© 2004 Pearson Education Canada Inc. Chapter 12 Aggression: Why We Hurt Other People.

© 2004 Pearson Education Canada Inc.

Chapter 12Chapter 12Chapter 12Chapter 12

Aggression: Aggression:

Why We Hurt Other PeopleWhy We Hurt Other People


Chapter OutlineChapter Outline

I. What Is Aggression?


What Is Aggression?What Is Aggression?

Aggressive action is intentional behaviour aimed at causing either physical or psychological pain.

It is useful to distinguish between hostile and instrumental aggression.

Hostile aggression is an act of aggression stemming from feelings of anger and aimed at inflicting pain.

Instrumental aggression is aggression that serves as a means to some goal other than causing pain.

Definition of Aggression



Is Aggression Inborn, or Is it Learned?

Scientists do not agree on whether aggression is innate or learned. The debate has been raging for centuries.

Hobbes (1651): Human beings are brutes and only by enforcing the law and order of society can we curb this natural instinct toward aggression.

Rousseau (1762): Human beings are gentle creatures and it is a restrictive society that forces us to become hostile and aggressive.




Freud (1930): Postulated that humans have innate instincts toward life, Eros, and towards death and aggression, Thanatos.

Freud believed that aggressive energy must come out somehow, lest it continue to build up and produce illness. This is referred to as the hydraulic theory.




Freud’s hydraulic theory: the theory that unexpressed emotions build up pressure and must be expressed to relieve the pressure.

Society regulates this instinct by helping people to sublimate it—turn the destructive energy into acceptable and useful behaviour.



Is Aggression Instinctual? Situational? Optional?

Because aggression has survival value, most researchers accept the proposition that it is part of our evolutionary heritage.

However, whether aggression is expressed or not depends on a complex interplay between our biological propensities, our innate and learned inhibitory responses, and the social situation in which we find ourselves (see Lorenz, 1966; Lore & Schultz, 1993).



Aggressiveness Across Cultures

The evidence is inconclusive as to whether or not aggression has an instinctual component, but it is clear that aggression can be modified by situational factors.

Much evidence supports the contention that for humans innate patterns of behaviour are infinitely modifiable and flexible.



Aggressiveness Across Cultures

Thus, cultures vary widely in the degree of aggressiveness expressed.

Moreover, changes in social conditions can lead to marked changes in aggressive behaviour (see Iroquois Indian example).

Even, within countries there can be marked regional differences in aggressive behaviour (see southern vs. northern U.S. example).


Neural and Chemical Influences on Neural and Chemical Influences on AggressionAggression

Neural MechanismsThe amygdala is an area in the core of the brain associated with aggressive behaviour in humans and lower animals.

When the area is stimulated, docile organisms become violent, and when the neural activity is blocked, violent organisms become docile.

But, even when the amygdala is directly stimulated, whether or not the organism aggresses depends on situational factors.



Testosterone

Certain chemicals have been shown to influence aggression in animals and in humans, testosterone for example.

Testosterone is a male sex hormone associated with aggression.

-eg,the injection of testosterone will increase aggression in animals.



Testosterone

Research shows that:

i) naturally occurring testosterone levels are higher among prisoners convicted of violent crimes than among those convicted of nonviolent crimes,

ii) incarcerated prisoners with higher testosterone levels violate more prison rules

iii) juvenile delinquents have higher testosterone levels than do university students



Testosterone

iv) in non-criminal populations the link between testosterone and aggression seems not as strong, although it is associated with social dominance (see Tremblay et al, 1998 12-13-yr-old boy study).

A meta analysis found that overall, a weak, positive correlation (r =.14) exists between testosterone and aggression.



Testosterone

If testosterone level affects aggression, and males have more of it than females, are men more aggressive than women? Yes.

A wide variety of studies have shown that men are more aggressive than women.

Male youth crime is almost three times that of the female rate, for example.

Are these differences due to biological differences, or to social learning differences? We don’t know.



Gender Differences

Gender differences in aggression also vary depending on the situation.

-eg, a meta analysis showed that although men are much more aggressive than women under ordinary circumstances, the gender difference disappears under strong provocation.



Gender Differences

Also, the target of aggression is different for males compared to females.

-ie, men’s aggression is generally directed at other men (friends and strangers), whereas

women’s aggression is much more likely to be directed at a romantic partner, is less likely to involve alcohol consumption, and tends to have a highly negative emotional impact.



Gender Differences

Although women do direct physical aggression against male partners, it does less damage than men’s physical aggression;

-ie, women are much more likely to suffer serious injuries at the hands of their male partner.



Gender Differences

Which gender is most aggressive also depends on culture. Researchers investigated violence of teenagers responses to conflict scenarios in 11 countries.

They found that young men showed greater violence than young women, but

That women from Australia and New Zealand produced more violent responses than did men from Sweden and Korea.



Alcohol

Alcohol intoxication has been associated with violent crimes, family violence, relationship violence, and air rage.

Experimental studies suggest strongly that alcohol ingestion causes aggression.

Hoaken and Pihl (2000) found that students at McGill University who were provoked administered stronger shocks to fictitious opponents that participants who were not intoxicated.



Alcohol

Similarly, MacDonald et al (2000) found that intoxicated university students from the University of Waterloo reported more negative emotions when thinking about relationship conflicts, and had more negative perceptions of their partner’s feelings than did control groups who did not ingest alcohol.

These researchers concluded that alcohol can play a causal role in exacerbating relationship conflict.



Alcohol

i) reduces our inhibitions so that we are more likely to perform behaviours that we would normally keep in check

ii) lowers our threshold for aggressive behaviour

iii) interferes with our ability to consider the consequences or our actions


Situational Causes of AggressionSituational Causes of Aggression

Pain and Discomfort as a Cause of Aggression

Certain situations are conducive to aggression—so conducive that even the most docile person will resort to aggression. Pain is one of these.

Both animal and human studies show that pain increases the probability that an organism will aggress.



Pain and Discomfort as a Cause of Aggression

Other forms of bodily discomfort (heat, humidity, air pollution, offensive odours) may also act to lower the threshold for aggressive behaviours.

-e.g., in major league baseball games more batters were hit by pitched balls when the temperature was above 32 degrees Celsius than when it was below that temperature.

-e.g., in the laboratory also, more aggression was expressed when the temperature was high (32 degrees) than when it was low (see Rule et al, 1987).



Frustration Causes Aggression

Frustration is a major cause of aggression. Frustration occurs when a person is thwarted on the way to an expected goal or gratification (Barker et al,1941).

Frustration-aggression theory says that frustration will increase the probability of an aggressive response (Dollard et al, 1939).

This is not to say that frustration always leads to aggression, but it frequently does.




Several factors can increase frustration and the associated aggression. One of these is closeness to the goal object.

The greater the closeness to the goal, the greater the frustration when it is thwarted and the higher the probability of aggression.

Another factor: aggression also increases when frustration is unexpected.




Frustration does not always produce aggression.

Rather, it produces anger, annoyance and readiness to aggress if the situation is conducive to aggression.




Frustration does not always cause aggression, e.g., if an opponent (person responsible for the frustration) is superior in size and strength.

Or, if the frustration is legitimate and unintentional, the tendency to aggress will be reduced (see Burnstein & Worchel, 1962).

However, even when the frustration is legitimate, or fully justified, more aggression occurs compared to when there is no frustration at all (see Dill & Anderson, 1995).




It is not deprivation alone that causes frustration and subsequent aggression, rather, it is relative deprivation that is important.

Relative deprivation is the perception that you (or your group) have less than you deserve, less than you have been led to expect, or less than people similar to you have (see Wright et al, 1990 McGill study).



Direct Provocation and Reciprocation

People usually feel the need to reciprocate after they are deliberately provoked by aggressive behaviour from another person.

But, they do not always retaliate. If we think the provocation was unintentional, we are unlikely to reciprocate.

And if there are mitigating circumstances, we will not aggress, so long as the circumstances are known at the time of the provocation (see Johnson & Rule, 1986).



Social Exclusion

Being excluded from a group of peers can lead to considerable aggression in the laboratory (see Twenge and colleagues, 2001).

Thus, a partial explanation for why those who experience rejection from classmates on a daily basis end up reacting with extreme aggression__as in the case of high school students who go on a killing rampage.



Aggressive Objects as a Cause of Aggression

The presence of aggressive stimuli increases the probability of aggression (see Berkowitz & LePage, 1967 gun study; Fig. 12.1).

An aggressive stimulus is an object that is associated with aggressive responses (e.g., a gun) and whose mere presence can increase the probability of aggression.




That guns act as aggressive stimuli increasing the amount of aggression is supported by research studies.

Seattle, Washington, where handgun ownership is unrestricted, has more than twice the murder rate than that of Vancouver, where ownership is restricted.

Britain, where handguns are banned, has 1/16 as many homicides as the U.S.




Archer and Gartner (1984), in a cross-national study of violence, found that the homicide rate in countries all over the world is highly correlated with the availability of handguns.

Also, previously neutral objects can be classically conditioned to act as aggressive cues (see Josephson, 1987 walkie-talkie study)



Imitation and Aggression

A major factor in aggression is social learning.

Social learning theory is the theory that we learn social behaviour (e.g., aggression) by observing others and imitating them (Bandura and colleagues, 1961, 1963; see Bobo doll study).

Children learn to solve conflicts aggressively by imitating adults and peers. This is especially powerful when the aggression is rewarded.




Studies show that a large percentage of physically abusive people were themselves abused by their parents when they were kids.

When children experience aggressive treatment at the hands of their parents, they learn that violence is the way to respond to conflict or anger.




In April 1999 a 14-year-old boy attending high school in Taber, Alberta, opened fire, killing one student and wounding another.

Although it cannot be proven, it was speculated that the Tabor tragedy was an imitation of the Columbine massacre which occurred earlier that month.

Death threats increased dramatically across the country following the Tabor shootings, suggesting imitation of the Tabor episode.



The Effects of Watching Violence in the Media

If learning through observation is so powerful, then does watching violence on TV make people more violent? The answer is yes.

Being exposed to violence on TV increases aggressive behaviour in children (see Liebert & Baron, 1972 study; Fig. 12.2).




A number of long-term studies indicate that the more violence people watch on TV as children, the more violence they exhibit years later as teens and adults (see Eron and colleagues, 1982, 1987).

Also, Josephson (1987) found that watching TV violence had the greatest impact on youngsters who are somewhat prone to violence to begin with.




It was suggested that watching media violence serves to give aggressive children ‘permission’ to express their aggression.

Non-aggressive children do not act out their aggression, at least not as a result of seeing only one violent film.

But, what if they were exposed to a steady diet of violent films over a long period, would they then express more aggression? Yes (see Leyens et al, 1975)




The Columbine killers enjoyed playing a bloody, extremely violent video game used to train US soldiers how to kill.

Does playing violent video games contribute to violent behaviour. Yes.

Anderson & Dell (2000) found that exposure to violent video games increases aggressive thoughts and behaviours.




Adults as well as children, seem to be influenced by violent television (see Phillips, 1983, 1986).

Phillips found that homicide rates in the US almost always increased during the week following a heavyweight boxing match.

And, that the more publicity surrounding the fight the greater was the subsequent increase in homicides.




As well, race of the loser was related to the race of victims of murders after the fights.

-eg, after white boxers lost fights there was an increase in murders of white men but not of black men; and vice versa.



The Numbing Effect of TV Violence

Repeated exposure to horrifying events has a numbing effect on our sensitivity to those events (see Thomas & colleagues, 1977).

And this is reflected in greater aggression (administration of more powerful electric shocks) when the opportunity arises (see Thomas, 1982).



Why Does Media Violence Affect Viewers Aggression?

i) If they can do it, so can I (weakened inhibitions)

ii)Oh, so that’s how it’s done (imitation of behaviour)

iii)I think it must be aggressive feelings that I’m experiencing (priming of anger and aggression)

iv)Ho-hum, another brutal beating (reduction of our sense of horror and sympathy for the victim)

There are four reasons why exposure to violence might increase aggression:



Violent Pornography and Violence Against WomenIf viewing aggressive films contributes to

aggression, then does viewing pornographic material increase the incidence of sexual aggression? Yes.

Lab studies show i) that exposure to violent pornography promotes greater acceptance of sexual violence towards women, and

ii) that men who view violent pornography behave aggressively toward women (see Donnerstein & colleagues).



Violent Pornography and Violence Against WomenIn these studies,

men who had seen the violent pornographic film subsequently administered the most intense shocks,

those who had seen the erotic, nonviolent film administered the lowest level of shocks.

those who viewed the violent pornography administered the more intense shocks to a female confederate than to a male confederate.



Violent Pornography & Violence Against Women

Paolucci-Oddone et al (2000), conducting a meta analysis of the effects of pornography, concluded that exposure to pornographic material puts one at increased risk for,

developing sexually deviant tendencies,

committing sexual offenses,

experiencing difficulties in one’s intimate relationships, and

accepting the rape myth.



Violent Pornography and Violence Against Women

This is a particularly disturbing conclusion, from a societal point of view, given that violence is a prevalent theme in pornographic materials.


Chapter OutlineChapter Outline

II. How to Reduce Aggression


How To Reduce AggressionHow To Reduce Aggression

Does Punishing Aggression Reduce Aggressive Behaviour?

‘Spare the rod and spoil the child.’ How well does punishment work in preventing transgressing behaviour?

For children, harsh punishment provides a model of aggression and does not provide a disincentive for transgressing the sanctions when the child is unsupervised.




However, the threat of mild punishment, swiftly administered, does seem to reduce aggression in preschoolers and school kids (see Olweus, 1994, 1997 studies).

The punishment must be swift and not too severe—not severe enough to make it unnecessary for the children to justify their restraint.




For adults, the research evidence is mixed.

Laboratory experiments suggest that under ideal circumstances—meaning the punishment must be prompt and certain—punishment can reduce aggression.

But in real life, punishment occurs under anything but ideal conditions.


How To Reduce AggressionHow To Reduce AggressionDoes Punishing Aggression Reduce Aggressive Behaviour?

Thus, in the U.S., severe punishment does not seem to deter violent crimes (see Fig. 12.3).

In the area of domestic violence (e.g., wife-battering) mild punishment, consistently meted out, has been effective in the short term (see Cohen, 1987, Minneapolis Police Department study).

In general, however, results are mixed. More research is needed to determine the ideal conditions for long-term results.



Catharsis and Aggression

It is generally believed that one way to reduce feelings of aggression is to do something aggressive, to “blow off steam” and “get it out of your system.” This is known as catharsis (Freud).

Catharsis is the notion that “blowing off steam”—by performing an aggressive act, watching others engage in aggressive behaviours, or engaging in a fantasy of aggression—relieves built-up aggressive energies and hence reduces the likelihood of further aggressive behaviour.



Catharsis and Aggression

Does catharsis work?

No, it has the opposite effect, i.e., watching or participating in aggressive activities increases, not decreases, subsequent aggression and hostility (see Bushman et al, 1999 study).

This is true of those persons watching aggressive football and hockey games, or wrestling matches.



Blaming the Victim of Our Aggression

When one person does harm to another person, it sets in motion cognitive processes aimed at justifying the act of cruelty,

i.e., we convince ourselves that hurting the person was not a bad thing to do, he/she is a terrible human being (we derogate the victim) who deserved to be hurt.




This sets the stage for further aggression, since once a person has succeeded in derogating someone, it makes it easier to do further harm to the victim in the future.

Nations at war use this technique to justify killing of the enemy, even innocent civilians (see dropping the atom bomb on Hiroshima and Nagasaki example; see Chrétien example).




The impact of war on a nation extends beyond feelings of hostility toward the enemy.

It makes the population of the country more prone to commit aggressive actions toward one another (see Archer & Gartner, 1984; Fig. 12.4).




The population of a nation at war is prone to,

i) weakened inhibitions against aggression,

ii) Imitation of aggression,

iii) Primed aggressive responses, and

iv) Numbing of the senses towards the horror of cruelty and destruction, making us less sympathetic toward the victims.



What Are We Supposed to Do With Our Anger?

If we are feeling angry at someone, and anger leads to violence, self-justification and more violence, what are we to do with our anger? Stifle it? No.

Research suggests that stifling powerful emotions can lead to physical illness (Pennebaker, 1990).

Anger must be defused, or channeled in nondestructive directions.



Anger: Venting vs. Self-Awareness

It is possible to express anger in nonviolent ways—e.g., by making a clear statement indicating that you are feeling angry and why.

Expressing anger nonviolently is an assertive response that allows us to avoid the dangers of either violent expression, or of repression of the feelings.




Since no harm comes to the target of aggression, the cognitive processes that would lead to justification of aggression does not take place.

And the person with whom you are angry is more likely to react in a constructive way (see Fehr et al, 1999 study).




You can also derive some relief from sharing your anger with a third party (see Pennebaker, 1990 study).

Pennebaker suggests that the beneficial effects of ‘opening up’ are due not simply to venting of feeling, but primarily to the insights and self-awareness that usually accompany such self-disclosure.



Defusing Anger through Apology

One way to reduce aggression in another person is for the person who caused the frustration to take responsibility, apologize, and indicate it won’t happen again (see Ohbuchi et al, 1989 study).



The Modeling of Nonaggressive Behaviour

Exposing people to nonaggressive models reduces aggressive behaviour.

Children exposed to models who behave nonaggressively when provoked show a much lower frequency of aggression than children who were not exposed (Vidyasagar & Mishra, 1993).


How To Reduce AggressionHow To Reduce AggressionTraining in Communication and Problem-Solving Skills

Lack of proper social skills is associated with violent solutions to interpersonal problems.

One way to reduce violence is to teach people how to communicate anger, or criticism in constructive ways, how to negotiate and compromise when conflicts arise, how to be more sensitive to the needs of others.

There is experimental evidence that such formal training can be an effective means of reducing aggression (see Davitz, 1952 study; Studer, 1996).



Building Empathy

When we feel empathy we are less likely to behave aggressively (see Baron, 1976 horn-honking study; Fig. 12.5).

Empathy is the ability to put oneself in the shoes of another person—to experience events and emotions the way that person experiences them.

Efforts to promote feelings of empathy will reduce aggressive behaviour.



Empathy and Dehumanization

People empathize with, and find it difficult to inflict pain on, another human being unless they can find some way of dehumanizing their victim.

Understanding the process of dehumanization is the first step in preventing it from happening.



Teaching Empathy in the Schools

Norma Feshbach has pioneered the teaching of empathy in elementary schools.

The empathy-building program involves role playing, analyzing videotapes to learn how people look and sound when they express different feelings, etc.

Evaluation of the programs shows that not only do children learn empathy, but they show higher self-esteem, higher academic achievement, and lower aggression compared to those who have not participated in it( Feshbach, 1997). End

© 2004 Pearson Education Canada Inc. Chapter 12 Aggression: Why We Hurt Other People.

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Transcript of © 2004 Pearson Education Canada Inc. Chapter 12 Aggression: Why We Hurt Other People.