Changinggenderednormsaboutwomen
DrSamanWaqar
“Thegoalofachievingequalitybetweenwomenandmenisbasedonprinciplesofhumanrightsandsocialjustice.Empowermentofwomenismorethanaprerequisiteforachievingpeoplecentereddevelopment…..Theabolitionofpovertycannotbeachieveduntilmenandwomenhaveequalaccesstotheresourcesandservicesnecessarytoachievetheirindividualpotentialandfulfiltheirobligationstohousehold,communityand,morebroadlysociety……..’’
Gender• Referstothesociallydefinedrolesandresponsibilitiesofmen,womenandboysandgirls.Maleandfemalegenderrolesarelearnedfromfamiliesandcommunitiesandvarybycultureandgeneration.
Genderequality• Meanstheabsenceofdiscrimination,onthebasisofaperson’ssex,inopportunities,intheallocationofresourcesorbenefitsorinaccesstoservices.
Genderednorms• Arepowerful,pervasiveattitudesaboutgender-basedsocialrolesandbehaviorsthataredeeplyembeddedinsocialstructures.
• Gendernormsoperatewithinfamilies,communities,neighborhoodsandwidersociety,interactingtoproduceoutcomeswhicharefrequentlyinequitableandproducingdynamicsthatareoftenriskyforwomenandgirls.
• Risksincludeviolenceagainstwomenandgirls,discrimination,denialofeducation,illiteracy,poverty,economicandsocialinjustice,honorkillings,sexualassaults,femalefeticide,restrictionsonwomen’sphysicalmobilityandeducation,andpoliticaldisenfranchisement.
GlobalMagnitude
• 70%oftheworld’s1.3billionpeoplelivinginpovertyarewomen.
• Womenrepresenttwothirdsoftheworld’s960millionnon-literatepeople.
• Inmostdevelopingcountries,boysenrolmentinschoolexceedsthatofgirls.
• Approximatelytwothirdsofthe130millionchildrenofschoolagewhodonotorcannotgotoschoolaregirls.
• Globally,violenceagainstwomencausesmoredeathsanddisabilityamongwomenaged15to44thandocancer,malaria,trafficaccidentsorwar.
• Genderednormsinhealthmanifestinhouseholdsandcommunitiesonthebasisofvaluesandattitudesabouttherelativeworthorimportanceofgirlsversusboysandmenversuswomen;aboutwhohasresponsibilityfordifferenthousehold/communityneedsandroles;whohastherighttomakedifferentdecisions;whoensuresthathousehold/communityorderismaintainedandwhohasfinalauthorityinrelationtotheinnerworldofthefamily/communityanditsouterrelationswithsociety.
• Genderbiasedvaluestranslateintopracticesandbehaviorthataffectpeople’sdailylives,aswellaskeydeterminantsofwellnessandequitysuchasnutrition,acknowledgementofhealthproblems,health-seekingbehavior,andaccesstohealthservices.
• Healthequityandwellnesscanbeaffectedthroughthepreferredsexofchildren,andpracticessurroundingcomingofageandmenarche,adolescence,marriage,childbirth,widowhoodanddivorce.
HowSexandGenderIdentityDevelop
1. Sexisgeneticallydeterminedatconception.2. Hormonessecretedbyglandsdirectedby
thegeneticconfigurationproducephysicaldifferences.
3. Societydefines,prescribes,andreinforcesthegender-roleaspectofsexualidentity.
ContributingFactorsBiologicalContributions• Everyhumanstartswiththepotentialofbecomingeithermaleorfemale.
EnvironmentalContributions• Onceababyisborn,societybeginstoteachtheinfantitspropergenderroleandreinforceitssexualidentity
GenderDifferences• Whenmenandwomenchoosegenderrolesforthemselves,especiallywithinarelationshiplikemarriage,theirchancesforsuccessandfulfillmentincrease.
ExploitationCausedByGenderIdeology• Malegenderbias
Apreferencefoundinsomesocietiesforsonsratherthandaughters.
• FemaleinfanticideThekillingoffemalechildren
• NutritionaldeprivationAformofchildabuseinvolvingwithholdingfood;canretardlearning,physicaldevelopment,orsocialadjustment
• HonorKillingsAeuphemismreferringtoapracticefoundinvariouscultureswherebywomenareputtodeathatthehandsoftheirownfamilymembersbecausetheyarethoughttohavedishonoredthefamily.
• DowryDeathThekillingofawifebyherin-lawsifthewife’sparentsfailtopayadditionaldowry.
• ViolenceAgainstWomenPhysicalviolenceagainstwomen,continuestobeaprobleminmanypartsoftheworld.
The‘genderrevolutions’
a.Contraceptiverevolution:• Improvementsinsafetyofcontraception.• IntroductionofhormonalcontraceptionandfarmoreefficientIUCDs.
• Changesinacceptancelevels.
b.Educationalrevolution:• Generalimprovementsineducationforall.• Women’sincreasedaccesstobetter,longereducation.
• Now,inmanypartsoftheworld,womenarebettereducatedthanmen.
• Feedsintogenderempowerment.
c.Workrevolution• Questioningthesolebreadwinnerhouseholdmodelandthegenderdivisionoflabourthataccompaniedit.
• Increasing,andimprovingfemalelabourforceparticipation.
•Educationandfertility•Incomeandfertility•HDIandfertility
Negativerelationships
Butan‘incomplete’revolution?
a.Incomplete‘public’revolutions• Inmanysettings:– Femaleeducationpoorer.–Discriminationathomeandatwork.– Socialandculturalbarrierstoempowerment.–Underinvestmentinfemaleopportunities.–Women’svaluelower.
• Ofteninnegativefeedbackwithpooreconomicgrowthandotherdevelopmentissues.
• Highfertilityandstalledfertilitydeclineinmanysettings
• Incursionsofwomen’s(reproductive)rightsandopportunities
• Violenceagainstwomen• Sexselectionbias–Abortions,infanticide– Squeezeonmarriage
Consequences
b.Incomplete‘private’revolutions• Eveninthemostdevelopedcountries,changesinwomen’sdomesticroleshavenotcaughtupwithchangesintheirpublicroles.
• Opportunitycostsofchildbearing.
Participationinlabourforce
• Newandgrowingopportunities– ‘Thelifeoptionsofyoungwomenhavewidened’.
• Incomeinequalitydecreasing.• Highlycompetitiveeconomiesandgovernments.
The‘package’ofmaritalroles
• Childbearingandrearing.• Carefortheelderly.• Thewatchfulgazeofthe‘in-laws’• Heavyhouseholdtaskload.• Responsibilityforeducationalsuccessofchildren– Includingextra-curricularactivities.
• Possibleco-residencewithparents-in-law.
Explaininggenderdifferencesinhealth
a.Artefactexplanation•Someresearchersarguethatthedifferencesbetweenmenandwomenarean"artefact,"ratherthenreal• Someresearchersarguethatwomen'shealthstatusisnotanyworsethanmen's,womenaremorelikely:– totakenoticeoftheirsymptoms.– areinclinedtoseeaphysician.– seektreatment.– aremorewillingtorespondtohealthsurveys.
b.BiologicalandGeneticcausation• Biologicalandgeneticdifferences(sexchromosomesandhormones)havealsobeenusedtoexplainmorbidityandmortalitydifferencesbetweenmenandwomen.• Itisalsoarguedthatfemales,duetotheirbiologicalandgeneticconstitution,reproductiveanatomy,andphysiology,maybeendowedwithresistancetocertaindiseases.
c.Socialcausationexplanation•Socialandeconomicinequalitiesandsociallyconstructedgenderroleshaveimportantconsequencesformen'sandwomen'slivesandproducevariationsinhealthandillnesspatterns.•Thisinequalityproducenegativehealthoutcomesandpoorhealthstatusforwomen.•Malesocializationandlifestylesexposementoriskier,aggressive,anddangerousbehavior,forinstance,menhavehighermortalityduetomotorvehicleaccidents.
•Menarealsomorelikelytoindulgeinexcessivesmoking,drinking,andsubstanceabuse,withnegativehealthconsequences.•Ontheotherhanddomesticworkresponsibilityandacaringroleinthefamily,combinedwiththeincreasingparticipationofwomeninthepaidworkforce,maycontributetoelevatedstresslevelsamongwomen.
ExplainingGenderDifferences–TheoreticalPerspectives
a.DifferentialexposuretheoryThistheoryemphasizestheextenttowhichmenandwomenareexposedtoparticularstressors.
b.DifferentialvulnerabilitytheoryThisfocusesonmen'sandwomen'sresponsestothosestressors.
Differentialexposuretheory• Accordingtothis,womenexperiencehardshipsandstressorstoagreaterextentthandomenbecauseoftheirdisadvantagedpositionrelativetomenintheworkforceandtheinequitabledivisionofworkinthehousehold.
• Marriedwomeninparticularexperienceworkoverloadduetoworkoutsidehomeandathome.Thisoverloadproducehigherpsychologicaldistress.
• Thistheoryarguesthat,theeffectsofparticularstressorsdifferformenandwomenforavarietyofreasons.
• Forinstance,menandwomenmayattachdifferentmeaningsandsignificancetopaidworkandfamilyrolesbecauseofdifferentnormativeexpectationsaboutworkandfamilyresponsibilities.
Differentialvulnerabilitytheory• Socioculturalbeliefsandnormativeexpectationsmayaffectmen'sandwomen'sselfevaluationsasparentsandspouses.
• Womenaremorelikelythanmentoexperienceroleconflictandtoseetheirworkandfamilyrolesascompetingratherthanintegral,andthustheyexperiencemoreguiltandstressthanmen.
• Theconsequencesofhouseworkandemploymentdifferformenandwomenandproducedifferenthealthoutcomes.
• Patternsofhealthandillnesshaveeverythingtodowithwomen'slives,work,employmentopportunities,lifeexperience,andsocialandeconomiccircumstances.
• However,itshouldbenotedthatsocial,economic,andotherdisadvantagesdonotaccruetoallwomenequally.
• Aswomenarenotahomogeneousgroupamongthemselves,rather,arediversifiedandstratifiedbyclass,race,andethnicity.
• Thesocialpatterningofhealthanddiseasearealsodifferentiallyexperiencedbyvarioussubgroups.
• Racialminoritywomenoftenexperienceillhealthbecauseofunhealthyworkenvironmentsandharsherworkingconditionsinareassuchasfarmlabor,textilesandsewing,anddomesticwork.
OtherTheories
a.Genderschematheory• Referstothetheorythatchildrenlearnaboutwhatitmeanstobemaleandfemalefromthecultureinwhichtheylive.Accordingtothistheory,childrenadjusttheirbehaviortofitinwiththegendernormsandexpectationsoftheirculture.
• Malesandfemalesareseenaspolaropposites,withmalespossessingexclusivelyinstrumentaltraits(aggressiveness,dominance,competitiveness,self-confidence)andfemalespossessingexclusivelyexpressiveones(beingemotional,talkative,nurturing)
b.CognitiveDevelopmentalTheory
• Genderidentityispostulatedasthebasicorganizerandregulatorofchildren'sgenderlearning.Childrendevelopthestereotypicconceptionsofgenderfromwhattheyseeandheararoundthem.
• Oncetheyachievegenderconstancy-- thebeliefthattheirowngenderisfixedandirreversible-- theypositivelyvaluetheirgenderidentityandseektobehaveonlyinwaysthatarecongruentwiththatconception.
Sociallearningtheory• Thistheorypositsthatportionsofanindividual'sknowledgeacquisitioncanbedirectlyrelatedtoobservingotherswithinthecontextofsocialinteractions,experiences,andoutsidemediainfluences.
Frameworkforhealthpromotingactionsandcapacitybuilding.
• Downstreaminterventionsarethosefocusedonchangeorsupportforindividuals;
• Midstreaminterventionsarethosethatfocusatpsychosociallevelsincludingsocialmarketing,whetherinorganizationsorcommunities.
• Upstreaminterventionstakeapopulationfocusandarealsointendedtochangemechanismstosupportnotionssuchasjustice,rightsandsocialchange.Upstreaminterventionsinvolvepolicyapproachesthatcanaffectlargepopulationsthroughregulation,increasedaccess,oreconomicincentives.
Levelsofpublichealthinterventions
• Universalinterventions- approachesaimedatlargegroupsorthegeneralpopulation,andoftenfocusedonriskfactorsorchangingnorms.Examplesmightincludecurriculadeliveredtoallpupilsinaschoolorcommunity-widecampaigns,orchangesinpolicyorlegislation.
• Selectedortargetedinterventions-approachesaimedatthoseconsideredtobeataheightenedrisk,usuallypayingattentiontosocial,economicandenvironmentalfactors
andmayincludestrategiestoincreaseaccesstoservicesincludinghealth,educationandsocialsupport.
• Indicatedinterventions- approachesaimedatthosewhohaveademonstratedproblem,forexample,programsforperpetratorsofviolenceagainstwomen.
• Itisnecessarytobuildacultureofwomen’srightsthatarticulatetheintrinsicvalueofgirlsandwomenandtheirrightstofreedomsandopportunities.
• Todenywomenopportunitiesforlandownership,education,orsocialandeconomicparticipationistocreatecapabilitydeprivationwhichisaformofsocialexclusion.
• Theprocessesthroughwhichwomenarewhollyorpartiallyexcluded,activelyorpassively,fromfullparticipationinlabormarkets,educationalsystems,and/orsocialparticipation,arediscriminatoryandadenialofrights.
• Inturn,freedomfromdiscriminationandeconomicparticipationarekeydeterminantsofmentalhealthandwellbeing.
• Tochangegendernormsatthelevelofhouseholdandcommunity,effectiveprogramdesignrequiressimultaneousmultileveldesign,thatiscarefullytargetedtoinfluencetheunderlyingdeterminantsoftheproblem.Singlelevelprogramshavelittleeffectonchanginggendernorms.
• Withoutgendersensitiveandrightssensitivecountrylevelprotocolsandindicatorstoguidepolicies,programsandservicedelivery,interventionsoperateinavacuum.
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