Scientific Revolution & Enlightenment

Chapter 17

Impact of the Renaissance

• Learning Greek and Latin opened opportunities for many of the educated to question middle age beliefs because they could read other works; such as those of Archimedes, and Plato.

New Technologies

• Telescope• Microscope• Mathematics• Printing Press (mass circulation of materials)• New discoveries, accurate calculation, modern

science. – Example: calculating the weight that a ship could

safely carry.

Build off Early Discovery

• Using the works of Galileo, Kepler, and Copernicus; their idea that you could understand the natural order of things began a scientific revolution were theories could be proven logically.

• What do they mean be the natural order?

Scientific Breakthroughs

• Astronomy – redefining the world.• Medical – new ways to understand disease.– This was revolutionary due to what new

procedure?• Chemistry – medications and treatments.

Scientific Breakthroughs

• Ptolemaic System – shape of the universe – What study is this?– Geocentric shape (centric spheres)– Heliocentric shape (Sun centered , elliptical)

• Mathematicians Copernicus & Kepler– Copernicus discovers the sun centered system

(published in On the revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres)

– Kepler the elliptical shape and rotations of the planets.– How is math used in astronomy?

Scientific Breakthroughs

• Galileo – Planets and moons are not heavenly bodies of light, but rather material substances as is Earth.– Published in The Starry Messenger 1610– Galileo would fall under extreme persecution from

the church, but by the 1640’s his thoughts were commonly accepted as fact.

– Still no one could explain the movement of the universe, what discovery made this possible?

Scientific Breakthroughs

• Considered the greatest genius of the movement Isaac Newton discovers three new principles:– Written in the Principia– Universal law of gravitation– World – Machine idea would dominate until

Einstein discovers relativity.– Primary source reading on 541

Turning Point

• Read and Complete the Questions in the “Turning Point” on page 542.

Medical Breakthroughs

• William Harvey & Andreas Vesalius – Dissect the human body– Discovering the placement of organs and the

circulation circuit of blood through the body, from the heart.

Women’s Contributions

• Margret Cavendish– Observations Upon Experimental Philosophy (man

is only a small part of nature and therefore not the master of it.

• Maria Winkelmann– Discovery of the comet– Denied a job at the Berlin Academy due to

womanhood.

Philosophy and Reason• Rene Descartes: Rationalism– 1st Principle: I think, therefore I am.– 2nd Principle: separation of mind and body– Reason is the chief source of knowledge

• Francis Bacon: Scientific Method (experimentation)– Inductive reasoning: starting with the particular

and explaining the general– Refer to the chart on 544 to make a flow chart of

the scientific method

The Enlightenment

• The reexamination of all aspects of life through reasoning and the scientific method. (government, justice, religion, and women’s rights)

• Foundations: Reason, Natural law, hope, and progress.

John Locke

• Essay Concerning Human Understanding– A blank slate that is filled through life experiences– If people were exposed to the right type of ideas

and experiences we can change our society.

Ideas of Philosophy

• What is a philosopher?– Writers, professors, journalists, economists, and

above all, social reformers.– Nobility or middle class– “ applies himself to the study of society with the

purpose of making his kind better and happier.”– This is ever changing and yet more radical with

each generation!

Rousseau

• Social Contract: – A society should be based on free will, but as it

corresponds to the general will. If an individual must give up their individual rights to follow the general will this is acceptable because freedom is based on the will of the majority.

Women’s Rights

• Wollstonecraft: Founder of modern women’s rights– If women are human beings of reason as is a man

than it only stands to reason that they should experience the same opportunities as a man in education, society, and politics.

– Salons : thinkers and society’s elite met to discuss the ideas of the day and women who hosted could often influence the decision that the men came to.

Isaac Newton

• Impact: thinkers of the time figured if Newton could explain the natural laws that bound the physical world through science; then they could you his method to figure out the natural laws of the society and create Utopia (the perfect society.

Dominate Leaders of the Enlightenment

• Montesquieu: 3 kinds of government– Republic (Small city-states)– Despotism (large city-states, absolute power)– Monarchy (medium city-states)

• His favorite however and his lasting legacy was the separation of powers based on checks and balances

Dominate Leaders of the Enlightenment

• Voltaire: – Deism- God wound the clock and let it run. – All men are equal under the creator– Religious tolerance– “ Those who can make you believe absurdities

can make you commit atrocities.”– Spoke out against tyranny, ignorance, and the

excesses of the church.

New Social Sciences• Economics: The Physiocrats & Adam Smith– “Father” of capitalism– if citizens were free to pursue their own economic

interests, all society would benefit (later known as Laissez-faire economics)

– Wealth of Nations: 3 goals of government• Protect the people• Stop injustices between its people• Keep up public works

• Take a more in depth look on Pg 550

Justice

• Beccaria on Justice: – New court systems by the 18th Century– Extremely harsh punishments to deter crime,

small police force.

Religion

• Sought deeper personal spirituality (church attendance as a norm dropped)

• Methodism: John Wesley– Stopped Slavery (Slave Trade)– Gave the lower middle and lower class purpose

through spiritual contentment and not through political equality.

Enlightenment Rulers

• Fredrick II: Prussian leader tried to implement enlightenment philosophy, but failed.– Built a vast army

• Joseph II: Austria attempted laws for all citizens and religious tolerance

• Catherine II: Russia, brought in Diderot, but in the end thought the ideas too radical and would weaken the monarchy.

Enlightenment Rulers

• In the end their personal interests and expansion of their empires played to great a role and did not allow for enlightened society.

Seven Years’ War

Agenda

• Causes• Frederick the Great• British Navy• French and Indian War• Results

Seven Years’ War: Causes

• On one side was France, Austria, and Russia.

• On the other was Britain, Prussia, and Hanover

In the 18th Century, Britain was the dominant naval power while France had a powerful army

Seven Years’ War: Causes

• A global war– In Europe, Britain and Prussia

fought against France, Austria, and Russia

– In India, British and French allied with local rulers and fought each other

– In North America, the Seven Years’ War merged with the on-going French and Indian War (1754-1763) which pitted the British and French against each other

Seven Years’ War: Frederick the Great

• Became king of Prussia in 1740 when he was 28• Had spent much of his life training as a soldier,

visiting battlefields, and studying political history and politics

• Believed every man had an obligation to serve his state and that it was the king’s particular duty to develop policies that increased the power and standing of the state

• Strong lust for military glory

Seven Years’ War: Frederick the Great

• His success lay in his purposeful use of authority and unwavering determination to make Prussia a European power

• Led the Prussians in the Silesian Wars

Seven Years’ War: Frederick the Great

• Frederick used the period of peace after the War of Austrian Succession to prepare his country and army for another war– Enlarged army to 143,000 men (it had been 83,000 in

1740)– Anticipating having to fight against larger armies, he

trained his officers to attack in the oblique order and seek a rapid decision

Seven Years’ War: British Navy• Frederick’s success was largely a result of his own

and his people’s extraordinary efforts, but he also benefited greatly from Britain’s ability to support Prussia by defeating the French at sea and overseas

• Then Russia pulls out of the alliance when Peter III becomes king.

• Furthermore, the British could rely on the Prussian army to do most of the fighting on the continent

• This allowed the British to bring overwhelming pressure against the French at sea

Seven Years’ War: French and Indian War

• The British, French, and Spanish all had colonial interests in North America and this competition led to war in 1754

• The French and Indian War merged with the Seven Years’ War

Seven Years’ War: French and Indian War

• As the British secretary of state, William Pitt viewed America as the place “where England and Europe are to be fought for”

• Consequently, he let Prussia bear the brunt of the fighting in Europe, while concentrating British military resources in America

Seven Years’ War: French and Indian War

• Early on the British had troubles– Their colonists proved to be

ineffective and difficult allies– In 1755, the French were able to

run two fleets through the British blockade and reach Canada with reinforcements of 4,000 men

– French defenses were especially strong around Quebec

Braddock’s defeat at the Battle of Monongahela

Seven Years’ War: French and Indian War

• After initially being frustrated by the sound French defense, Wolfe was convinced to approach Quebec from the west along the north bank of the St. Lawrence

• To maximize surprise, he landed his force just two miles from Quebec, hoping to force the French to accept battle

• The French expected an attack from the east and were caught by surprise

James Wolfe

Seven Years’ War: French and Indian War

• Although the French were ultimately defeated by a land force, the British Navy had played an important role in blockading New France

• New France was never a self-sufficient colony and without a steady stream of support from France it could not survive

• The victory in Canada allowed the British to divert thousands of troops elsewhere and ultimately win the Seven Years’ War

Seven Years’ War: Results

• Britain was now in a position to dominate world trade for the foreseeable future

• The Seven Years’ War paved the way for the establishment of the British Empire of the 19th Century