CHILD DEVELOPMENT PERSPECTIVES
Citizens in the Making: Youth and CitizenshipEducation in Europe
Viola B. Georgi
Free University Berlin
ABSTRACTThis article explores the relationship between
citizenship education and European citizenship in the light
of increasingly diverse European societies. It raises the
question of whether nation-state models of citizenship need
to be rethought to accommodate a supranationally con-
ceptualized European citizenship and asks what kind of
citizenship education complies with the demands of this
new citizenship. In doing so, the article highlights the
challenge of integrating a European dimension into citi-
zenship education and reviews new European programs
intended to promote citizenship among young people in
particular. The article also presents data on young
peoples knowledge about, and attitudes toward, the
Europe Union. Finally, the article examines the rather
meager evidence base of citizenship education in Europe
by discussing recent comparative studies. It concludes that
citizenship education in Europe, and the implementation
of programs to develop it, require further scientific
grounding.
KEYWORDSyouth; citizenship; education; Europe
European societies have, at different paces, undergone pro-
found changes in the makeup of their populations due to
European Union (EU) enlargement, globalization, and immi-
gration. These developments have added tremendously to a new
mobility, resulting in the increasing diversification of European
nation-states, with new ethnic groups and other minorities
within these states trying to attain cultural, political, and
economical rights (Soysal, 1994). Considering these changes,
traditional models of citizenship have to be rethought (Osler &
Starkey, 2005). What seems to be needed is a flexible and
broader concept of citizenship, one that goes beyond the notions
of citizenship based on ethnocultural descent. Citizenship in
this new globalized and postcolonial Europe needs to build
on an idea of community that embraces the local, national,
regional, and transnational contexts in which individuals now
move simultaneously.
Underscoring the need for such shifts in the conceptualization
of citizenship is the fact that many European citizens seem to
have distanced themselves from European institutions. They
particularly seem to have difficulties identifying with the
process of European enlargement and integration, as the
rejection of the European constitution by democratic verdicts
in France and the Netherlands illustrate.
The challenge to promoting and establishing European
citizenship is thus dual: First, the active participation of
individuals in the political decision-making process has to be
strengthened, and second, social bonds among citizens of
different nations need to be tightened. The philosopher Haber-
mas stresses that European integration is less about forging
a strong European identity than it is about opening up citizens to
supranational processes of political reflection and decision
making that will enable them to think in reciprocal and
inclusive patterns (Habermas, 2004, p. 76). In the following
discussion, I examine this matter with particular focus on
citizenship education. First, I consider European citizenship
to define the key term of this article. Second, I explore how,
through projects and programs that address young people in
particular, the institutions of the EU try to enhance citizens
capacity for engaging in political reflection, supranational
processes, European identity building, and active citizenship
participation. Third, I take a closer look at recent comparative
studies on citizenship education in Europe.
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed toViola B. Georgi, Department of Education and Psychology, FreeUniversity Berlin, Habelschwerdter Allee 45, 14195 Berlin,Germany; e-mail: [email protected].
# 2008, Copyright the Author(s)Journal Compilation# 2008, Society for Research in Child Development
Volume 2, Number 2, Pages 107113
EUROPEAN CITIZENSHIP AND CITIZENSHIP
EDUCATION
European citizenshiplike citizenship itselfis a contested
concept that carries different meanings and evokes different
expectations. Citizenship in general can be defined as
membership in a political community that involves not only
a legal status (rights and obligations) but also access to, and
participation in, this polity (Marshall & Bottomore, 1950;
Wiener, 1997). European citizenship was defined in article 17
of the Maastricht Treaty of 1992 and was reaffirmed in the
European Constitution of June 2005. Article 17 states that
every person holding the nationality of a member state shall be
a citizen of the Union and emphasizes that citizenship of the
Union shall complement and not replace national citizenship
(Shaw, 2003, p. 28). The authors of the treaty claim that the
basic idea is to nurture the consciousness of a common
European legacy, such as the common intellectual and social
legacies of democracy, pluralism, and equality. European
citizenship is conceptualized as a way to transcend national
limits by connecting individuals to the larger entity called
the EU.
When thinking about ways of popularizing this new European
identity, it becomes apparent that a new kind of citizenship
education is required. If young people are to become civically
and politically engaged in this new citizenship, they need to be
encouraged to take part in democratic processes on the local,
the national, and the European level. As scholars have
emphasized, young people need structured opportunities on
all these levels to be actively involved in debates on topical and
contemporary issues (Fatke & Schneider, 2004; Franklin, 1994,
pp. 4366).
According to Huddleston and Kerr (2006), students
ideally should be able to explore issues of citizenship from
three perspectives: (a) they should learn about citizenship
(acquiring political literacy and knowledge), (b) they should
learn through principles of democracy and human rights
(i.e., the techniques and principles of the learning environ-
ment should reflect democratic attitudes and values), and
(c) they should learn for citizenship, developing skills for
advocacy, and experiencing citizenship as a practice
(Wiener, 1998). In short, students should be stimulated to
actively participate in school and community life (Edwards
& Fogelman, 1991). Their participation in the school
context may assume different forms, including election of
class representatives, election of pupil councils at school
level, and participation in pupil associations at regional and
national levels (Georgi, 2006). Students participation in the
wider community may be stimulated through a wide range of
activities, such as school partnerships, exchanges, informa-
tion visits to neighborhood institutions or community groups,
voluntary work or short-term work placements, and charity
fund raising, as well as playing games that simulate
parliamentary processes. When considering these concrete
suggestions, it remains to be asked how national citizenship
and European citizenship are related to each other. Or, in
other words, what exactly characterizes the European
dimension of citizenship education?
THE CHALLENGE OF THE EUROPEAN DIMENSION
The EU and the Council of Europe, as well as national education
authorities, have developed policies and programs to promote
the integration of a European dimension in the teaching of
citizen education. Although most governments in Europe
support this agenda, a recent comparative study of citizenship
education documents indicates that, relative to the emphasis
on national affairs, the European dimension is still rather
neglected (Eurydice, 2005).
In terms of advancing a European notion of citizenship, the
persistence of national foci of the curricula raises several
questions. How can educational efforts incorporate European
citizenship as a transnational topic? How can citizenship
education contribute to forging an inclusive European identity
that is based on the recognition of common values, history, and
culture, and, at the same time, is open to dialogue, negotiation,
and critique? Addressing questions such as these, the European
Parliament and the European Council have embraced the idea
of citizenship as a practice. Accordingly, their Recommenda-
tion (2006) on key competences for lifelong learning identifies
civic competence as an essential concept for creating and
measuring citizenship practices in Europe.1 From this perspec-
tive, a major objective of European citizenship education is the
development European literacythat is, the acquisition of the
knowledge, understanding, critical thinking, and independent
judgment that enables the individual to come to grips with what
happens in public life on local, national, European, and global
levels (Du Bois-Reymond, 2002). A European dimension of
learning to live in a democratic society therefore comprises
studying history, geography, literature, and languages from
a multicultural and intercultural perspective.
Given this normative framework of what young people should
learn about Europe and citizenship, it seems enlightening to
look at young peoples actual opinions and self-perceptions on
this matter.
YOUNG CITIZENS IN EUROPE:
ATTITUDES AND POLICIES
Approximately 75 million Europeansabout 15% of the
European populationare between 15 and 25 years old. In
devising strategies for helping these young people become
European citizens, it is obviously useful to have insight into
1Official Journal of the European Parliament (L 394/10, 30.12.2006).
108 j Viola B. Georgi
Child Development Perspectives, Volume 2, Number 2, Pages 107113
what they know about, and feel about, Europe. The following
data provide an idea of their knowledge and attitudes regarding
the EU (Eurobarometer, 2006; von Borries, 1999):
d Membership: Sixty-three percent of young people in Europe
think positively about membership in the EU and only 8%
think about it negatively.d Knowledge: A majority of young people indicate that they
know rather little about the EU: Two percent feel very well
informed about it, 28% feel well informed, 54% think that
they know little about the EU, and 17% say that they know
(almost) nothing about the EU. These self-assessments of
knowledge are empirically supported by knowledge tests.d Belonging: Sixty-five percent of young people in Europe feel
a sense of belonging to Europe and 35% do not.
Knowledge of Europe will undoubtedly grow among young
people. European developments are increasingly gaining signif-
icance for their life and career planning. With the opening of
borders, chances to experience Europe have been extended
massively over the past years. More than ever before, young
people travel to different European countries to participate in
youth exchanges, do internships, volunteer, study, or undergo
their vocational training. Learning foreign languages, as well as
acquiring intercultural and democratic competences, hence be-
come key issues in the socialization process of young Europeans.
Realizing the enormous potential of these patterns, the
European Commission recently decided to provide substantial
financial support for a new generation of educational programs
(20072013) devoted to fostering active citizenship (Euro-
pean Commission, 2005a). The goals are ambitious, as sug-
gested by the following sampling (Rappengluck, 2006):
d Between 2007 and 2013, every 20th child shall participate in
an activity of the Comenius program, a vocational exchange
program for young Europeans.d Until 2011, 3 million students shall participate in European
student exchange programs (this would triple the current
number).d Until 2013, 150,000 employees and apprentices per year
shall participate in an exchange program (currently the
number is 45,000).
With an additional youth-focused program called Youth in
Action (funded by 885 million euros), out-of-school youth
exchange programs, youth volunteering, and youth cooperation
in Europe shall be intensified.
These programs are accompanied by additional, overarch-
ing, not necessarily youth specific, efforts such as Plan D
standing for dialogue, debate, and democracy (Wallstrom,
2006). Initiated by Wallstrom, the current vice president of
the European Commission, Plan D calls for greater communi-
cation and debate between the democratic institutions of the EU
and the people of Europe. As a consequence, for example, so-
called European citizen conferences and round tables have been
established. Wallstroms (2006) subsequent White Paper on
Communication aims at placing citizens and democracy at the
heart of the political project of the EU. The three main objectives
are as follows:
d Creating a special EU charter of common principles on
the right of citizens to receive information, debate issues,
and influence political decision-making processes at all
levels.d Improving citizens democratic knowledge and skills and
their ability to communicate by focusing on adult education,
networking, and discussion forums (e.g., a European teacher
training school).d Making better use of modern media to improve and supple-
ment the democratic possibilities open to citizens to access
information (e.g., via digital libraries) and to actively partic-
ipate in political debate (see europa.eu.int/comm/communi-
cation_white_paper/index_en.htm-18k-).
Democratizing European politics, Wallstrom (2006) argues,
will need not only time but also commitment and leadership
from all levels of the EU. It is in this context that the
international and intercultural communication of young people
and young peoples organizations and associations become
a major interest in European (youth) policies.
According to the aforementioned guidelines, the European
Commission considers young people to be vital to securing the
Lisbon Strategys goals for increased economic growth and more
jobs. The Lisbon Strategy, an action and development plan
drawn up by the European Council (2000), serves as the
umbrella under which concepts of citizenship education and
EU policies and programs operate. The Lisbon goals are
captured in the following quote: The Union must become the
most competitive and dynamic knowledge-based economy in
the world capable of sustainable economic growth withmore and
better jobs and greater social cohesion (European Council,
2000). The heads of government called for not only a radical
transformation of the European economy, but also a challenging
program for the modernization of social welfare and education
systems (European Council, 2000). In this context, the
education system was regarded as one of the most important
means through which to impart the principles of equity,
inclusion, and social cohesion. However, the Lisbon goals can
be met only if young people are adequately equipped with high-
quality skills and relevant education and training and if barriers
such as being marginalized and growing up in poverty are
removed. Addressing these requirements and the concerns of
young people, the Commission adopted the Communication on
Youth Policies (2005), which was a follow-up to the European
Councils so-called European Youth Pact (European Commis-
sion, 2001).2 The Youth Pact proposed taking action for young
2It was the first time that a Youth Council sent a contribution to a EuropeanCouncil.
Youth and Citizenship Education in Europe j 109
Child Development Perspectives, Volume 2, Number 2, Pages 107113
people in the areas of employment, integration and social
advancement, education and training, mobility, and reconciling
family and work life.
The Commissions efforts in this direction began with its
White Paper on aNew Impetus for European Youth (2001), which
recognized the need to make young people stakeholders in their
societies and proposed a variety of instruments for achieving
this goal. Among them were promoting youth participation
through information and communication (technologies), encour-
aging young people to undertake voluntary work and to dedicate
themselves to community causes (service learning), providing
support for young peoples projects and organizations, pro-
moting youth participation in nongovernmental organizations
and political parties, and encouraging institutional participa-
tion by young people in local and regional affairs (Commission
of the European Communities, 2001). The latest program, Youth
in Action, launched in 2007, is the successor of the former
Youth Program (European Commission, 2007).3 It aims at
developing young peoples sense of personal responsibility,
initiative, concern for others, and active citizenship at local,
national, and European levels. Whether such programs that
address young people as future citizens will help transform them
into Good European Citizens (Frevert, 2008) or will mainly
serve symbolic politics depends on successful implementation
strategies based on accompanying quality assurance, evalua-
tion, and research.
THE POLITICAL FRAMEWORK AND EU PROGRAMS
ON CITIZENSHIP EDUCATION
In 2001, ministers of education in Europe adopted a report on
the future objectives of education and training systems, and in
the next year, the Education Council and the European
Commission endorsed a 10-year program that constitutes the
EUs strategic framework of cooperation in the fields of
education and training (Council of the European Union, 2001).
The key taskmentioned in the work program is to ensure that the
learning of values and principles of democratic participation by
all is effectively promoted to prepare people for active citizen-
ship. Active citizenship here was defined as participation in
civil society, community and/or political life characterized by
mutual respect and non-violence and in accordance with human
rights and democracy (Hoskins et al., 2006).
In this context, I would like to refer to the Council of Europes
pioneering initiative Education for Democratic Citizenship
(EDC). EDC is a set of practices and activities aimed at
making young people and adults better equipped to participate
actively in democratic life by assuming and exercising their
rights and responsibilities in society (Council of Europe,
2002). In the late 1990s, EDC became a common goal of
education policies in Europe. Although approaches varied, most
European countries adopted EDC as a common reference point
for all democracy-learning processes. The Committee of Min-
isters recommended that, depending on the specific context of
each educational system, EDC should be made a priority
objective of educational policy making and reforms.4 As
a consequence, the European Commission has placed the
promotion of active and responsible civic behavior from school
onward high on the political agenda. This is emphasized by the
new Europe for Citizens Program (20072013), which aims at
bridging the gap between the citizens and the EU. Its main
approach is to provide the Union with instruments for promoting
active European citizenship and to encourage cooperation
between citizens and their organizations from different coun-
tries in developing their own ideas about European citizenship
in a way that goes beyond a national vision and respects
diversity (European Commission, 2005b).
RECENT RESEARCH FINDINGS ON CITIZENSHIP
EDUCATION IN EUROPE
What empirical data do we have, or need to gather, to support
certain political strategies, pedagogical programs, and other
efforts directed toward fostering democracy in Europe? I will
address this question by briefly outlining some recent studies on
citizenship education in Europe.
The most important, and largest, international study of
citizenship education is the IEA Civic Education Study
(CIVED99), which was conducted between 1996 and 2000
and included 28 countries, the majority of which were Euro-
pean. The main goal was to identify and comparatively
scrutinize the ways in which young people are prepared to
succeed in their role as citizens in democracies. The study was
structured in two phases: one qualitative and the other quan-
titative. The first phase involved the compilation of national
case studies detailing the development of civic and citizenship
education in each participant country (Torney-Purta et al.,
1999). The second involved a survey of more than 90,000
14-year-olds, as well as their teachers and head teachers
(Torney-Purta et al., 2001). In addition, fifty thousand 17- to
19-year-olds in 16 countries were included. According to Kerr
(2008), the study provided a number of critical findings
concerning the state of citizenship education in Europe:
d Students with higher levels of civic knowledge aremore likely
to expect to participate in political and civic activities as
3The Youth Program (20012007) was a mobility and nonformal educationprogram targeting young people between 15 and 25 years. It offered manypossibilities of experiencing Europe: group exchanges, individual voluntarywork, and support of activities.
4This development was underlined by two major policy documents: (a) theResolution adopted by the Standing Conference of the Ministers of Education(2000) and (b) the Recommendation 12 (2002) of the Committee of Ministers toMember States on EDC. Both documents stress the pivotal role of EDC ineducation policies and reforms.
110 j Viola B. Georgi
Child Development Perspectives, Volume 2, Number 2, Pages 107113
adults, and schools have an important role to play in shaping
future participation by teaching about topics such as elec-
tions and voting.d Schools that model democratic values and practices, through
encouraging students to discuss issues in the classroom and
take an active role in school life, are most effective in
promoting civic knowledge and engagement.d Four of five students indicated that they do not intend to
participate in conventional political activities (with the
exception of voting), and young people are only moderately
interested in politics. Young people appear to bemore open to
other forms of civic and political engagement such as charity
work or nonviolent protest marches.d Schools and community organizations have the potential to
positively influence the civic preparation of young people.
Students believe that working with other young people can
help to solve problems. The large majority of students across
countries have had some positive experience with students
getting together at school, in either formal or informal groups,
to solve problems and improve the school. The school
environment provides students with opportunities to take
part in real actions that matter to them.d Student attitudes may suggest the growth of a new civic
culture, one that is characterized by less hierarchy and more
individual decision making. Young people appear to be
gravitating more toward informal social movement groups
than toward formal conventional political parties and group-
ings (Kerr, 2008, p. 170).
These findings of the CIVED99 became central to the
reflection process of national governments and supranational
European organizations. The Council of Europes EDC project,
which was recently extended to 2009, processed the IEA
findings in its All-European Study on EDC Policies, initiated
in 2000. Based on a stocktaking of policy documents, country
reports from EDC coordinators, and other miscellaneous doc-
umentation, the study aimed at (a) identifying the current
policies on EDC in all European countries, (b) mapping the
concrete measures taken by governments to ensure the effective
implementation of these policies, and (c) collecting the views of
a sample of practitioners and stakeholders on the implementa-
tion of EDC policies. The outcomes of this research, docu-
mented in a detailed synthesis (Birzea et al., 2004) and five
regional studies (Froumin, 2004; Kerr, 2004; Losito, 2004;
Mikkelsen, 2004; Pol, 2004), produced a series of conclusions
that may be summarized in three major findings:
1. There is a massive compliance gap between political
declarations and what happens in practice.
2. The main pillar for EDC at present is the formal curriculum.
3. A more diversified approach to EDCgoing beyond the
curriculum, acknowledging a need to develop partnership
between stakeholders and practitionersis emerging. It
encompasses whole school and wider community dimensions
as well as formal and nonformal educational settings. In spite
of many differences between the countries and the regions
examined, most countries assigned the education system
a significant role in solving pressing socioeconomic, polit-
ical, and cultural challenges and stressed that EDC
presented a part of this thrust because it covered topics such
as diversity, identity, tolerance, rights, and responsibilities
(Kerr, 2008).
Based on CIVED99 and the All-European Study on EDC, the
Eurydice survey Citizenship Education at School in Europe from
2004 and its outcomes added considerably to the evidence base
for citizenship education in Europe. The study, an overarching
survey of the provision of citizenship education in schools in 30
European countries, provides the most up-to-date overview of
approaches and challenges in citizenship education. Among its
main findings are the following (Eurydice, 2005):5
d Many European countries are including citizenship educa-
tion in the formal school curriculum. In primary education,
most countries tend to offer citizenship education as an
integrated or cross-curricular theme. By contrast, in second-
ary education, nearly half of all European countries have
established a separate subject for teaching citizenship.d Most countries are convinced that citizen education should
be part of a comprehensive strategy that involves developing
not only political literacy but also positive civic attitudes and
values that promote active participation in society.d Most European countries highlight, in their educational
legislation or other official documents, the importance of
promoting a participatory school culture that is shaped by
democratic values and encourages young people to become
active and responsible citizens.d An increasing number of countries try to develop an active
learning by doing approach to citizenship education, pro-
viding students with opportunities to experience and practice
responsible civic behavior both in daily school life and in the
wider community.d Many countries are aware of the importance of introducing
a European dimension to citizenship education.d There is a deficit in teacher training: Only a few countries offer
special training courses for teachers of citizenship education.
These findings have been processed at the national and
supranational level by organizations such as the European
Commission and the Council of Europe in designing programs
and activities. The most recent initiative, Active Citizenship for
Democracy, by the European Commission-sponsored Centre for
Research on Lifelong Learning in collaboration with the
Council of Europe, has led to the conclusion that there are
5The tendencies found in the study have not been quantified by the authors.That is why they are referred to without concrete numbers or percentages hereas well.
Youth and Citizenship Education in Europe j 111
Child Development Perspectives, Volume 2, Number 2, Pages 107113
limited available data beyond the CIVED99 survey. Given this,
the European Commission is working with member states to
identify data needs and to sponsor a new European module, as
part of the IEAs new International Civics and Citizenship
Education Study, which will report in 2010. Whether current
research deficits can be overcome is not only a question of
scholarly interest but also, and mainly, a question of providing
resources for more longitudinal and comparative research in
times of tight budgets.
CONCLUSIONS
In this article, I have tried to draw attention to complex
educational issues deriving from a new form of citizenship
European citizenship. In doing so, I have described a number of
recent European policy documents and educational programs
that explicitly address the mission of equipping young people
with the knowledge, skills, and attitudes for becoming active
democratic citizens. The analysis of the political discourse on
citizenship education and young people shows how much hope
is pinned on this group by the political actors. This hope seems
not in vain because recent polls indicate that young people in
Europe connect their future prospects to growing up Euro-
pean. Therefore, I argued that citizenship education in Europe
has to overcome national confinements for the sake of imple-
menting a European dimension. That is the point where the
rather meager evidence base of citizenship education in Europe
comes into play, as discussed in the last part of this article.
To develop and provide effective contemporary programs for
citizenship education, the existing evidence base needs to be
extended and deepened. More empirical research seems to be
necessary for proving that citizenship education with a strong
European notion is a significant factor in the making of citizens
in Europe.
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