r n t o i t s h i s t o r y . T h e r e a r e h i s t o r i c a l t r a d i t i o n sc o n c e r n i n g t h e a r r i v a l o f t h e P i p i l s t o C e n t r a l Am e r i c a . Wh i l et h e y p r o v i d e i m p o r t a n t i n f o r m a t i o n , t h e i r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i s n o tw i t h o u t c o m p l i c a t i o n s . T h e a c c o u n t s a r e r e g i s t e r e d i n t w o m a i ns o u r c e s , T o r q u e m a d a ( 1 6 1 5 / 1 9 6 9 / ) a n d Ov i e d o ( 1 9 4 5 / 1 5 5 7 / ) , a n d i ns e v e r a l m i n o r r e f e r e n c e s , e . g . I x t l i l x o c h i t l ( 1 9 5 2 / 1 6 0 0 - 1 6 1 1 / ) ,
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8/3/2019 Campbell the Pipil Language of El Salvador
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C l a v i j e r o ( 1 9 7 4 / c a . l 7 7 5 / ) , a n d F u e n t e s y Gu zr a n ( 1 9 3 2 - 1 9 3 3 / 1 6 9 5 / ) .Th e s e h a v e b e e n i n t e r p r e t e d b y S t o l l ( 1 8 8 4 / 1 9 5 8 / ) , Le h r a a n n ( 1 9 2 0 ) ,Th o m p s o n ( 1 9 4 8 ) , Ch a p ma n ( 1 9 6 0 ) , J i m n e z Mo r e n o (1 9 5 9 , 1 9 6 6 ) , Le nP o r t i l l a ( 1 9 7 2 ) , Ca m p b e l l ( 1 9 7 8 ) a n d F o wl e r ( 1 9 8 1 , 1 9 8 3 ) . I b e g i nt h i s s u r v e y by c i t i n g t h e p r i ma r y a c c o u n t s , wh i c h r e p o r t t h e o r a lt r a d i t i o n s o f t h e Ni c a r a o . To r q u e ma d a t e l l s i t t h i s w a s :
S e g n s e p l a t i c a , e n t r e l o s n a t u r a l e s d e e s t a T i e r r a ,m a i o r m e n t e l o s v i e j o s , d i c e n , q u e l o s I n d i o s d eNi c a r a g u a , y l o s d e Ni c o y a ( q u e p o r o t r o No m b r e , s e d i c e nMa n g n e s (Ma n g u e s ) a n t i g u a m e n t e t u v i e r o n s u Ha b i t a c i n e ne l De s p o b l a d o d e Xo c o n o c h c o ( S o c o n u s c o ) , q u e e s e n l aGo v e r n a c i o n d e Me x i c o . Lo s d e N i c o y a , d e c i e n d e n d e l o sCh o l o l t e c a s . Mo r a r a n a c i a l a S i e r r a , l a T i e r r a a d e n t r o ;y l o s Ni c a r a g u a s , q u e s o n d e l a d e An a h u a c , Me x i c a n o s ,h a b i t a b a n a c i a l a Co s t a d e l Ma r d e l S u r . L a v n a , y l ao t r a e r a m u i g r a n m u l t i t u d d e G e n t e ; d i c e n q u e a v r as i e t e , u o c h o e d a d e s o v i d a s d e V i e j o s , y e s t o s q u ev i v i a n l a r g a v i d a , h a s t a v e n i r a s e r m u i An c i a n o s , q u ev i v i a n t a n t o , q u e d e v i e j o s l o s s a c a b a n a l S o l . En a q u e lt i e m p o v i n o s o b r e e l l o s v n g r a n d e E x e r c i t o d e Ge n t e , s ed e c i a n , Ol m e c a s . E s t o s d i c e n q u e v i n i e r o n d e c i aMe x i c o , y q ue a n t i g u a m e n t e a v i a n s i d o Ca p i t a l e s E n e m i g o sd e a q u e l l o s , q u e e s t a b a n p o b l a d o s , e n e l De s p o b l a d o , q u ea o r a e s e n t r e Xo c o n o c h c o ( S o c o n u s c o ) , y T e q u a n t e p e c( Te h u a n t e p e c ) . Es t o s Ol m e c a s , d i e r o n Gu e r r a , v e n c i e r o n ,y s u j e t a r o n a l o s Na t u r a l e s , y p u s i r o n l e s g r a n d e sT r i b u t o s , . . .
d e m a n d a r o n Co n s e j o s u s Al f a q u i e s , q u e l e sd i x e s e n , q u d e b i a n h a c e r , q u e y n o p o d i a n s u f r i r t a nT i r a n o s T r i b u t o s . . . d i x e r o n : Qu e s e a p e r i c i b i e s e np a r a q u e t o d o s e n v n d i a , l o m a s s e c r e t o , q u e p u d i e s e n ,l e v a n t a s e n s u s Mu g e r e s , y N i o s , y s u s H a c i e n d a s , y s ef u e s e n a d e l a n t e , y d e xa s e n a q u e l l a T i e r r a . . . s a l i e r o nd e a q u e l l a T i e r r a , q u e a n t e s a v i a n m o r a d o , c o n g r a n d ec o n t e n t a m i e n t o , y g u s t o .
De s p u e s , q u e c o m e n t a r o n c a m i n a r , l o s v e i n t e d i a ss e l e s m u r i v n o d e l o s d o s Al f a q u i e s P r i n c i p a l e s , q u ed i x i m o s . P a s a r o n p o r l a T i e r r a d e G u a u h t e m a l l a n( Gu a t e m a l a ) , y a n d u v i e r o n c e r c a d e c i e n Le g u a s a d e l a n t e .Al l e g a r o n v n a P r o v i n c i a , q u e l o s E s p a o l e s l l a m a n l aC h o l u l t e c a , C h o r o t e c a , y a l l i s e l e s m u r i e l o t r oA l f a q u e . An t e s q u e m u r i e s e , l e s d i x o . . . a l o s d eN i c o y a , q u e i b a n e n l a d e l a n t e r a : Vo s o t r o s s o i s m a l o s ,p o r q u e v e r n ( v e n d r ) t i e m p o , q u e s e r v i e r e i s v n o s
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Ho m b r e s B l a n c o s B a r b u d o s , . . . y o s t r a t a r n m a l , yp e o r , q u e l o s Ol m e c a s .T a m b i n d i x o l o s Ol m e c a s : Vo s o t r o s i r i s , yp o b l a r e i s c e r c a d e l a Ma r , q u e e s l a d e e l S u r , c i a e lOc c i d e n t e , q u e a o r a l l a m a n e l Go l f o d e Sa n Lu c a r , y a l l is e h a c e v n b u e n P u e r t o , c e r c a d e v n a I s l a , q u e l a l l a m a nC h i r a , y f u e p o b l a d a d e Ge n t e q u a s i d e s n u d a , y s o nO l l e r o s , y s i r v e n s e d e e l l o s , l o s d e Ni c o y a . . .A l o s d e N i c a r a g u a d i x o e l A l f a q u i : V o s o t r o sp o b l a r e i s c e r c a d e v n a Ma r d u l c e , q u e t i e n e v i s t a , v n aI s l a , e n l a q u a l a i d o s S i e r r a s a l t a s r e d o n d a s ; y t a m b i nq u e d e t o d a a q u e l l a T i e r r a s e a v i a d e e n s e o r e a r , y l o st r a t a r i a n c o m o a l o s d e Ni c o y a .E s t a Ge n e r a c i n v i n o p o r l a C o s t a d e l Ma r d e l S u r , yp a s a r o n p o r T i e r r a d e Qu a u h t e m a l l a n ( G u a t e m a l a ) , e n t r el o s N a t u r a l e s d e a q u e l l a T i e r r a . E s t o s a d o n d e v e a na l g n b u e n A s i e n t o , p a r a p o b l a r , p o b l a b a n , y d e e s t aG e n e r a c i n , s o n l o s q u e e n l a Na c i n d e Qu a u h t e m a l l a n ,l l a m a n P i p i l e s , c o m o s o n l o s P u e b l o s , q u e l l a m a n l o sE ^ a l c o s ( I z a l c o ) , q u e e s l a m a i o r , y m e j o r H u e r t a , y m a sa b u n d a n t e , y r i c a d e C a c a o , y Al g o d o n , q u e a i e n t o d a l aNu e v a - Es p a a , a u n q u e e n t r e d e n t r o , t o d a l a Go v e r n a c i n d eGu a u h t e m a l l a n . E l P u e b l o d e Mi c t l a n ( Mi t l a ) , y e l d eYz c u i n t l a n ( E s c u i n t l a ) , y o t r o s a l g u n o s , d e x a r o n p o b l a d o sa q u e l l o s I n d i o s , q u e p a s a r o n a d e l a n t e .T a m b i n s e d i c e , q u e d e e s t a Ge n e r a c i n d e I n d i o s ,f u e r o n a l g u n o s d e e l l o s a t r a v e s a n d o , y a p o r t a r o n l a Ma rd e l No r t e , y c e r c a d e l De s a g u a d e r o , e s t v n P u e b l o d ee l l o s , y h a b l a n e n Le n g a ( s i c ) Me x i c a n a , n o t a n c o r r u p t a ,c o m o e s t o t r a d e l o s P i p i l e s . . . ( T o r q u e m a d a1 9 6 9 / 1 6 1 5 / . 1 : 3 3 1 - 3 ) .
Ov i e d o ( 1 5 5 7 / 1 9 4 5 / ) , wh o p u b l i s h e d r e p o r t s f r o m F r a y F r a n c i s c od e B o b a d i l l a , t o g e t h e r w i t h h i s o wn o b s e r v a t i o n s , p r o v i d e d t h ef o l l o w i n g :No s o m o s n a t u r a l e s d e a q u e s t a t i e r r a , h m u c h o t i e m p oq u e n u e s t o r s p r e d e s e s s o r e s v i e n i e r o n ( s i c ) e l l a , n os e n o s a c u e r d a q u e t a n t o h , p o r q u e n o f u e n n u e s t r ot i e m p o . . . La t i e r r a , d e d o n d e v i n i e r o n n u e s t r o sp r o g e n i t o r e s , s e d i $ e T i c o m e g a Ma g u a t e g a , y e s h c i ad o n d e s e p o n e e l s o l : v i n i r o n s e p o r q u e e n a q u e l l at i e r r a t e n a n a m o s , a q u i e n Se r v i a n , l o s t r a t a b a n m a l. . . ( C i t e d b y Le h m a n n 1 9 2 0 : 1 0 0 4 . )
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I x t l i l x o c h i t l ( 1 6 9 5 / 1 9 5 2 / ) a l s o s p o k e o f t h e s e m i g r a t i o n s ,r e l a t i n g t h e m t o t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f t h e To l t e c k i n g d o m i n 9 5 9 A.D.a n d Xo l o t l ' s e n t r a n c e :. . . y l o s p o c o s t u l t e c a s q u e h a b a n e s c a p a d o d e s ud e s t r u c c i n , l o s d e j v i v i r e n l o s p u e s t o s y l u g a r e s e nd o n d e e s t a b a n r e f o r m a d o s y p o b l a d o s c a d a u n o c o n s uf a m i l i a , q u e f u e n Ch a p o l t e p e c , Co l h u a c a n , T l a t z a l a n t e -p e x o x o m a , To t o l a p a n , Qu a u h q u e c h o l a n , y h a s t a l a s c o s t a sd e l ma r d e l No r t e e n T o z a p a n , To c h p a n , T z i u h c o a c yXi c o t e p e c , y l o m i s m o e n C h o l o l a n , a u n q u e a l g u n o s d ee l l o s n o p a s a r o n s i n o h a s t a l a t i e r r a d e N i c a r a g u a d o n d e f u e r o n p o b l a r , y o t r a s t i e r r a s r e m o t a s , e nd o n d e n o l l e g c o n t a n t a f u e r z a l a s e c a y c a l a m i d a dr e f e r i d a (Do n F e r n a n d o d e Al v a I x t l i l x o c h i t l 1 95 2 . 2 :3 6 - 7 ) .
I n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f t h e s e a c c o u n t s h a v e b e e n v a r i e d a n d a t t i m e sq u i t e c o n t r o v e r s i a l . F o r e x a m p l e , S q u i e r ( 1 8 5 2 ) t o o k t h e p a l m t r e ei n t h e Me x i c a n r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f A z t l a n , t h e l e g e n d a r y n o r t h e r nh o m e l a n d o f t h e Az t e c s , t o m e a n t h a t Na h u a s p e a k e r s m u s t h a v eo r i g i n a t e d i n t h e s o u t h , m i g r a t i n g f r o m Ni c a r a g u a a n d El Sa l v a d o rt o c e n t r a l Me x i c o ( c f . S t o l l 1 9 5 8 / 1 8 8 4 / : 7 - 8 ) . To d a y a l l h o l dS q u i e r ' s v i e w t o b e q u i t e m i s t a k e n , a g r e e i n g t h a t t h e Na h u as p e a k e r s c o me i n t o Me s o a m e r i c a f r o m t h e n o r t h , w i t h s u b s e q u e n tm i g r a t i o n s t o Ce n t r a l Am e r i c a f r o m c e n t r a l Me x i c o .Mo s t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s a t t e m p t t o a n a l y z e To r q u e m a d a a n d Ov i e d o .Ac c o r d i n g t o T o r q u e m a d a ( j u s t c i t e d ) , t h e N i c a r a o l e f t S o c o n u s c o( t h e P a c i f i c Co a s t o f C h i a p a s ) "s e v e n o r e i g h t a g e s o r l i v e s o f a no l d m a n " b e f o r e . T h i s " a g e o f a n o l d m a n " h a s g e n e r a l l y b e e ni n t e r p r e t e d a s t h e p e r i o d c a l l e d i n Na h u a t l h u e h u e t i l i z t l i , wh i c hi s t wo 52- y e a r c y c l e s o f t h e Me s o a m e r i c a n c a l e n d a r , o r 1 0 4 y e a r s .Co n s e q u e n t l y , J i m n e z Mo r e n o ( 1 9 6 6 :6 7 ) a n d mo s t o t h e r s c h o l a r s h a v et a k e n t h i s t o m e a n t h a t t h e P i p i l m i g r a t i o n t o Ce n t r a l Am e r i c a t o o kp l a c e a r o u n d 7 2 8 t o 8 3 2 y e a r s b e f o r e i t s t e l l i n g i n 1 5 8 0 , o ra p p r o x i m a t e l y 8 0 0 A. D. Le h m a n n ( 1 9 2 0 : 1 0 0 5 ) , i n c o n t r a s t , h e l d ad i f f e r e n t o p i n i o n :
E s i s t s e h r Wa h r s c h e i n l i c h , d a s s To r q u e m a d a d i e s e nB e r i c h t , d e r o f f e n b a r m e h r e r e Wa n d e r s a g e n i n e i n e v e r -s c h m i l z t , v o n F r a y T o r i b i o Mo t o l i n i a Ub e r n o mm e n h a t . . .Be h Hl t m a n d a s i m Au g e , s o b e z i e h t s i c h d i e Z e i t a n g a b ef i b e r d i e A b w a n d e r u n g d e r N i c a r a o a u s Me x i k o w o h l n i c h ta u f d i e Z e i t T o r q u e m a d a ' s , s o n d e r n a u f d i e j e n i g eMo t o l i n i a ' s (u m 1 5 2 6 ) . Z i e h t m a n d a v o n d i e " 7 - 8G r e i s e n a l t e r " ( e t w a = h u e h u e t i l i z t l i m e x i k a n i s c h = 1 0 4
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J a h r e ? ) n i e d r i g g e r e c h n e t z u 7 X 8 0 = 5 6 0 o d e r 6 4 0J a h r e n a b , s o ko m r a t m a n a u f e t w a 9 6 6 o d e r 8 8 6 n . C h r . ;n i m m t ma n a n , d a s s To r q u er a a da v o n s e i n e r Z e i t ( e t w a s um1 6 0 0 ) r l l c k wSr t s g e r e c h n e t h a t , s o k om m t ma n a u f 1 0 4 0 o d e r9 6 0 n . C h r . D i e E i n w a n d e r u n g d e r Ni c a r a o wl l r de a l s o i nd e n Ze i t r a u m v o n 8 8 6 - 1 04 0 n . Ch r . a n z u s e t z e n s e i n , d .h .e t w a i n d a s 1 0 . n a c h c h r i s t l i c h e J a h r h u n d e r t . Da Ab a e rd i e Ni c a r a o - S p r a c h e w e n i g e r a l t e r t U m l i c h i s t a i s d a sP i p i l v o n S a l v a d o r , s o m u s s d i e Ab wa n d e r u n g d e r I z a l c o se i n e b e t r Hc h t l i c h e Z e i t f r h e r e r f o l g t s e i n , m i n d e s t e n su m 3 0 0 n . C h r . . . . Di e N i c a r a o j e d o c h d i r e k t m i t d e na l t e n P i p i l S a l v a d o r s a u f e i n e S t u f e zu s t e l l e n , w i e e sT o r q u e m a d a t u t , i s t s p r a c h l i c h n i c h t g e r e c h t f e r t i g t( L e h m a n n 1 9 2 0 : 1 0 0 5 ) .
Le h m a n n , c o n t i n u i n g h i s c r i t i c i s m o f T o r q u e m a d a , i d e n t i f i e dOv i e d o ' s Ti c o m e g a a n d Ma g u a t e g a , f r o m wh e n c e t h e Ni c a r a o c a m e , w i t ha Te c u m a n i n Mo r e l o s a n d a Mi a h u a t l a n i n P u e b l a , s i t e s n e a rC h o l u l a , s a y i n g :. . . N i c a r a o - Vo r f a h r e n v o n d o r t e t w a i m o d e r s e i t d e m
1 0 . J h d t . n . C h r . a u s w a n d e r t e n . We n n T o r q u e m a d a d e nS c h a u p l a t z d e r Vt t Lk er we gu ng n i c h t n a c h Ch o l u l a u n d Um g e -b un g v e r l e g t , s o n d e r n n a c h S o c o n u s c o , s o h Hn gt d a s o f f e n -b a r d a m i t z u s a m m e n , d a s s e r d i e Wa n d e r s a g e d e r N i c a r a om i t d e r s c h o n f r h e r e r f o l g t e n d e r P i p i l ( I z a l c o s ) u n dCh i a p a n e k e n v e r s c h m i l z t (Le h m a n n 1 9 2 0 : 1 0 0 6 ) .I t i s n o t c l e a r wh y Le h m a n n i n s i s t e d t h a t t h e Ni c a r a o a r e d i s t i n c tf r o m a n d l a t e r i n t h e i r a r r i v a l t o Ce n t r a l Am e r i c a t h a n t h e P i p i l s .I n d e e d , Le h m a n n g i v e s n o i n d i c a t i o n s c o n c e r n i n g t h e s o u r c e s o rc o n t e n t s o f t h e o t h e r l e g e n d s s u p p o s e d l y f u s e d b y To r q u e m a d a , a n dh e f o r g o t t h a t To r q u e m a d a s p o k e o f t h e i r a r r i v a l i n So c o n u s c o f r o mAn a h u a c , i d e n t i f i e d w i t h t h e Va l l e y o f Ch o l u l a ( c f . Ch a p ma n 1 9 6 0 ) .T h u s , To r q u e m a d a wa s n o t i n f a c t g u i l t y , a s Le h m a n n ' s c l a i m e d , o fp l a c i n g t h e s c e n e e r r o n e o u s l y i n So c o n u s c o i n s t e a d o f n e a r C h o l u l a .No r d i d Le h m a n n p r e s e n t a n y s u b s t a n t i a l l i n g u i s t i c e v i d e n c e t os u p p o r t t h i s v i e w . I n f a c t , h i s b e l i e f t h a t P i p i l i s o l d e r s e e m sr a t h e r t o s t e m f r o m a d e p e n d e n c e o n t h e e r r o n e o u s c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o fNa h u a d i a l e c t s i n t o t h e s o - c a l l e d t l - a n d 1^ - d i a l e c t s , c o u p l e dw i t h h i s c o n v i c t i o n t h a t t h e J t - d i a l e c t s , o f w h i c h P i p i l i s ar e p r e s e n t a t i v e , a r e o l d e r t h a n t l - d i a l e c t s :
Au s d i e s e r E i g e n t Um l i c h k e i t d a r f m a n wo h l d e n S c h l u s sZ i e h e n , d a s s d i e t l - l o s e n Di a l e k t e s i c h v o m T o l t e k i s c h e n
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a b l e i t e n , d a s j a e b e n e i n vo m Az t e k i s c h e n ( Me x i k a n i s c h e n )" e t w a s " a b w e i c h e n d e s I d i o m , e i n N a h u a t , w a r . Mi t h i nm Us s e n d i e Na h u a t l - P i p i l Di a l e k t e i n i h r e m Ur s p r u n g S l t e rs e i n a i s d i e s c h o n a l t e r t Um l i c h e n Hy m n e n S a h a g u n ' s , w e i ld a s To l t e k i s c h e de m Az t e k i s c h e n s p r a c a h l i c h , k u l t u r h i s t o -r i s c h u n d a r c h Mo l o g i s c h v o r h e r g e h t . Da d a s I z a l c o v o nS a l v a d o r n a c h m e i n e n Au f n a h m e n v o l l e r e g r a m m a t i s c h e F o r -m e n b e w a h r t a i s d a s Me x i k a n i s c h - Az t e k i s c h e , s o f o l g td a r a u s , d a s s d a s e r s t e A l t a z t e k i s c h e d e r Hy m n e nS a h a g u n ' s , H l t e r a i s d a s P i p i l Gu a t e m a l a s ( Le h m a n n1 9 2 0 : 9 9 0 ) .
L e h m a n n ' s e q u a t i o n o f - d i a l e c t s w i t h t h e T o l t e c s a n d h e n c eP i p i l ( a - d i a l e c t ) m i g r a t i o n s w i t h t h e T o l t e c d i s p e r s i o n h a s b e e ni m p o r t a n t , n o t b e c a u s e i t i s n e c e s s a r i l y a c c u r a t e , b u t b e c a u s e i th a s b e e n i n f l u e n t i a l . F o r e x a m p l e , Lu c k e n b a c h a n d Le v y ( 1 9 8 0 ) a n dF o w l e r ( 1 9 8 1 ) p r e s e n t s u c h n e a r l y i d e n t i c a l c o n c l u s i o n s a b o u t m u l -t i p l e m i g r a t i o n s ( w i t h P i p i l a n d Ni c a r a o s e p a r a t e d ) , T o l t e c c o n n e c -t i o n s , p r o p o s e d d a t e s , a n d t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f - d i a l e c t s (a s o p p o s e dp a r t i c u l a r l y t o t l - d i a l e c t s ) , t h a t i t i s d i f f i c u l t t o b e l i e v e t h e i rc o n c l u s i o n s we r e n o t s t r o n g l y i n f l u e n c e d b y Le h m a n n ' s o p i n i o n s .No t w i t h s t a n d i n g Le h m a n n ' s i n f l u e n c e o n l a t e r s t u d i e s , h i s c o n -c l u s i o n s s e e m a l s o c o n d i t i o n e d by h i s p o s s i b l e r e a d i n g o f e a r l i e rs o u r c e s . F o r e x a m p l e , I x t l i l x o c h i t l ( c i t e d a b o v e ) c l a i m e d t h a t t h eT o l t e c d i a s p o r a r e s u l t e d i n m i g r a t i o n s t o Ni c a r a g u a Ni c a r a o (a n dP i p i l ) b e i n g - d i a l e c t s . C l a v i j e r o c o u l d a l s o b e t h e s o u r c e :Sa b e m o s q u e l o s T o l t e c a s y l o s Ci c i m e c a s ( Ch i c h i m e c a s ) ,l o s C i c i m e c a s ( s i c ) y l o s Ac o l h u i s s e c o m u n i c a b a n e nc o m n e n t r e s i d e s d e e l p r i n c i p i o , y s e e n t e n d a n r e c -p r o c a m e n t e s i n i n t r p r e t e s . E l e n c o n t r a r s e l a l e n g u am e x i c a n a d i f u n d i d a h a s t a Ni c a r a g u a n o p u e d e a t r i b u i r s e ao t r a c o s a s i n o a l a d i s p e r s i o n d e l o s T o l t e c a s , q u e l ah a b l a b a n , p o r q u e n o s e s a b e q u e l o s N a h u a t l a c o s h a y a ne n t r a d o m s a l l d e Ch i a p a n (C l a v a i j e r o 2 : 1 5 3 , c i t e d byS t o l l 1 9 5 8 / 1 8 8 4 / : 2 9 - 3 0 ) .
I n s p i t e o f Le h m a n n ' s i n f l u e n c e , m o s t m o d e r n i n v e s t i g a t o r s h a v ea c c e p t e d T o r q u e m a d a ' s a c c o u n t a s a c c u r a t e , a n d j o i n i n g i t w i t hOv i e d o ' s , t h e y h a v e p r o p o s e d a r e a s o n a b l e p i c t u r e o f P i p i l e t h no -h i s t o r y . Ac c o r d i n g t o t h e i r r e c o n s t r u c t i o n s ( c f . p a r t i c u l a r l yJ i m n e z Mo r e n o 1 9 6 6 : 6 3 - 7 ) , t h e P i p i l s l e f t t h e a r e a o f C h o l u l a ,P u e b l a ( s p e c i f i c a l l y T i c o m e g a a n d Ma g u a t e g a ) i n o r d e r t o e s c a p e t h et y r a n n y o f t h e h i s t o r i c a l Ol m e c s . Th e y c a m e t o s o u t h e r n Ve r a c r u z ,b u t s h o r t l y a f t e r we r e d i s p l a c e d a g a i n , a r r i v i n g i n Xo l o t l a n ( t h e
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S o c o n u s c o C o a s t o f C h i a p a s ) . L a t e r , o n c e a g a i n t o e s c a p e t h eh i s t o r i c a l Ol m e c o p r e s s i o n , t h e y l e f t S o c o n u s c o , p a s s i n g t h r o u g hs e v e r a l p l a c e s , l e a v i n g c o l o n i e s i n G u a t e m a l a , E l S a l v a d o r ,N i c a r a g u a , a n d e v e n i n C o s t a R i c a a n d P a n a m a . T h e i r d e p a r t u r e i sd a t e d a t a r o u n d 8 0 0 A. D. , b a s e d o n t h e " 7 o 8 e d a d e s d e v i e j o " o fTo r q u e m a d a 's a c c o u n t .As m e n t i o n e d , i n c o n t r a s t t o t h i s v i e w , F o w l e r ( 1 9 8 1 ) h a s t a k e na p o s i t i o n i n s y m p a t h y w i t h Le h m a n n ' s . He s e e s "P i p i l " m i g r a t i o n si n s u c c e s s i v e s t e p s o r w a v e s f r o m c a . 8 0 0 A. D. t o c a . 1 2 5 0 o r 1 3 0 0A. D. f r o m c e n t r a l Me x i c o t o t h e s o u t h e r n G u l f r e g i o n t o v a r i o u sa r e a s o f C e n t r a l A m e r i c a . Af t e r a n e x t e n s i v e r e v i e w o f e t h n o -h i s t o r y , a r c h a e o l o g y , a n d l i n g u i s t i c s ( i n c l u d i n g p l a c e n a m e s ) , h ec o n c l u d e s f o r E l S a l v a d o r , "p r o b a b l y f o r a t l e a s t f i v e c e n t u r i e sp r i o r t o ( t h e C o n q u e s t ) , a l m o s t a l l o f t h i s ( w e s t e r n a n d c e n t r a l )p o r t i o n o f E l S a l v a d o r w e s t a n d s o u t h o f t h e Le m p a R i v e r w a so c c u p i e d b y t h e P i p i l " ( F o w l e r 1 9 8 1 : 4 9 8 ) . He a l s o b e l i e v e s i n a"t o t a l o r p a r t i a l c o n t r o l o f t h i s ( Us u l u t n c o a s t a l l o w l a n d ) r e g i o nb y t h e No n u a l c o P i p i l i n t h e L a t e P o s t c l a s s i c a s a s t r o n gp o s s i b i l i t y " ( F o w l e r 1 9 8 1 : 5 0 7 ) . He e q u a t e s t h e s e No n u a l c o w i t h al a t e r m i g r a t i o n , c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e N i c a r a o a n d a s s u m e d t o b ep o s t e r i o r t o t h e P i p i l . I n h i s c o n c l u s i o n s , b a s e d i n l a r g e p a r t o nh i s g l o t t o c h r o n o l o g i c a l s t u d y ( s e e a p p e n d i x 1 ) , h e p l a c e d t h e" f i r s t wa v e o f P i p i l - Ni c a r a o m i g r a t i o n s o u t o f c e n t r a l Me x i c o i n t ot h e Ve r a c r u z c o a s t a l l o w l a n d s a n d v i a t h e I s t h m u s o f Te h u a n t e p e c t oCe n t r a l Am e r i c a s o m e t i m e a r o u n d A.D. 7 0 0 t o 9 0 0 " ( F o wl e r 1 9 8 1 :5 4 2 ) .l f La t e r Na h u a t s e p a r a t i o n s b e t we e n a p p r o x i m a t e l y A.D. 9 0 0 a n d 1 3 5 0w e r e p r o b a b l y d i r e c t l y o r i n d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d t o t h e e x p a n s i o no f t h e T o l t e c e m p i r e a n d i t s s u b s e q u e n t d e m i s e . . . An i m p o r t a n tT o l t e c - i n f l u e n c e d P i p i l g r o u p , t h e N o n o a l c a , p u s h e d i n t o E lS a l v a d o r a t t h i s t i m e , d i s p l a c i n g m a n y o f t h e e a r l i e r P i p i li n h a b i t a n t s o f t h e r e g i o n . T h e m o v e m e n t o f t h e N i c a r a o i n t oN i c a r a g u a s o m e t i m e a f t e r A. D. 1 2 0 0 a p p e a r s t o b e c o r r e l a t e d w i t ht h e s e e v e n t s " ( F o wl e r 1 9 8 1 :5 4 3 - 5 ) .Wh i l e t h i s o p i n i o n m e r i t s c a r e f u l c o n s i d e r a t i o n , t h e e v i d e n c ef o r m u l t i p l e m i g r a t i o n s ( w i t h t h e N o n o a l c o , c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h eN i c a r a o , a r r i v i n g l a t e r ) i s a t p r e s e n t n o t c o n v i n c i n g . T h eg r e a t e s t r e s e r v a t i o n s a r e r a i s e d b y t h e f a c t t h a t i t i s b a s e d s oh e a v i l y o n g l o t t o c h r o n o l o g y , w i t h n o d i r e c t l i n g u i s t i c o re t h n o h i s t o r i c a l e v i d e n c e t o s u p p o r t i t . I n g e n e r a l , n o t o n l y a r et h e g l o t t o c h r o n o l o g i c a l d a t e s c o n t e s t e d , b u t a l s o i t i s n o t c l e a rwh e t h e r t h e e t h n o h i s t o r i c a l d a t e s a r e t o b e i n t e r p r e t e d a s d e a l i n gw i t h t h e a s s u me d o r i g i n a l m i g r a t i o n f r o m t h e Ch o l u l a a r e a o r w i t hl a t e r m o v e me n t s o u t o f So c o n u s c o t o wa r d C e n t r a l Am e r i c a . Ho we v e r ,i f i n t h e e n d we c o u l d e s t a b l i s h a n a c c u r a t e c o r r e l a t i o n o f t h e s ed a t e s w i t h t h e c o n q u e s t o f Ch o l u l a b y t h e h i s t o r i c a l Ol m e c s a n d t h e
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d e p a r t u r e o f t h e P i p i l s f r o m t h e r e a t a b o u t 8 0 0 A. D. , t h e n p e r h a p sw e w o u l d b e i n a b e t t e r p o s i t i o n t o e x p l a i n t h e n a t u r e o f t h ep o s t u l a t e d r e l a t i o n s h i p s h a r e d b y P i p i l , I s t h m u s (Gu l f ) , a n d S i e r r ad e P u e b l a Na h u a . Gi v e n t h e c o n s e n s u s t h a t t h e P i p i l l e f t c e n t r a lMe x i c o a n d m i g r a t e d f i r s t t o t h e s o u t h e r n Gu l f r e g i o n , i t i s t o b ee x p e c t e d t h a t t h e P i p i l l a n g u a g e wo u l d s h a r e s o m e l i n g u i s t i c t r a i t sw i t h v a r i e t i e s f r o m t h a t a r e a . Th e q u e s t i o n r e m a i n s , h o w e v e r ,a b o u t h ow t h e d i f f e r e n c e s a r e t o b e u n d e r s t o o d a n d a b o u t h o w l o n gP i p i l h a s b e e n s e p a r a t e d f r o m w h a t e v e r i t s n e a r e s t n e i g h b o r s o rr e l a t i v e s ma y b e ( s e e a p p e n d i x 1 ) .
1 . 4 . P i p i l d i a l e c t o l o g y . Ha v i n g c o n s i d e r e d P i p i l ' s e t h n o h i s -t o r y a n d i t s p o s i t i o n r e l a t i v e t o o t h e r v a r i e t i e s o f Na h u a , I n o wt u r n t o a n i n s p e c t i o n o f P i p i l ' s o wn r e g i o n a l v a r i a t i o n . My o r i g i -n a l i n t e n t i n s t u d y i n g P i p i l d i a l e c t s w a s t o d e t e r m i n e w h e r e t h el a n g u a g e i s s t i l l s p o k e n a n d t o o b t a i n a g e n e r a l c h a r a c t e r i z a t a i o no f l o c a l d i a l e c t v a r i a t i o n . Th e g o a l wa s n o t t o p r o v i d e a n e xh a u s -t i v e a c c o u n t o f m i n o r r e g i o n a l d i f f e r e n c e s . Th e d i a l e c t f e a t u r e sp r e s e n t e d h e r e , t h e n , g i v e a go o d i d e a o f m a j o r d i f f e r e n c e s a m o n gl o c a l d i a l e c t s , b u t i t d o e s n o t p r o v i d e a c o m p r e h e n s i v e v i e w o fv a r i a t i o n wi t h i n e a c h l o c a t i o n . Th e s e d i a l e c t t r a i t s a r e p r e s e n t e di n b r o a d p h o n e t i c r e p r e s e n t a t i o n , n o t r e a l l y p h o n e m i c , b u te m p l o y i n g t h e P i p i l p r a c t i c a l a l p h a b e t t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t i t i sp o s s i b l e ( s e e s e c t i o n 2 . 1 ) .( 1 ) I n C h i l t i u p n t s t e n d s t o c h a n g e t o s ., e . g . s a p u t " Z a p o t e "( f r o m t s a p u t ; s u s u k u l "w a t e r j u g (c n t a r o ) " ( f r o m t s u t s u k u l ) ; e t c .( 2 ) I n C o n c e p c i n d e At a c o t h e v o w e l s i . a n d ii h a v e b e e n l o s tb e t w e e n s t o p s a n d s e m i v o w e l s , e . g . k w a t " s n a k e " ( f r o m k u ( : ) w a t ) ,k wa "t o b u y " ( f r o m k u w a ) , m a l t y "t o b a t h e " ( f r o m m - a ( ;) l t i ( y ) a ;t h e x i s i n s e r t e d b y r u l e , c f . 2 . 2 ) . I t s h o u l d a l s o b e n o t i c e dt h a t t h e l o s t v o we l w o u l d o r d i n a r i l y b e a r s t r e s s wh e n i n p e n u l t i -m a t e p o s i t i o n a n d c o n s e q u e n t l y s t r e s s i s s h i f t e d t o t h e f i n a lv o w e l .( 3 ) O r i g i n a l l y t h e f i n a l a n d p r e c o n s o n a n t a l - 1, o f P i p i l ( a n dp r o b a b l y o f Pr o t o - Na h u a a s w e l l ) wa s d e v o i c e d ( 1 ) , b u t t o d a y t h e r ei s c o n s i d e r a b l e v a r i a t i o n b e t w e e n v o i c e d a n d v o i c e l e s s p r o -n u n c i a t i o n i n t h e s e p o s i t i o n a n d e v e n i n o t h e r p o s i t i o n s i n c e r t a i nd i a l e c t s . I n Cu i s n a h u a t t h e v o i c e d a n d v o i c e l e s s c o u n t e r p a r t s v a r yr a t h e r f r e e l y i n f i n a l p o s i t i o n . F i n a l - 1 i s a l w a y s v o i c e l e s s i nJ i c a l a p a . I n Te o t e p e q u e , t h e v o i c e l e s s ( i ) h a s b e e n g e n e r a l i z e dt o a l l p o s i t i o n s ; t h a t i s , h a s c h a n g e d t o t a l l y t o e v e r y w h e r e ,e . g . p e u "d o g " , t i h i a n "c h i c k e n ", t e k u i u t "o w l " , k u m a i "g r i d d l e " ,c h i i t i k " r e d " , m a l t i y a "t o b a t h e ", k a i , f h o u s e " , e t c .I n J i c a l a p a , n o t o n l y i s f i n a l - 1 d e v o i c e d , b u t 1. i n a l lp o s i t i o n s i s p a l a t a l i z e d , ] / , p r e p a l a t a l i z e d f i n a l l y , - y ) . So m e
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e x a m p a l e s a r e : p e l ? u " d o g " , t i h l ^ a n " c h i c k e n " , t e k u l ^ u t " o w l " ,c h a k a l ^ i n " s h r i m p " , e l y u t " e a r o f c o r n " , u l ^ u t " c o r n c o b " , k u m a y " g r i d d l e " , t a x k a ? ^ " t o r t i l l a " , t u n a y l - " s u n " , l ^ a m a t " o l d w o m a n " ,k a ^ i " h o u s e " , e t c ,( 4 ) I n T e o t e p e q u e x ( / $ / ) h a s c h a n g e d t o / V , a r e t r o f l e x e df r i c a t i v e , a n d n o w i s i n f r e e v a r i a t i o n w i t h r r ( / ? / ) . I b e l i e v et h e l a t e r c h a n g e t o r r . i s d u e t o S p a n i s h i n f l u e n c e . T h e r e i ss o c i o l i n g u i s t i c a l l y c o n d i t i o n e d v a r i a t i o n i n l o c a l S p a n i s h b e t w e e n a n d w h e r e a t l e a s t n e a r b y i n Gu a t e m a l a t h e s v a r i a n t i ss t i g m a t i z e d . I b e l i e v e t h a t t h e n e g a t i v e v a l u e p l a c e d o n t h i sv a r i a n t i n Sp a n i s h h a s c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e Te o t e p e q u e c h a n g e t o r , ac h a n g e i n t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e p r e s t i g e v a r i a n t i n S p a n i s h , t h e
d o m i n a n t l a n g u a g e i n t h i s s e t t i n g . So me e x a m p l e s a r e : Su c h i t /r u c h i t " f l o w e r " , s u i e t / r u i e t " o l d m a n ", t e s k a n " t i c k 1 * , s u k u t"h o g p l u m " , a ^ a n "n o w ".( 5 ) Te o t e p e q u e a n d Co m a s a g u y a h a v e a b e f o r e i n m o n o s y l l a b i cr o o t s w h e r e o t h e r s d i a l e c t s h a v e e ., e . g . - m a y " h a n d " , - k wa y" s k i r t " .( 6 ) P i p i l Jk h a s s e v e r a l v a r i a n t s i n t h e d i f f e r e n t d i a l e c t s , b u ti n e v e r y c a s e t h e u n d e r l y i n g s e g me n t r e m a i n s Jc . I n Cu i s n a h u a t Jk i sv o i c e d a n d s o m e t i m e s f r i c a t i v i z e d b e t w e e n t wo v o we l s wh e n t h ef i r s t i s l o n g o r i f b o t h a r e a . ' s . Oc c a s i o n a l l y i t i s v o i c e d i n i -t i a l l y i n c e r t a i n w o r d s , p a r t i c u l a r y f r e q u e n t w i t h k ( i ) - ' t h i r dp e r s o n s g . p r o n o m i n a l ' p r e f i x . I n S a n t o Do m i n g o d e Gu z m n k i sv o i c e d i n i t i a l l y , i n t e r v o c a l i c a l l y , a n d a f t e r n . I n Ta c u b a ,i t i s v o i c e d b e t we e n v o we l s . I n t h e o t h e r d i a l e c t s lc i s g e n e r a l l ym a i n t a i n e d w i t h o u t c h a n g e .I n a l l d i a l e c t s , f i n a l j i i s v e l a r ( g ) a n d t h e s t r e s s f a l l s o nt h e p e n u l t i m a t e s y l l a b l e e x c e p t f o r c e r t a i n S p a n i s h l o a n s ,o c c a s i o n a l l y t h e s u f f i x - t s i n ( c f . s e c t i o n 3 . 1 . 3 . 8 ) , a n d t h o s ew o r d s i n At a c o w h i c h l o s t p e n u l t i m a t e o r u b e t w e e n s t o p s a n ds e m i v o w e l s ( s e e a b o v e ) .Vo w e l l e n g t h i s n o t r e p r e s e n t e d i n t h e l i s t o f d i a l e c t f o r m st h a t f o l l o w s d u e t o l a c k o f r e l i a b l e i n f o r m a t i o n e x c e p t f o rCu i s n a h u a t a n d Sa n t o Do m i n go d e Gu z m n , wh e r e i t wa s i n v e s t i g a t e ds y s t e m a t i c a l l y . I t i s t o b e s u p p o s e d , h o we v e r , t h a t v o we l l e n g t hi n t h e o t h e r d i a l e c t s , wh e r e i t s t i l l e x i s t s , w i l l b e n e a r l y t h es a m e a s i n t h e s e t w o d i a l e c t s .Th e f o l l o w i n g wo r d l i s t s e x e m p l i f y t h e c h a n g e s a n d v a r i a t i o n i nt h e i n d i v i d u a l d i a l e c t s . Th e a b b r e v i a t i o n s a r e :
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At At a c o (Co n c e p c i n d e )Ta c TacubaMa z Sa n t a Ca t a r i n a Ma za g ua tSD SAnt o Domi ngo d e Guzm nNa h N a h u i z a l c oI z I z a l c oTe o Te o t e p e q u eJ i c J i c a l a p aCom ComazaguaC h i l C h i l t i u p a nC C u i s n a h u a t
I t s h o u l d b e n o t e d t h a t t h e g a p s i n t h e l i s t s , i . e . m i s s i n g wo r d s ,a r e b e c a u s e i n f o r m a n t s e i t h e r d i d n o t k n o w t h e m o r c o u l d n o tr e me mb e r wh en q u e s t i o n e d . T h e p l a n t s a n d a n i m a l s wh o s e En g l i s hnames a r e r e l a t i v e l y u n f a mi l i a r a r e g i v e n wi t h t h e i r Sp a n i s h na me sa s wel l . Many o f t h e s e a r e d e s c r i b e d i n t h e d i c t i o n a r y .
c a t d o g c h i c k e n opossum deerAt mi s t u n p e l u k uy ame t t i h l a n t a k w a s i n masatTa c m i s t u n p e l u kuyamet t i h l a n t a k wa t s i n ma s atMa z mi s t u n p e l u k uy ame t t i h l a n t a k wa t s i n mas atSD m i s t u n p e : l u g u ya me t t i h l a n t a kwa t s i n m a s a : tNa h m i s t u n pe lu kuyame t t i h l a n t a k w a t s i n masa tI z m i s t u n pe lu kuyamet t i h l a n t a kwa t s i n masa tTe o m i s t u n pe lu kuyame t t i h l a n t a k w a t s i n masa tJ i c mi s t u n p e l ^ u k uy ame t t i h l ^a n t a kwa t s i n masatCom m i s t u n p e l u kuyamet t i h l a n t a kwa t s i n masatC h i l m i s t u n p e l u kuyamet t i h l a n t a k wa ( t )s i n mas atC m i s t u n p e : l u kuya me t t i h l a n t a k wa t s i n ma s a :t
r a b b i t mous e b i r d e g g o wlAt t u c ht i k i mi c h i n t u t u t t e k s i s ( t i ) t e k u l u tTa c t u c ht i k i mi c h i n t e k s i s t iMa z k i m i c h i n t u t u t t e k s i s t iSD t u c h t s i n g i mi c h i n t u : t u t t e k s i s t i t e g u l u tNa h t u c h t i k i mi c h i n wi l u t t e k s i s t e k u l u tI z k i m i c h i n t u t u t t e k s i s t iTe o k i m i c h i n t e k u l u tJ i c k i m i c h i n t e k s i s t e k u l ^ u tCom t u c h t i k i mi c h i n wi l u t t e k s i sCh i l k i mi c h i n wi l u t t e k u l u tC t u c h t i k i m i c h i n w i : l u t s i n t e k s i s t i t e k u l u t
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b a t i g u a n a s n a k e c r a bAt k wa t t e k wi s iTa c kuke kwat t e k s i s iMa z k uk e k uwa t a x a l i nSD t s i n a : g a n g u : g e g u : w a t t e k wi s iNa h kuke /gexpo kuwa t t e k w i s iI z t s i n a k a n kwa t t e k wi s iTe o k u k e x p a i kuwat t i k wi s iJ i c t s i n a k a k u k e x p a y l kuwat t i k w i s i / t e k w k i s iCom kuwat t e k w i s iCh i l t e k wi s iC t s i n a :g a n k ur g e t s p a l k u :wa t t e k wi s i
h o n e y ,s h r i m p f i s h wor m s we e t (s ) a n t l o u s eAt n e k t iTa c c h a g a l i n mi c h i n k wi l i n n e k t i t s i g a t a t i me tMa z c h a k a l i n m i c h i n t s i k a tSD c h a g a l i n m i c h i n k w i l i n n e k t i t s i :g a t a t i me tNa h c h a k a l i n m i c h i n k w i l i n a t i m e t
I z m i c h i n k w i l i n t s i k a tTe o c h a k a l i n m i c h i n k w i l i n n e k t i s i k a tJ i c c h a k a l y i n m i c h i n k w i l i n n e k t iCom c h a k a l i n m i c h i n k w i l i n n e k t iC h i l c h a k a l i n m i c h i n k w i l i nC c h a g a l i n m i c h i n k w i l i n n e k t i t s i :g a t a t i me t
t r e e ,t i c k f l e a l e a f f l o we r wo od c e i b aAt t e x k a n x u c h i t kwawitTa c t e s k a n t e kp i n - i swa- w x u c h i t kwawitMa z t e k p i n i s w a t x u c h i t kwawit puchu tSD t e x k a n t e k p i n i s w a t x u : c h u t k wa wi t p u :c h u tNa h t e k p i n i s w a t x u c h i t kwawitI z t e x k a n t e k p i n i s w a t x u c h i t kwawitTe o t e Sk a n i s w a t S u c h i t kwawit puchu t
J i c t e xk a n t e k p i n x u c h i t kwawitpuchu t
Com t e k p i n x u c h i t kwawitC h i l t e k p i n x u c h i t kwawitC t e x k a n t e k p i n i s w a t x u s c h i t kwawit p u : c h u t
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h ogp l um g r a s s t h o r nAtTa cMa zSDNa hI zTe oJ i cComC h i lC
xugu txukutxugu txuku t u k u txuku t
xuku t
s a ga t wi t s t iwi c h t i
s ag a t wi t s t is a k a t wi t s t i
wi c h t iw i s t i
c a c a oc o r d ,v i n e
kagawat mekatmekat "t u l e "
gagawat megatmekatmekat
s a k a t wi t s t i ( n ) ka ka wa t meka tmekatmekat
s a k a t wi t s t i k ak awa t me ka tm a n i o c ,swee t
b e a n c a n e c h i l i t o m a t o p o t a t o s q u a s h a v o c a d oA t e t c h i l tuma tT a c e t uwa t t uma t k a m u ( h ) a y u ( h )Ma z e t t uma t kamu(h) awaka tSD e : t u:wat c h i : l t umat gamuh ayuh a :waga tNa h e t c h i l t umat kamut ayu t awaka tI z e t t uma t kamu(h)T e o e t u wa t t u ma t k amu t a y u t awakatJ i c e t uwat c h i i t umat kamut a y u t awakatC o m e t uwat c h i l tuma t kamut - a y u ( h ) a wa ka tC h i l e t c h i l t u ma t a y u t awakatC e : t u:wat c h i : l tuma t kamuh a y u h a : w a k a t
a c h i o t e ,A- g u a v a b i x a za p o t e p l a n t a i n b an an aALTa c c h a l u g ut t s a p ut "a n o n a " p u l a i n g i n y aMa z c h a l u ( h ) a c h i y u t t s a p u t p u l a k i n i y a ( h )S D c h a : l u g u t a : c h i : y u t t s a pu t p ul a g i n i y a hNa h a c h u t t s a p u t p u l a g i n i y a ( h )I z a c h u t t s a p u t p u l aTe o c h a l u k u t a c hu t s a p u t p u l a k i n i y a ( h )J i c a c h u t k i n i y a ( h )Com t s a p u t k i n i y a ( h )C h i l s a p u tC c ha s l u ku t a :c h i y u t t s a pu t p u l a k i n i y a h
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t o b a c c o , c o y o l m a i z e m a i z e e a r o fc i g a r p a l m ( o n c o b ) ( s h e l l e d ) c or n c ob c or nAt u l u t e l u tTa c i y a t k u y u l t a w i y a l u l u t e l u t
Ma z k u y u l t a wi y a l e l u tSD g u y ul s i n t i t a w i y a l u l u t e : l u tNa h k u y u l s i n t i u l u t e l u tI z t a wi y a lTe o k u y u l s i n t i u l u t e l u tJ i c i y a t k u y u l s i n t i u l ? u t e l ^ u tCora i y a t s i n t i t a wi y a l u l u t e l u tC h i l e l u tC k u y u l s i n t i t a w i y a l u l u t e : l u t
g r e en t o r t i l l a me t a t e p o t ,c o r n m i l p a g r i d d l e (q u e r n ) l u g t o g r i n dAt kumal me t a t k umi tTa c x i l u t r a i l kumal me t a t k umi tMa z m i l kumal me t a t k umi t t i s iSD x i : l u t m i : l guma l me t a t g u :m i t - - t i s i
Na h x i l u t m i l k uma l m e t a t k u mi t - t i s iI z x i l u t kuma l me t a t k u mi t - t i s iTe o m i l p a k u m a l m e t a t - k u nJ i c x i i y u t m i l kuma^l me t a t kumi t - t i s iCom m i : l - t i s iC h i l - t i s iC x i s l u t m i : l kuma : l m e t a t k u : m i t - - t i s i
l i m e t o b e( c a l ) t o r t i l l a s a l t meat t o e a t h u n g r yAt t ama l i s t a t n ak at - k waTa c t e n e x t ama l i s t a t n aga t - k waMa z t e n e x t ama l i s t a t n aka t - k waSD t e n e x t a mal i s t a t n ag at - k wa mayanaNa h t e n e x t ama l i s t a t n ak at - k wa mayanaI z i s t a t na ka t - k waTe o t a ma l i s t a t n aka t - k wa mayanaJ i c t a x ka ^l n a k a t - k wa mayanaCom t e n e x 11 a s h " t ama l i s t a t n ak at - k wa mayanaC h i l t a xk a l i s t a t n a ka t - k waC t e n e x t ama l i s t a t n ak at - k wa maya:na
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b i t t e r swee t s o u r f i r e s m o k e a s h ( e s )At c h i c h i k t i tTa c c h i c h i k x u k t i t p u k t i n e x t iMa z c h i c h i k t i tSD c h i c h i k t s u p e : l e k x ukuk t i t p uk t i n e x t lNa h c h i c h i k t s u p e l i k xuguk t i tI z c h i c h i k t i t n e x t iTe o c h i c h i k n e k t a k t i t n e St a nJ i c c h i c h i k t i tCom c h i c h i k t s u p e l i k xukuk t i t p u k t i t e n e xC h i l t i tC c h i c h i k t s u p e : l e k xuguk t i : t p u k t i n e x t l
b o t t l e w a t e r g o u r dg o u r d j u g bowl
c o l d h o t (t e c o ma t e ) (c n t a r o ) ( g u a c a l )At t ekuma tTa c s e k - tegumat wahkalMa z s e s i k t u t u n i k t ekuma t c h u c h u k u l wahkalSD s e s e k t u t u :n i k t e guma t t s u t s u g u l wahkalNa h s e s e k t u t u ni k t ekuma t t s u t s u k u l wa hk alI z s e s e k t u t u ni k t ekuma t wahka lTe o - s e k - t u t u n i k t ekuma t t s u t s u k u l wahka lJ i c - s e k - t ekuma t t s u t s u k u ^ lCom s e s e k t e kuma t t s u t s u k u l wa h ka lC h i l s u s u k u l wahkalC s e s e k t u t u :n i k tekumat t s u t s u k u l wa h ka l
b a s k e t s i c k cough e y e e a r handAt - i x - me yTa c c h i g i w i t kuguy a t a t a s i - - i x - na ga s - me yMa z c h i k i w i t kukuya t a t a s i s - i x n a k a s - meySD c h i g i w i t guguya t a t a s i ( s ) - i : x - na ga s - meyNa h kukuya t a t a s i s - i x n a k a s - me yI z c h i k i wi t ku ku ya - i x n a k a t - meyTe o c h i k i wa t k uk uy a - i x n a k a s - ma yJ i c c h i k i wi t k uku ya t a t a s i s - i x n a k a s - meyCom c h i k i w i t kuku ya t a t a s i - i x n a k a s - ma yC h i l kukuya - i x n a k a sC c h i g i wi t k uk uy a t a t a s i - L : x n a g a s - mey
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mouth l e g t o o t h h ea d l e a t h e r b e l l yAt - t e n - t s u n t e guTa c - t e n - k x i - t s un t e gun k we t a xt i - i h t iMa z - t e n - k x i - t a n - t s un t e gunSD - t e :n ( i ) k x i - t a n - t s un t e gu n k w e t a x t i - i h t iNa h - t e n i k x i - t a n - t s u nt e ku n kwe t a x - i h t iI z - t e n - t a n - t s un t e ku nTe o - t e n i k x i - t a n y u l uJ i c - t e n - k x i - t a n - t s un t e ku n - kwe t a x y u l y uCom - t e n i k x i - t s un t e kun - i h t iC h i l - t e n - i h t iC - t e :n ( i ) k x i - t a n - t s un t e kun k we t a xt i - i h t i
f i n g e r -n a i l h a i r b l o o d t o s l e e p t o d i eAt k u c h i m i k iTa c i s t i t t s u n k a l - i s - yu g u c h i m i g iMa z - i s t i t e s t i k u c h i m i k iSD - i s t i t - t s un g a l e s t i g u c h i m i g i
Na h - i s t i t t s un k a l e t s t i k u c h i m i k iI z - i s t i t t s u n k a l - es - yu m i k iTe o k u c h i m i k iJ i c i s t i t - t s u n k a ^i - es - yu k u c h i m i k iCom t s u n k a l k u c h i m i k iC h i l m i k iC i t s t i t - t s un k a l e s t i k u c h i m i g i
r e d y e l l o w g r e e n b l a c k wh i t eAtTa c t u l t i k i s t a kMa z xuxuwik i s t a kSD c h i : l t i k t u l t i k xuxuwik t i : l t i k i s t a kNa h c h i l t i k t u l t i k xuxuk- i s t a kI z c h i l t i k t u l t i k i s t a kTe o c h i l t i k i s t a kJ i c c h i l t i k k u t i l t i k i s t i kCora c h i l t i k t i l t i k i s t a kC h i l c h i l t i kC c h i : i t i k t u l t i k xuxuwik t i : l t i k i s t a k
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woodst h e r e i s , l a n d , u n c l e a r e d
r o a d heavy t h e r e a r e e ar t h s t o ne r a v i n e l a n dAt u h t i e t e k n emi t a l t e t u s t u t k o h t a nTa c u h t i e t i k t e tMa z u h t i t a l t e tSD u h t i e t e k nemi t a : l t e t u s t u :t k o h t a nNa h u h t i e t e k n emi t a l t e t k o h t a nI z u h t i nemi t a l t e t k u h t a nTe o - u h - nemi t e t - us t u -J i c u h t i nemi t a ? l t e t u s t u tCom u h t i e t i k nemi t a l t e t u s t u tCh i l u h t i nemi t e tC u h t i e t e k nemi t a : l t e t u s t u :t k u h t a n
m o u n t a i n wa t e r t o b a t h e t o wash s o a p s u nAt p i t e t a t m- a l t y - paga xa p un t u n a lTa c t e p e t a t t u n a lMa z a t - pa ka t u n a lSD t e p e :t a : t m - a :l t i ( y )a - p a :g a xapun t u :n a lNa h t e p e t a t m- a l t i y a - paka t u n a lI z t e p e t a t xapun t u n a lTe o t e p e t a t m- a i t i ya s a p u n t u n a iJ i c t e p e t a t m- a ^l t i ya - paka xapun t u n a ^ lC o m a t m- a l t i y a xa p un t u n a lC h i l a tC t e p e :t a : t m - a : l t i ( y )a - p a :g a xa pun t u :n a l
AtTa cMa zSDNa hI zTe oJ i cComC h i lC
moon,monthm e t s t im e t s t im e t s t im e : t s t im e : t s t im e t s t im e s t im e t s t i
m e : t s t i
winde h e k a tkwehegate h e g a ta h a k a te h e k a te h e k a te h e k a te h e k a t
f a t h e r m a l e- t e kut a t a- t e :g u- t e ku- t e ku- t e ku- t e ku- t a t a- t e :g u
u k i c h
u g i c hu k i c hu k i c hu k i c h
u k i c h
ma nt a g a tt a g a tt a k a tt a :g a tt a k a tt a g a tt a k a tt a k a tt a k a tt a k a t
t a : g a t
womans i w a ts i w a ts i w a ts i w a : ts i w a ts i w a ts i w a ts i w a ts i w a ts i w a t
s i w a : t
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o l d o l d b o y t o want t o g i v e t o b u yma n womanAt x u l e t p i l t s i n - n e gi - maga - k waTa c p i l c h i nMa z p i l t s i nSD c h u : l e t l ama t p i l t s i n - ne gi - maga - kuwaNa h x u l e t l ama t p i l t s i n - ne k i - ma (k a) - kuwaI z x u r e t p i l t s i n - ne kiTe o S u l e t p i l t s i n - ne k i - r aaka - kuwaJ i c x u l ^ e t y a m a t a - ma ka - kuwaCom x u l e t l a m a c h i n p i l t s i n n - ne k i - maka - kuwaC h i l x u l e t l ama tC x u :r : t l a ma ht s i n p i l t s i n - n e ki - maga - kuwa
p a n t s h a t s k i r t s a n d a l ma t h o u s e b i gAt - s a l a xumpe kweyat - k a k p e t a t - chan we yTa c xumpe - kwey k a kt i p e t a t k a l - we yMa z - xumpe we ySD - s a l a xumpe - kwey - g a k p e t a t g a l w e : yNa h kweyat - k a k p e t a t k a l we yI z - s a l a - k a k - p e t k a lTe o - s a l a Sumpe - kway - k a k p e t a t k a l we yJ i c - s a i ya s u wa t - kwe y k ak t i p e t a t k a y i we yCom - kwa y p e t a t k a l we yC h i l k a lC - s a l a xumpe - kwey - k a k p e t a t k a l w e : y
h a r d o n e t h r e e f o u r f i v e h a l fAt t akwk s e y e y nawi nawpwil t a h k uTa c t akwawak s e y e y nawi makwilMa z s eDom t akwa :wak s e : y e : y n a : w i ( m a k w i l ) t a h k uNa h s e y e y nawi makwil t a h k uI z t akwawak s e y e y nawi m a p i lTe o s e y e y nawi makwil t a h k uJ i c s e y e y nawi makwilCom s eC h i l s e l i nC t akwa :wak s e : y e : y n a : w i makwil t a h k u
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n i g h t n o w y e s t e r d a y t o mo r r o wAt t ayuwa yaluwa m u s t aTa c t ayuwayaMa zSD t ayuwa a ( : ) x a ( : ) n ya luwa mu :s t aNa h t ayuwa axan yaluwa m u s t aI z t a y u wa l ya l uwan mus t aTe o t ayuwa a | a n m u s t aJ i c t ayuwa axan ya l^uwa m u s t aCom a x a n m u s t aC h i l mus taC t ayuwa a : x a : n yaluwa mu :s t a
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Chapter 2Phonology
2 . 0 . I n t r o d u c t i o nI n t h i s c h a p t e r t h e p h o n o l o g y o f P i p i l i s d e s c r i b e d . F i r s t ,t h e p r a c t i c a l o r t h o g r a p h y u s e d t o r e p r e s e n t P i p i l s o u n d s i sp r e s e n t e d ; s e c o n d , p h o n e t i c v a r i a n t s ( a l l o p h o n e s ) a r e e x p l a i n e d ;a n d f i n a l l y t h e p h o n o l o g i c a l p r o c e s s e s (m o r p h o p h o n e r a i c r u l e s ) a r eg i v e n a n d d i s c u s s e d . By a n d l a r g e t h e u n d e r l y i n g s e g m e n t s a n da u t o n o m o u s p h o n e m e s o f P i p i l c o i n c i d e , s a v e f o r t h e c h a n g e s i nu n d e r l y i n g f o r m s t h a t t a k e p l a c e i n t h e p h o n o l o g i c a l p r o c e s s e s .Th e p r a c t i c a l o r t h o g r a p h y , wh e n s u c h c h a n g e s h a v e o c c u r r e d , c o r r e -
s p o n d s t o t h e a u t o n o m o u s ( t r a d i t i o n a l s t r u c t u r a l i s t ) p h o n e m i cl e v e l .
2 .1 . Th e p h o n e t i c v a l u e o f t h e o r t h o g r a p h i c s y m b o l sTh e p h o n e t i c v a l u e o f t h e p r a c t i c a l a l p h a b e t e mp l o ye d f o r P i p i li s e a s i l y g r a s p e d f r o m Ch a r t I , t h e p h o n o l o g i c a l i n v e n t o r y , w h i l e
t h e f o l l o w i n g c o m m e n t s w i l l h e l p s p e c i f y t h e c o n t e n t o f t h e s es y m b o l s . T h e s o u n d s i n p a r e n t h e s e s a r e f o r t h e m o s t p a r t f o u n do n l y i n S p a n i s h l o a n w o r d s . Th e c h i s / 6 / , a v o i c e l e s s a l v e o p a l a t a la f f r i c a t e . T h e / k w / i s a v o i c e l e s s l a b i a l i z e d ( o r l a b i o v e l a r )s t o p , l i k e t h e c u o f S p a n i s h c u a n d o "w h e n " o r t h e u o f E n g l i s hq u i c k . Th e l e t t e r jc i s a n a l v e o p a l a t a l f r i c a t i v e , / / , l i k e t h e s ho f E n g l i s h s h o e . Th e s y m b o l j k i s e m p l o y e d f o r t h i s s o u n d i n P i p i lb e c a u s e i t i s t h e l e t t e r u s e d i n Ce n t r a l Am e r i c a n S p a n i s h ( m o s t l yf o u n d i n l o a n wo r d s f r o m I n d i a n l a n g u a g e s ) t o r e p r e s e n t t h a t s o u n da n d i t i s t h e s y m b o l r e c o m m e n d e d b y t h e I n s t i t u t o I n d i g e n i s t aNa c i o n a l o f Gu a t e m a l a . A c t u a l l y , b e f o r e t h e s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r yS p a n i s h h a d a n a l v e o p a l a t a l f r i c a t i v e , s p e l l e d w i t h j c , b u t t h i sc h a n g e d t o a v e l a r f r i c a t i v e , n o w w r i t t e n j . Th e u s e o f x. t or e p r e s e n t t h i s s o u n d i n Ce n t r a l Am e r i c a n I n d i a n l a n g u a g e s w a se n t r e n c h e d b e f o r e t h e S p a n i s h s o u n d c h a n g e . T h e r_ a n d r j : a r e a si n S p a n i s h , a n a l v e o l a r f l a p (r ^ i n t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l p h o n e t i c
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8/3/2019 Campbell the Pipil Language of El Salvador
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Al p h a b e t , j f i n Am e r i c a n p h o n e t i c s y s t e m s ) a n d a n a l v e o l a r t r i l l( I P A r ( : ) , Am e r i c a n r ) , r e s p e c t i v e l y . T h e h i s s i m p l y a p h o n e t i c/ h / ( v o i c e l e s s g l o t t a l f r i c a t i v e ) , a s i n E n g l i s h h o u s e . Vo w e l sh a v e e s s e n t i a l l y t h e s a m e v a l u e a s t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g v o w e l s o fS p a n i s h , a l t h o u g h t h e r e i s i n a d d i t i o n a l e n g t h c o n t r a s t . T h ev o we l s 11 a n d c a n v a r y f r e e l y i n t h e i r p h o n e t i c r e a l i z a t i o n a m o n gu ( : ) , U ( : ) t a n d o ( s ) , b u t u a n d u a r e b y f a r t h e m o s t f r e q u e n t a n dc om m o n p r o n u n c i a t i o n s . Th e v a r i e s i n a v e r y f e w c a s e s wi t h i nl e s s c a r e f u l s p e e c h , e . g . n e / n i ' d e f i n i t e a r t i c l e 1 , - n e c h - /- n i c h - "m e " ( ' f i r s t p e r s o n s i n g l u l a r o b j e c t p r o n o u n ' ) , e t c .Vo w e l l e n g t h i s a n i m p o r t a n t c o n t r a s t , b u t i t i s d i f f i c u l t t od e t e r m i n e i n ma n y c a s e s . Th e r e a r e s u c h m i n i m a l p a i r s a s p a ; t a "t om e l t " / p a t a "t o c h a n g e " ; n e ; " t h e r e " / l i e ' d e f i n i t e a r t i c l e ' ; t h er o o t s m e ; t s - "m o o n " / m e t s - " t h i g h " ; e t c . , b u t s u c h p a i r s a r e n o tf r e q u e n t . T h e d i f f i c u l t y i s t h a t , d u e t o P i p i l ' s m o r i b u n d s t a t e ,ma n y s p e a k e r s n o l o n g e r m a ke t h e v o we l - l e n g t h c o n t r a s t , o r t h e y doi t o n l y i n m o r e f o r m a l c o n t e x t s . Am o n g my m a i n c o n s u l t a n t s i nCu i s n a h u a t , o n e l a c k e d t h e c o n t r a s t a l t o g e t h e r , a n o t h e r h a d i t o n l yi n f o r m a l c o n t e x t s ( f o r e x a m p l e wh e n c a r e f u l l y c o m p a r i n g l i n g u i s t i cf o r m s , r e c i t i n g wo r d l i s t s , e t c . ) , a n d a t h i r d u s e d i t c o n s i s t e n t l yt h r o u g h o u t h i s s p e e c h . I n S a n t o Do m i n g o d e Guzr a n my c o n s u l t a n t sg e n e r a l l y l a c k e d t h e c o n t r a s t i n e v e r y d a y s p e e c h , b u t we r e a b l e t op r o d u c e t h e d i s t i n c t i o n s wh e n q u e r i e d a b o u t i n d i v i d u a l w o r d s .Ne v e r t h e l e s s , o n l y t w o i n d i v i d u a l s t h e r e m a i n t a i n e d t h e d i s t i n c t i o nc o n s i s t e n t l y i n a wa y r e l a t i v e l y e a s y t o p e r c e i v e .
I n b o t h d i a l e c t s t h e l e n g t h c o n t r a s t i s c l e a r o n l y i n s t r e s s e ds y l l a b l e s , i . e . t h e p e n u l t i m a t e , i n m o s t f o r m s . No t w i t h s t a n d i n g ,i n ma n y c a s e s d i f f e r e n t s