Women's Question and Dravidian Movmt

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ocial cientist

Women's Question in the Dravidian Movement c. 1925-1948Author(s): Anandhi S.Source: Social Scientist, Vol. 19, No. 5/6 (May - Jun., 1991), pp. 24-41Published by: Social ScientistStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3517871.

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ANANDHI S.*

Women's Question in the DravidianMovementc. 1925-1948

The Suyamariathaiyakkam Self RespectMovement)whichwaslaunchedby Periyar .V. RamasamyNaicker n 1926, nan effortodemocratise the Tamil Society,has been the theme of historicalresearchby several non-Marxist nd Marxist scholars.1n theirwritings hemovementhas been characterisedn differentays-revivalist, ro-British,ecessionist, nti-Brahmintc.A striking eatureof the existing tudies on the SelfRespectMovement s their ilenceon itsconsistenttruggle gainstwomen'soppression nd itsattempto dismantle heubiquitous tructurefpatriarchyn Tamil society.AlthoughMarxist cholars ikeN. Ramand Arulalanhavebrieflyealtwith his spectof themovement,2detailed systematicreatment f the same is yetto be done. Thissilence s significantecausethe uestion fwomen'smancipationasone ofthe central hemesn thepolitical gendaof theSelfRespectMovement,3specially uring tsearlyphase.Thepresent aper s a modest ttempto fill his oid nthe urrentscholarshipn theSelfRespectMovementwhich s a result fwritinghistory rom he malepointofview.4The paperthereforeddressesitself o thequestionofhow themovement erceived hewomen'squestion nd inwhatmannert tried o resolvet.IDEAS OF PERIYARAfterstablishingbreakwith heCongressn1924, eriyar5egan oarticulate, ather tridently,is views on such institutionsfTamilsociety ike religion, astehierarchy,nd patriarchy.pposingthereformisteal of hiscontemporariesike Gandhi nd those f thepastlike Siddhar and Ramanujam,6 e called for totalbreakwith heretrograde lements f he Tamilpast.Addressing heSouth ndian* Research cholar,Centre orHistorical tudies,Jawaharlal ehruUniversity,ewDelhi.

Social cientist,ol.19,Nos.5-6,May-June991

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WOMEN'SQUESTION N THEDRAVIDIANMOVEMENTC. 1925-1948 25Reform onferencen 1928,he said, . . . I havegraduallyostfaithnsocial reform. orone who believes n radicalchange, elf-respect,equality nd progress, healternativeto thepresent ituation)s notmerereform; utradicalreconstructiveorkwhichwoulddestroyhetraditionaltructures.'7This yearning or totalchangemarkedhisposition n women'squestiontoo.Within heambience ftheSelfRespectMovement ewas notcontentwith aking p suchconventionalhemes fwomen'semancipationikewidow-remarriagend women's ducationwhich,even if successful,did not underminethe existing tructure fpatriarchy;but he raised questions relatingto basic pillars ofpatriarchy,ike themonogamous amily nd the norms fchastityprescribed orand enforced pon women.Even whileadvocatingwomen's ducation, isattempt as to directtagainst he tructurefpatriarchy. e noted,Thequalityofeducationmparted owomantillnowhas beenone oftraining oman obe anefficientouse-wife-bydesigning hecurriculumo include ooking,music, ailoringtc.Thus woman's education has been an advertisemento acquire a'qualified'husband.'He argued,women's ducationhouldhave theaim of providingemployment orwomenand thusmaking hemeconomicallyndependent.8Themost mportantdea hehad advancedwas aboutmarriagendfamilywhich he identifiedas the key institutions ustainingpatriarchy. ince marriage nabled women to be enslaved as theproperty fmenhe insisted hatmarriages an institutionhouldbeabolished.Speaking n a women'smeetingt VictoriaHall,Madras,in1948heattacked he oncepts fmarriagendfamily:

Theconcept fhusband-wifeelationshipasbeenone ofmaster-slave relationship. he essentialphilosophy fmarriage as beento nsist nwomen's lavery.. why houldhuman eings lonekeepsuchcontractfone-man-one-womanelationship.. untilwomenare iberatedromuchmarriagesndfrommen, urcountryannotattainndependence.9Despitehisdisapproval fmarriage s an institutioneapprovedcertainkind of marriagewhich transcended he traditional ndsocially-acceptednorms for women. He opposed all ritualisticpracticesssociatedwithmarriages,ncluding hetyingftali round

theneckofthebridebythebridegroom hichhe treateds a symbolofwomen's ubjectionomen.He alsoopposed rrangedmarriagesndadvocatedthatmen and women houldchoosetheir artnerst theirownfreewill.10The notion of woman's chastity,whichsustainedmonogamousfamily,was another ubject fhis criticism.n one ofhis pamphletsentitled Penn Yean Adimaiyanal? Why did women becomeenslaved?),whichwas initially rittens a seriesofarticles n 1928,



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26 SOCIAL SCIENTISThe noted: The imposition f 'patrivratha'ualities on women hasdestroyedtheir ndependence and free-thinkingnd made themunquestioninglaves-to men-who are upposed odemonstratenduefaith ver chastity.'1l e also attacked lassicalTamil iterary extssuch as Silaparikaram nd Thirulcural orpreaching hastity s anecessary ualityforwomen.12nstead, e suggested olyandrynddivorce s solutions orwomen's ppression.n speeches elivered tvariousplaces n1935he argued,Divorce s a protectivenstrumentnthe handsofmanyoppressedwomen.AlongwithDivorceAct thereshouldbe a provision or ompulsoryegistrationf llmarriages.'13According to Periyar,while marriageand chastitywere keypatriarchalnstitutions,atriarchys suchwas ubiquitous, ervadingspheres ike language, iterature nd gender-based ocialization.nhis writings boutwomen'soppression nd in his speeches t self-respectmarriages e notedwith ontempthat heTamil anguage idnothave wordsfor hemale counterpartfadultress nd widow.14 einvented heneologism orwidower,Vidavan nd formale prostitute,vibacharannd suggested heir se. He also notedthat everalwordsare used inTamil iteraturend indaily ife nderogationf womensuchas Aanmaimasculinity). e wrote,

Women should notforget hattheword aanmai tselfs used inderogation to women. . . As long as aanmai will exist,women'sslaverywill only grow. It is definite hattheemancipationfwomen will not materialise ill women themselves estroy hephilosophy faanmai.. *15The Tamil language, n his opinion,was 'barbaric',s it did nothave 'respectable words for women.'16Delivering speech atTirupatturn 1946, Periyar tronglyriticised amil literature or

describingwomen's bodily features t length nd ignoring heirintellectual aculties.He argued thatunless women oppose such aprojection f their mage n the iterature,eitheriterary raditionsnor heirwnstatuswouldchange.17Apartfromttackinghe nstitutionsfpatriarchyndcondemningitsubiquitousnature, eriyar lso underlinedts relationship ith hecontrol fproperty.Whenpeople weretotally reewithout ropertyn land, do notthink herewere these lavishpracticesfwomen's ppressionndcompulsory marriage contracts. When herewas no concept faccumulatingprivate property . . therecould not have been anycompulsion or acquiringheirfor thefamily-property-throughchild-birth.nlywhenthedesire forprivatepropertyame intopracticeheconcept fmarriage ndimprisoning omen o protectthefamily ropertylso came into practice.Once a womanwasmade the guardianof man's property,he herself ecamehis



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WOMEN'SQUESTION N THEDRAVIDIANMOVEMENTC. 1925-1948 27propertyoproduceheirfor hefamily.. women ost heir ight oworship heirgods but only their usbands.Theprivate ropertywhichhas beenthemainreasonforwomen's ppression as to betotally estroyednorder o achievewomen's iberation.18In the context fPeriyar's iewthatprivate roperty ith tsneedtohave nheritors,ave risetowomen's ubjectionnorder oproduceheirsforproperty,is advocacy fbirth ontrol ssumes ignificance.Arguing hatwomen houldhave theright o decidetohavechildren,he differentiatedis position from he otheradvocates of birth-control y focussing ttention n women'schoice: There s a basic

differenceetween ur nsistencenbirth-controlnd other's otion fbirth-control. . They have only thought of family and nationalwelfarethroughbirth-control. ut we are only concerned boutwomen'shealth ndwomen's ndependencehroughirth-control.'19Periyar'srenchantriticismfHinduismwas influencedy tsrolein legitimisingatriarchy.20 hile ddressing women udience, eremindedthemthat thevaranashrama harma nd Hindu religionhad treated hem nly s dasis prostitutes)fgods who, nturn, estedonlywomen's hastitynd notthat fmen.Ridiculing igamous odshe said, Sisters, ou should neverperformny rituals o gods whokeeptwowives ndconcubines.oumust sk the odwhyhe needs wowives and why does he need a marriage veryyear How couldyouworship tones as gods and fall at the feet fBrahmin riestswhohave legitimised our lavery hrough eligion ndrituals?'21Periyar's ommitmento the causeof women's mancipationftenled himto be critical f his own political omrades. n anguish,henoted, 'The self-proclaimediberatorsof women,the Dravidianintellectuals, ave kept their aughters, isters nd mothers s meredecorative ieces at home.'22 e openly ondemnedheJustice artyministry,espitehis general upport o it, for tsattitude owardswomen'squestion and its failure o effectivelymplementhe anti-childmarriage ct. Periyar emanded the resignationfA.P. Patroand otherJusticeartyministersromheparty s they ailed o enactany egislation oimprove heconditions f women.23nhispersonallife too he was self-critical bout his inability to practise hispreachings nd writings n women's iberation.Writingn emotion-laden obituary fhis wife,Nagammal, n Kudi Arasu 14 May 1933),henoted,I amashamed o statehere hat had notpractised venonehundredth f what wrote ndpreached boutwomen's mancipationat homewithNagammal'.Periyar's iewson women's uestion oundpracticalxpressionntheactivities ftheSelfRespectMovement. hemovement,nter lia,practised elf espectmarriages,rganised omen's onferencesoraisetheirconsciousness nd to highlight heirproblems nd involvedwomennmassagitations.



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28 SOCIAL SCIENTISTACTIVITIESOFSELF RESPECTMOVEMENT(a) MarriagesOne of the mportantctivities f the SelfRespectMovementwhichchallengedthe traditional indu marriages nd introduced adicalchanges n themwas theconductingf selfrespectmarriages.elfrespectmarriageswereconducted rom 928onwards mongvariousnon-Brahminastes. Thesemarriageswhich tookplace even in theremote illagesand wereregularlyeportedn thenewspaper fthemovement, Kudi Arasu, included inter-castemarriages,widow-remarriagesndmarriagesfconsent.

The central im ofself espectmarriages as to free he nstitutionof marriagefrom Hindi ritualswhich emphasisedmonogamousfamilial norms and chastityfor women and thus legitimisedpatriarchy.24 ccordingly,hesemarriageswere conductedwithoutBrahmin riests nd recitationfreligious exts.Moresignificantlytheydid away with the tyingof the tali. In keepingwiththerationalisticontent fthe SelfRespectMovement, ften heywerearranged n timeswhich were treated nauspiciousby the Hinducalendar (Rahu Kalam). Some of the marriagestook place atmidnight,25hich sgenerallyonsideredobe inauspicious ime.Allthesechallenged nd subverted hereligious ura that ntrappedheinstitutionf marriage.We shall give below threesuch marriagesto show how themovement efusedotreatmarriagess a personalffairndconvertedthem into spectacular political events aimed at breaking thetraditional orms fpatriarchy.(1) The selfrespectmarriage etweenSivagami, youngwidowbelongingo an orthodox indufamilynThanjavuristrictnd SamiChidambaranar, Tamil scholar and a dedicated activistof themovement, ookplace in 1930.ThoughSivagamihad givenherfullconsent omarry hidambaranar,herewasstubbornpposition or hemarriage rom oththefamilies. hisforced eriyaroshifthevenueof themarriage romKumbakonam,he town fromwhich ivagamihailed,toErode,Periyar's wn native own,wellknownfor radingactivities.26Themarriagewhichwas presided verby E.V.RNagammal id nothave anyoftherituals ftraditional indumarriages,ncluding hetying f tali. Speakingat themarriage,Nagammalexplained howtali and otherrituals ssociatedwithHindumarriagesymbolishedthe lavery fwomen o men.Thecouple xchangedings, ook n oathwhich emphasised friendship nd equality between them, andaddressedeach other s comrades nd friendsnsteadofthe usual'husband' nd wife'.And, s iftohighlighthepolitical imension fthemarriage,t was arranged nthevenueof theSecondSelfRespectConferencetself.



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WOMEN'S QUESTION IN THE DRAVIDIAN MOVEMENT C. 1925-1948 29In the evening, o propagate he need forwidow remarriagesndself respect marriages, he married couple were takenout in a

procession n the streets f Erode by the Self Respect Movementactivists. eople indeed gathered n largenumbers longtheroute ftheprocession o watch he conoclasticouple.27(2) The marriage etweenKamalambal nd Nallasivanwhich ookplace in the same yearat Nagerkoilnear Kanyakumari eneratedotoftension mongthemembers f theSaliar astewho were raditionalhandloomweavers. t was a marriage etween widow nd widower,each of them having a child from heirpreviousmarriages.28 hemarriage was conducted by Periyar and Nagai Kaliappan29 nacinemahall. n thecourse f themarriage,hebridegroomransferredRs 5,000worth f his propertyo thebride n consonance ith he elfRespect Movement's deal thatwomen should have equal propertyright s men.About2,500people visited hevenueof themarriageo witness heunusual event.While Periyar xtolled he virtues f such marriages,A. Ponnambalanar nd M. Maragadavalli30 ang songsof theSelfRespectMovement. amphlets ealingwith hetheme fselfrespectmarriages nd the tance f themovementn man-womanelationshipwere distributedo theparticipants.(3) The self espectmarriage etween wo ctivistsfthemovement,S. Neelavathi and Ramasubramaniam, ook place at Pallathur nRamanathapuram istrict n 1930. The marriagewas attendedbyabout 2,000 male and 500 women activistsof the Self RespectMovement.naddition, bout 100 ocal peoplealso participatedn t.31Interestingly,s part of the wedding, he audiencewereallowedand encouraged to ask questions relating o man-woman elation,marriage,women's emancipation tc. One of the participantsskedPeriyarwhy the SelfRespectMovement llowed a second marriage.Periyar's response was that marriages could only be tentativearrangementsetweenmen nd women nd they houldnotbe treatedas eternal.He furtheraid thatmen and women houldhaveequalrightto marry nyone of theirpreference ven afterhaving firstmarriage nd divorce houldbe permitted.32The above three ases which were among the severalmarriagesreported n the pages of Kudi Arasu give an idea of how the SelfRespect Movementpoliticisedmarriages nd used them s publicevents to propagate heir iews on the women'squestion.That waswhymarriage enuesweredecoratedwith he ymbols nd slogans fthemovement.or nstance, he elf espectmarriage enue na smallvillagenearCuddalore n 1928 had welcome rchesbearing loganslike 'Long Live Self Respect Movement' nd 'Long Live VaikkamVeerar.'33 hewalls insidethemarriage all were dornedwithhugeposters xplaining heobjectives nd activitiesf themovement.



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30 SOCIAL SCIENTISTInvariably, ll thesemarriages,whether heywere held at thehouse of a lowlyMarimuthu elongingocobbler aste34 ra political

elite ikeW.P.A.SoundaraPandian,5were ttended nd addressed yactivists fthemovement-especiallyywomen ctivists.hey pokeon these occasionson themes elatingowomen's mancipationnddemanded legislative rotection fwomen'srights.36n an effortopopularisesuchmarriages, eriyar ersonally ttendedmostofthemarriages uring heearlydaysofthe movement,ven fthey ookplace inremote illages.37The Movement rganised everalthousand uchmarriagesn theTamil areas during ts three ecades of political areer. or nstance,between1929 and 1932therewereabout 8000 selfrespectmarriageswere conducted.38 hile ertainmarriages iewedwomen's iberationas theiraim there were stillotherswhich were againstBrahmindomination s theydispensedwithBrahmin riests nd Sanskriticscriptures.An exasperatedPeriyar,ddressing marriage arty n1931,objected o calling very nti-priestnti-ritual arriages selfrespectmarriage nd said thatwith ime, ne oftheobjectives f themovement hould be to do away withmarriageshemselves.39hen,freeingmarriages rom ituals hemselves as nodoubt step head.(b) ConferencesAnother mportant spect of the Self RespectMovementwas theconferencestorganised. heseconferences,hichwereperiodicallyorganised oth t theprovincialnd districtevelswerecharacterisedby slogan-chantingrocessions,ong speeches imed at propagatingthe deologyof themovement nd passingofresolutionsn variouspolitical hemes. heSelfRespectMovement sed these onferencessa regularpolitical iteto takeup women's ssues and to encouragewomen'spoliticalparticipation.The first provincial Self Respect Conference was held atChengleput, earMadras, n 1929.40 part romrticulatingtsviewson themes ike SimonCommission, aste oppression nd religiousinstitutions, he conference ealt specificallywith marriage ndother ituals.' t demanded hatmen ndwomen houldhave therightoverproperty.heSecondProvincial elfRespect onference as heldin 1930 at Erode.41Within he mbience f thisConference wootherconferenceswere organised: a youth conferencend a women'sconference.n the ontext forganisingeparatewomen's onferences,one may note that Periyar passionatelybelieved that women'semancipation ould be possible nlyby the ffortsfwomen.He wascriticalf man's dvocacy fwoman's mancipation:As ofnow,men'sstrugglefor women's liberationhas only strengthened omen'senslavement.'42heproceedingsfthewomen's onferences,erefullyconducted ywomen ctivistsnd it demanded,nterlia, ompulsory



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WOMEN'SQUESTION N THEDRAVIDIANMOVEMENTC. 1925-1948 31education for girls upto the age of 16, effective nd immediateimplementation f anti-childmarriageand divorce acts, equalpropertyight orwomen,mplementationfDevadasi Billto preventyounggirlsfrom eing nitiateds prostitutestc.43 he fact hat herewas a separate onferencefwomendid notcome n thewayofthegeneral onferencend theyouth onferenceaking p women'sssues.Theyouth onference,or xample, ppealedthatyoungmen shouldcome forward o marrywidows and devadasiswho werewilling omarry-44The practice fhaving separatewomen's onferencelong witheverymajor elfrespectonferenceecame permanenteature f themovementn thesubsequent ears.TheSecond Women'sConferenceheld atVirudunagarn 1931 ncreased tsdemands. t also argued hatwomen houldnotbe recruitednlyforprofessionsiketeachingndmedicine, ut shouldbe inductedven nto he rmy nd police; nd itcalled forpowers to the ocal magistrates o identifyhosetempleswhichencouraged evadasi ystem.45While pecialwomen's onferencesrovided n exclusivepaceforwomen ctivists ftheSelfRespectMovement o articulatehemselveson women's ssues,their articipationngeneral onferencesasalsosubstantial. hat swomenwerenot ghettoised' ithinhemovement.Often hemuchhonoured oleofdeliveringhe nauguralddresses fconferences ellon the shoulders f womenactivists. o cite a fewinstances: n 1931, ndraniBalasubramaniannaugurated he ThirdSelfRespect Conference t Virudunagar;46n 1932,T.S. Kunchidaminaugurated heTanjavur istrictelfRespect onference;47n1933, .Neelavathi inaugurated the Third TanjavurDistrict elf RespectConference;n1934,R.AnnapuraninauguratedheTiruchenkodalukAdi DravidaConference;48n 1937,Meenambal ivarajpresided vertheTinnelveliDistrict hirdAdi DravidaConference;49nd in1938theMaduraiSelfRespect onference as inaugurated yRajammal.50In the course of the inauguraladdresses, thesewomen speakersdiscussed the various aspects of the women's question. Thisparticipation as ofPeriyar's ffortso breakthe culture fsilencewhich nfluencedhewomenactivists f themovement: e insistedthat venthemost narticulate omen ctivists houlduttertleastfewwords nthewomen's onference.51hesuccess f hese elf espectconferencesnpoliticising omen an be summarisednthefollowingwords ofSingaravelu hettiar:52Womenwho havebeenconfined o thekitchen respeaking odayfrom ublicplatforms;hey re debating bout public ssues;theyare involved in social work as equals of men: the creditforfacilitatingll thesegoes toPeriyar.It s rare ofindwomen n othermovements ho are as skillednpublicoratory s they re in thismovement. uring he ast fifty



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32 SOCIAL SCIENTISTyears, he ndianNationalCongress ouldproduce nly neSarojiniNaidu.

. . .What an abilitywomenbelongingto the SelfRespectMovement ave norganisingheirwnconferences-independentlyand with rue quality.nothermovements,omen igurenly s anadjunct o men's ctivities;ut n ourmovement,hey unctions anindependentgroup and involve in-the movement's-activitiesdemonstratingqualitywithmen.53It was theconferenceftheProgressiveWomen'sAssociation,eld nMadras in 1938thatbestowedthehonorificitlePeriyarTheGreatOne) on E.V. Ramasamyforhis unparalleled ctivism o transformtheSouthIndianSociety.'54his title ecame the short-handorhisnameall through is life nd after.Some eadingwomen ctivists ere lected otheCentral ouncil ftheorganisingommitteef Tamilnadu rovincialonferencehroughthe conference very year. For instance, t the ThirdProvincialConference t Virudhunagarn 1931, ndirani alasubramaniam aselectedas councilmember.When the Samadharma arty onferencewas held at Erode in 1933,S. Neelavathi nd K. Kunchidamwereelected s Propaganda ecretarieso establish heSelfRespect eagueinvillages.Few otherwomen ikeR. Annapurani,ndRamamirthamAmmal, were chosen as district nd inter-districtamadharmapropagandists.55The women membersof the SelfRespectMovementnot onlyparticipatedn thenon-agitationalrogrammesf themovementikeconferences, ut also quite actively n mass agitations. he mostsignificant assagitationaunched ythemovementuringheperiodofourstudywas the nti-Hindigitation hich ontinued or ver woyears,from ate 1937toearly1940.Theagitation orced heCongressministry eaded by C. Rajagopalacharito reverse ts decision tointroduce indi s a compulsoryubjectnthe chool urriculum.During the nitialphase of theagitation,womenmembers fthemovementctively articipatednprocessionsndmeetings.Womenclad in sarees withtheTamilflag56 rinted n them nd chantinganti-Hindi nd pro-Tamil loganswere a distinct eature f theseprocessionsndpublicmeetings.57hemeetings ere lsoaddressed ywomenactivists. or nstance hugepublicmeetingrganised t theTriplicane each nMadrason11September938 oreceive symbolicTamil army,whichmarchedby footfromTrichinopoly istrictoMadras propagating nti-Hindimessage,was addressedby not essthan four women activists;RamamirthamAmmaiyar,NarayaniAmmaiyar, Va.ba.Thamaraikanni Ammaiyar, MunnagaraAzhagiyar.58 lso,thewomen ctivistsrganised arewellommitteestoseeoff heirmalecomrades oprison.59



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WOMEN'SQUESTION N THEDRAVIDLANMOVEMENTC 1925-1948 33Withthe agitation aining trengthver time, atches fwomenactivists ourted rrest. he first atch f fivewomen onsistingfDr.

Dharmambal,RamamirthamAmmaiyar,Malar Mugathammaiyar,Pattammal nd Seethammalwerearrested n 14November 938, nMadras.60 Wearing arees printedwith the Tamilflagand singingBharathidasan'svocative ong callingfor Tamilarmy o save thelanguage, heywere ed in a processionrom asiVisvanathan empleinPethuNayakkanPettai o HinduTheological chool.On therouteoftheprocession heywere stopped t variouspoints ndgarlanded.Forpicketing heschool,theywerearrested nd imprisoned or ixweeks.61 hough he udge offeredhem heoption fpaying fine fRs50 or undergoingweeks mprisonment,hey hose he atter.From hen nwardswomen ctivistsf themovementourtedrrestwithdifferentntervals, illSeptember 939whenthe astbatchoffivewomenwere rrested.n total, 3womenwere rrested nd ailedfor their involvement n the anti-Hindi agitation.Significantly,several of themwent to jail withtheir hildren; hirtywochildrenaccompanying heirmothers o jail.62An exasperatedmemberftheCongressministry,ommentedhatwomenweregettingrrestedogetmilkfor their hildren n the ail The Madras provincialwomen'sconferenceheld at Vellore in 1938,demanded thatthe ministerconcerned akebackhis commentndoffern unconditionalpology.63The Self RespectMovement'snewspaper Kudi Arasuprominentlyreported hewomen's involvementn the agitation nd publishedtranscriptof the arguments they had in the court and theirphotographs. nd Periyar imselfwas arrested uring he agitationonthe harge f nciting omen ofill he ails.Inconcluding his ection, e shallcite n exchangehat ookplacebetween womanactivist f theSelfRespectMovement,rrested orparticipatingn theanti-Hindigitation, nd a prosecutingnspectorina MadrasCourt:

Prosecutingnspector: ou are withyour smallchildren, rison spainful nd yourhusbandwillsuffer.fyou promise ouwillnotdosimilar hingsn future i.e.,participatingn such agitations), eshallpardonyou.Womenctivist: . We arewilling o bear anysufferingor heprogress f our language, urnation.Our husbandsaveno right ointerferen this. hey re nottheones to do so.64WOMENACTIVISTSAND THEIRCONSCIOUSNESSA Case StudyTheSelfRespectMovement,s we have seen,hadprovided pace fortheencouraged olitical ctivismmongwomen.To explorehow farthemovement ad succeeded nraising heconsciousness f womenabouttheir wnplight, ne needs toconstructasehistories f these



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34 SOCIAL SCIENTISTwomen activists. We shall provide below the portraitof anextraordinarywoman who began her life as a devadasi65,buttransformed erself, ver the years, to become a front ankingparticipantntheSelfRespectMovement.MoovalurRamamirtham mmaiyarwas born n 1883 n the saiVellalarcaste, one of thecaste fromwhichdevadasis were drawn.She was broughtup in a devadasi family t the small villageofMoovalurin Thanjavurdistrict,nd was initiated nto thedevadasisystemt a young ge.WritingnKudiArasun1925, henoted,I wasborn in a traditional non-devadasi family. . My uncle and auntpersuaded my father o forceme into prostitution,hrough hedevadasi custom.Theyalso advised not to marryme away,sincewouldfetch handsome mount or hefamily hroughheprofession,givenmytalentsnmusic nd dance.... So myparents orcedme ntothis ustom. twas duringhis ime, deeply houghtbout his ustomas evil and read thosereligious extswhich dvocated t.I felt hatmenhaveforced ertain omennto his egradingrofessionopursuetheirndiscreetleasures ndfor elfish easons.'66 his warenessedher to walkout of thedespicabledevadasi ife nd marry musicianSuyambu illai onherownaccord.Thismarriagereated urorenhercommunityndresultednher eing stracised.67Ramamirtham mmaiyar egan herpolitical areer n the ndianNational Congress. As a Congressactivist,her full energywasexpendedntacklinghequestion f women's ositionnTamil ocietyespecially hatofdevadasis.n herwords: I havebeenstrugglingorthepast seven or eightyearstoabolish thisdevadasi ustom. havealso organiseda conference o reform ur women and break thedevadasi system.Without nvitations, bargedintohouses, wheremarriageswereheld,to advocate implemarriagesnd toexposetheevilsofdevadasi ystem. have forcedwomen okeepthepromise fdiscouragingheir ellowwomenfrom ecoming evadasis.omemenhave been constantly ampaigning gainstmy battleagainst thesystem.... They rethreatening.. that heywouldsmashmy kullfI preach nmarriagesgainst hedevadasi ystem'.68Fromherwritings,t is notclear why heleft heCongress o ointheSelfRespectMovement. owever,t s only vident hatherbreakwiththeCongresswhichoccurred uringmid-1920swas sharp ndcomplete. n 1956,whileremembering erinvolvementn the SelfRespectMovement,he wrote,onceGandhihad writteno me a letterappreciatingmy effortsowards evadasi bolition. used to worshipthat etter. fter left heCongress, otonly hat etter,ven Gandhihad got erased from my mind.'69 One may note here thatRamamirtham mmaiyarmetGandhi in 1921, duringhis visit toMayuram nd thismeeting ave added fillip o heractivism n theCongress70



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WOMEN'SQUESTION N THEDRAVIDIANMOVEMENTC. 1925-1948 35In thecourseof herpolitical areer n theSelfRespectMovement,she acted as a relentlesspolitical campaigneragainst women's

slavery. As a full-time ctivistof the movement, he addressedvarious onferencesfthemovementndelaboratedowHinduismndupper castemen were egitimising omen's lavery.71hearrangedand addressed several elfrespectmarriagesn differentlaces, ndone such significantmarriage rrangedby Ramamirtham as thewidow-remarriagefSivagamiand Chidambaranar,hichwe haveearlierdescribed n some detail.72 uring he nti-Hindi gitationn1938, she propagated the anti-Hindimessagethrough padayatrafrom richi o Madrasand was arrested. hispadayatratartedn 1August 1938fromUraiyurTrichy),overedaround 577miles andreachedMadrasafter 2 days.Durin; thepadayatrabout87 publicmeetings ere ddressed ythegroup.Significantly,amamirtham mmaiyaruthored ssaysregularlyinKudiArasu on thecondition fwomen.Here one maynotethatRamamirtham mmaiyarhad informal ducationonly upto ThirdStandard. n 1936, hepublished voluminous ovel nTamil unninginto 303 pages, with the title Tasikalin Mosavalai AllathuMatipettra ainer Thetreacherous etoftheDasis ora minor rownwise).74 The novel,which did not follow the tradition f Tamilliterary tylehoweverremained n interestingocument ince it sbased on personalexperiences f theauthoresswho after ll was aprofessionaldasi herself.75t dealt withhow twodevadasisisterswhowereexploited ywealthymenwalkedout of theprofessionndorganisedDevadasigalMunnetra angamFederation f theProgressof Devadasis) to abolish the system.This semi-autobiographicalnovelcarried poignant nd political refacenwhich hewrote,

My strong pinion s thatfrom heancient ime hetemple riests,kings and the landlords, . . . in the name of art,had encouragedparticularommunitieso ndulge nprostitution.. . . These days more than the KumbakonamShastris,Satyamurthyhastri ave beenmaking oise aboutpreservingheDevadasicustom.. . . Our women have been suppressed n all spheres.Thelegitimisation f the suppressiongiven throughreligion andshastras is evident n themanner n whichwomen have beenassigned the role of prostitutes. hroughPotarrupu angam'propagated the anti-devadasi message for which among theDevadasi community tselftherewere opposition.Prominentreligious heads, Devadasi agents, reform eaders-everybodyopenly pposedmy tand.... Then decided hat t s easytoopposeimperialismndBrahminismutnottheDevadasiSystem.76Anotherfictional erial thatRamamirtham mmaiyarwrote nDravida Nadu in 1945,Damayanthi, lso deals with thequestionof



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36 SOCIAL SCIENTISTdevadasis. The woman protagonistn the novel breaksout of thedevadasi ystem nd becomes teachernd accusesreligious exts fimposing the practiceof prostitutionn a sectionofwomen andquestions herationalef God's carnal esires ohavewomen s dasis.Through the narrative, he also attacked untouchabilitynd theeconomic xploitationfthepoorby therich.77An irrepressiblectivist nd a writer, amamirtham mmaiyarfinally uit theDravida Kazhagam(which was thenew name theSelf RespectMovement cquired n 1944) n 1949to ointheDravidaMunnetraKazhagam founded yC.N. Annadurai longwith thers.The reasonforherquitting hemovement as significant;he did notapproveof and openly riticised erniar's ecision o marry 20-yearold youngwomanwhenhe was sixty.The tale ofRamamirtham mmaiyarwas indeedextraordinary.Frombeinga devadasi, he becamea foremosthampion f women'scause inTamilareas. Her commitmento the ausemade herdisagreewith and break away fromPeriyar despite two decades ofcomradeship between them.RamamirthamAmmaiyardoes notrepresent n 'average'woman activist f the SelfRespectMovement,but one whomarked heouter imit owhich woman ctivistf themovementouldreach ut.WOMEN'SQUESTION: TWOAPPROACHES-THE NATIONALMOVEMENTANDTHESELF RESPECTMOVEMENTThe radical content f the SelfRespectMovement'spproach o thewomen's uestionanbefullynderstoodnlywhenwecomparetwithother ontemporaryoliticalmovements.hemost mportantoliticalmovement hichwascontemporaryo the elfRespectMovement as,ofcourse, henationalist ovement.or ackof pace,weshallpresentbelowa synoptic iew ofhowthenationalist ovementresolved' hewomen's uestion,ndcomparetwith he elfRespectMovement.In a recent aper,ParthaChatterjee as shown hat henationalistmovementesolved hewomen's uestion yreworkingndreaffirmingthe pre-existingpatriarchal structure.The nationalists,whileapproving f imitatingnd incorporatinghematerial ulture f thewest rguedthat dopting hewest naspectswhichwere piritualranythingther han hematerialphere fwestern ivilization ouldthreaten the self-identityf the national culture itself. As anextension fthisposition, hey ocatedhome as thesitetoretain he'inner spirituality f indigenous life' and women as the agentsresponsible orthat. t was advocatedthatwomencouldmeet thisresponsibilityfpreserving he spiritual ore of thenational ulturethrough chastity, elf-sacrifice,ubmission,devotion,kindness,patienceand the abour of love.' Only within his newpatriarchy'the nationalistmovement ttemptedll its reformselated o women.As long as women demonstratedhese so-calledfeminine/spiritual



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WOMEN'SQUESTION N THEDRAVIDIANMOVEMENTC. 1925-1948 37qualities,they ould go to school, ravel n publicconveyance, atchpublic ntertainmentrogrammesnd ntime ven ake p employmentoutsidehome.'79The nationalistmovementmobilisedwomen n the anti-colonialstruggle-especially rom 920onwards-onlywithin heframeworkof this new patriarchy.The traditionalfeminineroles such asnurturingmother, bedientdaughter, od-fearinghaste wifewhowould neverdefy hehusbandwereextended o thepublicrealm oexpand women'sparticipation utside.80While AbadiBanuBegamhad to appear n publicplatformsypresentingerselfs a motheryinvoking her maternal nickname 'Bi Amman,'81the Calcuttaprostitutes'upport o thenon-cooperationovementameunder irefrom henationalistntelligentsia.82In illustrating ow thenationalistsn theTamil-speakingreasaddressed the women'squestion, ne may beginwiththeviewsofThiruviKalyanasundaram,n activistnthenationalmovementndaTamil writerwho enjoyed pan-Tamil ppeal despitehis nationalistpolitics.none of hisearliest nd a very opularbookPenin erumai83('Women's Pride', 1927), he defined feminity s encapsulatingpatience,endurance,sacrifice, elflessness, eauty and love, andessentialised eminitys motherhood. ccording ohim, ll womenwerecreated o be mothersnd they houldbeworshippedince heywere theprocratorss well as thetransmittersf moralvalues tothenewgeneration f children. pposingwestem-typef education, esuggestedthatgirlsshould be providedwith ducation hatwouldingrainnthem raditional oral nd religious aluesand train hemif uchhousehold uties shushing ndpounding frice, ailoringtc.Muthulakshmi eddi, nother ationalist ho tookup thewomen'scause through er ctivitiesntheWomen'sndiaAssociation,s muchremembered for her campaign against the Devadasi system.Significantly,eropposition o the Devadasi system temmed romher view that t stood in the way of womenbeing chastewives.Similarly, she held conservative views on the question ofcontraception-despitebeing a medical practitioner.he did notperceivethe inkbetween ontraceptionnd women'sfreedomndcould onlyadvocate-rather eluctantly-the andhian deal ofself-control rBrahmachariyas a means fcontraception.84Suchtendencies ere venmore cute nthe ase ofother ationalistleaders such as C. Rajagopalachari and S. Satyamurthy.WhenMuthulakshmiReddy initiatedthe debate on devadasi abolition,Rajagopalachari, as the President of the Tamil Nadu CongressCommitteeefused otake p the ssuefor iscussion.85atyamurthynthe otherhand, went to the extent f claiming hat thedevadasisrepresentedational rtand culture nd hencethe ystem houldberetained nd everydevadasi hould dedicate t leastone girltobe afuture evadasi.86n thesame vein,he also vehementlypposedthe



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38 SOCIAL CIENTISTChild-marriage estraint ct,on the ground hat twould hurt hesentimentsftheHindus.87

Thus the nationalistsailed o develop a critique fthe nstitutionofpatriarchynd rather alorised atriarchys a necessity.tis onlytoo evident that thepositionof the Self RespectMovement n thewomen's questionwas in sharpcontrast o thatof thenationalistmovement. he institutionsf patriarchyike family,marriage ndchastity,whichwere defendedby the nationalistmovement, erecalled into question by Periyar and his followers. Theyprogrammaticallyttempted o challenge hese nstitutionshroughmeans like SelfRespect Marriages. n shortwhilethe nationalistspreserved patriarchy he mobilisingwomen forpolitics, he SelfRespectMovementmobilised hem o contest atriarchy.In sayingthis,however,we do not mply hat hespreadof anti-patriarchal onsciousness mongthe followers f the SelfRespectMovementwas even. t s indeedtrue hat hemovementuite learlyexhibited patriarchal onsciousness n its functioning,speciallyduring ts aterphase.One can citeseveral llustrationsowards his;while ntheearlyphase ofthemovement othmen ndwomenwereaddressedbya singleword Thozhar' comrade), ith heformationfthe DravidaKazhagam n 1944 women ctivistswererechristeneds'mothersndsisters';nthepublicmeetingsndconferencesuring heanti-Hindigitation, omen ctivists ere ntroducednterms f theachievements of theirfathers nd husbands; during the sameagitation,women activists hemselvesikenedTamillanguageto achaste woman likeKannagiand calledforwomen'sparticipationoprotect the chastityof the Tamil language:88 and the DravidaKazhagam's imsand objectives tatedntheTrichinopolyonferencein 1945did not haveany specific eferenceo women's ssues, ut forcallingthem oparticipaten the party ctivities.89These examplesgo to show that,whiletheSelfRespectMovementchallenged patriarchy,t failed to create a new anti-patriarchalconsciousness venamong tsownfollowers.heold regressivedeascarrying atriarchal alues was dormantwithin hemovement ndasserted tselfwhengiven heopportunityoarise.[I am gratefulto ProfessorK.N. Panikkar, BiswamoyPati, PadminiSwaminathan, . Chandhu,Karunakaran,Meera V. and Anna Chandyfortheirnsightfulommentsnan earlier raft.]



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WOMEN'SQUESTION NTHEDRAVIDIANMOVEMENTC. 1925-1948 39NOTES1. TheSelfRespectMovements only nephaseoftheDravidianMovementndthepresent aperdeals with nlythisphase. n itssubsequentncarnations,thastaken heformsf DravidaKazhagam, ravidaMunnetra azhagam ndAnnaDravidaMunnetra azhagam.For omeof henon-Marxisttudiesn themovement,ee:Robert .HardgraveJr., heDravidianMovement,ombay, 965;Eugene rschick,heNon-BrahminMovementnd TamilSeparatism,916-1929, alifornia, 969; Margurite ossBarnett, hePolitics fCultural ationalismnSouth ndia,Princeton,976.For heMarxist tudies,ee:N. Ram,DravidianMovementnitspre-independencehases,' conomicndPoliticalWeekly, nnualNumber,Vol.XIV,No. 7 and 8, February 979;P.Ramamurthy,AriyaMayaiya? DravidaMayaiya? Viduthalai orumDravidaIyakkamum,adras,1987, in Tamil).2. N. Ram, p. cit.;Arulalam,TheRelevance fPeriyar: asteor ClassStruggle?'TheRadicalReview, ol. 2,No. 2, May1971.3. A briefobituary f Periyar ublished n Economic nd PoliticalWeekly,2January974, uccintlyrings uthis ife-longommitmentothewomen'sause:'He championedhe ause ofwidow-remarriage,fmarriagesased onconsent,and ofwomen's ight odivorce ndabortion.ointingutthathere as noTamilword for themale counterpart f an adultress,he fumed, . . . the word adultressimpliesman's onceptionfwoman s a slave, commodityobesold andhired.'Periyar'semand ta conferencewoyears gothat o odium hould eattachedtoa womanwhodesired manotherhan erhusbandwhichhe ress o avidlyvulgarished), s well as Periyar'sdvocacy f theabolition fmarriages theonlywayoffreeing omen romnslavement,ere bout s radical s the iewsof nywomen iberationist.'4. Inthe ecent astthere avebeenconsciousttempts adebyhistoriansowritewomen's istoryyamassing ifferentinds f ourcematerialso makewomenvisiblen history.or he mportanceftheneedforwriting omen's istory,ee:ElizabethFox-Genovesse,PlacingWomen'sHistory n History,'New LeftReview, o. 133,May-June982.5. E.V.Ramasamy aicker rPeriyar, BalijaNaidufrom rode, tarted isearlylife s a merchant,ater s a Municipal ouncilChairmanfErode,nd then s alocal Congress leader. In 1920 he became an ardentnon-co-operationist,propagating hadiand anti-liquorctivities.n 1924 he becamethe eaderofVaikom-Satyagrahand was twice rrested.n 1925, fter isconfrontationiththe ocal Congress eadersat theConjeevaramonference e openly riticisedCongress ornot howingnterestnthewelfaref thenon-Brahmins.inallyn1927he eft heCongress or oodandbegan he elf espect ovement.6. Siddarswere conoclasticmystic oetswhorepresentedmovementfrevoltagainst empleworship,asteism ndBrahminiresthood.heir eriodwas 10to15A.D.Ramanujam as a socio-religiouseformerf he 2th entury.D.7. KudiArasu,6November928 emphasismine).8. Ibid., 0January948; 1September946.9. Viduthalai,1October 948.10. Periyar ad deliverednumerous peeches nd had writtenxtensivelyn theparty ewspapers,xpressinghe boveviews. o cite nly ome nstance:KudiArasu, 2 December 929,20 September931, 9 September940, 7November 940,24November 945;Pagutharivu,April 936;Pagutharivu,October 937; uratchi,7July 934.11. E.V. Ramasamy, en YeanAdimaiyanal?Whydid womenbecome nslaved?)Erode, 942, p.11-16.12. Ibid., . 16-25.13. KudiArasu, 6July 935; 6December929.Viduthalai,4October 948.14. KudiArasu, 6October 930, 1 September 930 nd E.V.Ramasamy,enYeanAdimaiyanal?p. cit., . 48,15. KudiArasu,2August 928.16. CharlesRyerson, egionalismndReligion, heTamilRenaissancendPopularHinduism, adras, 988, . 100.



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40 SOCIAL SCIENTIST17. KudiArasu, 1 September946.18. Viduthalai,1 October 948, emphasismine).19. Kudi Arasu, 4 December 930,1 March1931and 6 April1931, nd Pen YeanAdimaiyanal?p. cit., .20. Ibid.22December 929.21. Ibid., July948.22. Ibid.,21 September 946; ee also E.V. Ramasamy,en YeanAdimaiyanal?p.cit., . 62; E.V. Ramasamy, azhkai hunaiNalam,Madras, 977, . 35.23. KudiArasu,3September928; 9 December 929.24. We comeacrossone SelfRespectmarriagenwhich he oupleswereMuslims.HajurullaMohaideenmarried ameejaBegamn 1936withoutnyreligiousitesand thebridedid notwearthe ustomaryurdah uringhemarriage.ee,KudiArasu, 6February936.25. Sami Chidambaranar, amilarThalaivarleaderof theTamils),Madras,1983,pp. 118-119.26. Interview ith ivagamiChidambaranar,adras, April, 989.27. KudiArasu, 1 May1930.28. Ibid., 4 September930.29. Nagai Kalliapan was one of leading propagandistsn the movementwhotravelledoBurma nd Malaysia o propagatehemovement'sdeals mong heoverseasTamils.30. A. Ponnambalanar as a prominentntellectual howrote requentlyn KudiArasu.M. Maragadavalliwas the editor fthe oumal,Madhar Marumanam(widow-remarriage),ublished rom araikudiuringhemid19309.31. S.A.K.K. Raju, NeelavathiRamasubramaniam azhkai Varalaru The LifehistoryfNeelavathiRamasubramaniam),983, p. 14-57.32. KudiArasu, 2 October 930.33. KudiArasu, 3 December 928.Periyar as calledVaikom eerarecause fhisleadershipn theVaikom atyagrahaTemple-entryovement)n 1924.34. The self espectmarriage etweenMarimathundThaiyammalook laceon20April 930 t Coimbatore.ee,KudiArasu,7 April 930.35. W.P.A. oundara andian, ne of theeading ctivistsn themovementuringhe1930s,onducted idow emarriagesnd nter-castearriagesmongheNadars.36. For nstanceee,KudiArasu,5Decenber 932.37. Sami Chidambaranar,p.cit., . 323.38. E.Sa. Viswanathan,The Political areer fE.V. Ramaswamyaicker,Madras,1983, .99.39. KudiArasu, 1 June 931.40. K.Veeramanied.),NamaduKurikkolOur Objectives), adras, 982, p.5-12.41. Ibid., p. 13 and 16-21.42. Sami Chidambaranar,p.cit., . 218.43. KudiArasu, 8May1930.44. K. Veeramanied.), op.cit., . 17.45. Ibid., p.25-26;KudiArasu,6 August 931.46. KudiArasu,6August 931.47. Ibid., 6June 932.48. Ibid., April1933.49. Ibid., 7May1934.50. Ibid., February937.51. Interview ithRajammal asudevan, arasuram,1 November 988.52. SingaraveluChettiar, leading activist f theSelf RespectMovementn the

1930s,nitiated heSelfRespect eagueand startedhe amadharmaarty longwith Periyar.53. SingaraveluChettiar uotedby C.V.K. Amirthavalliarn her speechmade atKualaLumpur. ee,KudiArasu,0 October 940.54. KudiArasu, 8 December 938.55. Under ecretaryafeSecret ile, 6October 934,Appendix , Appendix , pp.20,4548.56. The TamilFlag carried hesymbols f thethree ncient ingdoms,.e. Chera,Chola and pandias.57. SamiChidambaranar,p.cit., . 179.



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WOMEN'SQUESTION N THEDRAVIDlANMOVEMENTC. 1925-1948 4158. Illancheliyan,amilar h7oduthaor TheWar Wagedby Tamils),Madras,n.d.,pp. 118-19.59. See for xample, udiArasu, 8September938.60. Ibid., 0 November938.61. illancheliyan,p.cit., p. 148-9.62. Ibid., p. 148-50.63. KudiArasu,8December 938.64. Ibid., 0 November938 emphasismine).65. Devadasis wereyounggirlsdedicated, y custom, o temples nd treatedswedded to theGod. In practice,hese irls,who were ftenrainedn music nddance,were sed sconcubinesyupper-cstemen.66. KudiArasu, 3December925.67. InterviewwithMr. C. Selvaraj, lTe grandson f Ramamirthammmalyar),Madras, 3July989.68. KudiArasu, 3December 925.69. Murasoli, ongalMalar,January956, . 52.70. Interview ithMr. C. Selvaraj, p.cit.71. For nstanceee, KudiArasu, 0 September933.72. Interview ith ivagamiChidambaranar, adras, April1989.73. Iryanan, uyamariyadaihudoroligalShining tarsof SelfRespectMovement),Madras,p. 60; Illanchelian,p. cit., p. 116-120.74. Moovalur RamamirthamAmmal, TasikalinMosavalai AllathuMatipettraMainarTheTreacherouset ftheDasisor a Minor rownwise),Madras, 936.75. KamilV. Zvelebil,A Devadasi as the author fa TamilNovel,'JournalftheInstitutefAsian tudies,eptember,987, . 155.76. MoovalurRamamirthammmal, p. cit., p. 2-4. S. Satyamurthias the henministern theCongressegislature ho stronglypposed he egislationgainsttheDevadasisystem.77. DravidaNadu, 2and 29 April 945; 3May1945.78. Interview ithMr. C. Selvaraj op.cit.79. Partha Chatterjee, The NationalistResolution f the Women'sQuestion,Occasional aperNo. 94,Center or tudies nSocial ciences, alcutta,987.80. For an elaboration f this argumentwith nstances, ee, Gail Minault,TheExtended amily s Metaphor nd the Expansion fwomen'sRealm' nGailMinault, d., TheExtended amily,Womennd Political articipationn Indiaand Pakistan, elhi, 1981.81. Gail Minault, p.cit., . 11.WritingboutNationalistMovement, arthaChatterjeeotes,In fact heimageofwomen s Goddess r mothererved o eraseher exualityntheworldoutside hehome' See, Partha hatterjee,p.cit., . 20).82. Sandip Bandyopadhyay,The fallen' nd Non-cooperation,' anushi,July-August,989.83. ThiruV. Kalyasundaranar,eninPerumai llathu azkai hunai,Madras, 986(later edition).84. BarbaraN. Ramusack,Embattled dvocates: he debateoverBirth ontrolnIndia,1920-1940',ournalfWomen's istory,ol. 1,No.2,1989.85. MuthulakshmiReddy papers, SubjectfileNo. 11, Part. I.86. Muthulakshmieddy's etter o the ditor f Tamilnadua Tamilnewspaper)nReddy apers, ubject ileNo. 12,Part I, p. 79.87. Swadesamitran, 8 November1928. A leading Congress ctivist alemC.Vijayaraghavachariyarot his daughter,who had notyetattained uberty,hurriedly arried,efore he hildmarriage estraintct ouldbeenforced.ee,C.S. Lakshmi.TheFace behind heMask, Womenn TamilLiterature,. 22,Delhi, 1984.88. For instancesee, V.B. Thamaraikanni's peech at Madras Tamil WomenConferencen 1938. llanchelian,p. it., . 138.89. K. Veeramanied.),op.cit., p. 51-64.


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