Why the Industrial Revolution Started in Great Britain 1760 AD – 1840 AD in England 1800s-1900s in...

Why the Industrial Revolution Started in Great Britain

1760 AD – 1840 AD in England1800s-1900s in France and Germany

1840s -1920s in United States

That Nation of Shopkeepers!That Nation of Shopkeepers! -- Napoleon Bonaparte -- Napoleon Bonaparte

How did the world go from this?

Life in England Before the Industrial Revolution?

• 8 out of 10 worked in countryside• Subsistence farming• Cottage industries - factories rarely

employed more than 50 people• Handmade – buttons, needles, cloth,

bricks, pottery, bread etc.• Developing towns – Liverpool,

Birmingham, GlasgowHow many objects do you

have about you or can you see in the room that

are handmade?

Welsh spinsters

Before the Industrial Revolution: Cottage Industry

How did people get around before the Industrial Revolution?

• ‘We set out at six in the morning and didn’t get out of the carriages (except when we overturned or got stuck in the mud) for 14 hours. We had nothing to eat and passed through some of the worst roads I ever saw in my life’

This is a description of a journey by Queen Anne in

1704 from Windsor to Petworth – a journey of 40 miles. What does it tell us

about transport at the time?

To this?

Definitions of Industrial Revolution and Industrialization

• Industrial Revolution: a period of increased output of goods made by machines and new inventions; a series of dramatic changes in the way work was done

• Industrialization: the process of developing machine production of goods that led to a better quality of life for people and also caused immense suffering

Two great economic “revolutions” occurred in human development

• The Industrial Revolution, started in the eighteenth century, is still taking place today– Involves a series of inventions leading to the use of

machines and inanimate power in the manufacturing process

– Suddenly whole societies could engage in seemingly limitless multiplication of goods and services

– Rapid bursts of human inventiveness followed– Gigantic population increases

Industrial Revolution

• Began around 1750 in Great Britain• New machines led to the Industrial Revolution.• They replaced hand labor and helped workers

produce more things faster.• Moving water power in rivers replaced

worker’s muscle.• One water wheel could turn hundreds of

machines.

A technological revolutionA series of inventions that built on principles of mass production, mechanization and interchangeable parts

Josiah Wedgwood developed a mold for pottery that replaced the potters wheel, making mass production possible


• Machines also started the factory system.• The new machines were too large and costly

to be put into a person’s home.• Large buildings called factories were built to

hold many of the machines.• The workers in one factory manufactured

more in a day than one person working in his or her home could manufacture in a lifetime.

Industrial Revolution• Steam engines began to appear in the 1700s.• This important invention used wood or coal as

fuel to heat water in a boiler.• Steam from the hot water powered the engine,

which ran the machines.• Since a steam engine could be placed anywhere,

factories no longer had to be built along rivers.• They could be built near fuel, raw materials, or

labor.

Industrial Revolution Included:

• 1) the use of new basic materials, chiefly iron and steel

• (2) the use of new energy sources, including both fuels and motive power, such as coal, the steam engine, electricity, petroleum, and the internal-combustion engine

• (3) the invention of new machines, such as the spinning jenny and the power loom that permitted increased production with a smaller expenditure of human energy

Industrial Revolution Included:• (4) a new organization of work known as the

factory system, which entailed increased division of labor and specialization of function-- the worker acquired new and distinctive skills, and his relation to his task shifted; instead of being a craftsman working with hand tools, he became a machine operator, subject to factory discipline

• (5) important developments in transportation and communication, including the steam locomotive, steamship, automobile, airplane, telegraph, and radio, and

• (6) the increasing application of science to industry


• As factories produced more, better transportation was needed.

• More canals were dug and better roads were built.

• Here again the steam engine was able to help.• By 1830, steam locomotives began to pull

trains.

Man of Steel: Henry Bessemer

• Before 1850, railroads and trains were made of iron

• Iron is brittle• Railroads were unsafe• 1850 Henry Bessemer

(England) invents a way to turn iron ore into steel

The Role of the Railroads

• The railroads, built during the 1830s and 1840s:– Enabled people to leave the

place of their birth and migrate easily to the cities.

– Allowed cheaper and more rapid transport of raw materials and finished products.

– Created an increased demand for iron and steel and a skilled labor force.

The Spinning Mill

Stephenson's Rocket

In the 18th century, English merchants were leaders in world commerce. It created a demand for more goods and a cheaper system of production. Besides, there were new ideas in England : an interest in scientific investigation and invention, and the doctrine of “laissez-faire” : letting business be regulated by supply and demand rather than by laws. Most important of all, new machines and techniques were developed by British inventors (for example : James Hargreaves, James Watt, John Blenkinsop…)

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The Industrial Revolution

On your Left Side with your partner:

• Compare and contrast this Industrial Revolution to the Technological Revolution of the last twenty years.

• What are the similarities?• What are the differences?

Origins---Why England?

• Agricultural Revolution– Horse and steel plow– Fertilizer use– Yields improved 300% 1700-1850

• Growth of foreign trade for manufactured goods– Foreign colonies– Increase in ships and size

• Successful wars and foreign conquest

Origins – Why England?• Factors in England

– No civil strife– Government favored

trade– Laissez-faire capitalism– Large middle class– Island geography– Mobile population – Everyone lived within 20

miles of navigable river– Tradition of

experimental science– Weak guilds

The Agricultural Revolution During the early 1700's, a great change in farming called the Agricultural Revolution began in Great Britain.

The revolution resulted from a series of discoveries and inventions that made farming much more productive than ever before.

By the mid-1800's, the Agricultural Revolution had spread throughout much of Europe and North America. One of the revolution's chief effects was the rapid growth of towns and cities in Europe and the United States during the 1800's. Because fewer people were needed to produce food, farm families by the thousands moved to the towns and cities.

Agricultural RevolutionMore food was available.Food production increased over 60% during the 1700s; twice

the rate between the 1500s and 1700s.Introduction of new crops, Columbian Exchange, from the

New World.English farmers began to raise potatoes which proved cheap

and nourishing.Other new crops indirectly benefitted humans as they

improved animal feed: corn, buckwheat, carrots and cabbage.This new animal feed produced larger quantities of better

tasting meat and milk.

Agricultural Revolution• Enclosure Movement---allowed landowners to fence off land

through the use of hedges and resulted in the loss of common lands used by many small farmers

• Development of More Effective Farming Methodsa)Townshend---crop rotationb)Bakewell---animal breedingc)Tull---seed drill

*These advances displaced smaller farmers who now needed new employment

*Provided large land-owning farmers with more money to invest

•Cooperative plowing

•Conserved the quality of land

•Balanced distribution of good land

•Farmers were part of a “team”

•Gleaning

OPEN FIELD SYSTEM---Old System

• All villagers worked together

• All the land was shared out

• Everyone helped each other

• Everyone had land to grow food

• For centuries enough food had been grown

ADVANTAGES

OPEN FIELD SYSTEM---Old System

•Strips in different fields

•Fallow land

•Waste of time

•Waste of land

•Common land

DISADVANTAGES

Disadvantages of the Open Field System

Field left fallowPeople have to walk over your strips to reach theirs

No proper drainage

Animals can trample crops and spread disease

Difficult to take advantage of new farming techniques

Because land in different fields takes time to get to each field

No hedges or fences

Why did the Open Field System change?

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millions

1700 1720 1740 1760 1780

year

population

What washappening to

population?

Causes of the Industrial Revolution– A. Farming Changes: During

the 1700’s, farmers were able to reclaim more land to plant, made better use of land, and used fertilizer to improve the soil.

– B. Enclosure Movement: In the 1700’s, rich landowners and the English Parliament began taking away land from peasants and were able to harvest more which made farming profitable.

Enclosures? • This meant enclosing the land with fences or hedges.• The open fields were divided up and everyone who could

prove they owned some land would get a share.• Dividing the open land into small fields and putting hedges

and fences around them.• Everyone had their own fields and could use them how they

wished.• Open land and common land would also be enclosed and

divided up.

Common lands are enclosed; larger farms

are created

Enclosure Movement• By the late eighteenth century enclosures were becoming very

common in Great Britain. • Enclosure simply meant joining the strips of the open fields to make

larger compact units of land.• These units were then fenced or hedged off from the next person’s

land.• This meant that a farmer had his land together in one farm rather

than in scattered strips.• The farmer now had a greater amount of independence.• This was not a new idea• Enclosures had been around since Tudor times, but increased

dramatically in the 1700s because they made it easier for farmers to try out new ideas.

The Enclosure MovementThe Enclosure Movement

Methods of Enclosure• During the later 1770s, the number of enclosures in Britain increased

because they made it easier for farmers to try out new farming techniques.

• Farmers could now invest in new machinery for use on their land, work in one area and not waste time walking between strips of land.

• The enclosed land was also useful for farmers wanting to experiment with selective breeding and new crops from abroad.

• There were two ways for villages to enclose land.• One was by getting the whole village to agree among themselves,

which was more common during the early 18th century. • The second was by an Act of Parliament. By 1770, landowners were

forcing enclosure on their local village by using an Act of Parliament.

“Enclosed” Lands Today

“Enclosed” Lands Today

Ways to Enclose• There were two ways to enclose a field. • Before 1740 most villages were enclosed by agreement.• This was when all of the major landowners in the village made a

private agreement to join their strips together.• This possibly meant buying out smaller farmers. • When a small number or farmers did not want to sell their land an

Act of Parliament had to be obtained.• This became seen as perfectly acceptable after 1750 because it had

a number of really good points: 1. Each piece of enclosed land had legal documentation. 2. It provided a forum for opposition to be heard. 3. It allowed the whole village to be enclosed at the same time.

Role of Parliament with Enclosure Movement

• So how did Parliamentary enclosures take place?• A village meeting was held and the owners of three quarters of the

village's land had to agree to enclosure. In many cases, the Lord of the Manor and his friends owned three quarters of the land.

• A petition was drawn up by landowners asking Parliament to pass an act enclosing local land.

• A notice about the petition was placed on the village church door. • Parliament considered the petition and then passed an Enclosure Act

and sent three commissioners to supervise the enclosure and decide who had the right to land in the village.

• The commissioners then drew up a new map of the enclosed fields.

So did people want to enclose their land?

•Well, some did and some didn’t. If they did not agree it was hard luck.

• If the owners of four-fifths of the land agreed, they could force an Act of Parliament-

• There was a great increase in the number of these in the eighteenth century, from 30 a year to 60, then from 1801 to 1810 there were 906, nearly 3 million hectares were enclosed.

Benefits to the Enclosure Movement• Some agricultural improvers enclosed their land so as to reduce

wastage.• It also meant it was easier for them to make decisions about

changing the use of the land. • Because enclosure brought a farmer’s lands together, it was worth

investing in machinery, lime, manure or seed from one strip to another.

• Enclosures would also help farmers interested in selective breeding. • It also made it worthwhile to dig drainage ditches around their

fields.• Historians generally agree that farmers enclosed land in order to

produce a greater tonnage, thereby earning bigger profits.• In addition, where land was enclosed, landlords could charge

tenants higher rents.

Nothing - if you could prove you owned the land,

if you had the money for fences and hedges and if you

could afford to pay the commissioners to come

and map the land, not to mention the cost of an Act

of Parliament.

So what’s wrong with that?

Groups That Supported The Enclosure Movement

• Landowners: They made large profits from the enclosures because the new fields were more efficient, and they could charge their tenants higher rents.

• Tenant Farmers: They did not mind the higher rents, because they were making so much profit that they could afford new machinery and the best fertilizer.

• Labourers: They were given more work digging ditches, planting hedges, and building roads. Many of them even gained new homes on their master’s estates.

Groups That Were Against The Enclosure Movement

• Smallholders: Many villagers lost land and were forced to become labourers, either because they could not prove their right to the enclosed land or because they could not afford to enclose the land.

• Landless Labourers: People like squatters really suffered, because the common land was turned into enclose land. Many of them were left hungry.

Were there winners and losers?•Yes, the better off farmers and landowners gained the most - the rich got richer and the poor got poorer.

• People who had no written proof of ownership lost their land altogether.

•Some couldn’t afford to pay for fences and had to sell their land.

•These people either became labourers on other peoples land or headed for the towns to try and get a job.

•One farm labourer said: ‘All I know is that I had a cow and an Act of Parliament has taken it from me.’

•There were riots in some villages.

Invention of the Plow

Better food production methods are developed. Nitrogen was recognized

as an important fertilizer. Turnips and clover replaced lost nutrients. Science

and Agriculture merged.

The appliance of organic chemistry solved the old problem of keeping soil fertile.

A scientist, Justus von Leibig, discovered that chemicals known as nitrates and phosphates were the most important nutrients needed by plants and crops.

The best source for this was crushed animal bones which could be spread on the fields.

•Another important development came in 1843.

•A landowner, called J.B. Lawes set up a scientific research station on his fields at Rothamstead.

•He experimented and noted the effects of different fertilisers on different plots of land.

•His greatest success was the production of superphosphates which he made by using sulphuric acid on bones.

•Britain had discovered artificial fertilisers.

Selective Breeding?

•Some farmers such as Robert Bakewell and the Culley brothers •This meant only allowing the fittest and strongest of their

•cattle, sheep, pigs and horses to mate. •You can tell how successful they were:

•In 1710 the average weight for cattle was •168 Kg by 1795 - it was 363 Kg

Robert Bakewell

Selective Breeding• Robert Bakewell• He was a pioneering selective breeder. His new methods were

simple:• He only chose the best farm animals and bred from them. His most

successful animals were the New Leicester Sheep and the Dishley Longhorn cattle.

• They were bigger animals, but they did not have better meat.• Bakewell kept detailed records about his livestock, made sure they

were very healthy and their stables and pens were always clean.• He was so successful that other farmers often hired his animals to

breed from.• Bakewell also wrote articles and pamphlets describing his new

breeding techniques and their advantages.

Robert Bakewell and Selective Breeding of Sheep

Development of the Breed by Bakewell in 1700s

• Bakewell was the first to utilize modern animal breeding techniques in the selection of livestock.

• His selection techniques changed a coarsely boned, slow growing Leicester into an animal that put on weight more rapidly and produced less waste when slaughtered.

• Robert Bakewell deserves recognition for his work with these sheep because it changed livestock farming forever and because it influenced the work of people such as Charles Darwin and Gregor Mendel.

The Colling or Culley Brothers• They were also selective breeders, but

not as well known as Robert Bakewell.• They improved on Robert Bakewell's

methods and their main success was breeding the Durham Shorthorn cattle, which were able to produce large amounts of milk and high quality lean meat for sale at market.

Charles Townshend-Crop Rotation• Charles 'Turnip' Townshend• He popularised new techniques and proved that they were more profitable.• He introduced the Norfolk Four-Course Crop Rotation (wheat, turnips, barley,

clover) to Britain. • Turnips were used as a cleansing crop to allow the land to be hoed to kill the

weeds, and clover was grown to replace the nutrients in the soil that the crops had depleted.

• This rotation prevented land from lying fallow and both turnips and clover were fodder crops, which could be fed to animals to allow more of them to survive cold winters.

• Used a method called marling, which mixed rich subsoil with a poorer sandy soil to produce better quality crops and increasingly more profit.

• Gave his tenant farmers longer leases to encourage them to invest more money to experiment with new ideas and improving their land.

Norfolk Crop Rotations• This system meant that no land had to remain fallow. The

system worked like this:• Each area of land would be split into four sections.• The crop that was grown on each field would be rotated so

that different nutrients would be taken from the land.• In the first year turnips or another root crop would be grown;• In the second year barley was grown in the field (barley could

be sold at a profit);• In the third year clover or a grass crop was grown and in the

fourth year wheat was grown in the field (wheat could also be sold for a profit).

Planting Crops Before The Seed Drill

Tull and Seed Drill• Up until this period, farmers planted

the seeds for cereal crops by carrying the seeds in a bag and walking up and down the field throwing or broadcasting the seed.

• They broadcast the seed by hand on to the ploughed and harrowed ground.

• The problem with this method was that it did not give a very even distribution.

• It was not, therefore, an efficient use of the seed and much of it was wasted.

• Jethro Tull invented a Seed Drill which could be pulled behind a horse.

• It consisted of a wheeled vehicle containing a box filled with grain.

• There was a wheel-driven ratchet that sprayed the seed out evenly as the Seed Drill was pulled across the field.

The First Seed Drill

1900s

Jethro Tull

• He is important because he introduced ideas that others went on to develop.

• In 1701, he invented a horse-powered seed drill that planted seeds at the same depth in straight lines.

• This wasted less seeds and allowed farmers to manage their crops more easily.

• In 1714, he invented a horse-drawn hoe that made it easier for farmers to weed between their seed rows.

• In 1731, he wrote a book called "Horse Hoeing Husbandry", which promoted new farming ideas.

Tull’s Seed Drill

Jethro Tull and the Seed Drill• Since earliest times seeds had always been sown by hand• People who worked on the land would walk over the fields

randomly scattering handfuls of grain• .Jethro Tull invented a machine which greatly helped to

increase the harvest yield by planting seeds in straight lines.• Tull was far more interested in the farming methods employed

on his land, which he called Prosperous Farm.• Tull travelled throughout Europe to study new farming

techniques.• On his return to Prosperous Farm in 1701, he developed a

horse-drawn mechanical Seed Drill.• The Seed Drill not only planted seeds at regular intervals but

also planted them at the right depth and covered them with earth.

• Because the seed drill planted seeds in straight lines, a mechanical horse-drawn hoe, which Tull also invented, could be used to remove weeds from between the lines of crop plants.

Tull’s Seed Drill

Jethro Tull• Tull advocated the importance of pulverising (crumbling) the soil so that

air and moisture could reach the roots of the crop plants. His horse-drawn hoe was able to do this.

• He also emphasised the importance of manure and of tilling the soil during the growing season.

• At the time, Tull's ideas came under attack, mainly because they were new.

• His Seed Drill was not immediately popular in England, although it was quickly adopted by the New England colonists across the Atlantic.

• In 1731, Tull wrote a book called "Horse-houghing (hoeing) Husbandry" which he revised in 1733.

• Although his Seed Drill was improved in 1782 by adding gears to the distribution mechanism, the rotary mechanism of the drill provided the foundation for all future sowing technology.

Seed Drill

Feedstuffs• Animal feedstuffs, made from linseed, rapeseed and cotton seed, were also

being produced. • Firms such as Thornley’s of Hull and Paul’s of Ipswich specialised in this.• Over £5 million worth of artificial feed was being sold per year by the

1870s.• Up to the 1850s most farmers used mixed farming. • They needed animal dung as manure, and needed to grow grain to feed the

animals. • With artificial fertilisers and feedstuffs farmers could now specialise in

livestock or cereals. • They used their land in which ever way was best. • As a result, wheat yields rose from about 22 bushels per acre in the 1820s

to about 35 bushels per acre in the 1850s.

Steam Powered Machines• Steam power had brought such great changes to the other industries

of Britain that it is not surprising it was also applied to agriculture. Some of the results were successful, such as the steam-powered threshing machine.

• These were usually owned by contractors and hired by farmers on a daily basis.

• A steam engine, called a traction engine, provided the power; unthreshed corn was fed in at the top of the threshing machine, grain poured into sacks at the back, and straw was stacked at the far left.

• It is estimated that about two thirds of the corn harvest was threshed by machine by 1880.

• Steam ploughing was more complicated. The traction engine stood at one side of the field and round a wheel on the other side.

• A special balance plough was then hauled from side to side of the field.

Additional MachinesAdditional Machines Horse-drawn cultivator – Jethro Tull Cast-iron plow (1797) – American Charles Newbold Reaper – Englishman Joseph Boyce (1799) and American

Cyrus McCormic (1834) Self-cleaning steel plow – John Deere(1837) Thresher – separated grain from stalk Harvester – cut and bind grain Combine - cut, thresh, and sack grain Tractor – pulled equipment through the field Corn planter Potato digger Electric milker Cotton picker

A New Agricultural Revolution

Improved Methods of

Farming

Enclosure Movement

Population Explosion

•Dikes for land reclamation•Fertilizer•Seed Drill – Jethro Tull•Crop rotation

•Rich landowners fenced in land formerly shared by peasant farmers.•Output rose with fewer workers•Tenants displaced•Moved to cities

•Britain’s population rose from 5 million in 1700 to 9 million in 1800.•Declining death rates•Reduced risk of famine.

On your Left Side:

• Which of the new inventions and techniques developed during the Agricultural Revolution do you think had the greatest impact?

• Explain why.

Publicity to Encourage the Agricultural Revolution?!

•Yeah, books were written on farming, there were model farms set up - George III set up one at Windsor.

•The Board of Agriculture was set up and Arthur Young, the new secretary, went round the country recording the progress of the revolution and others could read his report to find out more.

•Agricultural shows with competitions were held and people could exchange ideas and see the latest things.

The Propagandists of the Agricultural Revolution

• Arthur Young• He was a propagandist for agricultural

improvement who was convinced that Britain needed a strong agricultural community.

• Young traveled around the country and some parts of Europe, writing articles about agricultural change and also edited an agricultural journal called "The Annals of Agriculture".

• In 1793, he became secretary of the new Board of Agriculture and encouraged the spread of new agricultural techniques and ideas.

• Thomas Coke• He was a Norfolk landowner who adopted and

spread new agricultural methods on his farm in Norfolk.

• He gave his tenant farmers leases of 20 to 40 years to encourage them to try out new methods.

• He believed that if his tenant farmers felt they owned the land for a significant period of time, they would be more willing to invest in it.

• Coke encouraged farmers to use the new techniques by organising annual events

• on his estate that demonstrated the newest methods. One such event was called Coke's Clipping.

• This was a competition to see how quickly a sheep could be sheared.

• He was important for sharing and spreading new farming ideas.

Primary Sources on Agricultural Revolution on Introduction of Potato

• William Somerville, Fable of the Two Springs, 1725• “In the course of a very few years, the consumption

of potatoes in this Kingdom will be almost as general and universal as that of wheat. “

• David Henry, The Complete English Farmer, 1771• “Certainly, potatoes might be used instead of rye as

a substitute for bread, and of this discovery the poor may avail themselves in time of dearth.”

Adam Smith, The Wealth of Nations, 1776

“The food produced by a field of potatoes is not inferior in quantity to that produced by a field of rice, and much superior to what is produced by a field of wheat. Twelve thousand weight of potatoes from an acre of land is not a greater produce than two thousand weight of wheat. The food or solid nourishment, indeed, which can be drawn from each of those two plants, is not altogether in proportion to their weight, on account of the watery nature of potatoes. Allowing, however, half the weight of this root to go to water, a very large allowance, such an acre of potatoes will still produce six thousand weight of solid nourishment, three times the quantity produced by the acre of wheat. An acre of potatoes is cultivated with less expense than an acre of wheat; the fallow, which generally precedes the sowing of wheat, more than compensating the hoeing and other extraordinary culture which is always given to potatoes. Should this root ever become in any part of Europe, like rice in some rice countries, the common and favorite vegetable food of the people, so as to occupy the same proportion of the lands in tillage which wheat and other sorts of grain for human food do at present, the same quantity of cultivated land would maintain a much greater number of people, and the laborers being generally fed with potatoes, a greater surplus would remain after replacing all the stock and maintaining all the labor employed in cultivation. A greater share of this surplus, too, would belong to the landlord. Population would increase, and rents would rise much beyond what they are at present.”

On your Left Side:

• How would you have brought publicity and support to the Agricultural Revolution?

• Explain.

But it wasn’t all good news

In addition there were change in the way the land looked from

open fields to a sort of patchwork quilt.Changes in the shape of a village

as people could build on their own land

New machines meant less people were needed to work the land - so there was unemployment, enclosure meant people lost land - this meant losing their homes as they had nowhere to grow food and there was little work- so they moved to towns.

Effects in the Countryside

• The only successful farmers were those with large landholdings who could afford agricultural innovations.

• Most peasants:– Didn’t have enough land to

support themselves– Were devastated by poor harvests

(e.g., the Irish Potato Famine of 1845-47)

– Were forced to move to the cities to find work in the factories.

1. Agricultural production increased

2. Cost of foodstuffs dropped

3. Increased production of food resulted in part, in a rapid growth of population

4. Large farms, using machines and scientific methods, began to dominate agriculture

5. Number of small farms began to decline

6. The number of farmers, in proportion to total population, decreased sharply

7. Many farmers moved to the cities

8. The population of cities increased rapidly

9. Farmers found their work less difficult because machines performed the back breaking labor

10. Farming changed from a self-sufficient way of life to big business

Banking and Capital

Aristocracy and middle class had grown wealthy from overseas trading and large-scale farming.

Now people had capital, or money, to invest in new industries.

Parliament encouraged investments in new businesses by passing laws to help growing businesses.

Had a strong banking system set up to make loans available

Made numerous loans at fair rates that encouraged new businesses and inventions

Banking and Capital

• Britain had a ready supply of capital for investment– Britain excelled at

banking– Had flexible credit

facilities because they used paper money for transactions

"The weak position of the guilds in Britain in the eighteenth century can go some way in explaining the series of technological successes we usually refer to as the British Industrial Revolution and why it occurred in Britain rather than on the European continent, although clearly this was only one of many variables at work."

– Mokyr, Joel, The Gifts of Athena, Princeton University Press, 2002, p.260.

Weak Guilds and Unions Made Illegal

England’s Resources: Geography England is the political center of Great Britain, an

island Great Britain (as the entire island was called

beginning in 1707) did not suffer fighting on its land during the wars of the 18th century

Island has excellent harbors and ports Damp climate benefited the textile industry (thread

did not dry out)

A country with many rivers and

streams…so water power can

be harnessed.

Natural Resources/GeographyRich in natural resourcesLarge number of harbors and rivers that could be used year-

round for shippingWater also could be used as a power sourceHuge supplies of iron and coal---raw materials for the building

of machines and fueling the new machinesThe damp climate was good for textile production, because it

helped to keep the fibers in the material soft and easy to work with.

Separated from the continent, Britain was able to remain apart from the wars plaguing Europe during the 1600 and 1700s and thus conserve their resources.

Natural Resources/Geography

• England substituted coal for charcoal in the manufacturing of iron because by the 1700s, most of the forests were gone.

• In 1708, the Darby family of Coalbrookdale started smelting iron using coke that was processed from coal. It made the highest quality of iron.

• Since England had a large supply of coal, it was able to dominate the iron industry.

Early CanalsEarly Canals

Britain’s Earliest Britain’s Earliest Transportation Transportation InfrastructureInfrastructure

Metals, Woolens, & Canals

Metals, Woolens, & Canals

Coalfields & Industrial Areas

Coalfields & Industrial Areas

Mine & Forge [1840-1880]

Mine & Forge [1840-1880]

ù More powerful than water is coal.More powerful than water is coal.

ù More powerful than wood is iron.More powerful than wood is iron.

ù Innovations make steel feasible.Innovations make steel feasible. ““Puddling” [1820] – “pig iron.”Puddling” [1820] – “pig iron.” ““Hot blast” [1829] – cheaper, purer Hot blast” [1829] – cheaper, purer

steel.steel. Bessemer process [1856] – strong, Bessemer process [1856] – strong,

flexible steel.flexible steel.

18001800 1 ton of coal 50, 000 miners

18501850 30 tons 200, 000 miners

18801880300 million tons

500, 000 miners

19141914250 million tons

1, 200, 000 miners

Coal Mining in Britain:

1800-1914

Coal Mining in Britain:

1800-1914

UK France Germany

Austria

Belgium Russia

1820-4 17.7 1.1 1.2 0.1 - -

1840-4 34.2 3.5 4.4 0.52 4.1 -

1860-4 86.3 10.0 20.8 4.1 10.2 0.04

1880-4 158.9 20.2 65.7 17.0 17.5 3.7

1900-4 230.4 33.0 157.3 38.8 23.3 17.3

Output of Coal and Lignite - Selected Countries, Annual Averages

(in million metric tonnes)

UK France Germany

Austria

Belgium

Russia

1781-90 69 141 - - - -

1825-29 669 212 90 85 - 164

1855-59 3,583 900 422 306 312 254

1875-79 6,484 1,462 1,770 418 484 424

1900-14 8,778 2,665 7,925 1,425 1,070 2,773

Output of Pig Iron - Selected Countries, Annual Averages

(in thousand metric tons)

British Pig Iron Production

British Pig Iron Production

Large Labor Supply of Workers

Serfdom and guilds ended earlier in England than other countries

English people could freely travel from the countryside to the cities

Enclosure Acts – caused many small farmers to lose their lands, and these former farmers increased the labor supply

Large Labor SupplyGrowing population of workers due to the improvements in

farming---more food available leads to better diet and longer life expectancy

1700---less than 7 million, 1800---11 millionRapid population growth increased demand for goodsDisplaced farmers due to the enclosure movement took over

jobs in factories and miningBirth rates rose in the 1700s, while death rates dropped.In 1700 in London, there was a half-million more deaths than

births.By 1800 in London, the deaths only outnumbered births by

20,000.

Large Labor SupplyThe death rate dropped because more babies were surviving

childbirth due to the better training of midwives and formation of maternity hospitals.

Both children and adults were dying less from disease.The major health epidemics like the Bubonic Plague had

vanished in Britain after 1660 and the Great Fire of London.Other major diseases followed a similar pattern like Syphilis

which stopped being an epidemic in the 1700s.Inoculations started in 1760 with Jenner’s Smallpox vaccine.Other reasons for the reduction of the epidemics are

unknown.

How many people were there?

How do historians know how many people lived in Britain in 1750?

* 1750/1 1800/1 1850/1 1990

Great Britain 7.4 10.5 20.8 57.1

France 21 27.3 35.8 56.1

Germany | 34.0 79.0

|-[Germ+Aust] 18 23

Austria | 17.5 7.6Hungary 3.5 5.0 13.2 10.5Belgium 2.2 3.1 4.3 9.9

Italy 16.0 19.0 24.4 57.6

Netherlands 1.6 2.1 3.1 14.9

Portugal 2.3 2.9 3.5 10.5Russia 28 40.0 68.5 146.4Spain 8.2 10.5 15.0 39.6

Sweden 1.8 2.3 3.5 8.4

EUROPE (approx) 132.0 190.0 260.0 775.0

Population

(tentative estimates in millions - much of it guesswork)

Social Factors

• British society was organized in a less rigid and hierarchical manner than France or Germany who held on to feudalism.

• British society was fairly egalitarian.• The most significant social class in Britain was

the middle class that was comprised of merchants and artisans. Where in Germany and France, it was the nobility.

Social Factors• Most people moved to the cities

instead of living in rural areas.• This was only seen in Britain and

Germany.• By the mid 1800s, 70% to 80% of

Britain’s population lived in urban areas.

• Society During the Industrial Revolution– Urbanization-The movement

of people from the country to the city.

– Social Classes during the Industrial Revolution

• Upper class elite, 5%(owned most of the country’s wealth)

• Middle classes, 15% (women worked at home raising kids)

• Lower classes, 80% (lived mostly in tenement housing-tightly packed apartment like housing)

Openness to New Ideas Ambitious upper and middle class people willing to invest in new

inventions and industries---ENTREPRENEURS British people were interested in science and technology due to the

Scientific RevolutionNot afraid to take risks to make a profitMost of the early inventors were British or Scottish

a)John Kay---flying shuttleb)James Hargreaves---spinning jennyc)Richard Arkwright---waterframed)Samuel Crompton---spinning mulee)Edmund Cartwright---power loom

(all of these led to the development of textile factories)f)James Watt---steam engineg)Henry Bessemer---inexpensive way to make steelh)Thomas Telford & John McAdam---paving roadsi)Richard Trevithick---steam locomotive

Openness to New Ideas• Due to the increase in wealth and the

middle class due to exploration and colonization of the New World, the middle class was willing to invest in the new industries.

• By the end of the 1700s, the investments earned them 50% returns.

The first inventions are in the textile industry. With the

increased population, the demand for cloth was great.

Flying Shuttle

• John Kay• 1733• Hand-operated

machine which increased the speed of weaving

John Kay’s “Flying Shuttle”

John Kay’s “Flying Shuttle”

Spinning Jenny• James Hargreaves---1765• Home-based machine that spun thread 8 times

faster than when spun by hand

Water Frame• Richard Arkwright• 1769• Water-powered

spinning machine that was too large for use in a home – led to the creation of factories

Spinning Mule• Samuel Crompton

• 1779• Combined the

spinning jenny and the water frame into a single device, increasing the production of fine thread

Edmund Cartwright---Power Loom

• 1785• Water-powered device

that automatically and quickly wove thread into cloth

The Power LoomThe Power Loom

James Watt’s Steam Engine

James Watt’s Steam Engine

James Watt (1736-1819) and Steam Engine

• Improved Atmospheric Engine of Savery and Newcomen by adding separate condenser for steam.

• Perfected flywheel• Made double reciprocating engine: steam

drives piston in both directions• 1000 steam engines in England in 1800

Watt’s Steam Engine

Openness to New Ideas: Inventions

• Steam Engine-– Provided a new source

of power in factories.– Eventually redesigned

by James Watt – Led to all factories

being run by steam and not water.

• The location of factories was now unlimited


• Steam Locomotive– Started in 1820’s to

improve transportation– Led to a boom in railroads-

which helped business and increased jobs

– Eventually was a major cause for westward expansion in the United States

– Why is the development of the Railroad so important to history?

First class and mail

Second class

Manchester-Liverpool Trains (1830)


• Steamboat– Invented to improve

transportation of people and goods

– Some ships were also used as party ships up and down rivers in the 19th and early 20th centuries

Great Britain is an island nation with a relatively stable

constitutional monarchy.

Political Stability/GovernmentBritain fought many wars during the 1700s, but never on

British soil.So they never had to rebuild farms or towns due to war

damages.British citizens did not have to worry about the threat of

war destroying their property and had more time to consider ways to improve the quality of their lives.

The British government favored economic growth by passing laws that encouraged investment in new inventions and industries.

There were no internal trade barriers within Britain unlike most European countries.

Political Stability/GovernmentBritain had unified much earlier in terms of government

and culture than Germany, Italy, France, and Spain.This encouraged internal British trade and circulation of

goods that helped strengthen the domestic economy.Industrialization was also encouraged by the ability of the

population to relocate relatively freely. In most European countries, it was difficult for people to

transfer citizenship from one town to another.England allowed its population geographical mobility.Travel and trade were also made easier by the early

development of canals and rivers due to private and government investment.

Government: Parliament

• Parliament helped by providing a favorable business climate– Provided a stable

government– Passed laws to protect

private property– Very few restrictions

on private enterprises

Government: Turnpikes & Canals• Turnpike trusts created new

roads and networks of canals– Soon overtaken by railroads

• Railroads were the most important single factor in promoting European economic progress

• Railroad construction created jobs that many farm laborers and peasants filled

British Government Supporting The Growth

• From 1760 – 1774, Parliament passed over 500 laws related to building more and better roads

• Between 1790 and 1794, the British Parliament passed 89 laws concerning the building of new canals.

• The government pursued Laissez-Faire Capitalism and did not regulate working hours, pay, conditions, child labor, environmental issues, etc…that allowed for fast and cheap growth.

Importance of Railroads• Most important thing about railroads is that

they provided a faster and cheaper means of transportation

• Reduced the price of goods– Which increased sales– Which created more factories and machines– And the process started over again

Colonies and NavyBritish took advantage of their access to international markets. A British law requiring merchants to use British ships for foreign trade

promoted the British fleet.The heavy use of the British fleet for trade increased the volume of

imports and exports. This gave Britain more purchasing power and increased the

importance of the British fleet.It became a self-perpetuating cycle.To preserve a monopoly on the industrial technology, the British

government prohibited industrial workers, inventors, or anyone familiar with industrial technology to leave the country.

England’s Resources: Colonies and Markets

Wealth from the Commercial Revolution spread beyond the merchant class

England had more colonies than any other nation Its colonies gave England access to enormous

markets and vast amounts of raw materials Colonies had rich textile industries for centuries

Many of the natural cloths popular today, such as calico and gingham, were originally created in India

China had a silk industry

Colonial Empire• Britain’s colonial empire encouraged industrialization.• Because Britain had a lot of control over its colonies, it created and

enforced the economic system of Mercantilism.• Britain purchased and imported raw materials from her colonies.• From these raw materials, British companies produced

manufactured goods which they sold back to the colonies and to Europe.

• British controlled colonies provided a ready-made, steady market for British goods.

• The war ravaged European continent also imported British goods which increased the demand on British industries and pushed the industries to produce more.

How ‘Great’ was Britain?

• British empire growing – Canada, West Indies, Africa, India & America

• Imported goods from plantations, e.g. cotton, tobacco & sugar

• Exported – cloth, pottery, metal goods

Colonial Markets

• Had a large supply of markets for their manufactured goods– Included Europe, the

Americas, Africa & the East

• Efficient merchant marine system to transport goods anywhere in the world

Colonies and Merchant Marine

• World’s largest merchant fleet • Merchant marine built up from the

Commercial Revolution• Vast numbers of ships could bring raw

materials and finished goods to and from England’s colonies and possessions, as well as to and from other countries

Britain’s Colonial Empire By End of 1800s

On your Left Side with your partner:

• Which of the factors for why the Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain first do you think had the most impact?

• Explain why.• Is there a country today who shares similarities with

Industrial Revolution Great Britain?• Who and how?


• Benefits of Industrialization– Better clothes, better heat, better food– Increased goods – More jobs– More opportunities

Advantages of Industrializing FirstGrowth of early British factories was impressive.As early as 1820, only 30% of the British labor remained in

agriculture, while 80 to 100% of the continental labor was still devoted to agriculture.

Britain was able to specialize in industry and import agricultural products from the continental Europe.

Due to the effects of the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars, the Industrial Revolution was delayed in continental Europe. It would not arrive until 1830.

The French only began industrializing in the period 1830 – 1871, and only with a focus on luxury items and small-scale manufacturing.

German industrialization happened even later in the 1870s and 1880s after the German unification process.

Continental Know How

• The continent lacked the technical knowledge of the British– They “borrowed” ideas

• The British forbade artisans from leaving the country and prohibited the export of machinery

• Didn’t work because of the black market

Continental Skills

• Gradually they obtained the skills and machines they needed

• Established technical schools to train engineers and mechanics

Thank Napoleon

• One factor that kept the continent behind Great Britain was the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Era– Wars caused destruction,

disrupted trade, death, economic crisis and social & political instability

– Napoleon only widened the gap between British and Europe

Advantages of Industrializing First

• Belgium started in 1807.• Holland, northern Italy, and

Switzerland would not industrialize until the start of the 20th century.

• Spain and Portugal were largely removed from the industrialization process.

Continental Industrial Centers

• Belgium, France and the German states• The cotton industry was different on the

continent in two ways– It was dispersed through many regions as

opposed to being centered in a couple of cities like Lancashire and Glasgow

– Industry was built on iron and coal as opposed to being built on the cotton industry

Continental Governments

• Government played an important role in industrialization– Took on the cost of building canals, roads & railways– Created tariffs against British goods– Necessary because they were cheaper and it protected

their industry as well

• Continental investment banks used their saving as capital to develop industry

Continental Governments and IR

• Record is mixed.• Government often sided with owners—

Pullman Strike in U. S. (1894).• Influenced by evolving liberalism (J. S. Mill),

Government sought to create safety nets.• Bismarck’s Germany—accident, disability, and

old age insurance.

England vs. Continental Europe

• Produced 20% of industrial goods

• Gross national product rose 4x

• Population increase• Inventors took

inventions abroad

• Belgium’s coal and iron resources

• Germany iron and wool factories

• France slow to industrialize

• Mechanization came but late


Other Countries soon followed the example of Great Britain’s industrialization– 1. The United States- many natural

resources and many workers good combination for industrialization

• Industry started in the Northeast many people moved into factory towns

– 2. Belgium, Germany, and France were also affected by the Industrial Revolution

1870 1913

USA 23.3 35.8

Germany 13.2 15.7

U.K. 31.8 14.0

France 10.3 6.4

Russia 3.7 5.5

Italy 2.4 2.7

Canada 1.0 2.3

Belgium 2.9 2.1

Sweden 0.4 1.0

Japan | 1.2

India |- 11.0 1.1

Other Countries | 12.2

Percentage Distribution of the World's Manufacturing Production, 1870 and 1913

(percentage of world total)

UK France Germany Russia Italy

1781-90 3.8 10.9 - - -

1801-14 7.1 12.3 - - -

1825-34 18.8 21.5 - - -

1845-54 27.5 33.7 11.7 - -

1865-74 49.2 49.8 24.2 13.5 42.9

1885-94 70.5 68.2 45.3 38.7 54.6

1905-13 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

% of world industrial

production in 1913

14.0 6.4 17.7 5.5 2.7

The Rate of Industrial Growth in Five Selected Countries

Indices of Industrial Production (Base Figures - 1905-13 = 100)

Industrialization By 1850

Industrialization By 1850

Industrialization soon spread to western Europe and the United States. Other regions did not industrialize in the 1800s. What was it about Western countries that encouraged them to embrace industry?

• Political liberty

• Freedom to compete

• Rewards reaped

• Exploitation and improvements

Why Western Countries?

• British restrictions

• Hamilton, 1791

• Samuel Slater

– Water frame

– Slater’s Mill

• Lowell’s Mill

America

• Belgium, 1807

• France, 1815

• Germany, 1850

– Railroads

– Treaties

Europe

Industrialization Spreads

Results of the Industrial Revolution

• New inventions and development of factories

• Rapidly growing industry in the 1800s

• Increased production and higher demand for raw materials

• Growth of worldwide trade

• Population explosion and a large labor force

• Exploitation of mineral resources

• Highly developed banking and investment system

• Advances in transportation, agriculture, and communication

Economic Effects

• Child labor laws to end abuses

• Reformers urging equal distribution of wealth (i.e. Karl Marx)

• Trade unions

• Social reform movements, such as utilitarianism, utopianism, socialism, and Marxism

• Reform bills in Parliament

Political Effects


• Long hours worked by children in factories

• Increase in population of cities

• Poor city planning • Loss of family stability • Expansion of middle

class• Harsh conditions for

laborers• Workers’ progress vs.

laissez-faire economic attitudes

• Improved standard of living

• Creation of new jobs• Encouragement of

technological progress

Social Effects

Industrial Revolution’s Impact

• Growth of large factory towns like Manchester, Birmingham, and Liverpool

• Division of Labor, both according to task and increasingly of gender

• Efficiency—F. W. Taylor• Material quality of life increased among

workers as did alienation


• Effects--- Working Conditions– Men, women, and children worked 12-16 hours a

day– Working conditions were very dangerous & made

little money

Social Implications

• Urbanization• New demands on city services• Separation of work from home—home

becomes a place to produce children, not goods.

• Clock/calendar regimented life styles• Child labor


• Changes as a result of the Industrial Revolution– 1. More people moved to

the enlarged cities– 2. New cities- poor housing,

few schools, and little police protection

– Newcastle in England became a large steel producer


• Cities became filled with garbage and highly polluted– Average lifespan in the

city was 17 while in the countryside it was 38 (over double)

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Huge cities like Manchester, Birmingham, and Liverpool grew rapidly out of obscure village, and Lancashire, London, Clyde, and the black country” engulfed old rural beauty. Village life crumbled, and the population massively migrated to new centres of manufacture.

Railways developed : in 1825 a line opened between Stockton and Darlington and another one was inaugurated in 1830 between Liverpool and Manchester.

Canals were opened all over Britain, the first one in 1757. They enabled the transportation of industrial goods at a low cost.

The use of machines meant that workers had to be gathered in one single place, the factory. Many people left their villages in the hope of finding work in the cities. In big industrial cities, houses were built very fast to house the numerous workers arriving from the country. These districts were invaded by disease and revolt.

With the progress of medicine, the population increased and more people needed to be fed. Fields were fertilised and closed with thick stone walls to be easier to cultivate.

Population 1750 1815 1850United Kingdom 7,4 billions 15 billions 23 billionsEngland/Wales 10 billions 18 billionsUrbanisation rate (UK) 19 % 37%

A Day in the life of a Yorkshire girlThis testimony was gathered by Lord Ashley when he conducted an investigation into the conditions of labour in mines. His report led to the mines Act of 1842 that prohibited the employment in the mines of children under thirteen. Patiente Kershaw, 17-May 15, 1842“My father has been dead about a year ; my mother is living and has ten children, five lads and five lasses ; the oldest is about thirty, the youngest is four ; three lasses go to mill ; all the lads work at the pit ; mother does nothing but look after home. I never went to day-school ; I go to Sunday-school but I cannot read or write ; I go to pit at five o’clock in the morning and come out at five in the evening ; I get my breakfast of porridge and milk first ; I take my dinner with me, a cake, and eat it as I go ; I do not stop or rest any time ;I get nothing else until I get home, and then I have potatoes and meat - not meat every day.At the pit, I hurry the corves about a mile under ground and back ; I wear a belt and chain to get the corves out ; the getters that I work for are naked except their caps ; they pull off all their clothes ; sometimes they beat me, if I am not quick enough ; the boys take liberties with me sometimes they pull me about ; I am the only girl. I would rather work in mill than in coal-pit.”The girl is an ignorant, fithy, deplorable-looking object, one that the uncivilized natives of the prairies would be shocked to look upon. Parliamentary Papers, 1842.

The brickyards of England - Children carrying clay

Young girl pulling a corve

Child Labour

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