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The ScientificRevolution
The Enlightenment
The Impact of theEnlightenment
Colonial Empires andthe American
Revolution
Revolution and Enlightenment,
1550-1800
The Scientific Revolution
Objectives:
Discuss how theScientific
Revolution gaveEuropeans a new
way to view
humankinds placein the universe
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Background to the
Revolution
These scientists relied on afew ancient authorities
especially Aristotlefor theirscientific knowledge
Renaissance humanists hadmastered Greek as well as
Latin and thus had access tonewly discovered works byPtolemy, Archimedes, and
Plato
Background to the
Revolution
These scientists relied on afew ancient authorities
especially Aristotlefor theirscientific knowledge
Renaissance humanists hadmastered Greek as well as
Latin and thus had access tonewly discovered works byPtolemy, Archimedes, and
Plato
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The invention of newinstruments, such as the
telescope and microscope,made fresh scientific
discoveries possible
The study of mathematicswas promoted in theRenaissance by the
rediscovery of ancientmathematicians
Copernicus, Kepler,Galileo, Newton
A Revolution in
Astronomy
Secrets of nature werewritten in the language
of mathematics
Major discoveries inscience and astronomy
overturned the
conception of theuniverse held by
Westerners in the MiddleAges
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The Ptolemaic System
This system is called*geocentric because it placesthe earth at the center of the
universe
The universe is a series ofconcentric spheres
The earth is fixed motionlesssurrounded by crystal-like
transparent orbs of light
God dwells at the highest mostexterior place of the universe
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The Ptolemaic System
This system is called*geocentric because it placesthe earth at the center of the
universe
The universe is a series ofconcentric spheres
The earth is fixed motionlesssurrounded by crystal-like
transparent orbs of light
God dwells at the highest mostexterior place of the universe
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Copernicus and Kepler
Copernicus On the Revolution of
the Heavenly Spheres
*Heliocentric, or sun-centered,conception of the universe
offered a more accurate
explanation than did the
Ptolemaic system
The spheres rotate around the
sun
The moon around the earth and
the earth around on its axis
Copernicus and Kepler
Copernicus On the Revolution of
the Heavenly Spheres
*Heliocentric, or sun-centered,
conception of the universe
offered a more accurate
explanation than did the
Ptolemaic system
The spheres rotate around thesun
The moon around the earth and
the earth around on its axis
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Kepler useddetailed
astronomical datato arrive at his lawsof planetary motion
Kepler showed thatthe orbits of the
planets around theSun were not
circular, ratherelliptical
Kepler useddetailed
astronomical data
to arrive at his lawsof planetary motion
Kepler showed thatthe orbits of the
planets around theSun were not
circular, ratherelliptical
Galileo
*Galileo Galilei taughtmathematics and was the
first European to makeregular observations of
the heavens using atelescope
The Starry Messenger
The Copernican modeland Galileo threatened
the Catholic Church
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Galileo
*Galileo Galilei taughtmathematics and was the
first European to makeregular observations of
the heavens using atelescope
The Starry Messenger
The Copernican modeland Galileo threatened
the Catholic Church
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NewtonMathematical Principles of
Natural Philosophy
(Principia)
The three laws of motionthat govern the planetary
bodies
*universal law of gravitation
Every object in the universeis attracted to every other
object by a force calledgravity
NewtonMathematical Principles of
Natural Philosophy
(Principia)
The three laws of motionthat govern the planetary
bodies
*universal law of gravitation
Every object in the universeis attracted to every other
object by a force calledgravity
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Newtons ideascreated a newpicture of the
universe. It wasnow seen as onehuge, regulated,uniform machine
that workedaccording to natural
laws
Breakthroughs in
Medicine and Chemistry
A revolution in
medicine also began inthe 16th century
Ancient Greek, Galen
Relied on animals forhis medical and
anatomical research
Andreas Vesalius
One the Fabric of the Human
Body
He dissecting human bodies
Individual organs and generalstructure of the human body
He still clung to Galenserroneous idea that two kindsof blood flowed in the veins
and arteries
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Andreas Vesalius
One the Fabric of the Human
Body
He dissecting human bodies
Individual organs and generalstructure of the human body
He still clung to Galenserroneous idea that two kindsof blood flowed in the veins
and arteries
William Harvey
On the Motion of the Heart and
Blood
He showed that the heartnot the liver, as Galen had
thoughtwas the beginningpoint for the circulation of
blood in the body
He showed that blood makesa complete circuit through
the body
Science of chemistryarose in the 17th and
18th
Robert Boyle
controlled experimentsand explored the
properties of gases
The volume of a gasvaries with the pressure
exerted on it
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Women and the Origins of
Modern Science
Women as well as men wereinvolved in the Scientific
Revolution
*Margaret Cavendish
Observations Upon Experimental
Philosophy
She was critical of the growingbelief that humans, through
science, were the masters of nature
Descartes and Reason*Rene Descartes, the father of
rationalism
Began by thinking and writingabout the doubt and
uncertainty that seemed to beeverywhere
Discourse on Method
I think, therefore I am
The mind cannot be doubtedbut the body and materialworld can, the two must be
radically different
The Scientific Method
Scientific Methodasystematic procedure forcollecting and analyzing
evidence
*Francis Bacon, an Englishphilosopher with few
scientific credentials, believed
that instead of relying on theideas of ancient authorities,
scientists should useinductive reasoning
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The Enlightenment
Objectives:
1. Describe howeighteenth-century
intellectuals used theideas of the Scientific
Revolution to reexamineall aspects of life
2. Relate how peoplegathered in salons to
discuss the ideas of thephilosophes
Path to the
Enlightenment
18th centuryphilosophicalmovement of
intellectuals who weregreatly impressed
with achievements ofthe Scientific
Revolutions
Isaac Newton and JohnLocke
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Newton: the world-machine
Locke: theory ofknowledge and tabula
rasa
People believed thatthey could discover the
natural laws to producean ideal society
Philosophes and Their
Ideas
The intellectuals of the
Enlightenment were called
*philosophes
Writers, professors, journalists,
economists, etc.
Most were French with a few
important English thinkers
Three key thinkers:
Montesquieu, Voltaire, and
Diderot
Montesquieu
Came from French nobility,writing The Spirit of the Laws
Tried to use the scientific methodto find the natural laws that
govern the social and politicalrelationships of human beings
Wrote on governments:republics, despotism, andmonarchies
*separation of power
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Voltaire
Came from prosperousmiddle-class
wrote pamphlets, novels,plays, letters, essays, and
histories
especially well known forhis criticism of
Christianity
*deism
DiderotAuthor of the first
Encyclopedia
He wrote the text tochange the general way
of thinking
Many articles attackedreligious superstition
and supported religioustoleration
Consumed by doctors,clergy, teachers, and
lawyers
Toward A New Social
Science
Economics
The Physocrats, a Frenchgroup interested in identifyingthe natural economic laws that
govern human society
*Adam Smith, Wealth of
Nations
wrote on *laissez-faire, let itbe the state should not
interfere in economic matters
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The Salon
Salons were elegantdrawing rooms of thewealthy upper class in
which writers and artistsgathered together witharistocrats, governmentofficials, and wealthymiddle-class people
Religion in the
Enlightenment
Most Europeans in the18th century were still
Christians
Catholic parish churchesremained an important
center of life
New movementsemerged, particularly
Methodism
*John Wesley, an Anglicanminister, had a mystical
experience in which the giftof Gods grace assured him
of salvation
He street preached,especially to lower classes
Methodism led to the
abolition of slavery and gavethe lower and middle classesin English society a sense of
purpose and community
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The Impact of the Enlightenment
Objectives:
1. Discuss howEnlightenment beliefs
were reflected in the art,music, and literature of
the time
2. Summarize howEnlightenment thought
influenced the politics ofEurope in the eighteenth
century
The Arts
Architecture and Art
The ideas of theEnlightenment also had animpact on European culture
The palace of Louis XIV atVersailles, in France, had
made an enormous impact on
Europe
grandiose residencesemerged, blending thesecular and the sacred
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By 1730, a new artisticstyle spread all over
Europe: *rococo
Unlike the baroquestyle, rococo
emphasized grace,charm, and gentle actiona highly secular style
Its lightness and charm
spoke of the pursuit ofpleasure, happiness, and
love
Music
*Johann SebastianBach, a renowned
organist as well as a
composer
Mass in B Minor
Music
*Johann SebastianBach, a renowned
organist as well as acomposer
Mass in B Minor
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Handel, a German whospent most of career in
England
He is probably bestknown for his religiousmusic, namelyMessiah
Bach and Handel
perfected the baroquestyle
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Classicism styleemerged in the late
18th century
The style is bestdemonstrated by
Wolfgang AmadeusMozart
While there are manyexamples, he is mostknown for Don
Giovanni
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Enlightenment and
Enlightened Absolutism
The philosophesbelieved in naturalrights for all people:
law, religious worship,speech, press, and
property
They argued thatnations should be
governed byenlightened rulers
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Some Absolutist Rulersattempted to practice
*Enlightenedabsolutism
Prussia, Austria, andRussia will be examples
Did they allow freedomof speech, press, the
right to privateproperty?
Prussia: Army and
Bureaucracy
Frederick William I
strove to maintain ahighly efficientbureaucracy of civil
service workers
His other major concernwas the army, creating
the fourth largest inEurope
Frederick II theGreat was one of thebest educated and
most culturedmonarchs in the 18th
century
He abolished the useof torture, grantedlimited freedom ofspeech and press
The Austrian Empire
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The Austrian Empire
The sprawling empire and its
composite of different ethnicities,
languages, religions, and cultures
made it difficult to rule
Joseph II attempted to reform,
creating a society based on
reason
His reform programs largely
failed
His successors undid almost all
of his reforms
Russia under Catherine the
Great
Catherine the Great (r. 1762-96)was familiar with the works of
the philosophes and seemed tofavor enlightened reforms
She promised to reform the lawcode, that all are equal before
the law
She continually postponed theapplication of this law due to
war
Enlightened Absolutism?
Only Joseph II truly attemptedto apply the radical changes
that the enlightenedphilosophers proposed
All three rulers were chieflyguided by a concern for the
power and well-being of theirstates
Ultimately, 18th centurymonarchs sought a balance of
power, preventing any onefrom dominating the others
W f th A t iIn 1740, a major war broke
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War of the Austrian
Succession
jout in connection with thesuccession to the Austrian
throne
Maria Theresa took thethrone when her father,
Charles V, died
Prussia invaded because awomen ruled Austria. France
allied with Prussia.
Austria allied itself withGreat Britain
The War expanded andwas fought in other partsof the world, the far east,India, and North America
The Seven Years War
New Allies
A great reversaloccurred in alliances
France allied withAustria
Russia allied with FranceBritain allied with
Prussia
The reversal wasprecipitated by colonialrivalries between Britain
and France
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The War in Europe
Europe witnessed theclash of the two majoralliances: the British
and prussians againstthe Austrians,
Russians, and French
This conflict spread,
creating a global war
The War in India and North
America
The struggle between Britain
and France in the rest of the
world had more decisiveresults
The greatest conflicts arose in
the North America
French North America was run
by the French government as a
vast trading area: fur, leather,
fish, and timber
The British and Frenchfought over two primary
areas in North America: thewater ways of the Gulf of St.Lawrence and the Ohio River
valley
The French were able to gainthe support of the Indians. As
traders and not settler, theFrench viewed by the Indians
with less hostility than theBritish
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Latin America was amultiracial society
Intermarriagebetween Europeans
and NativeAmericans
*mestizos
African slaves and
Europeans*Mulattoes
Economic
Foundations
One source of wealth camefrom abundant supplies of
gold and silver, whichwere sent to Europe
Farming was the longlasting and most
rewarding source ofprosperity for Latin
America
Trade provided anotheravenue for profit:
sugar, tobacco,diamonds, and animal
hides
Both Spain andPortugal closely
regulated the trade of
their American coloniesto keep others out
State and Church
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Colonial officials in LatinAmerica had much freedom incarrying out imperial policies
Spanish and Portuguese rulerswere determined to Christianize
the native peoples
The Catholic Church, throughDominicans, Franciscans, and
Jesuits, gained great influence
These missionaries convertedpeople, taught trades, andencouraged to grow crops
Britain and British
North America
A new dynasty came to
powerthe *Hanoverians
George I, from the Germanstate of Hanover, became
king
*Robert Walpole served a shead of cabinet (Prime
Minister) pursued a peacefulforeign policy
The American
Revolution
After the Seven Years War,British leaders wanted to get
new revenues from the coloniesa source to fund the cost of
war and defense of the colonies
1765, Stamp Act, required on
all printed materials,newspapers, etc.
Rebellion erupted
The War Begins
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The colonies organized the
First Continental Congress of
1774 to consider to take up
arms and organize militias
War erupted in 1775 at
Lexington and Concord,
Massachusetts
1776, Second Continental
Congress approved adeclaration of independence
written by Thomas Jefferson,
an Enlightened thinker
Foreign Support and
British Defeat
Of great importance to thecolonies cause was
support from foreigncountries during their
rebellion
The French supplied armsand money to the rebels
from the beginning of thewar
Spain and theDutch Republicalso entered the
war against GreatBritain
The Treaty ofParis, signed in
1783, recognized
the independenceof the American
colonies
The Birth of a New
N ti
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Nation
The states feared
concentrated power and each
one was primarily concerned
for its own interests
The Articles of Confederation
did little to provide for a
strong central government
The Constitutionalconvention in 1787 drafted a
new national government
The Constitution
The new system created afederal system in whichpower would be shared
between the nationalgovernment and the state
governments
The federal governmentspowers were broken intothree separate branchesto prevent a monarchy:
executive, legislative, andJudicial
The Bill of Rights
The new congress created aBill of Rights10
amendments (changes) tothe constitution granting
freedom of religion, speech,press, etc.
Many of these rightsdirectly derived from theEuropean intellectual
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