18th Century: European States, War, and Change

Enlightened Absolutism(1740-1790)

• The philosophes inspired & supported the reforms of the Enlightened Despots– Absolute rulers should

promote the good of the people

• Reforms of the enlightenment were modest– Religious toleration– Streamlined legal codes– Increased access to

education– Reduction or elimination of

torture & death penalty

Frederick II “The Great”(1740-1786)

• One of the greatest rulers in German history

• Profoundly influenced by the Enlightenment– Considered French learning to

be superior– Patronized Voltaire & invited

him to live in his court in Berlin– Musician & poet

• The first 23 years of Fred’s reign was dominated by warfare

Frederick’s Wars• War of Austrian Succession

(1740-1748)– Cause: Frederick invaded and

annexed Silesia, part of the Austrian Hapsburg empire. This violated Austria’s Pragmatic Sanction (1713) where the Great Powers recognized that Maria Theresa would inherit the entire Hapsburg empire.

– Prussia defeated Austria• Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle– Prussia gained Silesia– Prussia now recognized as the

most powerful German state

• Cause: Maria Theresa (Austria) sought to regain Silesia from Prussia (w/ Russia & France as allies)

• “Diplomatic Revolution of 1756”• France & Austria (traditional enemies) allied

against Prussia• Britain supported Prussia with money

• Bloodiest war in Europe since 30 Years’ War• World War that also included England &

France’s struggle for North America• Prussia outnumbered 15-1• Prussia on the verge of catastrophic defeat

• Russian Czar Peter III pulled Russia out of the war in 1763

• Saved Prussia• Peter was assassinated & replaced by

Catherine II• Treaty of Paris

• most important treaty of the 18th century

Seven Years’ War

Enlightened Reforms of Fredthe Great

• Saw himself as the “first servant of the state”– The destruction of was encouraged Frederick to

help improve society– His reforms were mostly intended to increase

the power of the state• Allowed religious freedom• Promoted education • Codified & streamlined laws• Freed the serfs on crown lands in 1763• Required examinations for civil servants• Reduced censorship• Abolished capital punishment• Encouraged industrial & agricultural growth• Social structure remained heavily stratified

– serfdom remained on noble lands– Junkers (Prussian nobility) were the backbone

of the military & the state– Middle-class found it extremely difficult to

move up socially

Catherine the Great (Russia)

• One of the greatest rulers in European History– Perhaps the least “enlightened”

of the Enlightened Despots• German princess who married

Peter III– She took part in his assassination

plot• Lover of French culture – Refused to speak German or

Russian – Considered herself a child of the

Enlightenment– Diderot lived in her court

• Pugachev Rebellion

Catherine’s reforms

• Imported western culture into Russia

• Education – supported the private printing presses – # of books published annually

increased from a few dozen to over 400

• Restricted torture• Allowed religious toleration– Jews were granted civil equality– Jews had suffered significant

persecution in Russia• Strengthened local government

led by elected councils

Austria:Maria Theresa(r. 1740-1780)

• Not an Enlightened Despot• Assumed the Habsburg empire from

her father, Charles VII– Pragmatic sanction of 1713– Sought to improve the condition of her

people through absolute rule• Centralized control of the Habsburg

Empire– Limited the power of the nobles– Helped the serfs more than any ruler

up to that time– Increased the army to 100,000– Improved the tax system– Reduced conflicts between provinces

of the empire– Reduced torture in legal proceedings

More Maria Theresa

• Brought the Catholic Church in Austria under state control

• Promoted economic development– Hoped giving serfs some freedoms

would make them more productive

– Abolished internal customs– Encouraged immigration– Improved transportation– Supported private enterprise

• However, she is NOT considered an Enlightened Despot– Not a fan of Enlightenment

thought– Did not really allow religious

toleration

Joseph II(r. 1780-1790)

• Ruled with his mother, Maria Theresa, as co-regent until her death

• Possibly the greatest of the “Enlightened Despots” in terms of reforms

• Major reforms– Abolished serfdom 1781

• Opposed by many peasants & nobles• Rescinded after his death

– Freedom of religion & civic rights to Protestants & Jews

– Freedom of the press– Reformed the judicial system – sought to

make it equal for all– Abolished torture & death penalty– Expanded state schools– Established hospitals, insane asylums,

poorhouses & orphanages

Agriculture prior to 1700

• 80% of Europe were farmers• Agricultural output was low

compared to modern standards– Failed harvests occurred once

or twice a decade– People were malnourished

• Open field system– Common lands were open– Farmed by the community– Exhaustion of soil was common– 1/3 to ½ of all lands were

allowed to lie fallow so the soil could recover

Agricultural Revolution(17th & 18th Centuries)

• Increased food production• New methods of cultivation• Selective breeding of

livestock• Science & technology was

applied to agriculture– Crop rotation (Townsend)– Increased food for livestock

sustained livestock through the winter

– Seed Drill (Jethro Tull)• Revolution in diet

leaf (nitrogen), fruit (phosphorus), root (potassium), and legume (fixes nitrogen)

The Enclosure Movement

• Began in 16th Century• Landowners sought to increase

profits from wool by enclosing fields for sheep

• Resulted in the commercialization of agriculture– Large landowners prospered &

invested in technology– Parliament passed over 3000

enclosure acts in the 18th century• Impact on peasantry

– Many forced off lands that had been common

– Many moved to towns looking for work since work was less available

– Many became impoverished farm laborers

Impact on Women

• Economic opportunities for women decreased significantly

• Many families eager to get daughters out of the house (extra mouth to feed)

• Young women increasingly went to towns or cities – Became domestic workers or

in worst case, prostitutes• Families in countryside

supplemented their income through the cottage industry– Mostly spinning or weaving

Impact of the Agricultural Revolution

• Led to Europe’s population explosion in the 18th century

• Enclosure movement altered society in the countryside

• Cottage industry emerged to supplement income

• Economically, increased supply of food resulted in lower prices – enabling people to spend more $$ on consumer goods

Population Explosion in 18th century

• Prior to 1700 population kept in check by famine, disease, & warfare

• Causes of increase in 1700’s– More food (Ag. Rev.)– New foods (potato) became a staple

crop for the poor– Improved food transportation due to

better roads & canals– Better diet = stronger immune

systems– No more bubonic plague– 18th century wars were less

destructive to civilians– Advances in medicine NOT significant

• Between 1700 & 1800 the European population increased from about 120 million to about 190 million people

Marriage & Family Prior to 1750

• Nuclear family most common• Age of marriage was higher (late 20’s)

– could not marry until the could support themselves

– sons had to wait until father’s death to gain land

• Some areas required legal permission of local lord or landowner for marriage

• Many men & women never married• Rate of births out of wedlock fairly low• Pre-marital sex generally limited to

couples already thinking about marriage• If husband & wife lived to 45 – odds were

50% of having 6 kids– Infant mortality high, – 50% survival rate to adulthood was

considered good

New patterns of marriage & family after 1750

• Higher rates of people marrying for love – Young people did not have

to wait long to be financially independent

• Explosion of births caused by increasing illegitimacy– Fewer girls abstaining from

pre-marital sex– Fewer boys married girls

they impregnated

18th Century Attitudes Toward Children

• Child care & nursing– Poorer women breast fed– Aristocratic women seldom breast fed

• Hired wet nurses to breast feed their children (2-3 years)

• Infanticide– Rampant due to severe poverty– Foundling hospitals emerged

• By 1770, 1/3 of all babies born in Paris were immediately abandoned to the foundling home

• ½ of all babies died within a year

• Child rearing– Children often treated indifferently & with

strict physical discipline– Parents reluctant to become too emotionally

attached– “Spare the rod, spoil the child”

• Young kids worked with families or increasingly away from home