Society for American Archaeology

Advances in Brazilian Archeology, 1935-1985Author(s): Betty J. MeggersSource: American Antiquity, Vol. 50, No. 2, Golden Anniversary Issue (Apr., 1985), pp. 364-373Published by: Society for American ArchaeologyStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/280494 .Accessed: 10/07/2011 20:34

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ADVANCES IN BRAZILIAN ARCHEOLOGY, 1935-1985

Betty J. Meggers

Although Brazil occupies almost half the continent of South America, its archeology attracted little interest until recently from either nationals or foreigners. This is attributable to the charac- teristics of the remains. There are no buildings of stone, tools and ornaments of metal, or elaborate artifacts of cloth, wood, and bone. Except along the Amazon, pottery is not noted for its aesthetic qualities; even there, complete vessels with well preserved decoration are scarce. Shell middens along the southern coast are spectacular in size but deficient in cultural content. Other sites are predominantly shallow middens containing fragments of pottery, or flakes and minimally shaped tools of stone. Specialized techniques and skills are necessary for extracting cultural and chronological meaning from such evidence and their introduction about 1965 revolutionized Brazilian archeology.

An overview of progress during the past 50 years is provided by tabulating the annual totals of publications listed in two general bibliographies. The Handbook of Latin American Studies, initiated by the Hispanic Division of the Library of Congress in 1935, provides annotated lists of books and articles. Coverage is restricted by two factors: (1) unavailability of many publications and (2) limitations on space. Tabulating works by Brazilian authors by year of publication shows annual productivity of five titles or less prior to 1955 (Figure 1). Between 1956 and 1966, output during most years varied between five and eight. In 1967, there was a pronounced surge. Forty-three titles are listed for 1969 and 35 for 1971. Although there have been several large fluctuations, productivity has generally remained high to the present.

Tabulating titles by foreign and domestic (Brazilian) authors in the far more complete bibliography published by Prous (1982) shows the same pattern. Prior to 1950, 10 or fewer titles are listed per year. Between 1950 and 1956, 10 to 20 are reported during most years. In 1966, there was a rapid expansion that peaked at 69 titles in 1969 and has usually exceeded 40 in subsequent years.

These patterns provide a basis for recognizing three general periods in the history of Brazilian archeology during the past half century. Period 1, between 1935 and 1955, continues earlier isolated and predominantly amateur activities. Period 2, between 1955 and 1965, is characterized by several long-term programs of research and training that introduced scientific methods of excavation, analysis, and interpretation. Period 3, from 1965 to the present, reflects the adoption and widespread application of these methods throughout Brazil.

PERIOD 1: 1935-1955

Prior to 1950, archeological activities did not differ significantly from those of earlier decades. The foci of interest were also the same. The sambaquis (shell middens) continued to attract attention from geologists and paleontologists, as well as those interested in their cultural significance. The Argentine archeologist, Antonio Serrano, is credited with "modifying completely the conception of archeological problems in southern Brasil" as a consequence of visiting sites and collections in Rio Grande do Sul, Parana, Santa Catarina, and Sao Paulo during 1937 (Brochado 1969:16). In Rio Grande do Sul, he recognized five archeological regions, each characterized by a different type of culture. He also placed local developments within a larger context by proposing relationships with the Andean region. With specific reference to the sambaquis, he differentiated two kinds: (1) an

Betty J. Meggers, NHB- 112, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. 20560

American Antiquity, 50(2), 1985, pp. 364-373. Copyright ? 1985 by the Society for American Archaeology

364

Meggers] BRAZILIAN ARCHEOLOGY 365

70 -A

CD z 60 - 0

5- 50

CD 40-

IL 30 - 0

LLu 20 m

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(0 0 000 a) a) a) a) a) a) a) a) a) a)

Figure 1. Numbers of publications on Brazilian archeology reported in two bibliographies. The Handbook of Latin American Studies (solid line) represents Brazilian authors only. The Prous (1982) bibliography (broken line) includes contributions by foreigners. Both exhibit a sudden rise in production after 1966.

"archaic" group exemplified by sites in Sao Paulo, distant from the present shore and composed of distinctive fauna, and (2) a "southern" group including the rest of the sites, which contained stone artifacts and pottery of types also encountered inland.

In Minas Gerais, H. V. Walter, British Vice-Consul in Belo Horizonte, began excavating caves and rock shelters during the early 1930s in search of early human occupancy. The results of his first 15 years of investigations were published in 1948. A second volume appeared in 1958. Among his long-term collaborators was Anibal Mattos, who published one of the first general books on Brazilian prehistory in 1938. He was preceded by Joao Angyone Costa, whose Introduqdo d arqueologia brasileira appeared in 1934 and was revised in 1938.

Prior to 1948, Amazonian archeology was the subject of works based on pottery in museums from the Santarem region (Palmatary 1939) and Maraj6 (Meggers 1947). George Howard made a valiant effort to distill patterns and relationships in his analysis of Prehistoric Ceramic Styles of Lowland South America (1947). Other comparisons of more limited scope by Rouse (1940), Meggers (1947, 1948), and Palmatary (1939) served mainly to underscore the need for better contextual and chronological data before any reliable reconstructions could be made. Hence, when confronted with the problem of selecting topics for our doctoral dissertations, Clifford Evans and I chose the mouth of the Amazon for fieldwork.

We arrived in Rio de Janeiro in July 1948 after a three-day trip from Miami in a DC-3. Heloisa Alberto Torres, the Director of the Museu Nacional, was one of the few Brazilian scholars who had been to Maraj6. She authorized us to work under the auspices of the museum, thus fulfilling the legal requirements. We proceeded to Belem, where we found the famous Museu Goeldi in pitiful condition. Its decline had commenced with the collapse of the rubber boom and by 1948 it was barely surviving. Nevertheless, we were welcomed by the director, Machado Coelho, who offered us an empty house on the grounds that served as our residence and laboratory during the rainy season. While negotiating with landowners, we had several conversations with Frederico Barata, a journalist interested in archeology in general and the Santarem region in particular. His subsequent publications remain among the few worthwhile sources on the pottery from that region (Barata 1950, 1951, 1953a, 1953b, 1954).

After securing the necessary permissions from landowners, we boarded a wood-burning steamer that took us to Chaves on the north coast of Maraj6. During the following three months, we traveled by horseback, oxback, dugout, sailboat, and foot; we hung our hammocks in all kinds of shelters, moving on the average every three days; we ate agouti, paca, cayman, lizard and cayman eggs, lots of fish and farinha (a derivative of bitter manioc); we accustomed ourselves to doing half a day's

366 AMERICAN ANTIQUITY [Vol. 50, No. 2, 1985

'~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~'

Figure 2. Clifford Evans (left) and Peter Hilbert transporting a large Marajoara burial urn excavated in 1949.

hard labor with only a cafezinho for breakfast; we learned to accommodate our schedule to the hours of daylight and the rhythm of the tides. We returned to Bel&m just before Christmas with a large amount of fragmentary pottery from numerous sites on the north coast of Marajo, and on Mexiana and Caviana, none of which resembled the ceramics hitherto termed "marajoara."

Consequently, after the rainy season began to taper off in May, we spent another month surveying and testing artificial mounds in the center of Maraj6 accompanied by Peter Paul Hilbert, a young German ethnologist who had arrived in Bel&m during our previous fieldwork. One of the excavations produced a large anthropomorphic vessel with well preserved painted decoration (Figure 2), which has been on exhibit at the Museu Goeldi ever since and become a symbol of the Marajoara culture. In 1975, it appeared on a postage stamp (Figure 3) and more recently it has been reproduced on T-shirts and tote-bags sold to tourists-something we could never have imagined in 1949.

After our departure, Hilbert continued the work on Maraj6 and conducted investigations in Amapa and along the middle Amazon under the auspices of the Instituto de Antropologia e Etnologia do Para, founded by Barata and other local amateurs in 1947. Conditions at the Museu Goeldi continued to deteriorate, but total collapse was averted by its transfer in 1954 from administration by the State of Para to a subsidiary of the Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas na Amaz6nia (INPA) head- quartered in Manaos. Our monograph presenting the results of the investigations at the mouth of the Amazon appeared the same year (Meggers and Evans 1954).

PERIOD 2: 1955-1965

During this decade, Brazilian archeology was transformed from an amateur pastime to a profes- sional activity. A great deal of the credit belongs to Jose Loureiro Fernandes, Director of the Centro de Ensino e Pesquisas Arqueol6gicas of the Universidade do Parana (Figure 4). Beginning in 1955,

Meggers] BRAZILIAN ARCHEOLOGY 367

CERAMICA MARAJOR PARA

Figure 3. Postage stamp illustrating the burial urn in Figure 2.

he sponsored work in local sambaquis by the French husband-wife team, Jose' Emperaire and Annette Laming, who had previously excavated similar sites on the coast of Siio Paulo (Figure 5; Laming and Emperaire 1958). After Emperaire's accidental death in 1957, Laming continued. Brazilian students participated in the fieldwork and analysis and many of those most prominent today were trained by her. During 1958-1959, Wesley Hurt was a Fuibright Professor at the Universidade do Paran'a and did fieldwork, again with participation by Brazilians. From July to September 1962, Laming conducted a formal course in field and laboratory methods focusing on sambaquis. This was followed in October 1964 by a workshop on the analysis of fragmentary pottery and the construction of relative chronologies, directed by Meggers and Evans. This experience gave us first- hand appreciation of the amount of ingenuity, tenacity, and drive expended by Fernandes to organize and fund these programs, and of the significance of his efforts. Students from many states were exposed to the same field and analytic methods, whose subsequent application has given Brazilian archeology a unity unknown elsewhere in Latin America. Equally importantly, they became ac- quainted personally. The participants of the ceramic workshop in 1964 developed a special sense of camaraderie during the month they lived and worked together in the Museu de Arqueologia e Artes Populares in Paranagud, which has been vital to the success of programs that developed from this event.

During this decade, other centers emerged or were revived. The Museu Paraense Emilio Goeldi resumed its leadership in Amazonian archeology in 1955, when Peter Hilbert joined the staff. The first paper in the Anthropology series of the Boletim was authored by him (Hilbert 1957). When

368 AMERICAN ANTIQUITY [Vol. 50, No. 2, 1985

Figure 4. Jose Loureiro Fernandes (left) in 1964.

Hilbert returned to Germany in 196 1, his place was taken by M6rio F. Sim6es, who reorganized the storage, put the records in order, and began conducting fieldwork. In Rio Grande do Sul, Pedro I. Schmitz began working on ceramic sites under the auspices of the Instituto Anchietano de Pes-

quisas, a Jesuit institution that had previously concentrated on botany, zoology, and history. The

first publication in the Anthropology series of Pesquisas appeared in 1957 and by 1962, 14 numbers had been published. Valentin Calderon, who was trained in archeology in Spain, joined the faculty of the Universidade Federal da Bahia and began an inventory of sites in that state. Walter F. Piazza was assembling a similar record in Santa Catarina. Jodo Alfredo Rohr, Director of a Jesuit high school in Florian6polis, began excavating cemeteries on the Isla de Santa Catarina and publishing his results in Pesquisas.

Other research programs were initiated without the support of academic institutions. In Rio

Grande do Sul, Eurico Th. Miller began recording and surface collecting sites surrounding his home town of Taquara. In 196 1, he excavated a rock shelter and established the first typology for stone projectile points dating between about 6000 and 4000 B.P. (Miller 1969). In Rio de Janeiro, Ondemar F. Dias adopted another course. In 196 1, he founded the Instituto de Arqueologia Brasileira (JAB) as a mechanism for bringing together local people interested in archeology. From the beginning, there were two categories of members: (1) those permitted to take part in fieldwork, and (2) those allowed to attend lectures and other activities conducted in the IAB headquarters. This structure permitted increasing professionalization of the JAB in subsequent years.

PERIOD 3: 1965-1985

The opportunity to build on the foundation laid during the preceding decade came in 1965, when the Smithsonian Institution and the Conselho Nacional de Pesquisas signed a five-year agreement

Meggers] BRAZILIAN ARCHEOLOGY 369

t I

Figure 5. Jose Emperaire and Paul Rivet (left) at a large sambaqui on the coast of Sao Paulo being excavated in 1954.

to conduct the Programa Nacional de Pesquisas Arqueol6gicas (PRONAPA), implementing a plan developed during the ceramic workshop at the Universidade do Parani. The immensity of the coastal region requiring investigation-extending from the mouth of the Amazon to the Uruguayan border-and the paucity of funds and personnel made it necessary to maximize results. The research design proceeded from the assumption that the shore and the major rivers served as primary routes of movement of people and ideas. In the states with resident archeologists, sectors along these routes were designated for intensive survey. Each state was divided into areas for purposes of standardized numbering of sites. All sites, extending from preceramic to neobrazilian (post-European), were recorded, mapped, surface collected, and where possible tested stratigraphically. The pottery was classified using uniform criteria and described using uniform terminology (Chmyz 1976). Meetings were held at the end of the first, third, and fifth years, at which each archeologist presented details of the data (Figure 6). Because multi-year funding could not be obtained, the participants had to do the fieldwork, analyze the materials, and prepare publishable reports each season as a basis for requesting continuing support, in addition to teaching and performing other duties for the Brazilian institutions that paid their salaries.

These years were exhausting but exhilarating for us as well as for the 11 Brazilian archeologists who did the work. More than 1,500 sites were investigated in Para, Rio Grande do Norte, Bahia, Sao Paulo, Minas Gerais, Rio de Janeiro, Guanabara, Parana, Santa Catarina, and Rio Grande do Sul. The ceramic sites were grouped into phases and traditions; dozens of seriated sequences provided relative chronologies, and some 150 carbon-14 dates permitted their alignment. When the final meeting of the PRONAPA was held in Washington in 1973, a general time-space framework had been established for the Coastal Strip, which permitted preliminary interpretations about the course and process of cultural development from initial settlement to the eighteenth century (PRONAPA 1967, 1969a, 1969b, 1971, 1974; Sim6es 1972).

Simultaneously, an intensive program using similar methods was initiated in Rio Grande do Sul

370 AMERICAN ANTIQUITY [Vol. 50, No. 2, 1985

Figure 6. Meeting of the participants in the Programa Nacional de Pesquisas Arqueologicas (PRONAPA) at the Museu Paraense Emilio Goeldi in 1968. Left to right: Betty J. Meggers, Walter F. Piazza, Nassaro A. de Souza Nasser, Jose Proenza Brochado, Eurico Th. Miller, Silvia Maranca, Valentin Calderon, Jose Wilson Rauth, Celso Perota, Ondemar F. Dias, Igor Chmyz (standing), Clifford Evans, and Mario F. Sim?ies.

under the coordination of Pedro I. Schmitz (Schmitz 1967). In 1967, the first of several symposia bringing together archeologists from Santa Catarina, Parand, and Rio Grande do Sul, and from Uruguay and Argentina, was held at the Instituto Anchietano de Pesquisas. In the same year, the Museu Arqueol6gico do Rio Grande do Sul was established in Taquara, supported by the state of Rio Grande do Sul. About the same time, archeologists were added to the faculties of the Univer- sidade Federal do Espin'to Santo and the Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais.

During the early 1 970s, two important programs involving French and Brazilian collaboration were directed toward rock shelters. Fieldwork in the Lagoa Santa region was organized by Laming and carried out in 1971 and 1973 (Laming-Emperaire et al. 1975). A long-term study emphasizing pictographs and their contexts has been underway in the northeastern state of Piaui since 1973, directed by Ni&de Guidon (1975), under the sponsorship of the CNRS (France) and the Museu Paulista (Brazil).

The Instituto de Arqueologia Brasileira enhanced its scientific activities in 1974 with the creation of a Centro de Pesquisas Arqueol6gicas housed in a restored colonial residence in the suburbs of Rio de Janeiro, provided by the State. By 1984, its staff had grown to 14 professional investigators, 8 students, and 3 consultants. The first two volumes of a monograph series were published the same year, and the Boletim was revived after a lapse of more than a decade. Long-term research programs underway include intensive excavation of sites of the ItaipP r Tradition along the coast of Rio de Janeiro, which have produced subsistence remains and a large skeletal sample, as well as artifacts permitting reconstruction of a specialized subsistence adaptation during the millennia preceding the Christian Era. Another multi-year program focuses on the Sio Francisco valley in Minas Gerais.

Meggers] BRAZILIAN ARCHEOLOGY 371

Since 1977, the IAB team has also been collaborating with similar teams from the Museu Goeldi, the Universidade Federal do Espirito Santo, and the Secretaria de Cultura, Turismo e Deporte de Rond6nia in the Programa Nacional de Pesquisas Arqueol6gicas na Bacia Amaz6nica (PRONA- PABA). Patterned after the PRONAPA and incorporating several of the same investigators, this program has recorded and sampled hundreds of sites in Amazonia, including survey of the entire Madeira and Guapore courses, sections of the Jurua, the upper Purus, the upper Xingui and Tapajos, the lower and middle Negro, the left margin of the lower Amazon, and parts of Acre and Mato Grosso (Sim6es and Araujo-Costa 1978; Sim6es 1983).

Another program of intensive investigation has been underway in southern Goias through the collaboration of archeologists from the Instituto Anchietano de Pesquisas of Rio Grande do Sul and the Universidade Cat6lica de Goias. Several rock shelters have been excavated, attesting to the presence of humans by 11,000 B.P. At the late end of the sequence, tentative correlations have been made between two ceramic traditions and the two major divisions of the Ge family of languages (Schmitz et al. 1982). Major cultural and subsistence differences have been observed, which appear to reflect climatic changes and ecological diversity.

Another important development during the past decade is implementation of the federal law requiring archeological salvage in regions affected by construction of dams, exploitation of mineral deposits, and other kinds of activities. The earliest major project was a highly successful survey of the Brazilian portion of the reservoir created by the Itaipu dam on the Rio Parani, conducted by Igor Chmyz. Detailed descriptions of the sites and artifacts have been published in seven volumes (Chmyz 1976-1983). Similar projects have been completed, are in progress, or are being planned throughout the country.

In 1980, Brazilian archeology came of age with the founding of the Sociedade de Arqueologia Brasileira (SAB). In 1982, it had more than 100 members representing over 20 institutions. Meetings held in 1981 in Rio de Janeiro and in 1983 in Belo Horizonte were attended by professionals and students from all parts of the country. Unfortunately, facilities for training have not kept pace with growing interest and need. Only the Universidade de Sao Paulo offers Master's and Doctor's degrees in anthropology; two other institutions (the Universidade Federal de Pernambuco and the Pontificia Universidade Cat6lica do Rio Grande do Sul) offer Master's degrees in the history of culture, which includes prehistory (Schmitz 1983). Amplifying the opportunities for academic training is a major challenge, which must be met to provide the personnel necessary to conduct the salvage programs as well as to carry out other investigations to fill the gaps in our knowledge of cultural development during pre-European times. The dedication and perseverance that have characterized the efforts during the past 50 years make it safe to predict that this obstacle will be overcome and that significant contributions to archeological method, theory, and data will be made by Brazilian archeologists in the years to come.

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1969b Resultados preliminares do terceiro ano, 1967-1968. Publs. Avulsas 13. Museu Paraense Emilio Goeldi, Belem.

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Walter, H. V. 1948 A pr&historia da regido de Lag6a Santa, Minas Gerais. Belo Horizonte. 1958 Arqueologia da regiao de Lag6a Santa (Minas Gerais). Rio de Janeiro.

A. V. Kidder at Canyon de los Frijoles (Bandelier National Monument) ca. 1915-1917. J. 0. Brew Collection (Peabody Museum, Harvard University, print by Hillel Burger).