Structure of a cell:•Nucleus- To control the cells’ activities.•Cytoplasm- Chemical reactions take place.•Cell membrane- Controls the movement of material’s in and out of the cell.•Mitochondria- Where Energy released during aerobic respiration.•Ribosome- Where Protein synthesis takes place.

Algal Cells:• Cell Wall- Made of cellulose (carbohydrate molecule) that supports the cells.•Chloroplasts- Found in green parts of the plant.They are green as they absorb green substances such as chlorophyll (absorbs light energy to make food).•Permanent Vacuole- Space in the cytoplasm which is fill with cell sap. This keeps the cells rigid.

Bacteria Cells: •Each bacterium cell is a single cell.•It is made up of cytoplasm, cell membrane and cell wall.•Bacteria does not have a nucleus so the Genetic material (The DNA that carries the instructionFor making new cells) is carried in the cytoplasm.•They contain plasmids ( small bits of DNA) which containsextra genetic information.•Some bacteria’s have 1 flagellum(a long protein strand). ThisIs used to move themselves.

Yeast Cells:•Each yeast contains a nucleus, genetic material,Cytoplasm, cell membrane and call wall.•Yeast is produced by asexual budding. (New yeastgrowing out from the original cell.)•Yeast uses aerobic respiration using oxygen. TheOxygen is used to breakdown sugar to provide energyfor the cell. They produce water and carbon dioxide.•Yeast can also use anaerobic respiration. When theyeast breaks down sugar they produce ethanol andcarbon dioxide. (Fermentation).

Fat Cells: •When you eat more food than your body needs you to then your body stores the food Into fat cells.•This will help you when your body runs outof food.•They have a small amount of cytoplasm.•It has a large amount of fat.•They have a small amount of mitochondria asit needs a small amount of energy.•They can expand.

Cone cells:•The cone cell are in the light sensitive layerof your eye.•The cone cells allow you to see colours.•Outer segment contains special chemicals whichchanges the colour of the light to change it back to its original colour you need energy.•The middle segment is full of mitochondria and this releases energy needed to reform the pigment.•Last part of the cell has synapses that connects tothe optic nerve.

Root hair cells:•This helps take water in.•They are close to the xylem tissue carries Water and mineral ions up into the rest of plant.•The root hair increases the surface area ofthe for the water to move into the cell.•It has a large permanent vacuole which speeds up the of the water.

Sperm Cell:•It has a long tail which whips side to side which allows the sperm to move towards the egg.•The middle part is full of mitochondria which gives energy for the tail to move.•The acrosome stores digestive enzymes for breaking down the outer layers of the egg. •Nucleus contains the genetic information.

Diffusion:•Diffusion is the spreading of the particles of asubstance in a solution. • The net movement is from an area of high concentration to an area of lower concentration.It takes place because of the random movementof the particles.•If there is a big difference in the concentrationbetween two areas the diffusion will take placequickly.•If there is a small difference in the concentrationBetween the two areas the net movement by thediffusion will take place slowly. •The greater the difference in concentration the faster the rate of diffusion. •An increase in the temperature causes particlesin a gas/liquid to move quickly the diffusion takesplace rapidly. •Amino acids that breakdown proteins in y our gut also pass through cell membranes by diffusion.

The net movement= particles moving in-particles moving out.

Concentration Gradient= Difference between two areas of concentration.

Tissues:•Tissue is a group of cells with a similar structure /function to work together. •Muscular tissue=Contract to bring movement.• Glandular tissue= Contains secretory cells which produces enzymes and hormones.•Epithelial tissues= Covers your outside body.•Epidermal Tissues= Cover the surfaces.•Mesophyll Tissues= Contains chloroplast/ carriesout photosynthesis.

Organs:•Organs are made up of tissues.•Muscular Tissues= Chums the food and digestive juices of the stomach.•Glandular Tissues=Produces digestive juices that breaks down the food.•Epithelial Tissues= Covers inside and outside of the organs.

Digestive System:•A muscular tube squeezes your food through it. •It starts from the mouth and finishes with your anus. •The Salivary Gland releases digestive juices which contains enzymes to break the food down.•Enzymes break down the large insoluble food molecules into smaller soluble ones.•Small intestine is where the soluble food molecules are absorbed into the blood once it gets transported into the blood stream. •Muscular walls of the gut squeezes the undigested food intothe large intestine. This is where water is absorbed into yourblood. Material left as faeces and passed out from the anus.

Photosynthesis:•The cells in algae are full of green particles called chloroplasts.•Chloroplast contains a green substance called Chlorophyll.•Light energy is absorbed during photosynthesis by chlorophyllIn the chloroplast. •The energy made is converted into carbon dioxide from the airand water from the soil into glucose. (Also creates oxygen).•Glucose is made and converted into insoluble starch.•When testing to see whether photosynthesis has taken place in a plant you use iodine (yellow /brown liquid) which turns darkblue when reacted with starch.

Leaf Adaptations:•Most leaves are broad which gives them a bigger surface area for light to fall on.•They also contain chlorophyll in the chloroplasts to absorb the light energy.•They have air spaces which allows carbon dioxide to get to the cells and oxygen to leave. (By diffusion)•They have veins which bring water to the cells.

Limiting Factors= Factors that limit the rate of reaction.

Light:•Light affects the rate of photosynthesis.•The brighter the light the faster the rateof photosynthesis. Temperature:

•The higher the temperature the rate for photosynthesis increases as the reactionrate speeds up.Photosynthesis is controlled by enzymes soif the temperature is too high the enzymesare denature.

Carbon dioxide:•Plants use carbon dioxide to make glucose.•Increasing the carbon dioxide level will increase the rate of photosynthesis. •At night the carbon dioxide levels increase around near the plant as the plant respire but doesn’t photosynthesise.

Glucose:•Glucose is produced during photosynthesis by the cells. •Glucose is used for respiration to provide energy for cell function.•Glucose is broken down by oxygen to provide energy for the cells.(Carbon dioxide and water are the waste products produced).•Energy released is used to build small molecules into big molecules.• Some glucose is turned into starch.•Plant/ Algae build up glucose from photosynthesis to make amino acids by adding nitrate ions and mineral ions from the soil. (Amino acids build up into proteins).• Glucose from photosynthesis and energy from respiration build up to fats and oils. Starch:

•Plants convert some of the glucose into starch.•Starch is insoluble water. It will have no effect of the water balance of the plant. This means that plants can store large amount of starch in their cells.

The Garden Greenhouse:•In the green house within the glass/ plastic the environment is more controlled than outside.•Atmosphere is warmer inside than outside thismeans that this affects the photosynthesis rateand this will help the plants grow quickly.

Technology:Hydroponics system helps the plants grow in water with perfect balance of Mineral ions instead of soil so nothingslows down their growth.

Carbon Dioxide+Water Glucose +Oxygen.

Factors affecting Living organisms.

Temperature:Temperature is a limiting factor for photosynthesis and therefore growth in plants.

Nutrients:The level of mineral ions available has a bigimpact on the distribution of plants.

Amount of light:•Light limits photosynthesis.•Most plants need a lot of light to grow well.•Some plants need less light as they may have more chlorophyll/big leaves.

Availability of water.

Availability of oxygen and Carbon dioxide.

Proteins:Proteins carry out many different functions in your body such as:•Structural components (muscles).•Hormones (Insulin).•Antibodies to destroy pathogens.•Catalysts in the form of enzymes.

Enzymes:•Chemical reactions are controlled by enzymes in your body.•Enzymes are large protein molecules.•Long chains of amino acids are folded to produce a moleculewith a specific shape. (Active site allows other molecules to fitinto the enzyme protein. •They build large molecules from lots of small ones.•Changes the molecule into another one.•Breaks down the large molecules into small ones. •Different enzymes catalyst specific types of reactions.•Enzymes in bacteria breakdown protein structures.•The rate of enzymes controlled reactions increases as the temperature increases.Different enzymes have different pH levels.•Chemical breakdown is controlled by enzymes.•Digestive enzymes work outside your cells. (Produced in the Gland and on the lining of your gut).•Carbohydrases are enzymes that break down carbohydrates. (This is done by turning it into sugars into your moth and into your small intestine this is done by an enzyme called amylase.•Amylase is produced in the salivary gland. •Protease enzymes are produced by your stomach and they breakdown the amino acids.Lipase enzymes are made in your pancreas and they break down the fatty acids.

pH level:•Keeping the pH in your gut at ideal level is not easy because the enzymes work best at different pH levels.•Your enzymes work best in an acid Ph.•Your stomach produces a concentrated solution of hydrochloricacid from the same glands.•Stomach also produces a thick layer of mucus which coats stomach walls and protects them from being digested by the acid and the enzymes.•Your food moves into your small intestines so in your small intestine some of the enzymes that catalyse digestion are made in your pancreas.•Acidic liquid that comes from your stomach becomes an alkaline mix in your stomach.•Liver makes a greenish/ yellow alkaline liquid called Bile which is stored in your gall bladder until needed.•When food is coming into the small intestine bile is squirted onto it so it can neutralise the acid from the stomach.

Advantages: Disadvantages:Effective at cleaning at low temperature.

Triggers allergies.

Less electricity is used.

Cheap/ Good for environment.

Biological Powders:

Aerobic Respiration:Glucose+Oxygen Carbon Dioxide +Water(+Energy)

Mitochondria:•They are tiny rod-shaped parts that are found in plant/animal cells.•They have a folded inner membrane.•Provides a large surface area for the enzymes to be involved in aerobic respiration.•Number of mitochondria in a cell show how active the cell is.

Respiration:•Living cells build up large molecules from smaller ones to make new cell materials. Most of the energy is released in respiration.•In animals energy from respiration is used to make muscles contract.•Mammals and birds keep their bodies at a constant temperature .

Exercising:•Muscle tissues are made up of protein fibres.•Muscle fibres need a lot of energy to contract. They contain mitochondria to carry out aerobic respiration and supply energy.•Muscles also store glucose as the carbohydrates glycogen. This can back to glucose by exercise. •Muscular activity increases your heart rate and the arteries supply blood to your muscles.•Also your breathing rate increases and you breathe deeply as more oxygen is brought into your body and picked up by your red blood cells.

Anaerobic Respiration:•When you exercise you increase your hear rate and breathing rate and sometimes blood cannot supply oxygen to the muscle fast enough so this causes the muscle cells to get energy from glucose. (Anaerobic respiration).•Glucose is not broken down in this process so lactic acid is produced instead of carbon dioxide and water. •When using your muscle the muscle fibres become fatigued (stop contracting efficiently).•Anaerobic respiration is not as efficient as aerobic respiration this because the glucose is not broken down completely.

Anaerobic Respiration:GlucoseLactic Acid(+Energy)

•Each cell has a nucleus which has a gene.•A gene carries information that controls your characteristics.•Alleles are different forms of the same gene. •Genes are grouped together on chromosomes.•Each body has 46 chromosomes in the nucleus of a body cells. (23 pairs)•One of each pair is inherited from your father and one from your mother.

Mitosis:•Cell division in a normal body cells produce two identical cells. (Mitosis).•Asexual Reproduction the cells of the offspring are produced by mitosis from the cells from the parents. This is why they contain the same alleles as their parents with no genetic variation.•Before a cell divides it produces new copies of the chromosomes in the nucleus so when the cell divides once to form two genetically identical cells.

Differentiation:•Cells are specialised as different cells do different jobs. They have differentiated. •Undifferentiated cells are formed at active regions of the stems and roots. (Mitosis takes place in these areas).Meiosis:•Meiosis results in sex cells called gametes with only half the original number of chromosomes.•Gametes are formed by meiosis. (Female –egg and Male-Sperm).•When the a cell divides to form gametes the chromosomes are copied so there are four sets of chromosomes. Cell divides twice quickly to form four sets of gametes which each have a single chromosomes.

Fertilisation: •When two sex cells join together during fertilisation the single new cell formed has 46 pairs chromosomes in 23 pairs. This because in the egg cell it contains 23 and the sperm also contains 23.•Once fertilisation is done the new cell divides by mitosis. Variation:•In asexual reproduction the offspring are produced as a result of mitosis from the parent cells. So they contain the same chromosomes and the same genes as their parents.•In sexual reproduction the gametes produced by meiosis in the sex organs of the parents. This introduces the variety as each of the gametes are different. When the gametes fuse one of each pair of chromosomes, gene comes from each parent. Stem cells:•When an egg and sperm fuse they form a zygote (new, single cell).This becomes a ball of cells called embryo. •The inner cells of the ball are the stem cells. The stem cells differentiate to form the specialised cells of your body that make up your tissues and organs.•Bone marrow is a good source of stem cells.•Embryonic ells come from aborted embryos. Others come from embryos in fertility treatment. This raises ethical issues.

DNA:•Chromosomes are made up of large molecules of chemical known as DNA.•The genes make up the chromosomes in the nucleus of the cell. This controls the proteins which make up different specialised cells that form tissues.•Long strands of your DNA are made up of a combination of 4 different chemical bases. These are grouped into 3 and each code for amino acid.

•Some alleles control the development of a characteristics even when they are only present in one chromosomes. These are dominant alleles. •To show dominant alleles you use capital letters for example, D.•Some alleles only control the development of a characteristic if they are present in both chromosomes. These are recessive alleles.•To show recessive allele you use lower case letters for example, d.

Genetic Terms:•Homozygous- Individual with 2 identical alleles. (DD , dd)•Heterozygous-Individual with different alleles.(Dd)•Genotype- Genetic make up of an individual. (Dd, dd)•Physical appearance of and individual. (dimples, no dimples).

Genetic/inherited disorders: Diseases that are result of a problem in a gene and can be passed by a parent to a child.

Polydactyly:•This is when babies are born with extra fingers or toes.•Polydactyly is caused by a dominant allele.•This is inherited from one parent who has Polydactyly.

Cystic Fibrosis:•This affects the organs in your body especially the lungs and the pancreas. •Organs become clogged up with mucus which stops them from working properly.•People with cystic fibrosis are infertile.(Can’t have babies).•Enzymes are used to replace the pancreas which cannot produce and to thin the mucus.•Cystic fibrosis is caused by a recessive allele so it has to be inherited by both parents.

Genetic Cross:•When genes from the parents are combined .

Fossils:•These are the remains of organisms from many years ago that are found in preserved rocks and ice.•Fossils can be formed by hard parts of animals which do not decay such as teeth, bones, claws or shells.•When animal or plant do not decay after it dies this is because the poisonous gases do not kill of the bacteria that causes decay.•Formed by the harder parts of the animal/plant as they are replaced by other minerals.•Some are formed by traces that have been left behind by animals/plants. Such as fossil footprints.

Extinction:•Permanent loss of all the members of a species. •New species evolve that are better suited to the new conditions where as the older species cannot cope with the change and die out. This is because they cannot compete for food.•New predators can wipe out the unsuspecting prey animals very quickly.•New diseases can bring a species to the point of extinction.•One species can cause another to become extinct by successful competition.

•After a mass extinction there has been a huge number of new species appear in the fossil record.•When one population becomes isolated from another the conditions they live are different. This means that the different characteristics will be selected for. A new specie is evolved.•Geographical isolation is when two populations become physically isolated by geographical features.•Organisms on islands are geographically isolated from the rest of the world.•When species are isolated it will find one place in the world – endemic to that area.

Speciation:•Any population will contain genetic variety. This is a wide range of alleles that controls its characteristics from sexual reproduction and mutation.•The selection of these different alleles the characteristics features of the isolated organisms will change. They can no longer interbreed with the original organism and a new species form. (Speciation).