WARDIPLOMACY

The League of Nations created to maintain world peace Forty-two members, twenty-six of them outside Europe Dominated by UK, France and used as force against Germany The league had no power to enforce its decisions League could only

Make suggestions Impose sanctions Blockades

Collective security depended on all major powers Powers Left Out

United States never joined USSR ignored Germany not invited for some time

The mandate system United States opposed direct colonization Allies proposed system of trusteeships France, United Kingdom benefited most Created from German colonies, Ottoman territories in S.W. Asia

Idealistic Attempts Attempts to disarm nations led to naval reduction treaties Attempt to outlaw war led to Kellogg-Briand treaty Many nations reduced their militaries to minimal levels

Japan Global conflict began with Japanese invasion of Manchuria, 1931

League of Nations condemned action; Japan simply withdrew from league 1937, Japan launched full-scale invasion of China

1937 War In China Resumed Nationalists and communists formed "united front" against Japanese Unable to effectively work together, they conducted guerilla attacks

Japan, Germany, Italy ally 1940; neutrality pact with USSR, 1941 Italy, Germany, and Russia

Italy after the Great War Italians felt slighted at the Paris Peace Conference Mussolini promised national glory, empire Invaded Ethiopia (1935-1936), killed 250,000 Ethiopians; annexed

Albania Germany: deep resentment at Treaty of Versailles

Harsh terms: reparations, economic restrictions, depression helped Nazis Hitler blamed Jews, communists, liberals for losing war, Versailles Treaty

After 1933, Hitler moved to ignore terms of peace settlement Withdrew from League, 1933; Rebuilt military, air force; reinstated draft Militarized Rhineland, 1936; Austria, 1938; France and Britain did

nothing Spanish Civil War 1936 - 1939

Spanish fascists stage coup against republic; socialists, communists fight Italians, Germans, Russians helped each side but fascists won

The Munich Conference: Peace for our time? In 1938, Germany "appeased" by taking Sudetenland Britain and France desperate to avoid war, appeased Hitler

Russian-German Non-Aggression Treaty, 1939, shocked world

Blitzkrieg: Germany conquers Western Europe : 1939 – 1940 Blitzkrieg: lightening war of tank, air, mobility Battle of the Atlantic: German subs against British convoys Battle of Britain: British defeat German airforce

The German invasion of the Soviet Union 1941: Germany conquers Balkans, invades USSR Blitzkrieg strategies less effective in Russia Hitler underestimated Soviet industrial capacity, Germans ill-prepared for war, stalled at Stalingrad

U.S. support of the Allies before Pearl Harbor Roosevelt sold, "loaned" arms , war material to UK Later supplied the Soviets and the Chinese

Japanese expansion Continued into southeast Asia: Indochina, 1940-1941 USA responded by freezing Japanese assets, used oil embargo Demanded withdrawal from China and southeast Asia

7 December 1941 US navy at Pearl Harbor attacked US declared war on Japan; Germany, Italy declared war on USA

Japanese overran Southeast Asia, swept seas of Allied Navies

Impact of Soviet Union and U.S. entry in 1941 USSR brought vital personnel and USA industry to Allies Russia fielded 350 divisions against the German 130 Germany forced to fight a two front war German subs sank 2,452 ships, U.S. shipyards built more

Allied victories came after 1943 Russians defeated the Germans at Stalingrad, pushed them back 1944, British-U.S. troops invaded North Africa and then Italy June 1944, British-U.S. forces invaded northern France at Normandy Overwhelmed Germans on coast of Normandy, 6 June 1944 Round-the-clock strategic bombing by Allies leveled German cities Germans surrendered unconditionally 8 May 1945; Hitler committed suicide

Turning the tide in the Pacific The Battle of Midway, June 1942; United States broke Japanese code Island-hopping strategy: moving to islands close to Japan for air attacks US launched unrestricted submarine warfare against Japanese empire British invade Japanese empire through Burma, SE Asia Chinese nationalists, communists tie down 2 million Japanese troops

Savage fighting on islands of Iwo Jima and Okinawa US launches round the clock air raids against Japan Japanese used kamikazes; Okinawan civilians refused to surrender U.S. military was convinced that Japan would not surrender

Japanese surrender after devastating assault U.S. firebombing raids devastated Japanese cities: in Tokyo, 100,000 killed August 1945: atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki killed 200,000 Japanese emperor surrendered unconditionally 15 August, ending WWII

Total War Mobilization of all society in order to win Civilians used to work in war industry Women used in non-combatant roles Minorities employed in many roles including combat Industry, science mobilized to support war Allies went on total war very early; Axis delayed and it cost them the

war

Civilians and the War Combatants started to attack civilians Cities and civilian targets became fair game

Guerillas Non-traditional combatants attack enemy behind the lines In Yugoslavia, Albania, Poland, France, Russia, China helped win the

war

Technology Scientists became an integral part of the war Rockets, jet fighters, radar, atomic bombs, super weapons Allies had a clear and early lead but Germany had its surprises

Country193

8193

9194

0194

1194

2194

3194

4194

5

Austria 24 27 27 29 27 28 29 12

France[1] 186 199 164 130 116 110 93 101

Germany 351 384 387 412 417 426 437 310

Italy[2] 141 151 147 144 145 137 117 92

Japan[3] 169 184 192 196 197 194 189 144

Soviet Union[4] 359 366 417 359 274 305 362 343

UK 284 287 316 344 353 361 346 331

USA[5] 800 869 9431 09

41 23

51 39

91 49

91 47

4

Allied Total:[6] 1 629

1 600

1 331

1 596

1 862

2 065

2 363

2 341

Axis Total:[7] 685 746 845 911 902 895 826 466

Allied/Axis GDP:[8] 2.38 2.15 1.58 1.75 2.06 2.31 2.86 5.02

“Civilians” Impossible in new war to separate front, rear areas All nations had to mobilize who population to survive US had it easiest but all other civilians suffered

Occupation, collaboration, and resistance

Patterns of occupation varied : Germany, Japan were worst Both Japan, Germany exploited conquered states, peoples

Slave labor conscripted from conquered populations to work in factories

Labor conscripted from Poles, Soviets, Balkans, also Chinese and Koreans

Many local people accepted, collaborated with occupying forces Japanese domination not much different from European domination Others aided conquerors to gain power in new administration Anticommunism led some in western Europe to join the Nazi SS troops

Resistance to occupation took many forms Active resistance: sabotage, assaults, assassination Passive resistance as well: intelligence gathering, refusing to submit Resistance in Japan and Germany was dangerous and rare

Occupation forces responded to resistance with atrocities Brutal reprisals to acts of resistance by both Germans and Japanese Despite retaliation, resistance movements grew throughout the war

Prisoner of War, Enemy Combatants, Detainees Western Allies treated POWs well Russians, Germans, Japanese did not US detained and isolated 150,000 people of Japanese descent

Minorities The Germans utilized racially acceptable minorities in their army Russians, Chinese mobilized everyone – irrespective of race, ethnicity Japanese enlisted other ethnic groups but mistreated their Korean soldiers The USA and the African Americans

Given low, menial jobs; segregated from white troops White officers commanded black units Only later in war allowed into combat Graduates of Tuskagee formed a famous fighter squadron

The British and French Mobilized their empires and citizens for war British Indian Army, French colonial troops very active

Women and the war "It's a Woman's War, Too!"

Over half a million British, 350,000 American women joined auxiliary services Soviet and Chinese women took up arms and joined resistance groups Jewish women and girls suffered as much as men and boys

Women's social roles changed dramatically By taking jobs or heading families, women gained independence and confidence Changes expected to be temporary, would return to traditional role after war

"Comfort women" Japanese armies forcibly recruited 300,000 women to serve in military brothels 80 percent of comfort women came from Korea Many were massacred by Japanese soldiers; survivors experienced deep shame

Types of Murder Genocide: Killing of a specific group of people, attempt to wipe out Democide: Mass murder of people by government Ethnic Cleansing: Term common when one group attacks, kills another

Armenian Holocaust First genocide of 20th century Turks killed 1.5 million Armenians for their support of Russians in World War I

The Holocaust Long history of anti-Semitism

Created tolerance of Nazi's anti-Jewish measures At first Nazis encouraged Jewish emigration Many Jews were unable to leave after Nazis took their wealth Nazi conquest of Europe brought more Jews under their control

The "final solution" Began with slaughter of Jews, Gypsies, undesirables in Soviet Union By 1941, German special killing units had killed 1.4 million Jews By 1942 Nazis evacuated all European Jews to camps in east Poland

Jewish resistance Will to resist sapped by prolonged starvation, disease Warsaw Ghetto Uprising: 60,000 Jews rose up against Germans

Altogether About 5.7 million Jews perished; more than 2 million Poles died Almost 98% of all Gypsies were murdered

Other Examples Democides: Stalin, Mao, Pol Pot (Cambodia), Zaire/Congo Genocides: Rwanda, Sudan Ethnic Cleansings: Bosnia, Kosovo, Kurds in Iraq

The origins of the cold war (1947-1990) Unlikely alliance between Britain, USSR, USA held up for duration of war Not without tensions: Soviet resented U.S.-British delays in European invasion

Postwar settlement established at Yalta and Potsdam Each Allied power to occupy and control territories liberated by its armed forces Stalin agreed to support United States against Japan Stalin's plans prevailed; Poland and east Europe became communist allies President Truman took hard line at Potsdam, widened differences

Postwar territorial divisions reflected growing schism between USA, USSR Soviets took east Germany, while United States, Britain, and France took west Germany Berlin also divided four ways; by 1950 division seemed permanent Churchill spoke of an "iron curtain" across Europe, separating east and west Similar division in Korea: Soviets occupied north and United States the south

Truman doctrine, 1947: USA would support "free peoples resisting subjugation" Perception of world divided between so-called free and enslaved peoples Interventionist policy, dedicated to "containment" of communism

The Marshall Plan, 1948: U.S. aid for the recovery of Europe Idea to rebuild European economies and strengthen capitalism Soviet response: Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (COMECON) for its satellites

NATO and the Warsaw Pact: militarization of the cold war 1949, United States created NATO, a regional military alliance against Soviet aggression 1955, Soviets formed the Warsaw Pact in response Two global superpowers protecting hegemony with alliances United Nations, established 1945 to maintain international peace and security

Postwar Europe Divided into competing political, military, economic blocs

NATO, European Economic Communities; Warsaw Pact, COMECON Neutral: European Free Trade Association; Yugoslavia

Western Europe U.S. allies supported by permanent presence of American army Parliamentary governments, capitalist economies

Eastern Europe Dominated by Soviet Union, Red Army, secret police Communist governments modeled after USSR dominate countries

Germany divided east and west in 1949 Soviets refused to withdraw from eastern Germany after World War II Allied sectors reunited 1947-1948, Berlin remained divided as well Berlin blockade and airlift, 1948-1949 The Berlin Wall, 1961

In Asia Turkey, Greece, Iran pressured by USSR, allies: US responds with Truman

Doctrine Communist Chinese armed by USSR, drive Nationalists out of China by 1949 Korea divided into Communist North, Pro-Western South: North invades South in

1950 Communists influence Viet Minh in Indo-China

Post-1945 Era of international cooperation Many global problems cannot be solved by national governments

Nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) Red Cross, an international humanitarian agency, founded 1964 Greenpeace, an environmental organization, founded in 1970 Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch

The United Nations Founded 1945 "to maintain international peace and security" Security Council

Permanent Veto Nations: UK, US, France, Russia, China Not successful at preventing wars, for example, Iran-Iraq war Often can diffuse tense situations

General Assembly Each nation has one vote; poor, 3rd world nations dominate Cannot legislate, but has influence in international community Often used as a sounding board for world concerns, ignored by West

ECOSOC, UN Commission of Refugees, WHO More successful in health and educational goals Eradication of smallpox and other diseases Decrease in child mortality, increase in female literacy

Human rights: an ancient concept, gaining wider acceptance Nuremberg Trials of Nazis

Established concept of "crimes against humanity“ Permanent court sits in Hague, Netherlands for war crimes trials

UN Universal Declaration of Human Rights Forbids slavery, torture, discrimination Guarantees basic human rights, freedoms

Mohandas K. Gandhi (1869-1948) Political and spiritual leader, called the Mahatma ("Great Soul") Opposed to caste system, especially the exclusion of untouchables 1920-1922, led Non-Cooperation Movement 1930, Civil Disobedience Movement

The India Act of 1937 Repression failed, so the British offered modified self-rule through the India Act Unsuccessful because India's six hundred princes refused to support : Muslims want

independent state Muslims would not cooperate, wanted an independent state

During World War II Many Indians sympathetic with Japan, Gandhi pursued peaceful non-cooperation British were very concerned about Indian disloyalty which really never surfaced

Indian self-rule British finally willing to consider independence after WWII Muslim separatism grew; feared domination by Hindus

Partition of India and ensuing violence Independent India, 1947, divided into Muslim Pakistan and Hindu India Ten million refugees moved either to India or Pakistan; one million died in migration Gandhi assassinated by a Hindu extremist, 30 January 1948

Conflicts between India and Pakistan 1947, fought over province of Kashmir; Pakistan lost Pakistan allied with United States; India accepted aid from both superpowers India and Pakistan stayed in British Commonwealth; English was official language

Arab states gained independence during, after World War II British suppress Iraqi nationalist uprising in 1941; expel Vichy French from

Syria British, US force French to grant Lebanon, Syria independence in 1943

Creation of Israel Unable to resolve conflict, Britain turned Palestine question over to UN, 1947 UN proposed dividing into two states, Palestine and Israel; Arabs opposed 1947, British withdrew, civil war broke out, Jews proclaimed the state of Israel Egypt, Jordan, Syria, and Iraq declared war on Israel Israel achieved victory in 1949; claimed territories larger than what was

granted by UN Egypt

Military leaders under Gamal A. Nasser seized power in 1952 Nasser became prime minister, a leader of pan-Arab nationalism Egypt neutral in cold war, accepted aid from both powers Nasser dedicated to ending imperialism, destroying state of Israel

Suez crisis, 1956, greatly enhanced Nasser's prestige Canal owned by UK; Nasser nationalized it British, French, and Israeli forces attack to retake canal US, USSR condemned military action, forced them to withdraw Suez crisis divided United States and its allies in western Europe

Pan-Arab Nationalism Sought to unify Arabs in one secularized state; downplayed Islam Egypt, Syria, Yemen united in 1968; union late broke down Strongly influenced by Arab-Israeli conflict Ba’ath Parties in Syria, Iraq strongest Pan-Arab Parties

Black African nationalism and independence Growth of African nationalism

Began as grassroots protest against European imperialism African nationalism celebrated Negritude (blackness), African roots

Obstacles to African independence White settlers opposed black independence Anticommunist fears justified interference in African politics Economic and political instability often hampered postindependent Africa

South Africa Transformation of South Africa

Gained independence in 1901, but denied civil rights to black population South African economy strong, both mining and industry; prospered during

WWII Black workers demanded political change

1948 : Afrikaner National Party wins control of South African government Apartheid

Harsh legal system imposed in 1948, designed to keep races separate 87 peercent of South African land was for white residents, others classified by

race African National Congress led by Mandela, launched campaign to protest

apartheid Severe government repression provoked international opposition after 1960

Forcing the French out of north Africa France in Africa

1950s and 1960s, French granted independence to all its African colonies except Algeria

Algerian Revolt of May 1954 repressed by French; eight thousand Algerian Muslims died

War in Algeria, 1954-1962 Algerian nationalists pursued guerrilla warfare against French rule By 1958, a half-million French soldiers were committed to the conflict

Freedom and conflict in sub-Sahara Africa Ghana (Gold Coast) first to gain independence, 1957

Kwame Nkrumah, nationalist leader, jailed and censored for political actions Eventually released, Nkrumah became Ghana's first president, 1957

Anticolonial rebellion in Kenya Violent clashes between native Kikuyu (Mau Mau) and European settlers after

1947 1930s and 1940s, Kikuyu pushed off farm lands, reduced to wage slaves Labeling Mau Mau as communist subversives, Britain gained U.S. support Kikuyu uprising crushed by superior arms in 1955; twelve thousand Africans

killed