Wind Power Project Final Edited97

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Project Report on Study of wind energy

A PROJECT WORK SUBMITTED TOWARDS THE PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE

REQUIREMENT FOR THE DEGREE OF BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY IN ELECTRICAL

ENGINEERING

(West Bengal University of Technology)

Submitted By:

ANKIT KUMAR

Roll No. : 11916051004

ASHUTOSH VIVEK

Roll No. : 11916051043

VIKAS KUMAR

Roll No. : 11916051031

PRABRIT BANDYOPADHYAY

Roll No. : 11916051014

DEPTT: ELECTRICAL YEAR: FOURTH. SEMESTER: EIGHTH

ENGINEERING.

Guide:

Mr. JAYANTA BASU (Department of Electrical Engineering, S.I.T.)

DEPT. OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

SILIGURI INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

P.O. SUKNA, SILIGURI, PIN:734009, WEST BENGAL


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SILIGURI INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

P.O. SUKNA, SILIGURI, PIN:734009,WEST BENGAL

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

CERTIFICATE

Certified that project work entitled :- Study of Wind Energy is accomplished by

ASHUTOSH VIVEK Roll No- 11916051043

ANKIT KUMAR Roll No- 11916051004

VIKAS KUMAR Roll No- 11916051031

PRABRIT BANDYOPADHYAY Roll No- 11916051014

in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award for degree of BACHELOR OF

TECHNOLOGY in ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING under WEST BENGAL UNIVERSITY OFTECHNOLOGY, KOLKATA during the year2008-2009.

It is certified that all corrections/ suggestions indicated for internal assessment have been

incorporated in the report submitted in the Department.The project report has been approved as itsatisfies the academic requirements inrespect of project work prescribed for achieving Bachelor

of Engineering Degree.

Signature Signature

(Project Guide) (Head.Of.Department.)


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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This dissertation could not have been written without Mr. Jayanta Basu who not only

served as our supervisor but also encouraged and challenged us throughout our academic

program. He and the other faculty members, Mr. Dipak Bhattacharya and Dr. S. Dasgupta patiently

guided us through the dissertation process, never accepting less than our best efforts. We

thank them all.


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CONTENTS

1. Introduction

2. History

3. Wind energy in india

4. Renewable source of energy

5. Major components of wind energy system andfactor

effective wind energy

6. Types of wind mills

7. Working principles and construction

8. Termonologies related to wind energy

9. Wind turbine characteristics

10. Distribution of wind speed

11. Study of generation of wind energy

12. About matlab

13. Matlab simulink model and analysis

14. Global science in wind power15. Some important aspects regarding wind energy

16. Economics and feasibility

17. Utilization of wind power


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18. Advantage of wind energy

19. Conclusion

20. Reference

INTRODUCTIONWind energy is the kinetic energy associated with the movement of atmospheric air. It has beenused for hundreds of years for sailing, grinding grain, and for irrigation. Wind energy systemsconvert this kinetic energy to more useful forms of power. Wind energy systems for irrigationand milling have been in use since ancient times and since the beginning of the 20 th century it isbeing used to generate electric power. Windmills for water pumping have been installed in manycountries particularly in the rural areas.

Wind turbines transform the energy in the wind into mechanical power, which can then be useddirectly for grinding etc. or further converting to electric power to generate electricity. Windturbines can be used singly or in clusters called wind farms. Small wind turbines called aero-generators can be used to charge large batteries.

Five nations Germany, USA, Denmark, Spain and India account for 80% of the worldsinstalled wind energy capacity. Wind energy continues to be the fastest growing renewableenergy source with worldwide wind power installed capacity reaching 14,000 MW.

Realizing the growing importance of wind energy, manufacturers have steadily been increasingthe unit size of the wind electric generators since the late 1980s. Another importantdevelopment has been the offshore (i.e. in the sea) wind farms in some regions of Europe,

which have several advantages over the on-shore ones. The third major development has beenthe use of new techniques to assess the wind resource for techno-commercial viability.

In India the states of Tamilnadu and Gujarat lead in the field of wind energy. At the end of March2000 India had 1080-MWs capacity wind farms, of which Tamilnadu contributed 770-MWcapacity. Gujarat has 167MW followed by Andhra Pradesh, which has 88 MW installed windfarms. There are about a dozen wind pumps of various designs providing water for agriculture,aforestation, and domestic purposes, all scattered over the country.


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The design of the Auroville multi-blade windmill has evolved from the practical experiencegained in operating these mills over a period of 20 years or so. It has a high tripod tower and itsdouble-action pump increases water output by about 60% compared to the conventional single-action pumps.


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HISTORY

Humans have been using wind power for at least 5,500 years to propel sailboats and sailing

ships, and architects have used wind-driven natural ventilation in buildings since similarly

ancient times. The use of wind to provide mechanical power came somewhat later in antiquity.

The Babylonian emperor Hammurabi planned to use wind power for his

ambitious irrigation project in the 17th century BC. The ancient Sinhalese utilized the monsoon

winds to power furnaces as early as 300 BC evidence has been found in cities such

as Anuradhapura and in other cities around Sri Lanka The furnaces were constructed on thepath of the monsoon winds to exploit the wind power, to bring the temperatures inside up to

1100-1200 Celsius. An early historical reference to a rudimentary windmill was used to power

an organ in the 1st century AD. The first practical windmills were later built

in Sistan, Afghanistan, from the 7th century. These were vertical-axle windmills, which had long

vertical driveshafts with rectangle shaped blades. Made of six to twelve sails covered in reed

matting orcloth material, these windmills were used to grind corn and draw up water, and were

used in the gristmilling and sugarcane industries. Horizontal-axle windmills were later used

extensively in Northwestern Europe to grind flour beginning in the 1180s, andmany Dutch windmills still exist.

In the United States, the development of the "water-pumping windmill" was the major factor in

allowing the farming and ranching of vast areas of North America, which were otherwise devoid

of readily accessible water. They contributed to the expansion of rail transport systems

throughout the world, by pumping water from wells for the steam locomotives. The multi-bladed

wind turbine atop a lattice tower made of wood or steel was, for many years, a fixture of the

landscape throughout rural America.

The first modern wind turbines were built in the early 1980s, although more efficient designs are

still being developed.

Wind pumps that use mechanical energy from wind mainly for water-pumping purposes are in

use since long. But generation of electricity from wind was initiated at the end of the 19th

century. In 1891, Dane by the name of Poul La Cour built the first electricity generating wind
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Driveshafthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clothhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gristmillhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Driveshafthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clothhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gristmill


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turbine. It was improved by the Danish engineers and used to supply energy during energy

shortages in World War I and II.

The wind turbine built by the Danish Company F L Schmidt in 1941/42 can be considered the

forerunner of modern wind turbines.

The wind turbines were not used much till 1970s when energy crisis occurred. Then the

technology was improved and it was used in many countries. By the end of 1989, a 300 kW

wind turbine with a 30 m rotor diameter was state-ofthe- art. Then ten years later, 1500 kW

turbines with a diameter of about 70 m were manufactured. Now wind turbine of capacity 5 MW

is in use.


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WIND ENERGY IN INDIA

Among the different renewable energy sources, wind energy is currently making asignificant contribution to the installed capacity of power generation, and is emerging as

a competitive option. As a result, India, with an installed capacity in excess of 4220 MW(megawatt), ranks fourth in the world after Germany, Spain, and USA in wind powergeneration. Onshore wind power potential assessed at 45 000 MW in early 1990s,assumes one per cent land availability for wind power generation in the potential areas.Nearly 1150 wind-monitoring and mapping stations were set up in 25 states and unionterritories as part of the Wind Resource Assessment Programme. Fifty of thesewindmonitoring stations are in operation. Th energy in India came in the early 1980sfrom the erstwhile Department of Non-conventional Energy Sources, now known as theMNES (Ministry of Non-conventional Energy Sources). There was a move to encouragediversification of fuel sources away from the growing demand for coal, oil, and gasrequired to feed the countrys rapid economic growth. MNES undertook an extensive

study of the wind regime, establishing a countrywide network of wind speedmeasurement stations, which made it possible to assess the national wind potential andidentify suitable areas for harnessing wind power for commercial use. The governmenthas since allocated 80% of the depreciation in the first year of installation of a project asdirect taxes and a tax holiday till 2006. All state governments have been directed tocreate an attractive environment for the export, purchase, wheeling, and banking ofelectricity generated by wind power projects. These incentives have encouragedindustrial companies, Bollywood actors, and cricket stars to invest in wind power.Owning a wind turbine assures them of uninterrupted power supply to their factory orbusiness in a country where power cuts are common. Wind farms in India, therefore,often consist of clusters of individually owned generators. It is not surprising that more

than 97% of original impetus to develop wind investment in the wind sector in Indiacomes from the private sector! Due to a stronger domestic manufacturing sector, somecompanies now source more than 80% of the components for their turbines from India.This has resulted both in more cost-effective production and in creating additional localemployment. More recently, some Indian manufacturers have started to export theirproducts. About 10 wind turbine manufacturers are currently offering their products tothe Indian market. The geographical spread of Indian wind power has so far beenconcentrated in a few regions, especially the southern state of Tamil Nadu, whichaccounts for more than half of all installations. This is beginning to change, with otherstates, including A n d h r a Pradesh, Gujarat, Maharashtra, and Rajasthan, catchingup. The result is that wind farms can be seen under construction right across the

country, from the coastal plains to the hilly hinterland and sandy deserts. The Indiangovernment now envisages a capacity addition of around 5000 MW by 2012. If thepresent expansion rate is maintained, this target will easily be surpassed


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RENEWABLE SOURCES OF ENERGY

Renewable energy is energy generated from natural resourcessuch

as sunlight, wind, rain, tidesand geothermal heatwhich are renewable (naturally replenished).

In 2006, about 18% of global final energy consumption came from renewables, with 13%

coming from traditional biomass, such as wood-burning. Hydroelectricity was the next largest

renewable source, providing 3% (15% of global electricity generation), followed by solar hot

water/heating, which contributed 1.3%. Modern technologies, such as geothermal energy, wind

power, solar power, and ocean energy together provided some 0.8% of final energy

consumption.

While most renewable energy projects and production is large-scale, renewable technologies

are also suited to small off-grid applications, sometimes in rural and remote areas, where

energy is often crucial in human development. Kenya has the world's highest household solar

ownership rate with roughly 30,000 small (20100 watt) solar power systems sold per year.

Some renewable energy technologies are criticised for being intermittent or unsightly, yet the

market is growing for many forms of renewable energy. Climate change concerns coupled

with high oil prices, peak oil and increasing government support are driving increasing

renewable energy legislation, incentives and commercialization. New government spending,

regulation, and policies should help the industry weather the 2009 economic crisis better than

many other sectors

Renewable energy flows involve natural phenomena such

as sunlight, wind, tides and geothermal heat, as the International Energy Agency explains:

"Renewable energy is derived from natural processes that are replenished constantly. In its

various forms, it derives directly from the sun, or from heat generated deep within the earth.

Included in the definition is electricity and heat generated from solar, wind, ocean, hydropower,

biomass, geothermal resources, and biofuels and hydrogen derived from renewable resources.

Each of these sources has unique characteristics which influence how and where they are

used.


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COMPARISON OF WIND ENERGY WITHOTHER

RENEWABLE SOURCES


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MAJOR COMPONENTS OF WIND ENERGYSYSTEM

A wind turbine generator system usually consists of the following parts.

Tower

A steel lattice or tubular pole tower is used. The tubular towers are more

popular among modern turbines because of their lower airflow interference anddownstream turbulence creation. Also, they seem to be more aestheticallyacceptable.

Rotor blades

The current design uses either two- or three-bladed wind turbines, but thelatter are becoming popular and have a number of technical advantages. In

twobladed designs the hub is lighter and thus, the entire structure is lighter. This istraded off by the fact that three-bladed designs are much better understoodaerodynamically and also have a lower noise level than the two-bladed turbines.

These blades are made of GRP (glass-reinforced plastic).

The nacelle

This sits atop the tower and holds the rotor blades in place while

housing the gearbox and the generator.On large turbines the nacelle with rotor is electrically yawed into orout of the wind.


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FACTORS AFFECTING WIND

ENERGYWind velocity

As power generated is proportional to the cube of wind velocity, it is natural thatthe site for the plant must have higher wind speed for most part of the year. Inorder to be economical, sites have to have average wind speeds of about 10 m/s. P

Air densityThe higher the density of air, the more is the power carried by the wind.As the air density decreases with height above sea level, usually sites inmountainous regions are less preferable than those at flat, sea level locations.

Diameter of rotor

Power by the wind turbine is proportional to the cross-sectional area at which itintercepts the wind. In other words, it depends on the diameter of rotor blade. Thebigger the diameter, the more is the power generated. But there is a physical limitfor blade size.

Elevation of blade hub aboveground

The higher the blade hub is above the ground, the higher is the wind velocity (to the

1/7th power). An increase in hub elevation from 30 m to 50 m leads to an averagewind speed 7.6% higher. On the other hand, taller hubs become more expensiveand hence it is economically decided.

Spacing of wind turbines on windFarms

In a particular area with adequate wind velocity, a number of wind turbines areestablished to tap most of the energy from the wind. This is called a wind farm. Toofar a spacing of turbines will prevent the maximum amount of wind to beintercepted. However, too close a spacing will lead to interference, and downwindunits will be less productive.


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TYPES OF WINDMILLS There are two types of wind machines used today: horizontalaxis wind

machines and vertical-axis wind machines. Most windmills are the horizontal-

axis type. One wind machine can produce 1.5 to 4.0 million kilowatt hours(kWh) of electricity a year. That is enough electricity for to power 150-400

homes.

HORIZONTAL-AXIS WIND TURBINES

Horizontal-axis wind machines have blades like airplane propellers. Thesewindmills have their main shaft parallel to the ground. A typical horizontalwind mill stands about as tall as a 20-story building and has three bladesthat span 200 feet across. The largest wind machines in the world haveblades longer than a football field. Wind machines stand tall and wide tocapture more wind. The more wind the more power. Horizontal-axis windmachines can be further divided into three types.

i) Dutch- type grain grinding windmills

ii)Multiblade water-pumping windmillsiii)High- speed propeller type windmills


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VERTICAL-AXIS WIND TURBINES

Verticalaxis wind machines have their main shaft perpendicular to theground. They have blades that go from top to bottom and look like giant egg

beaters. The typical vertical wind machine stands 100 feet tall and 50 feetwide. Vertical-axis wind machines make up just five percent of the windmachines used today. Vertical-axis machines come in two types.

i)The Savanious rotor

ii)The Darrieus rotor

THE WIND AMPLIFIED ROTOR PLATFORM (WARP)

The Wind Amplified Rotor Platform (WARP) is a different kind of wind systemthat is designed to be more efficient and use less land than wind machines in

use today. The WARP does not use large blades; instead, it looks like a stackof wheel rims. Each module has a pair of small, high capacity turbinesmounted to both of its concave wind amplifier module channel surfaces. Theconcave surfaces channel wind toward the turbines, amplifying wind speedsby 50 percent or more. Eneco, the company that designed WARP, plans tomarket the technology to power offshore oil platforms and wirelesstelecommunications systems

WORKING PRINCIPLE AND

CONSTRUCTION


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Like old fashioned windmills, todays wind machines use blades to collect thewinds kinetic energy. Windmills work because they slow down the speed ofthe wind. The wind flows over the airfoil shaped blades causing lift, like theeffect on airplane wings, causing them to turn. The blades are connected toa drive shaft that turns an electric generator to produce electricity.

With the new wind machines, there is still the problem of what to do whenthe wind isnt blowing. At those times, other types of power plants must beused to make electricity.


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DUTCH WINDMILLS

Dutch windmills operated on the force exerted by the winds. The bladesgenerally four are inclined at an angle to the plane of rotation. The windbeing deflected by the blades, exerted a force in the direction of rotation.The blades were made of sails or wooden slats. Orientation of the blades aredone by fan-tail system, there is a windmill behind and at right angles to themain one, direct driving the orientation system. When the main mill facedthe wind, the fan-tail did not. When the wind direction changed, the fan-tailrotated and turned the main windmill back to the wind.

MULTIBLADE WATER-PUMPING WINDMILL


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Modern water-pumping windmills have large number of blades-generallywooden or metallic slats-driving a reciprocating pump. These mills must beable to operate at slow winds. The large number of blades give a high torquerequired for driving a centrifugal pump, even at low winds. Hence sometimesthese are called fan-mills.

The blades are made of flat steel plates, working on the thrust of winds.These are hinged to a metal ring to ensure structural strength and low speedrotation adds to the reliability.

These machine should have an inbuilt protection against high winds andstorms. this may be achieved by mounting the orienting tail-vane slightly offthe axis of the main rotor. The windmill orientation depends on acombination of the axial thrust of the wind on the rotor and the thrust on thetail-vane.

The later dominates the low winds, orienting the rotor almost in the directionof wind. But the former dominates at high winds and make the rotor faceaway from the wind.

HIGH-SPEED PROPELLER TYPE WIND MACHINE


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The horizontal-axis wind turbines that are used today for electrical powergeneration do not operate on thrust force. They depend mainly on theaerodynamic forces (lift forces and drag forces) that develop when wind

flows around a blade of aerofoil design, these forces are determined by thewind speed, called the relative wind. Actually lift force creates the torque in amodern wind turbine. The blades are of aerofoil section, which move alongthe stream of wind. They are so aligned that drag force is minimized and thelift force is maximized, and thus gives the blade a net positive torque.

THE SAVONIUS ROTOR


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The savonius rotor is extremely simple vertical axis device that worksentirely because of thrust force of winds. The basic equipment is a drum cutinto two halves vertically. The two parts are attached to the two oppositeside of the vertical shaft. As the wind blowing into the structure meets withthe two dissimilar surfaces- one convex and the other concave-the forcesexerted on the two surfaces are different, which gives the rotor a torque. Byproviding a certain amount of overlap between the two drums, the torque

can be increased. This is because the wind blowing into the concave surfaceturns around and gives a push to the inner surface of the other drum, partlycancelling the wind thrust on the convex side. An overlap of about one thirdthe drum diameter gives optimum result.


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THE DARRIEUS ROTOR

The darrieus rotor has two or more flexible blades attached to the verticalshaft. The blades bow outward, taking approximately the shape of aparabola, and are of symmetrical aerofoil section. Fibre-reinforced materialswith fibres aligned along the blade are quite suitable for construction. Thegenerator and the gear assembly are located at the ground level, hence costis lower.

It develops a positive torque only when it is rotating, when it is stationarytorque is zero. This means that such a rotor has no starting torque and hasto be started using some external means(generally by an electricalmachine). The design has an inbuilt protection for stormy weather-the rotortends to stall at high winds


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TERMONOLOGIES RELATED TO WIND ENERGY

1) SOLIDITY

The solidity of wind rotor is the ratio of the projected blade area to the areaof the wind intercepted. The projected blade area does not mean the actualblade area; it is the blade area met by the wind or projected in the directionof wind.

The solidity of savonius rotor is unity. For multiblade water-pumpingwindmill, it is typically around 0.7. For high-speed horizontal axis machinesand darrieus rotor, it lies between 0.01 and 0.1.

Solidity has a direct relationship with torque and speed. High solidity rotors

have high torque and low speed and for low solidity rotor it is vice versa.2) TIP SPEED RATIO

The tip speed ratio (TSR) of a wind turbine is defined as

= 2RN / V

where is TSR (non-dimensional), R is the radius of the swept area (in m), Nis the rotational speed in rev/sec, V is the wind speed without rotorinterruption (in m/sec).

3) POWER COEFFICIENT

The power coefficient of a wind converter is given by

Cp = power output from wind machine / power contained in wind

4) SPECIFIC RATED CAPACITY

Specific rated capacity (SRC) is defined as

SRC = power rating of the generator / rotor swept area

It varies between 0.2 for small rotor to 0.6 for large ones.

5) AXIAL SPEED OF WIND

Speed of wind through the rotor n m/sec, denoted by V

6) SPEED OF BLADE ELEMENT

The speed of blade element at a distance r from the rotor axis is 2rN inm/sec, denoted by U

7) RELATIVE VELOCITY


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The velocity of air flow relative to the blade.

W = v u

8)BLADE AXIS

The longitudinal axis going through the blade.

9) BLADE SECTION AT r

The intersection of the blade with the cylinder of radius r, whose axis is therotor axis the section is aerofoil-shaped.

10) PITCH ANGLE

The angle between the chord of the aerofoil section at r and the plane orotation, also called the setting angle.

11) ANGLE OF INCLINATION

The angle between the relative velocity vector and the plane of rotation,denoted by I.

12) ANGLE OF INCIDENCE

It is the angle between the relative velocity vector and the chord line of theaerofoil, denoted by i. it is also called angle of attack

i = I -

13) LIFT FORCE

The lift force is the component of the aerodynamic force in the directionperpendicular to the relative wind. It is given by Fl = pACl/2 newtons wherec is the lift coefficient and A is the blade area in sq. m.

14) DRAG FORCE

The component of the aerodynamic force in the direction of the relativewind. It is given by Fd = PA^2Cd/2 where Cd is the drag coefficient.

15) TOTAL AEROYNAMIC FORCE

Total aerodynamic force on a blade is given by

F = Fl + Fd

16) THRUST FORCE

The component ofF along the direction of wind, denoted by Ft

17) TORQUE FORCE


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The component ofF along u ,denoted by Fm

18) AERODYNAMIC MOMENT

The moment ofF about the axis in Newton metres, denoted by M

WIND TURBINE

CHARACTERSTICS

POWER-SPEED CHARACTERISTICS

The wind turbine power curve illustrate how the mechanical power that canbe extracted from the winds can be extracted depends on the rotor speed.For each wind speed there is an optimum turbine speed at which theextracted wind power at the shaft reaches its maximum. Such a family ofwind turbine power curves can be represented by a single dimensionlesscharacteristic curve namely, the Cp - curve, where the power coefficient isplotted against the TSR.

The mechanical power transmitted to the shaft isPm = (pCpAV^3)/2

Where Cp is a function of the TSR, and pitch angle .

For a given wind speed, the power extracted from the wind is maximized ifCp is maximized. The optimum value of Cp always occurs at a definite valueof . This means that for a varying wind speed, the rotor speed should beadjusted proportionately to adhere always to this value of for maximummechanical power output from the turbine.

The maximum value o the shaft mechanical power or any wind speed can beexpressed by Pmax = Cp(R^5/^3)^3 i.e. maximum mechanical power is


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proportional to ^3. This is shown in fig

TORQUE-SPEED CHARACTERISTICSStudying torque-speed characteristics is very important for matching theload and ensuring stable operation of electrical generator. The T Scharacteristics if the two blade propeller type wind turbine, the darrieus rotorand the savonius rotor are given below. Since torque and power are relatedby Tm = Pm / and at optimum operating point the relation betweenaerodynamic torque and rotational speed is Tm = {(pCp(R^5/^3)^3}/2.It is seen that at optimum operating point on the Cp - the torque isquadratically related to the rotational speed.

For the propeller turbine and the darrieus rotor torque is maximum at a

specific rotational speed, and the maximum shaft torque variesapproximately as the square of the rotational speed. In case of electricityproduction, the load torque depends on the electrical loading, and bychoosing it properly, the torque can be made to vary as the square of therotational speed.


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The choice of the constant of proportionality is very important. At the optimalvalue, the load curve follows the maximum shaft power. But at a highervalue, the load torque may exceed the turbine torque for most speed.Conesquently, the machine would fail to speed up above a very low value. Ifthe constant k is lower than the optimum value the machine may overspeedat the rated wind speed, activating the speed limiting mechanism.

The power output is a product of torque and speed, it also has a maxima thatvary as the cube of rotational speed.


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Distribution of wind speed

The strength of wind varies, and an average value for a given location does not alone indicate

the amount of energy a wind turbine could produce there. To assess the frequency of wind

speeds at a particular location, a probability distribution function is often fit to the observed data.

Different locations will have different wind speed distributions. The Weibull model closely mirrors

the actual distribution of hourly wind speeds at many locations. The Weibull factor is often close

to 2 and therefore a Rayleigh distribution can be used as a less accurate, but simpler model.

Because so much power is generated by higher wind speed, much of the energy comes in short

bursts. The 2002 Lee Ranch sample is telling; half of the energy available arrived in just 15% of

the operating time. The consequence is that wind energy from a particular turbine or wind farm

does not have as consistent an output as fuel-fired power plants; utilities that use wind power

provide power from starting existing generation for times when the wind is weak thus wind

power is primarily a fuel saver rather than a capacity saver. Making wind power more consistent

requires that various existing technologies and methods be extended, in particular the use of

stronger inter-regional transmission to link widely distributed wind farms, since the average

variability is much less; the use of hydro storage and demand-side energy management.

Wind power density (WPD) is a calculation relating to the effective force of the wind at a

particular location, frequently expressed in terms of the elevation above ground level over a

period of time. It further takes into account wind velocity and mass. Color coded maps are

frequently prepared for a particular area, described for example as "Mean Annual Power

Density at 70 Meters." The results of the above calculation are used in an index developed by

the National Renewable Energy Labs and referred to as "NREL CLASS." The larger the WPD

calculation, the higher it is rated by class. Even though wind power is comparable in Texas and

Kansas, there are about 10 times as many wind turbines in Texas as there are in Kansas.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weibull_distributionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weibull_distribution


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Electricity Generation

Grid management system

Typical components of a wind turbine (gearbox, rotor shaft and brake assembly) being lifted into

position

Electricity generated by a wind farm is normally fed into the national electric transmission

network. Individual turbines are interconnected with a medium voltage (usually 34.5 kV) power

collection system and communications network. At a substation, this medium-voltage electrical

current is increased in voltage with a transformer for connection to the high voltage transmission

system. The surplus power produced by domestic microgenerators can, in some jurisdictions,

be fed back into the network and sold back to the utility company, producing a retail credit for

the consumer to offset their energy costs.

Induction generators, often used for wind power projects, require reactivepower for excitation so substationsused in wind-power collection systems include

substantial capacitor banks for power factor correction. Different types of wind turbine

generators behave differently during transmission grid disturbances, so extensive modelling of

the dynamic electromechanical characteristics of a new wind farm is required by transmission

system operators to ensure predictable stable behaviour during system faults (see: Low voltage

ride through). In particular, induction generators cannot support the system voltage during

faults, unlike steam or hydro turbine-driven synchronous generators (however, properly

matched power factor correction capacitors along with electronic control of resonance can

support induction generation without grid). Doubly-fed machines, or wind turbines with solid-

state converters between the turbine generator and the collector system, have generally more

desirable properties for grid interconnection. Transmission systems operators will supply a wind

farm developer with a grid code to specify the requirements for interconnection to the

transmission grid. This will include power factor, constancy of frequency and dynamic behaviour

of the wind farm turbines during a system fault.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Scout_moor_gearbox,_rotor_shaft_and_brake_assembly.jpg


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Capacity factor

Worldwide installed capacity 1997-2008, with projection 2009-2013 based on an

exponential fit.

Since wind speed is not constant, a wind farm's annual energy production is never as much as

the sum of the generator nameplate ratings multiplied by the total hours in a year. The ratio of

actual productivity in a year to this theoretical maximum is called the capacity factor. Typicalcapacity factors are 20-40%, with values at the upper end of the range in particularly favourable

sites.For example, a 1 megawatt turbine with a capacity factor of 35% will not produce 8,760

megawatt-hours in a year (1x24x365), but only 1x0.35x24x365 = 3,066 MWh, averaging to 0.35

MW. Online data is available for some locations and the capacity factor can be calculated from

the yearly output.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:WorldWindPower2008.png


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Unlike fueled generating plants, the capacity factor is limited by the inherent properties of wind.

Capacity factors of other types of power plant are based mostly on fuel cost, with a small

amount of downtime for maintenance. Nuclear plants have low incremental fuel cost, and so are

run at full output and achieve a 90% capacity factor. Plants with higher fuel cost are throttled

back to follow load. Gas turbine plants using natural gas as fuel may be very expensive to

operate and may be run only to meet peak power demand. A gas turbine plant may have an

annual capacity factor of 5-25% due to relatively high energy production cost.

According to a 2007 Stanford University study published in the Journal of Applied Meteorology

and Climatology, interconnecting ten or more wind farms can allow an average of 33% of the

total energy produced to be used as reliable, baseload electric power, as long as minimum

criteria are met for wind speed and turbine height.


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Intermittency and penetration limits

Intermittent Power Sources

Wind turbines on Inner Mongolian grassland

Diagram of the TVA pumped storage facility at Raccoon Mountain Pumped-Storage Plant

Electricity generated from wind power can be highly variable at several different timescales:

from hour to hour, daily, and seasonally. Annual variation also exists, but is not as significant.

Because instantaneous electrical generation and consumption must remain in balance to

maintain grid stability, this variability can present substantial challenges to incorporating large

amounts of wind power into a grid system. Intermittency and the non-dispatchable nature of

wind energy production can raise costs for regulation, incremental operating reserve, and (at

high penetration levels) could require an increase in the already existing energy demand

management, load shedding, or storage solutions or system interconnection with HVDC cables.

However these challenges are no different in principle to the substantial challenges imposed by

other forms of generation such as nuclear or coal power, which can also show very large

fluctuations during unplanned outages and have to be accommodated accordingly. At low levels
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of wind penetration, a fluctuation in load and allowance for failure of large generating units

requires reserve capacity that can also regulate for variability of wind generation.

A series of detailed modelling studies which looked at the Europe wide adoption of renewable

energy and interlinking power grids using HVDC cables, indicates that the entire power usage

could come from renewables, with 70% total energy from wind at the same sort of costs or lower

than at present. Intermittency would be dealt with, according to this model, by a combination of

geographic dispersion to de-link weather system effects, and the ability of HVDC to shift power

from windy areas to non-windy areas. Pumped-storage hydroelectricity or other forms of grid

energy storage can store energy developed by high-wind periods and release it when

needed. Stored energy increases the economic value of wind energy since it can be shifted to

displace higher cost generation during peak demand periods. The potential revenue from

this arbitrage can offset the cost and losses of storage; the cost of storage may add 25% to the

cost of any wind energy stored, but it is not envisaged that this would apply to a large proportionof wind energy generated. Thus the 2 GW Dinorwig pumped storage plant adds costs to nuclear

energy in the UK for which it was built, but not to all the power produced from the 30 or so GW

of nuclear plants in the UK.

In particular geographic regions, peak wind speeds may not coincide with peak demand for

electrical power. In California and Texas, for example, hot days in summer may have low wind

speed and high electrical demand due to air conditioning. Some utilities subsidize the purchase

of geothermal heat pumps by their customers, to reduce electricity demand during the summer

months by making air conditioning up to 70% more efficient;[27]

widespread adoption of thistechnology would better match electricity demand to wind availability in areas with hot summers

and low summer winds. Geothermal heat pumps also allow renewable electricity from wind to

displace natural gas and heating oil for central heating during winter, when winds tend to be

stronger in many areas. Another option is to interconnect widely dispersed geographic areas

with a relatively cheap and efficient HVDC "Super grid". In the USA it is estimated that to

upgrade the transmission system to take in planned or potential renewables would cost at least

$60 billion. Total annual US power consumption in 2006 was 4 thousand billion kilowatt

hours. Over an asset life of 40 years and low cost utility investment grade funding, the cost of

$60 billion investment would be about 5% p.a. ie $3 billion p.a. Dividing by total power used

gives an increased unit cost of around $3,000,000,000 x 100 / 4,000 x 1 exp9 = 0.075 cent /

kWh.

According to a 2007 Stanford University study published in the Journal of Applied Meteorology

and Climatology, interconnecting ten or more wind farms allows 33 to 47% of the total energy
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produced to be used as reliable, base load electric power, as long as minimum criteria are met

for wind speed and turbine height.

In the UK, demand for electricity is higher in winter than in summer, and so are wind

speeds. Solar power tends to be complementary to wind. On daily to weekly timescales, high

pressure areas tend to bring clear skies and low surface winds, whereas low pressure

areastend to be windier and cloudier. On seasonal timescales, solar energy typically peaks in

summer, whereas in many areas wind energy is lower in summer and higher in winter. Thus the

intermittencies of wind and solar power tend to cancel each other somewhat. A demonstration

project at the Massachusetts Maritime Academy shows the effect. The Institute for Solar Energy

Supply Technology of the University of Kassel pilot-tested a combined power plant linking solar,

wind, biogas and hydrostorage to provide load-following power around the clock, entirely from

renewable sources.

A report from Denmark noted that their wind power network was without power for 54 days

during 2002. Wind power advocates argue that these periods of low wind can be dealt with by

simply restarting existing power stations that have been held in readiness or interlinking with

HVDC. The cost of keeping a fossil fuel power station idle is in fact quite low, since the main

cost of running a power station is the fuel (see spark spread and dark spread).

Capacity credit and fuel saving

Many commentators concentrate on whether or not wind has any "capacity credit" without

defining what they mean by this and its relevance. Wind does have a capacity credit, using awidely accepted and meaningful definition, equal to about 20% of its rated output (but this figure

varies depending on actual circumstances). This means that reserve capacity on a system

equal in MW to 20% of added wind could be retired when such wind is added without affecting

system security or robustness. But the main value of wind, (in the UK, 5 times the capacity

credit value) is its fuel and CO2 savings. Wind does not require any extra back up,as is often

wrongly claimed, since it uses the existing power stations which are already built, as back up,

and which are started up during low wind periods. just as they are started up now, during the

non availability of other conventional plant. More spinning reserve, of existing plant, is required,

but this again is already built and has a low cost comparatively.

Penetration

Wind energy "penetration" refers to the fraction of energy produced by wind compared with the

total available generation capacity. There is no generally accepted "maximum" level of wind

penetration. The limit for a particular grid will depend on the existing generating plants, pricing


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mechanisms, capacity for storage or demand management, and other factors. An

interconnected electricity grid will already include reserve generating and transmission capacity

to allow for equipment failures; this reserve capacity can also serve to regulate for the varying

power generation by wind plants. Studies have indicated that 20% of the total electrical energy

consumption may be incorporated with minimal difficulty. These studies have been for locations

with geographically dispersed wind farms, some degree of dispatch able energy, or hydropower

with storage capacity, demand management, and interconnection to a large grid area export of

electricity when needed. Beyond this level, there are few technical limits, but the economic

implications become more significant.

However In evidence to the House of Lords Economic Affairs Select Committee, the UK System

Operator, National Grid have quoted estimates of balancing costs for 40% wind and these lie in

the range 500-1000M per annum. "These balancing costs represent an additional 6 to 12

per annum on average consumer electricity bill of around 390.

At present, few grid systems have penetration of wind energy above 5%: Denmark (values over

19%), Spain and Portugal (values over 11%), Germany and the Republic of Ireland (values over

6%). The Danish grid is heavily interconnected to the European electrical grid, and it has solved

grid management problems by exporting almost half of its wind power to Norway. The

correlation between electricity export and wind power production is very strong.

Denmark has active plans to increase the percentage of power generated to over 50%.

A study commissioned by the state of Minnesota considered penetration of up to 25%, and

concluded that integration issues would be manageable and have incremental costs of less than

one-half cent ($0.0045) per kWh.

ESB National Grid, Ireland's electric utility, in a 2004 study that, concluded that to meet the

renewable energy targets set by the EU in 2001 would "increase electricity generation costs by

a modest 15%"

A recent report by Sinclair Merz saw no difficulty in accommodating 50% of total power

delivered in the UK at modest cost increases.


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Turbine placement

Good selection of a wind turbine site is critical to economic development of wind power. Aside

from the availability of wind itself, other factors include the availability of transmission lines,

value of energy to be produced, cost of land acquisition, land use considerations, and

environmental impact of construction and operations. Off-shore locations may offset their higher

construction cost with higher annual load factors, thereby reducing cost of energy produced.

Wind farm designers use specialized wind energy software applications to evaluate the impact

of these issues on a given wind farm design.

Studies in the UK have shown that if onshore turbines are placed in a straight line then an

increased risk of aerodynamic modulation] can occur which can result in noise nuisance to

nearby residents.

Offshore wind farms

As of 2008, Europe leads the world in development of offshore wind power, due to strong windresources and shallow water in the North Sea and the Baltic Sea, and limitations on suitable

locations on land due to dense populations and existing developments. Denmark installed the

first offshore wind farms, and for years was the world leader in offshore wind power until

the United Kingdom gained the lead in October, 2008 with 590 MW ofnameplate

capacity installed. The United Kingdom planned to build much more extensive offshore wind


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farms by 2020. Other large markets for wind power, including the United

States and China focused first on developing their on-land wind resources where construction

costs are lower (such as in the Great Plains of the U.S., and the similarly wind-swept steppes

of Xinjiang and Inner Mongolia in China), but population centers along coastlines in many parts

of the world are close to offshore wind resources, which would reduce transmission costs.

On 21 December 2007, Q7 (later renamed as Princess Amalia Wind Farm) exported first power

to the Dutch grid, which was a milestone for the offshore wind industry. The 120MW offshore

wind farm with a construction budget of 383 million was the first to be financed by a

nonrecourse loan (project finance). The project comprises 60 Vestas V80-2MW wind turbines.

Each turbine's tower rests on a monopile foundation to a depth of between 18-23 meters at a

distance of about 23 km off the Dutch coast.

Transporting large wind turbine components (tower sections, nacelles, and blades) is much

easier over water than on land, because ships and barges can handle large loads more easily

than trucks/lorries or trains. On land, large goods vehicles must negotiate bends on roadways,

which fixes the maximum length of a wind turbine blade that can move from point to point on the

road network; no such limitation exists for transport on open water. Construction and

maintenance costs per wind turbine are higher for offshore wind farms, motivating operators to

reduce the number of wind turbines for a given total power by installing the largest available

units. An example is Belgium's Thorntonbank Wind Farm with construction underway in 2008,

featuring 5MW wind turbines from REpower, which were among the largest wind turbines in the

world at the time.
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STUDY OF GENERATION OF WIND ENERGY

Wind mills were used long time ago, the first electricity generating wind mill generated

operated in the UK was a battery charging machine installed in 1887. The first utility

grid-connected wind turbine operated in the UK by the John Brown company.

Wind turbines are designed to exploit the wind energy that exists at a location. Virtually

all modern turbines convert wind energy to electricity for energy distribution. The

modern wind tubine is a system that comprises three integral components with distinct

disciplines of engineering science. The rotor component includes the blade for

converting wind energy to an intermnittent low speed rotational energy. The generator

component includes the electrical generator, the contol electronics, and most likely agearbox component for converting the low speed rotational energy to electricity. The

structural support component includes the tower for optimally situating the rotor

component to the wind energy source.

There are many studies proposed to optimize wind turbine power generation. Kocak

focused entirely on wind speed persistence during weather forecast, site selection for

wind turbines and synthetic generation of the wind speed data. Herbert et al in 2007

developed models for wind resources assessment, site selection and aerodynamic

including wake effect to improve the wind turbine performance and to increase its

productivity.

Khalfallah and Koulib in 2007 focused entirely on the turbine rotor and blades in order

to improve the wind turbine power curves. They studied the effect of changing the

rotational rotor speed on the power performance of Nordtank 300 kW stall-regulated

experimentally. Also they studied the variation in the aerodynamic performance of the

wind turbine rotor by changing the pitch angle experimentally in Hurghada wind farm in

a way to improve the turbines performance.


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TECHNIQUE FOR DEVELOPING WIND POWER

A wind turbine captures energy from moving air and converts it into electricity.

The captured energy is affected by factors such as air density, turbine swept

area, air velocity and power coefficient.

The analysis of generation of wind power is done using the mathematical

programming language MATLAB.

The utilization of wind energy for power generation purposes is becoming

increasingly attractive and gaining a great share in the electrical power

production

market worldwide.

In the present study, a mathematical model is developed to study the parameters

that

affect the electrical power generated by the wind turbines. The considered

parameters are turbine swept area, air density, wind speed, and power coefficient

as

a function of pitch angle and blade tip speed.

The study shows that the operational parameters has a direct effect on the

generatedpower which will lead the developers and researchers to focus on the highest

priority

parameter that should be considered for manufacturing and optimizing the new

generations of wind turbines


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ABOUT MATLAB

MATLAB is a numerical computing environment and programming language. Maintained

by The Math Works, MATLAB allows easy matrix manipulation, plotting of functions and data,

implementation of algorithms, creation of user interfaces, and interfacing with programs in other

languages. Although it is numeric only, an optional toolbox uses the MuPAD symbolic engine,

allowing access to algebra capabilities. An additional package, Simulink, adds graphical

multidomain simulation and Model-Based Design for dynamic and embedded systems.

In 2004, Math Works claimed that MATLAB was used by more than one million people across

industry and the academic world.

MATLAB (meaning "matrix laboratory") was invented in the late 1970s by Cleve Moler, then

chairman of the computer science department at the University of New Mexico. He designed it

to give his students access to LINPACK and EISPACK without having to learn Fortran. It soon

spread to other universities and found a strong audience within the applied

mathematics community. Jack Little, an engineer, was exposed to it during a visit Moler made to

Stanford in 1983. Recognizing its commercial potential, he joined with Moler and Steve Bangert.

They rewrote MATLAB in C and founded The Math Works in 1984 to continue its development.

These rewritten libraries were known as JACKPAC. In 2000, MATLAB was rewritten to use anewer set of libraries for matrix manipulation, LAPACK .

MATLAB was first adopted by control design engineers, Little's specialty, but quickly spread to

many other domains. It is now also used in education, in particular the teaching of linear

algebra and numerical analysis, and is popular amongst scientists involved with image

processing.

MATLAB is built around the MATLAB language, sometimes called M-code or simply M. The

simplest way to execute M-code is to type it in at the prompt, >> , in the Command Window, one

of the elements of the MATLAB Desktop. In this way, MATLAB can be used as an interactivemathematical shell. Sequences of commands can be saved in a text file, typically using the

MATLAB Editor, as a script or encapsulated into a function, extending the commands available.


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GENERATION OF POWER

The power contained in wind is given by the kinetic energy of the flowing air mass per unit time.

i.e.

P=0.5..Cp.V3.A

Where, P is the mechanical power in the moving air, Watt. is air density, kg/m

A is area swept by the rotor blades, m

V is velocity of the air, m/sCp is the power coefficient

MATLAB SIMULINK MODEL


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The Simulink model is valid for wide ranges of wind

turbines. It is tested on V52 windturbine as an example. The V52 wind turbines have beenerected in many countriesthan any other turbines in VESTAS portfolio,approximately 2,100 turbines, wereinstalled all over the world due to their highly efficientoperation and flexibleconfiguration. The V52 has the following specifications

(Table 2) (VESTAS windsystems, 2000)

.


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The resulted power will be increased when the turbine's

swept area is increased

The temperature and the air density impact on the generatedpower are shown in figures below.


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The effect of air density-temperature on the generated

power


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RESULT OF THE ANALYSIS

Wind turbines should be optimized, by taking swept area intoconsideration, in terms of the local area conditions to capture

power as maximum as possible. As can be seen from Fig. 2,the output power of a wind turbine is directly related to thewindspeed as well as to the swept area of its blades. The largerthe diameter of its blades, the more power can be extractedfrom the wind.

The power produced by the wind turbine increases from zero

at the threshold wind speed (cut in speed) (usually around5m/s but varies with site) to the maximum at the rated windspeed. Above the rated wind speed, (15 to 25 m/s) the windturbine continues to produce the same rated power but atlower efficiency until shut down isinitiated if the wind speed becomes dangerously high, i.e.above 25 to 30m/s (gale force). The exact specifications forenergy capture by the turbine depend on the distribution ofwind speed over the year at the individual site.

Air density has a significant effect on wind turbineperformance (Fig. 3). The power available in the wind isdirectly proportional to air density. As air density increasesthe available power also increases. Air density is a function ofair pressure andtemperature. It increases when air pressure increases or the

temperature decreases.

Both temperature and pressure decrease with increasingelevation.Consequently changes in elevation produce a profound effecton the generated power as a result of changing in the airdensity.


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WIND

ENERGY


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- AN OVERVIEW

DEVELOPMENT OF WIND ENERGY IN

INDIAIn 1983, the MNRE (Ministry of New and Renewable Energy) conducted anextensive wind data collection mapping and complex terrain projectscovering 25 states. The total wind power potential in the country wascalculated to be 20 000 MW. After a recent study, the potential has beenreassessed to 45 000 MW at 50 m above ground level. A demonstrationwind farm was first established in India at Tuticorin, Tamil Nadu in 1986.Till now, an aggregate capacity of 71 MW of wind energy has been

established as demonstration projects at 33 locations covering nine states,

that is, Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh,Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, and West Bengal.Winddiesel hybrid projects have been planned for island regions andremote areas. Gradually, the government opened up the wind energysector to private enterprises and gave some incentives to theentrepreneurs.As a result, the wind energy sector grew in our country and now India is thefourth-largest producer of wind energy in the world after Germany, Spain,and the USA.As of March 2007, the total installed capacity of wind energy in our countryis 7096 MW. Tamil Nadu has the distinction of3492.8 MW (49.2% of total)wind farms. The wind power has outpaced nuclear power (3360 MW) interms of installed capacity and will soon surpass it in terms of generationalso. A good number of wind turbine manufacturers are active in Indiaproducing wind electric generators of rating 225 kW to 2000 kW. MNREhas established the Centre for Wind Energy Technology at Chennai withfield test station at Kayathar to act as technical focal point for wind powerdevelopment in the country. So far, 160 potential wind farm sites have beenidentified in 13 states and Table 3 shows the installed capacities in various

states.


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GLOBAL SCENE IN WIND POWER

Wind power has arrived globally.In the decade from 1995 to 2005, globalwind power grew from 4800 MW to 59 322 MW. The average annualcumulative growth rate was 28% during the period 200005.The installed capacity of wind power in the world reached 64 341MW byDecember 2006 and continues to grow. The experience so far is that thegrowth has surpassed the predictions. Wind power capacity of some majorwind power generating countries is given in Table 2. According to a statusreport prepared by the GWEC (Global Wind Energy Council), the global

wind power capacity is expected to be more than double its capacity by2010 (Figure 1). About 40 countries have visible amounts of wind powerand 11 of them (Table 1) have exceeded the 1000 MW installed capacity.Denmark is already producing 20% of its electricity from wind. Similarlynorthern Germany and Spain are getting 35% and 8%, respectively, of theirelectricity from wind power.


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SOME IMPORTANT ASPECTS REGARDING

WIND ENERGY

Wind could displace 1500MT of carbonemissions by 2020

Wind turbines could displace the emission of 1500 MT (million tonnes) of carbonemissions by 2020, according to Greenpeace International and the Global WindEnergy Council. Wind will be a major contributor to future energy supply, and couldgenerate 16.5% of the worlds electricity by 2020 and 34% by 2050, predicts GlobalWind Energy Outlook 2006. By 2050, the displacement of CO2 (carbon dioxide) fromwind farms would be 113 000 MT. Wind power will significantly reduce CO2emissions, which is key in the fight against dangerous climate change, says Sven

Teske of Greenpeace. The required CO2 reduction of one-third by 2020 and half by2050 can only be achieved if wind power plays a major role in the power sector.

The report urges governments to support the development of wind powerthrough reforms of the power market and by reducing subsidies for fossil fuels and

nuclear. In addition to mitigating climate change, other important drivers for windpower are challenges such as security of energy supply and the increasing volatilityof fossil fuel prices. The outlook runs three different scenarios for wind: a referencescenario based on the data from the International energy Agency; a moderateversion, which assumes that current targets for renewables are successful; and anadvanced version assuming that all policy options in favour of renewables areadopted. The scenarios are then run against a baseline scenario for global energydemand and a second version for high energy efficiency, which reduces demand forelectricity.


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GLOBAL WIND INDUSTRY TO EXPAND 19% YEARLY

UNTIL 2010

Average annual cumulative growth in the international windenergy industry will be 19.1% from 2010, compared with 24.3% during the200206 period. Temporary supply chain difficulties will have an impact,says the Global Wind Energy Council, but the industry is set to continue theirspectacular growth. Last year, total installed capacity increased by 25%around the world, generating 18 billion euros of new equipment and boostingglobal wind capacity to 74 GW (gigawatt). Annual installed capacity willreach 21 GW in 2010, an increase of 38% from the 15.2 GW installed in

2006. The European Union remains the leading market in wind energy with48 GW of capacity, but North America and Asia are developing at atremendous pace. Europe will continue to be the most important market, butwith a smaller share than in the past as the industry becomes more global. In2004, Europe represented 72% of the annual market but dropped to 55% in2005 and to 51% in 2006. The trend is expected to continue and in 2010,Europe will hold only 44% of the annual global market of 9.3 GW but 55% ofthe worlds total installed capacity of 82 GW. Delays in the offshore markethave pushed large-scale offshore development towards the end of thedecade but offshore development will give a new momentum to theEuropean market during the next decade. North America is expected to

continue to be the second- largest regional market in terms of total installedcapacity, with average annual growth of 24.6%. From 9.8 GW installed at theend of 2006, it will reach 31.6 GW by 2010 and the United States will be themost important national market during the period 200710 with a predictedaverage installation of 3.5 GW per year. The Asian market has exceeded allprevious estimates due to an unexpectedly strong growth in China, and thatcontinent will have the highest annual average growth rate during theperiod. Total installed capacity will reach 29 GW by 2010, up from 10.7 GWin 2006 and, with predicted installation of 8000 MW of turbines between2007 and 2010, India will continue to be the continental leader and thefourth country globally. China will be a close second with the highest growth

rate and a predicted installed capacity also of 8000 MW during the period.GWEC members represent 1500 member companies in 60 countries,including all major turbine manufacturers and 99% of the worlds 74 000 MWof installed wind capacity.


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A move away from fossil fuels

It is expected that the fossil fuel economy willpeak sometime around the middle of the 21st century. Thenormative scenario presented by the IPCC for arresting GHG(greenhouse gases) emissions suggests that such peaking wouldtake place around 2030. Any laxity in making investments andpreparations for the future would adversely impact the socio-politicaleconomy of the country. It is well known that new energyinfrastructure takes decades to build and investments are requiredimmediately for technologies that would be deployed for meetingfuture energy needs. At present, large deficits in domestic energysupply are met through imports. The rapidly changing geo-political

scenario and security compulsions necessitate a hard look at thisstrategy. The cornerstone of such an exercise has to be a high degreeof energy independence. On the oil price scenario, the past few weekshave seen global oil prices entering the super-spike phase.International oil prices have vaulted to over 60 dollars a barrel. Energyexperts predict that prices could surge all the way above 100 dollars,as seasonal consumption peaks in winter 2005. With the prospect of afurther steep hike in fuel prices looming large, the vulnerability of theeconomy to the vagaries of the global oil market comes into focus yetagain. This is not the first time that the economy is being subjected to

the pull and push of high and fluctuating global fuel prices. There havebeen over 20 such instances in the last 50 years. Studies haveindicated that a sustained 5% rise in the oil price over a year wouldslash Indias gross domestic product growth rate by 0.25% and raisethe inflation rate by 0.6%.


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WIND CLIMATE MODEL FOR INDIA

It is expected that the contribution of renewable energy sources will increase over theyears with the growing energy demands and the shortage of conventional fuels. Thus,there are concerns regarding increasing penetration and vulnerability of the powersupply grid to absorb the fluctuations of voltage and frequency and to maintain systemstability. Hence, prediction models for wind power systems become inevitable over thecoming years to ensure proper scheduling and utilization of the freely available

resourceAlong with the present wind monitoring stations, SODAR and satellite imagerymodels can aid in developing a wind climate model along with a wind weather forecastto a day/few hours in advance.


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Economics and feasibility

Growth and cost trends

Wind and hydroelectric power generation have negligible fuel costs and relatively low

maintenance costs; in economic terms, wind power has a low marginal cost and a high

proportion of capital cost. The estimated average cost per unit incorporates the cost of

construction of the turbine and transmission facilities, borrowed funds, return to investors

(including cost of risk), estimated annual production, and other components, averaged over theprojected useful life of the equipment, which may be in excess of twenty years. Energy cost

estimates are highly dependent on these assumptions so published cost figures can differ

substantially. A British Wind Energy Association report gives an average generation cost of

onshore wind power of around 3.2 cents per kilowatt hour (2005). Cost per unit of energy

produced was estimated in 2006 to be comparable to the cost of new generating capacity in the

United States for coal and natural gas: wind cost was estimated at $55.80 per MWh, coal at

$53.10/MWh and natural gas at $52.50. Other sources in various studies have estimated wind

to be more expensive than other sources (see Economics of new nuclear power plants, Clean

coal, and Carbon capture and storage).

In 2004, wind energy cost one-fifth of what it did in the 1980s, and some expected that

downward trend to continue as larger multi-megawatt turbines were mass-produced. However,

installed cost averaged 1,300 per kilowatt in 2007, compared to 1,100 per kilowatt in

2005. Not as many facilities can produce large modern turbines and their towers and

foundations, so constraints develop in the supply of turbines resulting in higher costs. Research
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from a wide variety of sources in various countries shows that support for wind power is

consistently between 70 and 80 percent amongst the general public.

Global Wind Energy Council (GWEC) figures show that 2007 recorded an increase of installed

capacity of 20 GW, taking the total installed wind energy capacity to 94 GW, up from 74 GW in

2006. Despite constraints facing supply chains for wind turbines, the annual market for wind

continued to increase at an estimated rate of 31% following 32% growth in 2006. In terms of

economic value, the wind energy sector has become one of the important players in the energy

markets, with the total value of new generating equipment installed in 2007 reaching 25 billion,

or US$36 billion.

Although the wind power industry will be impacted by the global financial crisis in 2009 and

2010, a BTM Consult five year forecast up to 2013 projects substantial growth. Over the past

five years the average growth in new installations has been 27.6 percent each year. In the

forecast to 2013 the expected average annual growth rate is 15.7 percent. More than 200 GW

of new wind power capacity could come on line before the end of 2013. Wind power market

penetration is expected to reach 3.35 percent by 2013 and 8 percent by 2018.

Existing generation capacity represents sunk costs, and the decision to continue production will

depend on marginal costs going forward, not estimated average costs at project inception. For

example, the estimated cost of new wind power capacity may be lower than that for "new coal"

(estimated average costs for new generation capacity) but higher than for "old coal" (marginal

cost of production for existing capacity). Therefore, the choice to increase wind capacity will

depend on factors including the profile of existing generation capacity.

Theoretical potential

Wind power available in the atmosphere is much greater than current world energy

consumption. The most comprehensive study to date found the potential of wind power on land

and near-shore to be 72 TW, equivalent to 54,000 MToE (million tons of oil equivalent) per year,

or over five times the world's current energy use in all forms. The potential takes into account

only locations with mean annual wind speeds 6.9 m/s at 80 m. It assumes 6 turbines per

square kilometer for 77 m diameter, 1.5 MW turbines on roughly 13% of the total global land

area (though that land would also be available for other compatible uses such as farming). The

authors acknowledge that many practical barriers would need to be overcome to reach this

theoretical capacity.


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The practical limit to exploitation of wind power will be set by economic and environmental

factors, since the resource available is far larger than any practical means to develop it.

Direct costs

Many potential sites for wind farms are far from demand centres, requiring substantially more

money to construct new transmission lines and substations. In some regions this is partly

because frequent strong winds themselves have discouraged dense human settlement in

especially windy areas. The wind which was historically a nuisance is now becoming a valuable

resource, but it may be far from large populations which developed in areas more sheltered

from wind.

Since the primary cost of producing wind energy is construction and there are no fuel costs, the

average cost of wind energy per unit of production depends on a few key assumptions, such asthe cost of capital and years of assumed service. The marginal cost of wind energy once a plant

is constructed is usually less than 1 cent per kilowatt-hour. Since the cost of capital plays a

large part in projected cost, risk (as perceived by investors) will affect projected costs per unit of

electricity.

The commercial viability of wind power also depends on the pricing regime for power producers.

Electricity prices are highly regulated worldwide, and in many locations may not reflect the full

cost of production, let alone indirect subsidies or negative externalities. Customers may enter

into long-term pricing contracts for wind to reduce the risk of future pricing changes, thereby

ensuring more stable returns for projects at the development stage. These may take the form of

standard offer contracts, whereby the system operator undertakes to purchase power from wind

at a fixed price for a certain period (perhaps up to a limit); these prices may be different than

purchase prices from other sources, and even incorporate an implicit subsidy.

In jurisdictions where the price for electricity is based on market mechanisms, revenue for all

producers per unit is higher when their production coincides with periods of higher prices. The

profitability of wind farms will therefore be higher if their production schedule coincides with

these periods. If wind represents a significant portion of supply, average revenue per unit of

production may be lower as more expensive and less-efficient forms of generation, which

typically set revenue levels, are displaced from economic dispatch. This may be of particular

concern if the output of many wind plants in a market have strong temporal correlation. In

economic terms, the marginal revenue of the wind sector as penetration increases may

diminish.


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External costs

Most forms of energy production create some form of negative externality: costs that are not

paid by the producer or consumer of the good. For electric production, the most significant

externality is pollution, which imposes social costs in increased health expenses, reduced

agricultural productivity, and other problems. In addition, carbon dioxide, a greenhouse

gas produced when fossil fuels are burned, may impose even greater costs in the form of global

warming. Few mechanisms currently exist to internalise these costs, and the total cost is highly

uncertain. Other significant externalities can include military expenditures to ensure access to

fossil fuels, remediation of polluted sites, destruction of wild habitat, loss of scenery/tourism, etc.

If the external costs are taken into account, wind energy can be competitive in more cases, as

costs have generally decreased due to technology development and scale enlargement.

Supporters argue that, once external costs and subsidies to other forms of electrical production

are accounted for, wind energy is amongst the least costly forms of electrical production. Critics

argue that the level of required subsidies, the small amount of energy needs met, the expense

of transmission lines to connect the wind farms to population centers, and the uncertain financial

returns to wind projects make it inferior to other energy sources. Intermittency and othercharacteristics of wind energy also have costs that may rise with higher levels of penetration,

and may change the cost-benefit ratio.

Incentives

Some of the over 6,000 wind turbines at Altamont Pass, in California. Developed during a period of tax

incentives in the 1980s, this wind farm has more turbines than any other in the United States.

Wind energy in many jurisdictions receives some financial or other support to encourage its

development. A key issue is the comparison to other forms of energy production, and their total
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cost. Two main points of discussion arise: direct subsidies and externalities for various sources

of electricity, including wind. Wind energy benefits from subsidies of various kinds in many

jurisdictions, either to increase its attractiveness, or to compensate for subsidies received by

other forms of production which have significant negative externalities.

In the United States, wind power receives a tax credit for each kilowatt-hour produced; at 1.9

cents per kilowatt-hour in 2006, the credit has a yearly inflationary adjustment. Another tax

benefit is accelerated depreciation. Many American states also provide incentives, such as

exemption from property tax, mandated purchases, and additional markets for "green credits."

Countries such as Canada and Germany also provide incentives for wind turbine construction,

such as tax credits or minimum purchase prices for wind generation, with assured grid access

(sometimes referred to as feed-in tariffs). These feed-in tariffs are typically set well above

average electricity prices. The Energy Improvement and Extension Act of 2008contains

extensions of credits for wind, including microturbines.

Secondary market forces also provide incentives for businesses to use wind-generated power,

even if there is a premium price for the electricity. For example, socially responsible

manufacturers pay utility companies a premium that goes to subsidize and build new wind

power infrastructure. Companies like the Borealis Press print millions of greeting cards every

year using this wind-generated power, and in return they can claim that they are making a

powerful "green" effort, in addition to using recycled, chlorine-free paper, soy inks, and safe

press wash. The organization Green-e http://www.green-e.org monitors business compliance

with these renewable energy credits.


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UTILIZATION OF WIND POWER

The modern wind power industry began in 1979 with the serial production of wind turbines byDanish manufacturers Kuriant, Vestas, Nordtank, and Bonus. These early turbines were small

by today's standards, with capacities of 20 to 30 kW each. Since then, they have increased

greatly in size, while wind turbine production has expanded to many countries all over the world.

There are now many thousands of wind turbines operating, with a total nameplate capacity of

121,188 MW of which wind power in Europe accounts for 55% (2008). World wind generation

capacity more than quadrupled between 2000 and 2006, doubling about every three years. By

comparison, photovoltaics has been doubling about every two years (48%/year), although from

a smaller base (15,200 MWp in 2008). 81% of wind power installations are in the US andEurope. The share of the top five countries in terms of new installations fell from 71% in 2004 to

62% in 2006, but climbed to 73% by 2008 as those countries -- the United States, Germany,

Spain, China, and India -- have seen substantial capacity growth in the past two years (see

chart).

By 2010, the World Wind Energy Association expects 160GW of capacity to be installed

worldwide, up from 73.9 GW at the end of 2006, implying an anticipated net growth rate of more

than 21% per year.

Denmark generates nearly one-fifth of its electricity with wind turbines -- the highest percentageof any country -- and is ninth in the world in total wind power generation. Denmark is prominent

in the manufacturing and use of wind turbines, with a commitment made in the 1970s to

eventually produce half of the country's power by wind.

In recent years, the United States has added more wind energy to its grid than any other

country; U.S. wind power capacity grew by 45% to 16.8 gigawatts in 2007 and surpassing

Germany's nameplate capacity in 2008. California was one of the incubators of the modern wind

power industry, and led the U.S. in installed capacity for many years; however, by the end of

2006, Texas became the leading wind power state and continues to extend its lead. At the endof 2008, the state had 7,116 MW installed, which would have ranked it sixth in the world if Texas

was a separate country. Iowa and Minnesota each grew to more than 1 gigawatt installed by the

end of 2007; in 2008 they were joined by Oregon, Washington, and Colorado. Wind power

generation in the U.S. was up 31.8% in February, 2007 from February, 2006. The average

output of one megawatt of wind power is equivalent to the average electricity consumption of
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about 250 American households. According to the American Wind Energy Association, wind will

generate enough electricity in 2008 to power just over 1% (4.5 million households) of total

electricity in U.S., up from less than 0.1% in 1999. U.S. Department of Energy studies have

concluded wind harvested in the Great Plains states of Texas, Kansas, and North Dakota could

provide enough electricity to power the entire nation, and that offshore wind farms could do the

same job. In addition, the wind resource over and around the Great Lakes, recoverable with

currently available technology, could by itself provide 80% as much power as the U.S. and

Canada currently generate from non-renewable resources, with Michigan's share alone

equating to one third of current U.S. electricity demand.

India ranks 5th in the world with a total wind power capacity of 9,587 MW in 2008, or 3% of all

electricity produced in India. The World Wind Energy Conference in New Delhi in November

2006 has given additional impetus to the Indian wind industry. Muppandal village in Tamil

Nadu state, India, has several wind turbine farms in its vicinity, and is one of the major windenergy harnessing centres in India led by majors like Suzlon,Vestas,Micon among others In

2005, China announced it would build a 1000-megawatt wind farm in Hebei for completion in

2020. China has set a generating target of 30,000 MW by 2020 from renewable energy

sources it says indigenous wind power could generate up to 253,000 MW. A Chinese

renewable energy law was adopted in November 2004, following the World Wind Energy

Conference organized by the Chinese and the World Wind Energy Association. By 2008, wind

power was growing faster in China than the government had planned, and indeed faster in

percentage terms than in any other large country, having more than doubled each year since

2005. Policymakers doubled their wind power prediction for 2010, after the wind industry

reached the original goal of 5 GW three years ahead of schedule. Current trends suggest an

actual installed capacity near 20 GW by 2010, with China shortly thereafter pursuing the United

States for the world wind power lead.

Mexico recently opened La Venta II wind power project as an important step in reducing

Mexico's consumption of fossil fuels. The 88 MW project is the first of its kind in Mexico, and will

provide 13 percent of the electricity needs of the state of Oaxaca. By 2012 the project will have

a capacity of 3500 MW.

Another growing market is Brazil, with a wind potential of 143 GW. The federal government has

created an incentive program, called Proinfa, to build production capacity of 3300 MW of

renewable energy for 2008, of which 1422 MW through wind energy. The program seeks to

produce 10% of Brazilian electricity through renewable sources.
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