Georgi v 2008 Citizens in the Making- Youth and Citizenship Education in Europe

CHILD DEVELOPMENT PERSPECTIVES

Citizens in the Making: Youth and CitizenshipEducation in Europe

Viola B. Georgi

Free University Berlin

ABSTRACTThis article explores the relationship between

citizenship education and European citizenship in the light

of increasingly diverse European societies. It raises the

question of whether nation-state models of citizenship need

to be rethought to accommodate a supranationally con-

ceptualized European citizenship and asks what kind of

citizenship education complies with the demands of this

new citizenship. In doing so, the article highlights the

challenge of integrating a European dimension into citi-

zenship education and reviews new European programs

intended to promote citizenship among young people in

particular. The article also presents data on young

peoples knowledge about, and attitudes toward, the

Europe Union. Finally, the article examines the rather

meager evidence base of citizenship education in Europe

by discussing recent comparative studies. It concludes that

citizenship education in Europe, and the implementation

of programs to develop it, require further scientific

grounding.

KEYWORDSyouth; citizenship; education; Europe

European societies have, at different paces, undergone pro-

found changes in the makeup of their populations due to

European Union (EU) enlargement, globalization, and immi-

gration. These developments have added tremendously to a new

mobility, resulting in the increasing diversification of European

nation-states, with new ethnic groups and other minorities

within these states trying to attain cultural, political, and

economical rights (Soysal, 1994). Considering these changes,

traditional models of citizenship have to be rethought (Osler &

Starkey, 2005). What seems to be needed is a flexible and

broader concept of citizenship, one that goes beyond the notions

of citizenship based on ethnocultural descent. Citizenship in

this new globalized and postcolonial Europe needs to build

on an idea of community that embraces the local, national,

regional, and transnational contexts in which individuals now

move simultaneously.

Underscoring the need for such shifts in the conceptualization

of citizenship is the fact that many European citizens seem to

have distanced themselves from European institutions. They

particularly seem to have difficulties identifying with the

process of European enlargement and integration, as the

rejection of the European constitution by democratic verdicts

in France and the Netherlands illustrate.

The challenge to promoting and establishing European

citizenship is thus dual: First, the active participation of

individuals in the political decision-making process has to be

strengthened, and second, social bonds among citizens of

different nations need to be tightened. The philosopher Haber-

mas stresses that European integration is less about forging

a strong European identity than it is about opening up citizens to

supranational processes of political reflection and decision

making that will enable them to think in reciprocal and

inclusive patterns (Habermas, 2004, p. 76). In the following

discussion, I examine this matter with particular focus on

citizenship education. First, I consider European citizenship

to define the key term of this article. Second, I explore how,

through projects and programs that address young people in

particular, the institutions of the EU try to enhance citizens

capacity for engaging in political reflection, supranational

processes, European identity building, and active citizenship

participation. Third, I take a closer look at recent comparative

studies on citizenship education in Europe.

Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed toViola B. Georgi, Department of Education and Psychology, FreeUniversity Berlin, Habelschwerdter Allee 45, 14195 Berlin,Germany; e-mail: [email protected].

# 2008, Copyright the Author(s)Journal Compilation# 2008, Society for Research in Child Development

Volume 2, Number 2, Pages 107113

EUROPEAN CITIZENSHIP AND CITIZENSHIP

EDUCATION

European citizenshiplike citizenship itselfis a contested

concept that carries different meanings and evokes different

expectations. Citizenship in general can be defined as

membership in a political community that involves not only

a legal status (rights and obligations) but also access to, and

participation in, this polity (Marshall & Bottomore, 1950;

Wiener, 1997). European citizenship was defined in article 17

of the Maastricht Treaty of 1992 and was reaffirmed in the

European Constitution of June 2005. Article 17 states that

every person holding the nationality of a member state shall be

a citizen of the Union and emphasizes that citizenship of the

Union shall complement and not replace national citizenship

(Shaw, 2003, p. 28). The authors of the treaty claim that the

basic idea is to nurture the consciousness of a common

European legacy, such as the common intellectual and social

legacies of democracy, pluralism, and equality. European

citizenship is conceptualized as a way to transcend national

limits by connecting individuals to the larger entity called

the EU.

When thinking about ways of popularizing this new European

identity, it becomes apparent that a new kind of citizenship

education is required. If young people are to become civically

and politically engaged in this new citizenship, they need to be

encouraged to take part in democratic processes on the local,

the national, and the European level. As scholars have

emphasized, young people need structured opportunities on

all these levels to be actively involved in debates on topical and

contemporary issues (Fatke & Schneider, 2004; Franklin, 1994,

pp. 4366).

According to Huddleston and Kerr (2006), students

ideally should be able to explore issues of citizenship from

three perspectives: (a) they should learn about citizenship

(acquiring political literacy and knowledge), (b) they should

learn through principles of democracy and human rights

(i.e., the techniques and principles of the learning environ-

ment should reflect democratic attitudes and values), and

(c) they should learn for citizenship, developing skills for

advocacy, and experiencing citizenship as a practice

(Wiener, 1998). In short, students should be stimulated to

actively participate in school and community life (Edwards

& Fogelman, 1991). Their participation in the school

context may assume different forms, including election of

class representatives, election of pupil councils at school

level, and participation in pupil associations at regional and

national levels (Georgi, 2006). Students participation in the

wider community may be stimulated through a wide range of

activities, such as school partnerships, exchanges, informa-

tion visits to neighborhood institutions or community groups,

voluntary work or short-term work placements, and charity

fund raising, as well as playing games that simulate

parliamentary processes. When considering these concrete

suggestions, it remains to be asked how national citizenship

and European citizenship are related to each other. Or, in

other words, what exactly characterizes the European

dimension of citizenship education?

THE CHALLENGE OF THE EUROPEAN DIMENSION

The EU and the Council of Europe, as well as national education

authorities, have developed policies and programs to promote

the integration of a European dimension in the teaching of

citizen education. Although most governments in Europe

support this agenda, a recent comparative study of citizenship

education documents indicates that, relative to the emphasis

on national affairs, the European dimension is still rather

neglected (Eurydice, 2005).

In terms of advancing a European notion of citizenship, the

persistence of national foci of the curricula raises several

questions. How can educational efforts incorporate European

citizenship as a transnational topic? How can citizenship

education contribute to forging an inclusive European identity

that is based on the recognition of common values, history, and

culture, and, at the same time, is open to dialogue, negotiation,

and critique? Addressing questions such as these, the European

Parliament and the European Council have embraced the idea

of citizenship as a practice. Accordingly, their Recommenda-

tion (2006) on key competences for lifelong learning identifies

civic competence as an essential concept for creating and

measuring citizenship practices in Europe.1 From this perspec-

tive, a major objective of European citizenship education is the

development European literacythat is, the acquisition of the

knowledge, understanding, critical thinking, and independent

judgment that enables the individual to come to grips with what

happens in public life on local, national, European, and global

levels (Du Bois-Reymond, 2002). A European dimension of

learning to live in a democratic society therefore comprises

studying history, geography, literature, and languages from

a multicultural and intercultural perspective.

Given this normative framework of what young people should

learn about Europe and citizenship, it seems enlightening to

look at young peoples actual opinions and self-perceptions on

this matter.

YOUNG CITIZENS IN EUROPE:

ATTITUDES AND POLICIES

Approximately 75 million Europeansabout 15% of the

European populationare between 15 and 25 years old. In

devising strategies for helping these young people become

European citizens, it is obviously useful to have insight into

1Official Journal of the European Parliament (L 394/10, 30.12.2006).

108 j Viola B. Georgi

Child Development Perspectives, Volume 2, Number 2, Pages 107113

what they know about, and feel about, Europe. The following

data provide an idea of their knowledge and attitudes regarding

the EU (Eurobarometer, 2006; von Borries, 1999):

d Membership: Sixty-three percent of young people in Europe

think positively about membership in the EU and only 8%

think about it negatively.d Knowledge: A majority of young people indicate that they

know rather little about the EU: Two percent feel very well

informed about it, 28% feel well informed, 54% think that

they know little about the EU, and 17% say that they know

(almost) nothing about the EU. These self-assessments of

knowledge are empirically supported by knowledge tests.d Belonging: Sixty-five percent of young people in Europe feel

a sense of belonging to Europe and 35% do not.

Knowledge of Europe will undoubtedly grow among young

people. European developments are increasingly gaining signif-

icance for their life and career planning. With the opening of

borders, chances to experience Europe have been extended

massively over the past years. More than ever before, young

people travel to different European countries to participate in

youth exchanges, do internships, volunteer, study, or undergo

their vocational training. Learning foreign languages, as well as

acquiring intercultural and democratic competences, hence be-

come key issues in the socialization process of young Europeans.

Realizing the enormous potential of these patterns, the

European Commission recently decided to provide substantial

financial support for a new generation of educational programs

(20072013) devoted to fostering active citizenship (Euro-

pean Commission, 2005a). The goals are ambitious, as sug-

gested by the following sampling (Rappengluck, 2006):

d Between 2007 and 2013, every 20th child shall participate in

an activity of the Comenius program, a vocational exchange

program for young Europeans.d Until 2011, 3 million students shall participate in European

student exchange programs (this would triple the current

number).d Until 2013, 150,000 employees and apprentices per year

shall participate in an exchange program (currently the

number is 45,000).

With an additional youth-focused program called Youth in

Action (funded by 885 million euros), out-of-school youth

exchange programs, youth volunteering, and youth cooperation

in Europe shall be intensified.

These programs are accompanied by additional, overarch-

ing, not necessarily youth specific, efforts such as Plan D

standing for dialogue, debate, and democracy (Wallstrom,

2006). Initiated by Wallstrom, the current vice president of

the European Commission, Plan D calls for greater communi-

cation and debate between the democratic institutions of the EU

and the people of Europe. As a consequence, for example, so-

called European citizen conferences and round tables have been

established. Wallstroms (2006) subsequent White Paper on

Communication aims at placing citizens and democracy at the

heart of the political project of the EU. The three main objectives

are as follows:

d Creating a special EU charter of common principles on

the right of citizens to receive information, debate issues,

and influence political decision-making processes at all

levels.d Improving citizens democratic knowledge and skills and

their ability to communicate by focusing on adult education,

networking, and discussion forums (e.g., a European teacher

training school).d Making better use of modern media to improve and supple-

ment the democratic possibilities open to citizens to access

information (e.g., via digital libraries) and to actively partic-

ipate in political debate (see europa.eu.int/comm/communi-

cation_white_paper/index_en.htm-18k-).

Democratizing European politics, Wallstrom (2006) argues,

will need not only time but also commitment and leadership

from all levels of the EU. It is in this context that the

international and intercultural communication of young people

and young peoples organizations and associations become

a major interest in European (youth) policies.

According to the aforementioned guidelines, the European

Commission considers young people to be vital to securing the

Lisbon Strategys goals for increased economic growth and more

jobs. The Lisbon Strategy, an action and development plan

drawn up by the European Council (2000), serves as the

umbrella under which concepts of citizenship education and

EU policies and programs operate. The Lisbon goals are

captured in the following quote: The Union must become the

most competitive and dynamic knowledge-based economy in

the world capable of sustainable economic growth withmore and

better jobs and greater social cohesion (European Council,

2000). The heads of government called for not only a radical

transformation of the European economy, but also a challenging

program for the modernization of social welfare and education

systems (European Council, 2000). In this context, the

education system was regarded as one of the most important

means through which to impart the principles of equity,

inclusion, and social cohesion. However, the Lisbon goals can

be met only if young people are adequately equipped with high-

quality skills and relevant education and training and if barriers

such as being marginalized and growing up in poverty are

removed. Addressing these requirements and the concerns of

young people, the Commission adopted the Communication on

Youth Policies (2005), which was a follow-up to the European

Councils so-called European Youth Pact (European Commis-

sion, 2001).2 The Youth Pact proposed taking action for young

2It was the first time that a Youth Council sent a contribution to a EuropeanCouncil.

Youth and Citizenship Education in Europe j 109


people in the areas of employment, integration and social

advancement, education and training, mobility, and reconciling

family and work life.

The Commissions efforts in this direction began with its

White Paper on aNew Impetus for European Youth (2001), which

recognized the need to make young people stakeholders in their

societies and proposed a variety of instruments for achieving

this goal. Among them were promoting youth participation

through information and communication (technologies), encour-

aging young people to undertake voluntary work and to dedicate

themselves to community causes (service learning), providing

support for young peoples projects and organizations, pro-

moting youth participation in nongovernmental organizations

and political parties, and encouraging institutional participa-

tion by young people in local and regional affairs (Commission

of the European Communities, 2001). The latest program, Youth

in Action, launched in 2007, is the successor of the former

Youth Program (European Commission, 2007).3 It aims at

developing young peoples sense of personal responsibility,

initiative, concern for others, and active citizenship at local,

national, and European levels. Whether such programs that

address young people as future citizens will help transform them

into Good European Citizens (Frevert, 2008) or will mainly

serve symbolic politics depends on successful implementation

strategies based on accompanying quality assurance, evalua-

tion, and research.

THE POLITICAL FRAMEWORK AND EU PROGRAMS

ON CITIZENSHIP EDUCATION

In 2001, ministers of education in Europe adopted a report on

the future objectives of education and training systems, and in

the next year, the Education Council and the European

Commission endorsed a 10-year program that constitutes the

EUs strategic framework of cooperation in the fields of

education and training (Council of the European Union, 2001).

The key taskmentioned in the work program is to ensure that the

learning of values and principles of democratic participation by

all is effectively promoted to prepare people for active citizen-

ship. Active citizenship here was defined as participation in

civil society, community and/or political life characterized by

mutual respect and non-violence and in accordance with human

rights and democracy (Hoskins et al., 2006).

In this context, I would like to refer to the Council of Europes

pioneering initiative Education for Democratic Citizenship

(EDC). EDC is a set of practices and activities aimed at

making young people and adults better equipped to participate

actively in democratic life by assuming and exercising their

rights and responsibilities in society (Council of Europe,

2002). In the late 1990s, EDC became a common goal of

education policies in Europe. Although approaches varied, most

European countries adopted EDC as a common reference point

for all democracy-learning processes. The Committee of Min-

isters recommended that, depending on the specific context of

each educational system, EDC should be made a priority

objective of educational policy making and reforms.4 As

a consequence, the European Commission has placed the

promotion of active and responsible civic behavior from school

onward high on the political agenda. This is emphasized by the

new Europe for Citizens Program (20072013), which aims at

bridging the gap between the citizens and the EU. Its main

approach is to provide the Union with instruments for promoting

active European citizenship and to encourage cooperation

between citizens and their organizations from different coun-

tries in developing their own ideas about European citizenship

in a way that goes beyond a national vision and respects

diversity (European Commission, 2005b).

RECENT RESEARCH FINDINGS ON CITIZENSHIP

EDUCATION IN EUROPE

What empirical data do we have, or need to gather, to support

certain political strategies, pedagogical programs, and other

efforts directed toward fostering democracy in Europe? I will

address this question by briefly outlining some recent studies on

citizenship education in Europe.

The most important, and largest, international study of

citizenship education is the IEA Civic Education Study

(CIVED99), which was conducted between 1996 and 2000

and included 28 countries, the majority of which were Euro-

pean. The main goal was to identify and comparatively

scrutinize the ways in which young people are prepared to

succeed in their role as citizens in democracies. The study was

structured in two phases: one qualitative and the other quan-

titative. The first phase involved the compilation of national

case studies detailing the development of civic and citizenship

education in each participant country (Torney-Purta et al.,

1999). The second involved a survey of more than 90,000

14-year-olds, as well as their teachers and head teachers

(Torney-Purta et al., 2001). In addition, fifty thousand 17- to

19-year-olds in 16 countries were included. According to Kerr

(2008), the study provided a number of critical findings

concerning the state of citizenship education in Europe:

d Students with higher levels of civic knowledge aremore likely

to expect to participate in political and civic activities as

3The Youth Program (20012007) was a mobility and nonformal educationprogram targeting young people between 15 and 25 years. It offered manypossibilities of experiencing Europe: group exchanges, individual voluntarywork, and support of activities.

4This development was underlined by two major policy documents: (a) theResolution adopted by the Standing Conference of the Ministers of Education(2000) and (b) the Recommendation 12 (2002) of the Committee of Ministers toMember States on EDC. Both documents stress the pivotal role of EDC ineducation policies and reforms.



adults, and schools have an important role to play in shaping

future participation by teaching about topics such as elec-

tions and voting.d Schools that model democratic values and practices, through

encouraging students to discuss issues in the classroom and

take an active role in school life, are most effective in

promoting civic knowledge and engagement.d Four of five students indicated that they do not intend to

participate in conventional political activities (with the

exception of voting), and young people are only moderately

interested in politics. Young people appear to bemore open to

other forms of civic and political engagement such as charity

work or nonviolent protest marches.d Schools and community organizations have the potential to

positively influence the civic preparation of young people.

Students believe that working with other young people can

help to solve problems. The large majority of students across

countries have had some positive experience with students

getting together at school, in either formal or informal groups,

to solve problems and improve the school. The school

environment provides students with opportunities to take

part in real actions that matter to them.d Student attitudes may suggest the growth of a new civic

culture, one that is characterized by less hierarchy and more

individual decision making. Young people appear to be

gravitating more toward informal social movement groups

than toward formal conventional political parties and group-

ings (Kerr, 2008, p. 170).

These findings of the CIVED99 became central to the

reflection process of national governments and supranational

European organizations. The Council of Europes EDC project,

which was recently extended to 2009, processed the IEA

findings in its All-European Study on EDC Policies, initiated

in 2000. Based on a stocktaking of policy documents, country

reports from EDC coordinators, and other miscellaneous doc-

umentation, the study aimed at (a) identifying the current

policies on EDC in all European countries, (b) mapping the

concrete measures taken by governments to ensure the effective

implementation of these policies, and (c) collecting the views of

a sample of practitioners and stakeholders on the implementa-

tion of EDC policies. The outcomes of this research, docu-

mented in a detailed synthesis (Birzea et al., 2004) and five

regional studies (Froumin, 2004; Kerr, 2004; Losito, 2004;

Mikkelsen, 2004; Pol, 2004), produced a series of conclusions

that may be summarized in three major findings:

1. There is a massive compliance gap between political

declarations and what happens in practice.

2. The main pillar for EDC at present is the formal curriculum.

3. A more diversified approach to EDCgoing beyond the

curriculum, acknowledging a need to develop partnership

between stakeholders and practitionersis emerging. It

encompasses whole school and wider community dimensions

as well as formal and nonformal educational settings. In spite

of many differences between the countries and the regions

examined, most countries assigned the education system

a significant role in solving pressing socioeconomic, polit-

ical, and cultural challenges and stressed that EDC

presented a part of this thrust because it covered topics such

as diversity, identity, tolerance, rights, and responsibilities

(Kerr, 2008).

Based on CIVED99 and the All-European Study on EDC, the

Eurydice survey Citizenship Education at School in Europe from

2004 and its outcomes added considerably to the evidence base

for citizenship education in Europe. The study, an overarching

survey of the provision of citizenship education in schools in 30

European countries, provides the most up-to-date overview of

approaches and challenges in citizenship education. Among its

main findings are the following (Eurydice, 2005):5

d Many European countries are including citizenship educa-

tion in the formal school curriculum. In primary education,

most countries tend to offer citizenship education as an

integrated or cross-curricular theme. By contrast, in second-

ary education, nearly half of all European countries have

established a separate subject for teaching citizenship.d Most countries are convinced that citizen education should

be part of a comprehensive strategy that involves developing

not only political literacy but also positive civic attitudes and

values that promote active participation in society.d Most European countries highlight, in their educational

legislation or other official documents, the importance of

promoting a participatory school culture that is shaped by

democratic values and encourages young people to become

active and responsible citizens.d An increasing number of countries try to develop an active

learning by doing approach to citizenship education, pro-

viding students with opportunities to experience and practice

responsible civic behavior both in daily school life and in the

wider community.d Many countries are aware of the importance of introducing

a European dimension to citizenship education.d There is a deficit in teacher training: Only a few countries offer

special training courses for teachers of citizenship education.

These findings have been processed at the national and

supranational level by organizations such as the European

Commission and the Council of Europe in designing programs

and activities. The most recent initiative, Active Citizenship for

Democracy, by the European Commission-sponsored Centre for

Research on Lifelong Learning in collaboration with the

Council of Europe, has led to the conclusion that there are

5The tendencies found in the study have not been quantified by the authors.That is why they are referred to without concrete numbers or percentages hereas well.



limited available data beyond the CIVED99 survey. Given this,

the European Commission is working with member states to

identify data needs and to sponsor a new European module, as

part of the IEAs new International Civics and Citizenship

Education Study, which will report in 2010. Whether current

research deficits can be overcome is not only a question of

scholarly interest but also, and mainly, a question of providing

resources for more longitudinal and comparative research in

times of tight budgets.

CONCLUSIONS

In this article, I have tried to draw attention to complex

educational issues deriving from a new form of citizenship

European citizenship. In doing so, I have described a number of

recent European policy documents and educational programs

that explicitly address the mission of equipping young people

with the knowledge, skills, and attitudes for becoming active

democratic citizens. The analysis of the political discourse on

citizenship education and young people shows how much hope

is pinned on this group by the political actors. This hope seems

not in vain because recent polls indicate that young people in

Europe connect their future prospects to growing up Euro-

pean. Therefore, I argued that citizenship education in Europe

has to overcome national confinements for the sake of imple-

menting a European dimension. That is the point where the

rather meager evidence base of citizenship education in Europe

comes into play, as discussed in the last part of this article.

To develop and provide effective contemporary programs for

citizenship education, the existing evidence base needs to be

extended and deepened. More empirical research seems to be

necessary for proving that citizenship education with a strong

European notion is a significant factor in the making of citizens

in Europe.

REFERENCES

Birzea, C., Kerr, D., Mikkelsen, R., Pol, M., Froumin, I., Losito, B.,

et al. (2004). All-European study on education for democratic

citizenship policies. Strasbourg, France: Council of Europe.

Commission of the European Communities. (2001). European Com-

mission White Paper. A new Impetus for European Youth. COM

(2001) 681 final. Retrieved May 17, 2008, from http://ec.eur-

opa.eu/youth/whitepaper/download/whitepaper_en.pdf

Council of Europe. (2002). Recommendation Rec (2002) 12 of the

Committee of Ministers to member states on education for

democratic citizenship (Adopted by the Committee of Ministers

on 16 October 2002 at the 812th meeting of the Ministers

Deputies). Strasbourg, France: Author.

Council of the European Union. (2001). The concrete future objectives

of education and training systems. Retrieved May 17, 2008, from

http://www.ec.europa.eu/education/policies/2010/doc/rep_fut_

obj_en.pdf

Du Bois-Reymond, M. (2002). Lernfeld Europa. Chancen fur Schuler

und Lehrer im 21. Jahrhundert. In U. Bracht & D. Keiner (Eds.),

Jahrbuch fur Padagogik 2001 (pp. 293314). Munich, Germany:

Waxmann.

Edwards, J., & Fogelman, K. (1991). Active citizenship and young

people. In K. Fogelman (Ed.), Citizenship in schools. (pp. 203

217). London: David Fulton.

Eurobarometer. (2006). Public opinion in the European Union.

Retrieved May 17, 2008, from http://ec.europa.eu/public_opin-

ion/index_en.htm

European Commission. (2001). White Paper on a New Impetus for

European Youth. Retrieved May 17, 2008, from http://www.

ec.europa.eu/youth/whitepaper/download/whitepaper_en.pdf

European Commission. (2005a). Europe for Citizens program.

Retrieved May 17, 2008, from http://ec.europa.eu/citizenship/

archive_en.html

European Commission. (2005b). Europe 2005 action plan. Retrieved

May 17, 2008, from http://ec.europa.eu/information_society/

europe/2005/index_en.htm

European Commission. (2007). Youth in Action. Retrieved May 17,

2008, from http://ec.europa.eu/youth/yia/index_en.html

European Council. (2000). Lisbon Strategy. Retrieved May 17,

2008, from http://europa.eu/scadplus/glossary/lisbon_strategy_

en.htm

Eurydice. (2005). Citizenship education at schools in Europe.

Retrieved May 17, 2008, from http://www.eurydice.org

Fatke, R., & Schneider, H. (2004). Kinder- und Jugendpartizipation

in Deutschland. Guterloh, Germany: Bertelsmann Stiftung.

Franklin, B. (1994). Kinder und EntscheidungenEntwicklung von

Strukturen zur Starkung von Kinderrechten. In C. Steindorff (Ed.),

Vom Kindeswohl zu den Kinderrechten (pp. 4366). Neuwied,

Germany: Luchterhand.

Frevert, U. (2008). How to become a good European citizen? Present

challenges and past experiences. In V. Georgi (Ed.), The making

of citizens in Europe: New perspectives on citizenship education

(pp. 3752). Bonn, Germany: Bundeszentrale fur politische

Bildung.

Froumin, I. (2004). All-European study on policies for EDC: Regional

study Eastern European Region. Strasbourg, France: Council of

Europe.

Georgi, V. (2006). Demokratie Lernen in der Schule: Leitbild und

Handlungsfelder. Berlin, Germany: Fonds Erinnerung und

Zukunft.

Habermas, J. (2004). Der gespaltene Westen. Frankfurt, Germany:

Suhrkamp.

Hoskins, B., Jesinghaus, J., Mascherini, M., Munda, G., Nardo, M.,

Saisana, M., et al. (2006). Measuring active citizenship in Europe.

CRELL research paper 4. Ispra, Italy: Joint Research Centre/

CRELL.

Huddleston, T., & Kerr, D. (Eds.). (2006). Making sense of citizenship:

A continuing professional development handbook. London: Citi-

zenship Foundation/Hodder Murray.

Kerr, D. (2004). All-European study on policies for EDC: Regional study

Western Europe region. Strasbourg, France: Council of Europe.

Kerr, D. (2008). Research on citizenship education in Europe.

A survey. In V. Georgi (Ed.), The making of citizens in Europe:

New perspectives on citizenship education (pp. 167179).

Bonn, Germany: Bundeszentrale fur politische Bildung.

Losito, B. (2004). All-European study on policies for EDC: Regional study

Southern Europe Region. Strasbourg, France: Council of Europe.

Marshall, T. H., & Bottomore, T. (1950). Citizenship and social class.

London: Pluto Press.



Mikkelsen, R. (2004). All-European study on policies for EDC:

Regional study Northern European region. Strasbourg, France:

Council of Europe.

Osler, A., & Starkey, H. (2005). Changing citizenship: Democracy and

inclusion in education. Maidenhead, UK: Open University Press.

Pol, M. (2004). All-European study on policies for EDC: Regional study

central European region. Strasbourg, France: Council of Europe.

Rappengluck, S. (2006). Jugend in der Europaischen Union. Aus Politik

und Zeitgeschichte. Jugend in Europa (Vol. 47, pp. 36). Bonn,

Germany: Bundeszentrale fur Politische Bildung Publishing.

Shaw, J. (2003). European citizenship: For a triumph of ambi-

tion over conservatism? In T. Venables (Ed.), Rethinking

European citizenship (pp. 2830). Brussels, Belgium: ECAS

Publishing.

Soysal, Y. (1994). Limits of citizenship: Migrants and postnational

membership in Europe. Chicago: Chicago University Press.

Standing Conference of the Ministers of Education. (2000). Educa-

tional policies for democratic citizenship and social cohesion:

Challenges and strategies for Europe. Cracow. Retrieved May 17,

2008, from http://www.coe.int/t/e/cultural_co%2Doperation/

education/standing_conferences/f.20thsessioncracow2000.

asp#TopOfPage

Torney-Purta, J., Lehmann, R., Oswald, H., & Schulz, W. (Eds.).

(2001). Citizenship and education in twenty-eight countries: Civic

knowledge and participation at age fourteen. Amsterdam, the

Netherlands: International Association for the Evaluation of

Educational Achievement (IEA).

Torney-Purta, J., Schwille, J., & Amadeo, J.-A. (Eds.). (1999). Civic

education across countries: Twenty-four national case studies

from the IEA civic education project. Amsterdam, The Nether-

lands: International Association for the Evaluation of Educa-

tional Achievement (IEA).

von Borries, B. (1999). A cross-cultural comparison of students

concepts of Europe. In C. Hubner-Funk, S. Chisholm, L. Du

Bois-Reymond, & M. Sellin (Eds.), Intercultural reconstruction.

European year book of youth policy and research (pp. 3350).

Berlin, Germany: De Gruyter.

Wallstrom, M. (2005). Plan D: Dialogue, democracy, and debate.

Retrieved May 17, 2008, from http://www.dialog09.org/~doc/

eucomm/SPEECH-05-396_EN_PlanD_Stormy_waters.pdf

Wallstrom, M. (2006). White Paper on Communication. Retrieved May

17, 2008, from http://www.europa.eu.int/comm/communication_

white_paper/index_en.htm

Wiener, A. (1997). Making sense of the new geography of citizenship:

Fragmented citizenship in the European Union. Theory and

Society, 26, 529560.

Wiener, A. (1998). European citizenship practiceBuilding institu-

tions of a non-state. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.



Georgi v 2008 Citizens in the Making- Youth and Citizenship Education in Europe

Documents

Transcript of Georgi v 2008 Citizens in the Making- Youth and Citizenship Education in Europe