Unit 16, Lesson 1 Old and New Imperialism -...

Old and New Imperialism

Unit 16, Lesson 1

Keywords“God, gold, and

glory”

protectorate

reconquista

self-sufficiency

social Darwinism

sovereignty

Victorians

Essential Questions• Whatwerethemotivations,thetimeperiod,andthepatternsofold

imperialism?

• Whatwerethemotivations,thetimeperiod,andthepatternsofnewimperialism?

• Whattechnologiesmadenewimperialismpossible?

• WhatwerethekeyfeaturesofsocialDarwinism?

• Whatideologiesareevidentinthebrownandwhiteman’sburdens?Whataretheirjustificationsforandagainstimperialism?

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760 Unit 16, Lesson 1

Set the StageAfter the dust from the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars began to settle in the mid-nineteenth century, Europe experienced profound industrial and technological expansions as part of the Industrial Revolution. During this time, European citizens began to demand more freedoms and rights for themselves, as well as take more pride in their own nations. They concentrated on strengthening themselves from within and developing new tools, products, and ideas. Soon, Europe needed more money to fund the new factories and places of industry developing within its states, as well as more natural materials to fuel its factories. Instead of invading each other, however, when Europe’s countries needed more resources to support their new technology and industry they began to look elsewhere: to Africa and to Asia.

The Rise of Old Imperialism: How and WhyFormanyEuropeancountries,thedesiretoincreasetheirlandsandholdingsbeyondtheirownborders—andbeyondtheirowncontinent—hadbeenfeltandexploredsince1096.Atthattime,membersofChristiannationswentontheCrusadestotheHolyLandtospreadtheirreligiousideals.DuringtheMiddleAges,Europeannationscontinuallyattemptedtoincreasetheirinfluenceoutsidetheirdomesticboundaries.ThiscontinuedincreasecanbeseeninSpain’sreconquista,inwhichMuslimSpaniardsweredrivenfromthecontinent;intheideathatMarcoPoloshouldtraveltoandreportbackonChina;eveninPortugal’sinitialexplorationsofAfrica’scoast.PeopleinEuropewantedtoknowwhatelsethewideworldconsistedof.

Today,scholarswonderwhy,exactly,somanyEuropeannationsbecameevenmoredrawntojourneysofdiscoveryinthe1400sand1500s—whatwasitaboutthattimeperiodthatmadepeoplesointerestedinadventureandseekingoutknowledge?Traditionally,scholarsrefertothedescriptionof“God, gold, and glory.”Indeed,thesethreewordsexplainlikelyandpossiblemotivationsforexplorerstogoonjourneysofdiscoveryandfornationstosponsorthem.GodreferstotheideathatbothindividualEuropeansandEuropeannationswantedtospreadandsharetheirreligiousidealswithpeopletheysawasuneducated,atbest,andinfidels,atworst.Goldreferstothevastfinancialrewardsthatcouldaccruetoanadventurerandtothenationthatsponsoredhimshouldhisdangerousjourneytounknownlandsproveprofitable.Gloryrepresentsthefameandpoliticalpowerthatafortunatediscoverycouldbringtotheexplorerandhiscountry,respectively.However,“God,gold,andglory”werenottheonlyreasonsforthisera’ssurgeindiscovery.Advancesintechnologyandindustrymadeleavingone’sownnationforlongperiodsoftime,travelingvastdistances,andreturninghomesafelypos-sible,aswell.Takentogether,thesefactorshelpexplainwhyEuropeannationsdevotedsomanyresourcestojostlingwithoneanotherforpositionsofsupremacywithregardtodiscoveriesmadeintheworldbeyondEurope.

reconquista forced exit of Muslim Moors living in Spain from Europe

“God, gold, and glory” the popular excuses and reasons for imperial expansion


Unit 16, Lesson 1 761

Bythefourteenthcentury,thankstohabitsformedoverthecourseofseveralhundredyears,peopleinEuropegreatlydesiredthespecialproductsthatcamefromtheeasternpartoftheworld.Theseproductsincluded,amongmanyothers,spices,silk,andperfumes.Partofwhatmadetheseproductssospecial,however,wasthattheEuropeans’accesstothemhadbeenlimited.ArabandOttomanbrokerswouldmovebetweenEuropeandtheFarEast,tradingandtransportingtheexoticproducts,butEuropeanswerenotbeenabletogetthoseproductsforthemselves.Andsincetheycouldnotbuytheproductsdirectly,Europeanshadbeenpayingapremiumonthem.Inthehopesofavoidingthehighbrokers’feesthatwereheapedontopofthepricesofalready-expensiveEasternproducts,Europeanslookedforwaystobuyeverythingfromsilkandporcelainchina;tospicemixturesandsugars;tovaluablejewels,minerals,andotherfinemetalsstraightfromthesource.Bygoingtothesource,Europeancustomerswouldbeabletobothlowertheirowncostsandgivethemselvesmoreconsistentaccesstotheproductstheywanted.

TheMiddleAgessawtheriseofmoreurbancentersinEuropeandasubsequentincreaseintradeandbusiness.Boththesalespeopleandtradesmen,aswellasthegoverningregimesofthesegrowingnations,beganlookingtotradeandimpe-rialexpansionasameansofgreatlyexpandingtheirwealth.Meanwhile,manyChristiansbelievedthatitwastheirreligiousdutytoevangelizethenationsoftheFarEast.Forsome,missionaryworkwassimplyanexcusetopropeladventurousjourneystounknownlands,butothersdidhonestlyandtrulybelieveinspreadingandsharingtheirbeliefs.Ofcourse,manyChristianmissionariesneitherunderstoodnorhonoredthenon-Christianreligionsoftheregion.SobythetimetheMiddleAgeshadgivenwaytotheReformation,membersofchurchesandorganizations,suchastheJesuits,forexample,werewhollyinvestedinusingcolonialexpansionasameansofdispersingthewordsandideasoftheirfaith.Again,between“God,gold,andglory,”Europeansofthistimehadallthecompellingreasonstheyneededforexpandingtheirinfluenceandpower.Whattheyneedednextwerethewaystomaketheirimperialdesiresareality.

Sohowwerethesegreatvoyagesfundedandundertaken?Thesimplestansweris:technology.The1400swereacrowningtechnologicalera,atimewhen,afterdecades,scholarsandnavigatorshadfinallymadethekindsofadvances—howtonavigatelongdistances,forinstance—thatenabledexplorerstotraveltosuchfar-offlands.Intruth,Europeanswerenotthefirsttomakethesediscoveries.Earlyinthecentury,peoplefromChinahadsailedsuccessfullytoothercountries,makingittoboththesouthernIndianOceanandtoAfrica.YettheChinesedidnotpur-suethesepotentialcolonialrelationships.UnlikeEuropeancountries,Chinahadnodesiretoconqueroutsidelandsasameansofincreasingtheirownpowerandcommercialauthority.TheChinesebelievedtheircountryalreadyhadthemostadvancedfinancialandsocialsystems,anyway,andthatincorporatingideasfromothernationswouldnotstrengthentheirs.China’sreluctancetoengageinmoreaggressiveimperialexpansionopenedthedoorforEuropeannationstodojustthat.

Indeed,Europeanexplorersusedavarietyofnewtools,includingthosedevel-opedbytheadvancedChinese,tonavigatetheworld’shighseas.Forexample,twotoolsthatservedChristopherColumbusandotherexplorersespeciallywell—the

1SeLf-cHecK

What did the

catchphrase “God,

gold, and glory”

really indicate?



compassandaxialrudder—bothcamefromChinatoEurope.Thesetoolsallowedsailorstotravelexceedinglylongdistances.Twootherimportanttoolshelpedadventurersfigureoutwheretheystoodontheglobeintermsoflatitude:boththebasicquadrantandthecomplexastrolabeworkedtogaugeatwhatinclinethePoleStarstood,whichinturnallowedsailorsandexplorerstodeterminetheirlati-tude.Tothesetools,explorersaddedinnovativeguidesandshipplans.Guidesornavigationalmapsknownasportolaniprovidedadventurerswithmoreknowledgeandfactsthanothershadpreviouslyaboutpromontoriesandcoastlineshapes.Theyalsodescribedpotentialroutesforadventurers.Theportolani’sknowledgedidnot,unfortunately,extendtothewidesea.Yetinnovativekindsofshipsthatusedthelateensail,socalledbecauseofitstriangularshapeandwhichwasriggeddifferentlyfromearliersquaresails,couldsailintothewind,sonodestinationwasoutofreach.

Asiftheseadvanceswerenotinnovativeandimpressiveenough,twomoreimportantkindsofscholarshipcontributedtotheEuropeans’abilitytoleavetheirhomelandsandtravelsowidely.AnastronomerofGrecianextractionfromthesecondcenturyc.e.,Ptolemy,hadwrittenaworkcalledtheGeographica,whichhelpedpeoplecalculatedistancesonmaps.Ptolemy’sworkhadfallenoutofpopularknowledgebuttheexplorersofthe1400sbroughtitbackintopopularity.Explorersusedit,alongwithnewtechniquesfromthefieldofperspectivegeometry,toconstructthegridsorfoundationsfortheirmaps.Asimilartechniqueisstillusedtoday.Itisworthnoting,however,thatinhisGeographicaPtolemycalculatedAsiatobemuchlargerthanitactuallywas.Ptolemy’smiscalculationhadimportantconsequencesontheboththegoalsandresultsofColumbus’sexplorations.

PeopleacrossEuropehadheardoforwitnessedthesenewtoolsandtechniques.Butknowledgealonewasnotenoughtospurimperialconquest.Tobecomeanimperialpower,anationhadtofirstfirmlyestablishitsauthorityandcontroloverdomesticmatters.Inlateryears,bothFranceandBritainexploredandsettledtheirpeopleindifferentareasoftheNorthAmericancontinentbecausebothenjoyedrelativestabilityinEurope.Withoutahardyhomebasetomoveoutfrom,however,conquerorswerenotbeabletoholdontomanyofthenewlandstheyclaimed.OnereasonPortugalandSpaintookanearlyleadinglobalexplorationwasthattheywereabletoconsolidatetheirrespectivecountriesintosingleentitiesledbymonarchs.Inaddition,PortugalandSpaintookonthisrole,inpart,becauseoftheirlocationontheEuropeancontinent,whichaffordedthemexcellentaccesstothesea.TheirproximitytowaterhadledPortugalandSpaintoinvestheavilyintheirnaviesandinseafaringtechnology.Thisinvestmenteventuallyservedthemwellinthelargercontextofexploration.Underthemonarchs’authority,PortugalandSpainwereabletoprovidetheirexplorerswithstablehomebasesandwiththefundstoenablelong-termtraveloutsideofthecontinent.

Successfulexplorationdidnotsimplymeanreachinganewandundiscov-eredland.Toestablishandmanageimperialterritoryinnewplaces,aspiringimperialpowersneededtohavemoneyandtime,establisheddiplomatictradi-tions,andlong-standinggovernmentalpower.Withoutthesethings,anationcouldnotsucceedinachievingoverseascontrol,evenifithadmanygreatadventurerswithinitsborders.Toillustratethispoint,considerthefactthat



severalofthemostdistinguishedadventurersfromearlyinthe1400sandearly1500s,includingtheCabots,Verrazano,Vespucci,andColumbus,allclaimedItalianroots.Thesemenhadtofindfund-ingfortheirtripsoverseaselsewherebecauseItalydidnothavethedomesticstability,authority,andwealthtopromoteitsownimperialgrowth.Atthatpointintime,Italystoodnotasasingle,amalgam-atednationwithasolerulerandoverarchinggov-ernment,butasaconnectingseriesofautonomousregionsandcity-states.ThedisjointednatureofItalyatthetimemeantthatItalianshadtoworryaboutanotherforeignpoweroccupyingthemontheirownturf,notexpandingtheirboundaries.

Thecountriesstableenoughtoundertakeimperialexpansionhadanotheradvantage,aswell.Thosewithstablerulingregimesweremilitarilysuperior,bothincomparisontothelesspowerfulnationsofEuropeandtothenativesinfar-offlands.Thismeantthattheirrepresentativeshadmoresophisticatedwaysandmeansoffightingbattlesthantheindigenouspeoplesofthecountriestheyinvadedhad.Europeanscoulddefendthemselveswitharmsmadeofsteelandprotec-tivearmormadeofplate.Theycouldlaunchassaultsontheirenemieswiththenewlydevelopedcannon.Theindigenouspeoplesofcountriesacrosstheoceanfoundnomatchtotheseweaponsintheirownarsenals.

expansion from four Nations: Portugal, Spain, england, and francePortugalandSpainhadthebestpositionandearlieststartinlookingbeyondtheirownborderstobuildimperialcolonies.ThePortuguesesettheirsightsonlandsinAfricaandAsia.OneofPortugal’srulingscions,PrinceHenry(1394–1460),alsoknownasHenrytheNavigator,foundhimselfincreasinglydrawntothepotentialwealthofAfrica.First,hehelpedcreateaninstitutionforthestudyofnavigation.Afterthat,HenrybeganorganizinganddirectingexploratorygroupsthatinvestigatedAfrica’swesterncoast.Ineachregion,thePortuguesewereguidedbytheirinterestinaparticularcultivatedproduct.First,intheMadeiraIslands,whichthePortuguesecametoin1420,theystartedmakingwine,alsoknownas“Madeira.”Second,intheAzores,whichtheyarrivedinbetween1427and1431,thePortuguesecreatedabusinessaroundtheprocessoffishing.Third,by1460,thePortuguesehadtakentheirjourneysallthewaytotheCapeVerdeIslands,wheretheybeganinvestinginthesugartrade.Meanwhile,thePortugueseexplorerscontinuedtotravelfartheralongAfrica’swesterncoast,wheretheyinvestedinebony,ivory,gold,andslaves.

JustastheylookedforgoodsinAfrica,thePortuguesesearchedforproductsinAsia.TheirfirstexplorertomakeitaroundtheCapeofGoodHopeatthebot-tomofAfrica,BartholomewDiaz,didsoin1488.Tenyearslater,anotherexplorer,

European leaders staking their claims on colonies around the globe



VascodaGama,madeitallthewaytotheIndianborder.TwoyearsafterdaGamareachedIndia,anotheradventurer,Cabral,reachedBrazil.PortugaldeclareditsownershipofBrazilin1500.Meanwhile,nearGoa,thePortuguesepressedonwiththeirexpansioninIndia,andintheEastIndies,theirholdingscomprisedboththeSpiceIslandsandtheMalayPeninsula.Ineachoftheseregions,thePortuguesecreatedanoutpostfortheirshipsandsoldiers,aswellasanexusfortradeandindustry.Withinanotherhundredyears,theirexplorerswouldtravelasfarasCanton,China,andtotheedgeofJapan.

Spain’simperialachievementswereequallyimpressive.Oneofthecountry’searlyexplorers,Columbus,traveledallthewaytotheAmericasin1492.AsSpain’srepresentative,ColumbusassertedthattheVirginIslands,Trinidad,Hispaniola,andsomeotherislandsintheCaribbeanwereSpain’sproperty.In1493,PopeAlexander VIcreatedtheLineofDemarcation,helpingdistinguishimperialpropertiesofSpainandPortugalfromoneanother.Thepope’screationofthislinestoodaspartofalargeragreementhewouldmandatebetweenthetwocountriesin1494calledtheTreatyofTordesillas.TheLineofDemarcationrannorthtosouth,crossingtheCapeVerdeIslandsandtheAzores.Accordingtothepope,whenexplorersfoundnewterritoriestothewestoftheline,thoseterritorieswouldgotoSpain;newterritoriesfoundtotheeastwouldgotoPortugal.

Meanwhile,SpainmadegreatstridesintheAmericas.ItasserteditsdominanceoverFlorida,throughtheexplorerPoncedeLeón;Panama,throughtheexplorerBalboa;theAztecempire(nowMexico),throughtheexplorerHernandoCortés;andtheIncanempire(nowPeru),throughtheexplorerPizarro.Anotheradventurer,Coronado,mappedoutothersectionsofwhattodaymakeupthesouthwesternpartoftheUnitedStatesonSpain’sbehalf,aswell.Yetanotherexplorer,Magellan,capturedmorehonorsforSpainwhenhebecamethefirstpersontocircumnavigatetheglobe.MagellanclaimedonegroupofislandsforSpainandnamedthemthePhilippinesasatributetotheSpanishking,PhilipII.

Finally,FranceandEnglandturnedtheirattentiontothenorthernpartofNorthAmerica.OnEngland’sbehalf,theadventurerJohnCabot,alongwithhisson,stakedoutNorthAmerica’snortheasterncoastalline.OnFrance’sbehalf,twoexplorerswenttowork.LikeCabot,Verrazanostakedoutthecoastline,andheexaminedthenaturalharborofwhatwouldbecomeNewYork.JacquesCartierexploredapathwayalongtheSt.LawrenceRiver,reachingasfarasCanadaandestablishingFrenchclaimsonthisnewland.

Movement from the Old to the New ImperialismOldimperialism,then,beganinapproximately1096,anditseffectsreverberatedthroughthemid-nineteenthcentury.TheprincipalplayersofthemovementwerePortugal,Spain,

Propaganda claiming that the French bring liberty, civilization, and peace to their colonies—in this case, Morocco



France,andEngland.Eachofthesecountriesreliedonnewseafaringandmap-makingtechnologiestocrossgreaterdistancesandreachnewshoresforthefirsttime.Thethreemotivatingfactorsofthisperiod,“God,gold,andglory,”gaveimperialnationsthreekeyreasonsforexpandingtheirglobalreachandsettingupcoloniestoruleoverindigenouspeoplesinsettledlands.ManyoftheselandswereinNorthandSouthAmerica.Thankstosuperiormilitarytechnologyandweaponslikecannons,theEuropeansettlerswereabletosubjugateindigenouspeoples,occupytheirland,andclaimitforEuropeanpowersacrossthesea.

Newimperialismbeganproperlyinthelate1870s,dueinparttotheaftereffectsofindustrializationandthenew,broaderunificationofindividualEuropeancoun-tries.Becauseofindustrialization,countriesneededmorerawmaterialstokeeptheirtechnologiesgoing;becauseofunification,individualcountriesfeltadomes-ticstabilitythatallowedtheprocessofexpansiontobeginonceagain.Europeannationsstrivingforimperialconquestnowhadthebenefitofevennewermilitaryandcommunicativetechnologies,includingbetterriflesandtelegrams,toaidthem.ThemostaggressiveEuropeancountriesduringthisperiodofexpansionincludedBritain,France,andBelgium,allparticipantsintherushtocolonizeAfrica.Undernewimperialism,AfricawasalmostentirelycarvedupandappropriatedbyEuropeannations.Whiletheconceptsof“God”and“glory”stillapplied,theimperialistpowersofthe1870sweremostinterestedinthatera’sequivalentof“gold”:therawmaterialsavailableinAfricaandAsiathatcouldbeusedtocreatewealthinindustrializednations.AndwhilesomeEuropeansjustifiedtheiractionsbycitingthefactthatcolonizationbroughtChristianitytonativepeoples,religionwasfrequentlymisusedasatoolofdiscrimination,racism,andcruelty.ItwasnotuncommonforEuropeanstotrickindigenouspeoplesintosigningawaytheirrightsandpossessions,andsomeindividuals,likeKingLeopoldIIofBelgium,forcedcolonizedpopulationsintoslavelabor.

The Rise of the New Imperialism: How and WhyThepushforimperialisminthefourteenthandfifteenthcenturiesrevivedinthenineteenthcentury,whenEuropeancountriesdecidedagainthattheywishedtosolidifytheirpositionsandexpandtheirpoweronaworldscale.Today,scholarsseethisdesireforimperialexpansionasstemmingfromthreedifferentareas:money,politics,andsociety-culture.Onthefirstsubject,money,scholarsareslightlydivided.ThosefromaMarxistbackgroundbelievethatnineteenth-centurynationssetoutonsuchaggressiveimperialpathwaysprimarilybecauseoftheirdesireforbetterfinances,adesiretriggeredbycapitalisticsystems,whichhaveaninherentneedtogrowandexpand.Non-Marxistscholarsdisagree,pointingoutthatimperialpowerstargetedareasforexpansionthatdidnothavefinancialvalueinthemselves.Thissecondgroupofscholarsarguesthat,whiledesireformoremoneywasonemotivation,otherdesiresservedequallyimportantroles.Theysuggestthatthedesireofanindividualcountryforprestigeandthesocialdesiretoreachouttopeoplewhomsomenationssawaslesscivilizedshouldnotbedismissedasmereexcusesinvokedtohidetheirtruefinancialmotives.Instead,thesescholarsarguethatpeoplefromimperial,colonizingnationshonestlyheldontotheidealisticgoalsoffameandcommunitybuilding.



Theneedformoremoneyduringthistimedirectlycorrelatedtotheriseoftheageofindustry.Theindustrialrevolutions,whiletheyrepresentedgreatprogress,didnotcomeoutofnowhereandcouldnotexistonnothing.Thesecondoftheserevolutions,especially,hadcreatedevenmorecomplicatedmanufacturedgoodsthatneededsupplies.Tomaintaintheadvancesoftheserevolutions,countrieshadtohavelargeamountsofrawmaterials.Thesemateri-alsincludedproductslikecopperandbauxite,oil,rubber,andevendiamonds.WhilesomeofthesematerialsexistedinsomeEuropeancountries,noneoftheEuropeannationshadenoughmaterialswithintheirownborders.Togetthesematerials,Europeannationshadtolookoutsidetheirowncontinenttothreeothers:Africa,Asia,andSouthAmerica.

Becauseeachnationhadto lookabroadforrawmaterials, individualEuropeannationsalsobegantoexperiencetensionswithoneanother.Eachnationsawitsneighborsascompetitorsforpower,glory,andrawmaterials.Afriendlycountryonedaycouldturnintoafoethenext.However,ifacountryestablishedcoloniesinareasfullofrawmaterialsandothernaturalsupplies,itcouldturntothosecoloniesforitsneeds,insteadoftoitsfriend-or-enemyneighbors.Byrelyingontheircolonies,Europeanpowersbecameabletopracticeself-sufficiency;theycouldamassthematerialstheyneededtorunthebusi-nessesandtechnologiestheyhaddeveloped.Thisindustry,however,ledtoasecond,relatedproblem.Withmechanizationandthedevelopmentofmorefactories,countrieshadstartedproducingmoregoodsthantheycoulduseupthemselves.Toexpandthelimitsoftheirsupplyanddemand,theyalsolookedtousetheircoloniesasplacestoselltheirgoods,ormarkets.Then,whenthecountrieshadmademoneysellingtheirgoodstotheircolonialmarkets,theycouldtaketheirearningsandputthembackintothecoloniesasinvestments.Ultimately,though,themoneythatcountriesmadefromtheircoloniesrarelyreturned.Instead,themoneythatbelongedtotheseexpandingempireswerefunneledintomore“civilized”andtechnologicallysophisticatedregions,liketheremainingimperialcountriesandtheUnitedStates.

Governmentandstateaffairswerethesecondreasonforimperialexpan-sion.Powerfulcountrieslookedattheworldlikeagiantgameboard,andtheytriedtoestablishcoloniesinlocationsthatwouldbenefitandaidtheirhomebasesandgivethemadvantagesoverotherimperialnations.Thisattitudecanbeseenclearlyintheactionsoftwocountries.First,theBritishknewthatcontrollingEgypt’sSuezCanal,builtbyaFrenchcompanybetween1859and1869,wouldgiveBritaintacticalandtradeadvantages,sincethecanalallowedshipstogetfromEuropetoAsiawithoutsailingallthewayaroundAfrica.ToseizecontroloftheSuezCanal,BritainpurchasedhugeportionsofstockintheSuezCanalCompany,andtheymadeaprotectorateofEgyptitselfby1882.AsBritain’sprotectorate, Egypt retained someof itsownautonomy,butultimatelyhadtoanswertoBritain.Second,16yearslater,afterrisingtotheimperiallevelofEuropeannationsthankstotheresultsoftheSpanish-AmericanWar,theUnitedStatessoughttosolidifyitspositionasanimperialauthority.Todoso,ittargetedthePacificislandsandthePhilippines.Theseareassharedpotentialasnavalstationsandpostsforrefuelingshipswithcoal.Thislast

self-sufficiency relying on oneself—in the case of European nations, it meant relying on colonies to provide resources and man-power so the empire did not have to depend on other outside nations

protectorate a country that is looked after and protected by a larger, more powerful country, but which still retains some measure of independence



exampleisacleardisplayofanimperialnationtargetinganareaforitsnaturalresourcesandgeographicbenefits.

Thedesireforhighpoliticalstandingandauthoritywassostrongthatsomecountries,likeItaly,triedtoacquirecoloniesevenifitmeantsufferinglossesinfinancesandmanpower.After1871,manyofthemostinfluentialEuropeannationsfocusedtheirattentionontheattractiveresourcesandcolonialpotentialofAfrica.Severalofthesecountries,inpursuingAfricancolonies,wereledbythenationalisticfervorofthemasses.Inotherwords,nationsthatcolonizedAfricawerepropelledbylargeswathsoftheirownpopulation’spassionatezealforexaltingtheirownnationaboveallothers.Overseascoloniesplacatedandexcitedcitizensathome,evenifgovernmentsthemselveswerenotthatinterestedinthem.Forexample,Germany’schancellorOttovonBismarckmadeashowofGermanygoingafterAfricancolonies,notbecausehewantedthem,butbecauseheknewhispeopledid.Bismarckreliedonthisdisplayofcolonialfervortohelphiscausewhenitcametimeforthecitizenstovote.Imperialismabroadwasatoolusedbypoliticianstogaindomesticpopularity.

Partoftheexcitementaboutoverseascoloniesmayhavebeendrivenbythemasses’worrythatEuropehadbecomeoverpopulated.Between1850and1914,Europe’spopulacegrewbynearly200million,jumpingfrom260millionto450 mil-lionbythebeginningofWorldWarI.Citizensworriedthatpoliticians,withsomanydifferentviewpointsandvoicestoconsider,wouldhaveadifficulttimeplacatingeveryone.Someindividualsproposedthattheirnations’coloniesserveasoutletsforsurpluspopulation.Thisideaofusingcoloniesasanoutletultimatelydidnotbecomeareality—whilemanyindividualsemigratedfromEuropeduringthistime(asmanyas30or50million),themajorityofthemdidnottraveltothecolonies.Instead,theseemigratingindividualstraveledtoAustraliaortheAmericancontinent,particularlytotheUnitedStates.

ThethirdreasonforthisimperialexpansionstemmedfromEuropeanculturalandsocialdesires,whichwereoftentiedtoreligion.ThefirstpeopletotraveltoAfricafromEuropewere,infact,religiousmissionaries.Forexample,DavidLivingstone,aprominentBritishexplorer,originallywenttoAfricatoserveasbothamissionaryandamedic.OtherBritishcitizens,specificallyVictoriansofmiddleclassorigins,soonjoinedLivingstoneinAfrica.TheseVictoriansbelievedtheyhadanobligationtobringtheirknowledgeandeducationtoAfricanswhomtheysawaslesscivilizedthanthemselvesandthereforeinherentlyinferior.Today,thedis-criminatoryandprejudicialnatureofsuchattitudesareclear,buttheywerequitecommoninthenineteenthcentury.

WhileEurope’smotivationsforinvestinginimperialconquestareclear,howoneofthetiniestregionsintheworld(Europe)endedupinchargeofnearly66 per-centoftheworld’scitizensasof1914maynotbe.Certainly,Europe’ssizedidnotcorrespondtoitspower,butEuropeannationsachievedsuchauthorityovertheworldforseveralreasons.Tobeginwith,Europebenefitedhugelyfromthedevelop-mentsoftheSecondIndustrialRevolution.Usingthetelegraphforcommunication,relyingonsteamtopropelengines,andexperiencingmedicalbreakthroughs,suchasusingquininetocombatmalaria,allgaveEuropeannationsanedgeoverthepartsoftheworldtheysoughttocolonize.Perhapsmostimportantly,Europeans

2SeLf-cHecK

During old imperialism,

which countries and

adventurers played the

most important part?

Victorians British people living during Queen Victoria’s rule (r. 1837–1901), mainly a wealthy and knowledge-able middle class



benefitedfromthedevelopmentandexpansionofrailwaysystems.UsingrailwaysmadeiteasierforEuropeanstosendmessages,toconductcommercearoundtheworld,andtotraveldeeperintocontinentslikeAsiaandAfrica.

TheIndustrialRevolution’seffectswerealsoapparentinanother,veryimpor-tantarena:battle.TechnologicaladvancesbornofindustrializationhadallowedEuropeanstodevelophighlyadvancedmilitarymethodsandweaponry.Machineguns,shipscarryingtheirownweapons,andotheradvancedarmamentsmadeanyattemptsatself-defenseorresistancebypeopleinIndia,Africa,andChinaallbuthopeless.Thispowerinbattlebecamefurtherstrengthenedbythecomplicated,systematiccapitalistsystemsthathaddevelopedinmostcontemporaryEuropeannations.ThesesystemsmadeiteasierforEuropeannationstooccupycolonies,stayinthemsuccessfully,andmethodicallystripeachcolonyofitsnaturalgoods.

Inthefirstseveraldecadesofthenineteenthcentury,themajorityofEuropeancountrieswerenotveryinterestedinoverseasimperialexpansion.Asof1815,attheconclusionoftheNapoleonicWars,onlytwoEuropeannationshadlargeimperialpropertiesacrossthesea:theNetherlandsandGreatBritain.Therestofthecontinenthadturneditsfocusinward,torevolutionsandotherinternalupheavals.However,after1870,whenbothGermanyandItalyhadbecomeuni-fied,moreandmorecountriesinEuropefoundthemselvesabletoconcentrateonmattersoutsideoftheirownborders.Notuntilthe1870s,then,wereEuropeannationsimmediatelyandcompellinglydrawntoimperialgrowth.ThisdesirecouldbequicklyandwidelyseeninBritain,France,andGermany,and,toalesserextent,Italy.Eachcountryexpresseditsimperialdesiredifferently.Britaintreatedtheconquestandappropriationofmorecoloniesasanecessarycourseofaction.ThemajorityofBritishcitizensbackedthegovernmentinthisregard.Francehadanewgovernment,theThirdRepublic,anditsinternalpoliticalsceneatlastbegantodemonstratesignsofstability.ThismeantthatFrance,too,couldstarttoinvestigatetheideaofcolonization.Meanwhile,bothItalyandGermanyhadonlyjustcometogetherasindividual,unitednations.ManyItalianandGermancitizenswelcomedcolonization,believingitwouldshowtherestoftheworldtheimmediatestrengthandpoweroftheirnewnations.

Duringthelast25yearsofthenineteenthcentury,mostofAsiaandnearlyallofAfricawouldfallvictimtoEuropeancolonization.Throughcolonization,Europeannationsexpandedtheirauthorityandpresencethroughouttheworld.When1900camearound,othercountriesaroundtheglobehadalsobeguntryingtoparticipateinimperialpursuits:JapanandtheUnitedStatesbeganattemptingtotakecoloniesoftheirown.YetwhileoneinitialreasonforturningtoimperialismhadbeentoavoidconflictbetweenEuropeannations,imperialismitselfwouldendupcausingfurtherconflict.ThecompetitionbetweenEuropeannationscouldnowescalateontheglobalstage.

Technologies and Transport of the New ImperialismNationsthatparticipatedinthenewimperialismbenefitedfromtechnologicalandindustrialadvancesinfourfields:weaponry,travel,communications,andmedicine.First,inwarfare,theEuropeansdevelopednewandimprovedkindsof

3SeLf-cHecK

During the age of new

imperialism, what did

European colonizers

gain from their new

territories?



guns.Soevenwhentheywentupagainstgroupsofcolonizedindividualswhohadgunsoftheirown,assomeAfricansdid,Europeanseasilyprevailed.Twonewkindsofgunshadbeendeveloped.Onekind,calledbreech-loading,letsoldiersreloadshellsintothebackoftheweaponwhilelyingdown.Colonizedgroupswerestillusinggunsthatloadedthroughtheirmuzzles,whichmadethetaskmoretime-consumingand,whendoneinthemiddleofabattle,moredangerous.TheothernewkindofgunusedbyEuropeanswasthemachinegun,whichallowedsoldierstofiremanytimesinsequence.OneparticularlypopularversionofthemachinegunwascalledtheGatlinggun.

Second,intravel,theEuropeansknewhowtoharnesssteam—meaningthattheEuropeansdidnothavetorelyonwindtopropeltheirships.Thankstosteampower,theirboatscouldtravelbothmorequicklyandmoredirectly.Thiswashugelyadvantageousbothwhencrossinglargedistances,likeoceans,andwhentravelingtightquarters,likesmallrivers.Thedevelopmentofsmaller,steam-poweredboatsenabledEuropeanstosendexplorers,missionaries,andsoldiersintothedeepestpartsofAfrica.Inaddition,by1869,theSuezCanalhadbeencompletelybuilt.Becauseofthecanal,peopleinEuropecouldgettoAsiamuchmorequicklythantheyhadinthepast.Theworldhadstartedtobecomesmallerandmoretraversable.

Third,speedofcommunicationincreasedrapidly.Imperialismwasimmeasur-ablyaidedbythedevelopmentanduseofthetelegraph,amechanismthatcouldsendsame-daycommunicationsacrossvastdistances.Imaginethebenefitinhav-inganimportantnotetravelfromBritain’scolony,India,toitscapital,London,inasingleday.Atthebeginningofthenineteenthcentury,suchamessagewouldhavetakentwoyearstoarrive.Thisvirtuallyinstantaneous(bycomparison)newkindofcommunicationrevolutionizedimperialexpansion.Withthetelegraph,issuesandproblemscouldbereportedandrespondedtoinmuchtimelierways.

Fourth,asearlyas1820Europeansknewofanewkindofmedicinecalledqui-nine.Quinineoriginatedfromcinchonatreebark,anditstoodoutasaremarkabledrugbecauseofitseffectsonmalaria.Colonistsventuringtotropicalregionsoftheworldhadfrequentlymetwith,andbeendefeatedby,malaria.TheavailabilityandsuccessfuluseofquininemadeiteasierforEuropeanstoventuretotheseareaswithoutgettingsick.

Important elements of Social DarwinismThecivilizingandimperialistattitudetowardcolonizationbecamefurthercompli-catedinthe1870s.Atthattime,thetheoriesproposedbyCharlesDarwinregardingevolutionwerebeingdiscussed,debated,andexploredbyprominentpeopleinEuropeanculture.Leadersofindustry,literarytypes,andevenheadsofstatebegantoviewthepastthroughaDarwinianlens,seeingitasaconstantbattleamongpeopleofdifferentbackgroundsforlandsandgoods.Thiswayoflookingattheworldbecameknownasracialorsocial Darwinism.AdherentstosocialDarwinismbelievedthatembarkingonawarmadetheirnationsgreater,becausewaraskedpeopletogivethemselvesuptoagreatergoodandhelpedcreateapeckingorderthroughouttheworldbasedonwinnersandlosers.SocialDarwinismservedEuropeansasaconvenientmeansofexcusingthesinsoftheirimperialistbehavior.Europeansparticipatinginimperialismviewedtheirsmooth,swifttakeoversofindigenous

social Darwinism a way of looking at the world based on Darwin’s ideas of evolution, as applied to more sophisticated and powerful nations and used to justify imperial expansion



peoples’landsandresourcesasproofofEuropeansuperiorityandasjustificationfortheir(sometimessecret)goalsofincreasingtheirownfameandfortuneorspreadingtheircultureandbeliefs.

JustassocialDarwinismwasusedtoencourageimperialistbehavior,theben-efitsimperialismbroughttoEuropeansfosteredgreaterbeliefinsocialDarwinism.Accordingtothepeoplewhobelievedinthistheory,thestruggleforexistenceranparalleltoanevolutionarybattle.Themorepowerfulwouldsurvive,andthelesspowerfulwouldnot.IfaEuropeannationwasunsuccessfulinitsimperialquest,othernationssawitasweakandpotentiallydoomedtocompletefailure.Topre-servetheirreputationsonaglobalscale,then,Europeancountrieshadtoprovetheirhealthandpowerbycontinuallyexpandingintonewimperialcoloniesandspaces.Atthattime,eachEuropeannationalityvieweditselfasaseparateraceexistingwithinalargerwhiteethnicgroup.Theybelievedthat,accordingtosocialDarwinism,battlesbetweenracesstoodasnothingmorethananunavoidablepartofparticipatinginthenaturalworldorder.Thisgaveeachnationalitywithinthelargerwhiteethnicgroupmoraljustificationforgoingoutintotheworldandtryingtosubduepersonswhomtheysawaslesserorlowerthantheywere.Tothem,theveryactofconqueringapeoplewasevidenceofthesuperiorityoftheconquerersandtheinferiorityofthevanquished.

SocialDarwinistseventuallycarriedtheimplicationsofthetheoryevenfurther,claimingthatthey,asmembersofasuperiorandmoredeveloped(white)ethnicgroup,stoodduty-boundtobringtheirknowledgeandsocietalbehaviorstothelessfortunateindividualsacrosstheglobe.Peoplehonestlythoughtthatmembersofwhiteethnicgroupswouldendupholdingsovereignty,orcom-pletepower,overthosewhomtheysawasinherentlyinferiorinAfricaandAsia.Thiscanbeseeninvisualartworksofthesecolonialperiods,inwhichEuropeanwhitecolonizerswouldposewithindigenouscolonizedyouth.TheartworkssuggestthatwhiteEuropeanswouldactlikemothersandfatherstothe“children”(fullygrownnonwhiteadults)livinginAfricancountriesandthat,justasachildneedstheguidanceandprotectionofitsparents,sodidtheAfricanindigenouspeoplesneedtheguidanceandprotectionoftheEuropeans.

Imperialist Ideologies at Work in the White and Brown Men’s BurdensThus,manyEuropeansbelieveditwastheircountries’dutytoenlightenandeducatemembersofother,nonwhiteraces.UndertheguidanceofEuropeans,theybelieved,colonizednonwhiteswouldslowlybutsurelygainthesamesocietaladvancesthattheEuropeansenjoyed—advanceslikeurbancenters,betterhealthcare,sophisti-catedfinancialsystems,andfancierlifestyles.Eventually,someEuropeansproposed,theindigenouspeoplestheyhadconqueredmightbeabletogovernthemselvesorimplementdemocraticgovernment,aspracticedintheWesternworld.

AliterarydescriptionofthisattitudecanbeseeninafamouspoembyRudyardKipling(1865–1936)called“TheWhiteMan’sBurden.”Kipling,possiblythemostsignificantliteraryfigureofthe1890s,wasfamedforhisworksonlifeinIndiaduringthetimewhenitwasaBritishcolony.Inhispoem,thenarratorpleadswith

sovereignty one nation’s status of rule or authority over another, smaller nation or colony

4SeLf-cHecK

Which advantages

and advances enabled

European nations to

oversee so much of the

globe by the end of the

nineteenth century?



otherEuropeansor“civilized”individualstotraveltofar-offregionsandsacrificethemselvestoprovidewhatisseenashumanitarianaid.ThepoemcallsfortheEuropeanstosendtheirbrightestandgreatestchildrentoalonelyplacewheretheywillhelpandassisttheverypeopletheEuropeansthoughtofasinferior.Thoughsomemodernreadersseethepoemassatiricalanddeeplyironic,Kipling’spersonalimperialistsympathiessuggestthatitssentimentsweremostlikelysincere.

ThisattitudedidnotconfineitselftoEuropeancountries,either;manypeoplefromtheUnitedStatessharedintheideaofthewhiteman’sburden.Indeed,itplayedanimportantpartintheUnitedStates’choice,oncetheSpanish-AmericanWarwasover,nottofreethePhilippines,whichhadbeenunderSpain’scontrol.InsteadtheUnitedStatesoptedtocontinuetooverseethecomingsandgoingsofanapparently“burdensome”groupofpeople.LikemanyEuropeans,someAmericanshonestlythoughtthattheirsocietywasvastlysuperiortothoseofless-developedcountries.Asmembersofasuperiorsociety,then,theyhadamoralobligationtoteachandguideindividualswhotheysawasunderdeveloped.TheyalsobelievedthataEuropeanorAmericanregimewouldbeabletohelpindigenouspeoplestayoutoftheirowninternalbattles,whilealsomakingsurethatotherkindsofmisuseandmanipulationbysmallergroupsofwhitepeopledidnottakeplace.

Nonetheless,someintellectualsandcriticsdidrecognizethewhiteman’sburdenasanexcuseforexploitation.Thesepeoplearguedthatimperialismresultedinthe“brownman’sburden.”LedbyanEnglishmanwhoworkedinfinanceandhadliberalpolitics,J.A.Hobson,thosefightingforawarenessofthebrownman’sburdenclaimedthatwhiteimperialistsactedandthoughtunethi-cally.HobsonandhispeersdirectlyopposedtheideologyofsocialDarwinism.Oneindividual,indescribingthefaultsofsocialDarwinism,insistedthatitwasaphilosophythatappropriatedevolutiontojustifyactionsthatwouldother-wisebeconsideredcriminal;anothersarcasticallysummedupsocialDarwinismbyinvertingoneofJesus’beatitudesfromtheSermonontheMount,stating,“Blessedarethestrong,fortheyshallpreyontheweak.”

HobsonandhisfellowcriticsviewedsocialDarwinists,includingKipling,asprejudicedtormenterswhoreliedoncruelty,bigotry,andgunstoachievetheirends.ThisviewwasevidentinasatireofKipling’sfamedtext,writtenbyamemberofParliamentandoutspokenfoeofsocialDarwinism,HenryLabouchère.Labouchère’spoemsuggestedthat,insteadofusingreasonorlogic,whitesresortedtogunsandweaponstosubdueandcontroldark-skinnedpeople.ThispointofviewwouldlaterbeechoedinthefamousnovelHeart of DarknessbyJosephConrad(1857–1924),awriterofPolishdescent.ThenovelscathinglydescribesEuropeancolonizersascompletelyself-centeredandego-tisticalintheirattemptstotakeoverAfrica.Thebook’sprotagoniststartsoutasabroad-mindedintellectualandendsupasanuncivilizedmonster.

Overall,opponentsofsocialDarwinismclaimedthatEuropeanimperialistsbehavedhypocriticallyanddisgustingly,thattheirbehaviorcontradictedtheirprofessedmorality.Indeed,agreatdisparitydidexistbetweenlifeinEuropeannationsandlifeintheircolonies.Withintheirdomesticborders,Europeansenjoyed



increasinglyrepresentativegovernments,improvedpersonalandcivilrights,andsomemeasureofequalityintermsoftreatmentandopportunity.However,forindigenouspeopleslivinginimperialcoloniesinAfricaandAsia,thingswereverydifferent.Imperialrulersmadecolonizedpeoplelaborinconditionsborderingonslaveryandtreatednativesassecond-classcitizenswhowerenotentitledtorepre-sentationinthegovernment,personalorcivilrights,orequaltreatment.OpponentsofsocialDarwinismmaintainedthatEuropeanscouldonlyregainthemoralhighgroundbygivinguptheirimperialbehaviorsandcommittingtoextendingthelibertywesternEuropeancountrieshadfoughtsohardfortotheThirdWorld.TheEuropeanopponentsofsocialDarwinism,withtheirliberty-basedrhetoric,gaveindigenousandcolonizedindividualssomereasontohopeforchangeandgreaterfreedom,butitwouldbedecadesbeforesuchhopeswouldberealized.

Extensions• Read“TheBrownMan’sBurden”byHenryLabouchère.Comparehisideas

withthoseofRudyardKiplingin“TheWhiteMan’sBurden.”

SummaryForhundredsofyears,Europeancountriespracticedimperialism,adventuringtonewregionsoftheglobeandsettlingthemascolonies.OldimperialismledcountriessuchasSpainandPortugaltomapouttheworld’soceansanddiscoverunchartedterritory.Inthesecondhalfofthenineteenthcentury,Europeancountriesplungedbackintoimperialismwithnewvigor.Innewimperialism,advancesmadeintheSecondIndustrialRevolutionpropelledEuropeanstofindmoreresourcesandfunds.Whilefinancialandeconomicneedsmotivatedimperialistnationstocolonizeotherlands,othermotiveswerealsoatplay.AmongtheseothermotiveswastheideathatEuropeansweresuperiortopeopleofotherracesandothercultures.Assuch,itwasbelievedthatthecolonizershadamoraldutytobringtheircivilizingpowertothese“savage”areas.Criticsofcolonialexpansion,however,stooduptotheimperialistsandcondemnedthemfortheirracism.

Looking AheadInthefinaldecadesofthenineteenthcentury,Europeancountriesbegantoseekoutplacesontheglobewithresourcesandrawmaterialsthatmightbeextractedandusedtopowernewtechnologiesandindustry.AfricaandAsiawerebothplacesthatwereattractivetothenationsofEuropeinthisregard.Soon,thoseEuropeannationsthathadthewherewithaltodosobegantocolonizeAfrica.Theland,resources,andwealththatcountriesgainedfromtheirendeavorsservedassignalsoftheirprestigeandpowertoboththeirneighborsonthecontinentandtotherestoftheworld.

5SeLf-cHecK

How did people

condemn imperialist

actions?



1. They described motives for expansion as practiced by old imperialists: religion, wealth, and fame.

2. Some countries were the Netherlands, Spain, England, France, and Portugal. Adventurers included Henry the Navigator, Vasco da Gama, Hernando Cortés, Magellan, and Columbus.

3. Arable land on other continents, natural goods that could be used for production, territories in which European citizens could settle

4. Advantages included technology like train systems, telegraph communications, and better arms, as well as advances in medicine like the discovery of quinine.

5. They pointed out the gap between the positive social conditions enjoyed by European citizens and the negative ones endured by colonized peoples, and they highlighted the racist treatment of colonized peoples.

SeLf-cHecK ANSWeRS


Imperialism in Africa

Unit 16, Lesson 2

KeywordsBoers

dominion

Essential Questions• WhatformsdidimperialismtakeinAfrica?

• WhatwastheSuezCanal?

• Whatwasthe“scrambleforAfrica”?

• WhatweretheAfricansettlements,acquisitions,andwarsthatGreatBritainandFranceparticipatedin?

• WhatclaimsdidBelgium,Germany,Italy,Spain,andPortugalmakeinAfrica?



Set the StageBy the 1870s, after the Second Industrial Revolution had concluded, European countries began to realize they needed more funds and materials to fuel their new technologies and industry. Europe discovered that the easiest way to acquire money and natural goods was to colonize other parts of the world and harvest the resources found there. Both Asia and Africa—the latter especially—presented themselves as places to exploit. Soon, European countries began furiously competing to colonize as much of the African continent as they could. In addition to gaining land, resources, and wealth from settling in Africa, individual European nations took the opportunity to compete with each other, each trying to amass the largest imperial state. Each European country’s holdings in Africa, it was thought, helped demonstrate its power to the rest of the world.

Nineteenth-century Imperialism in AfricaAtthebeginningofthenineteenthcentury,thetwoEuropeancountriesmostinterestedinAfrica’spotentialforcolonizationwereBritainandFrance.AftertheNapoleonicWars,BritainwonapieceofAfricacalledtheCapeofGoodHope.Inaddition,theBritishhadauthorityoverseveralindividualpostsfortradeandexchangescatteredacrossthecoastlineofAfrica.Theseprovidedsecurefootholds,fromwhichtheBritishbegana largerexpansion. Justa fewyearsafter theNapoleonicWars,inthe1820s,theBritishgovernmentsentoutcoloniststotheCapeofGoodHope,andthatarea,whichistodaypartofthecountryofSouthAfrica,becameknownastheCapeColony.UnfortunatelyfortheBritish,theircolonistsalmostimmediatelyranintoproblemswithotherEuropeancolonistsalreadyinstalledatthecape.Theseindividuals,calledBoers,werethedescendantsofDutchsettlerswhohadventuredtothecapeinthe1600s.NotlongafterthearrivaloftheBritishsettlers,theBoersettlersdecidedtotravelnorthfromtheiroriginalsettlementsonthecape,andtheymovedinland.ThisjourneybecameknownastheGreatTrekof1835–1837.TheBoersconcludedtheirtravelsbycreat-ingtwoautonomousstates,whichtheynamedtheTransvaalandtheOrangeFreeState.Sixyearslater,theBritishsettlersacquiredanareacalledNatal,expandingtheirholdingsonthecapetolandintheeast.Meanwhile,France,whichhadlostgroundintheNapoleonicWars,begantorecoupinotherways.By1830,FrancemovedagainstAlgeria,inthenorthofAfrica.Atbothitsnorthernmostandsouth-ernmostpoints,then,AfricahadtofaceEuropeaninvaders.

Decadeslater,arushfortheAfricancontinentbegininearnest.Therushbecameknownasthe“scrambleforAfrica,”anditlastedforabout30years,roughlybetween1870and1900.Duringthatperiod,anumberofEuropeannations,includ-ingBritain,Germany,France,andBelgium,focusedintentlyonAfrica,workingtograspasmuchofitastheycould,tostrengthentheirimperialpositionsintermsofbothlandandgoods.EachEuropeancountryalsowantedtocomeoutaheadofitsneighborsandrivals.Eachcountrywantedtogainthemostfinancialand

Boers Dutch people living in the Cape area of South Africa whose ancestors had colonized the area in the 1600s



politicalpowerandinfluence.InsteadofadmittingthattheyhadenteredAfricaforthosereasons,however,EuropeannationsclaimedthattheyhadturnedtoAfricatospreadtheircivilizedwaysandbringreligiontothegodless.Intheyearslead-ingupto1870,EuropeantradewasconductedalmostexclusivelyontheAfricancoastlinesonly,andEuropeanshadlittleknowledgeoftheterritories,resources,orgoodsthatlaywithintheAfricancontinent.EuropeaninterestinacquiringAfricansettlementsincreasedafterthefoundingoftheInternationalCongoAssociationin1878byKingLeopoldIIofBelgium.Beforelong,nearlyallofAfricahadbeencarvedupandclaimedbyoneEuropeannationoranother.Indeed,bytheendofthenineteenthcentury,withthetwoexceptionsofEthiopiaandLiberia,allofAfricawasunderEuropeancontrol.

ImperialismnegativelyimpactedAfricainboththeshortandlongterms.Inadditiontotheimmediateproblemsofindigenouspeoplelosingtheirautonomyandproperty,Africa’sownuniquecivilizationswere,inmanyways,stampedout.Overtime,theEuropeannationsseverelyaltereddomesticAfricaneconomies.Byincorporatingwhathadbeenmostlylocalizedeconomiesintotheglobalworldofinternationalfinance,theEuropeansdrasticallychangedtheentiremannerinwhichAfricanslivedtheirlives.Africanshadtoalterthewaystheyapproachedgovernment,finance,trade,andsociety.ThechangesAfricancountriesenduredinthenineteenthcenturylaidthefoundationforthewaystheywouldgovernthemselvesandcontributetoaglobaleconomyinthetwentiethcentury.

DuringthescrambleforAfrica,Europeannationspaidrelativelylittleatten-tiontothevastchangestheybroughttoAfrica;theyweretoofocusedonandexcitedaboutthegoodsandmaterialsthattheycouldtakefromAfrica.Overtime,theEuropeanscametorelyonAfrica’sproductionofimportantgoods,includingdiamonds,gold,otherminerals,ivory,andevenrubber.BritainandFrancehadgottenanearlystartatthebeginningofthecentury,buttheyweresoonjoinedbyothercountries,includingGermany,Italy,Portugal,andBelgium.ArgumentsovertherightstoAfricanterritoriesandgoodsprovedtobehighlychargedandtenuous.AEuropeanwaroverAfricanholdingswasapermanentpossibility.Thismeantthateachnationcontinuallyengagedinimportantdip-lomaticnegotiationstotryandkeepthepeace,whilesimultaneouslytargetingthebestpiecesofAfricaforitself.

Britain’s Development in AfricaDuringthelatterhalfofthenineteenthcentury,BritainmovedincreasinglyoutwardfromitsbaseattheCapeofGoodHopeinsouthernAfrica.Atthesametime,inthenorthernpartofthecontinent,theBritishturnedtheirattentiontoEgypt,whoseimportancelayinitsproximitytoanimportantwaterway:theSuezCanal.TheBritishmadetheirfirstinroadsintoEgyptin1875.Underthedirectionoftheprimeministeratthetime,BenjaminDisraeli,BritainarrangedtobuysharesintheSuezCanalCompany,whichhadpreviouslybelongedtothekhedive,thesovereignrulerofEgypt,andBritainendedupwithasignificantamountofthecompany—44percent.Atthattime,theSuezCanalwasrelativelynew,havingbeencompletedjustsixyearsearlier,in1869,byagroupwith



Frenchconnections.TothoseBritishcitizenswhoadvocatedfortheexpansionoftheBritishEmpire,Disraeli’smovetopurchasesuchalargeinterestintheSuezCanalCompanywasfinanciallysmartandstrategicallycunning.

Atthistime,thoughEgyptwasnominallyapartoftheOttomanEmpire,formostintentsandpurposes,itstoodautonomous.Yet,thesovereignofthisbasicallyautonomouscountry,thekhedive,hadnotmanagedthecountry’sfinanceswell.HeowedlargedebtstobanksinEurope.Whenthebankspressedforthedebtstoberepaid,thekhedivesoldhisportionoftheSuezCanalCompany.Thisturnedouttobeashort-termsolution,though,forwhenthatmoneyevaporated,thekhediveencounteredmorefiscalproblems.Seeingthekhedive’sweakness,BritainandFrancemovedinand,together,tookoverEgypt’seconomybythe1880s.ThemoreBritainandFrancemadetheirpresencefeltinEgypt,theunhappiertheEgyptiansbecame.EgyptiansbegantostruggleagainstthereformsandregulationssetupbytheEuropeans.Todealwiththisproblem,BritainturnedEgyptintoitsprotectoratein1882.ThisactionnotonlygaveBritainmorecontroloverEgypt,italsocleverlyforcedFranceoutofthecountry’saffairs.

WhileDisraelimaneuveredtheBritishintoapositionofpowerinEgyptinthenorthofAfrica,amannamedCecilRhodes(1853–1902)wasbusilyworkingforBritishimperialinterestsinSouthAfrica.Independentlywealthy,RhodeshadbuiltanimpressivepersonalfortunethroughthediamondtradeafterdiamondswerefoundinapartoftheCapeofGoodHopecalledKimberlyin1869.Notsatisfied

The Suez Canal connects the Mediterranean Sea and the Red Sea. The canal makes it possible to transport goods from Europe to Asia without traveling around Africa.

1SeLf-cHecK

What events ensured

Britain would gain

possession of the

Suez Canal?



torestonhislaurels,Rhodespursuedaroleinpolitics.HeenvisionedexpandingBritain’sholdingsinAfrica,sothatawholechainofotherBritishterritoriesinCentralAfricawouldlinktheterritoriesBritainalreadyhadatthenorthandsouthofthecontinent—EgyptandtheCapeofGoodHope,respectively.Rhodes’scountrymensharedhisexpandedvision,whichbecameknownastheCape-to-CairoConnection.BritainfollowedthisplanbymovingnorthfromthecapeandsendingagentsintoNyasaland,bothSouthernandNorthernRhodesia,andBechuanaland.

However,theBritishbaseatthecapewasnotassecureastheyhadthought.EarlierdisagreementsbetweentheBritishcolonistsinthecapeandtheirDutchcounterparts,theBoers,hadneverreallybeenresolved,eventhoughtheBoershadexpandedtotwootherregions.In1886,inoneofthoseBoerregionscalledtheTransvaal,prospectorsfoundgold.BoththeBoersandtheBritishwantedthatgoldforthemselves,andrelationsbetweenthemgrewincreasinglystrainedastheprocessofminingthegoldbegan.Nearly10 yearslater,in1895,agroupofBritishcolonists,ledbyLeanderS.Jameson(1853–1917),attemptedtomakearaidontheTransvaal.Eventhoughtheraid,todayknownastheJamesonRaid,failed,thedamagewasdone.ThemangoverningtheTransvaal,PaulKruger(1825–1904),believedthatCecilRhodes,theCapeColony’sprimeminister,hadhatchedaschemetoinvadeboththeTransvaalandtheOrangeFreeState.

Conditions worsened when Germany’s emperor,WilliamII,wroteatelegramtoKruger,tellinghimhehaddonewellbykeepingtheJamesonRaidfromsucceeding.WilliamII’stelegrampubliclyinsultedBritain,andtheBritishgrewveryunhappy.FouryearsaftertheJamesonRaid,in1899,theBritishandtheDutchcolonistsofficiallybeganbattleintheBoerWar.TheBoersfromboththeOrangeFreeStateandtheTransvaalfoughthardfornearlythreeyears,buttheycouldnotdefeatBritain.TheBoerslostthewarin1902.Eightyearslater,in1910,Britaincombineditsown,originalcoloniesontheCapeofGoodHopeandNatalwiththeformerBoerterritories,theTransvaalandtheOrangeFreeState.TheresultingregionbecameknownastheUnionofSouthAfrica,afairlyautonomousBritishdominion.

Inadditiontostrengtheningtheirholdingsinthenorthandsouth,andworkingtocreateaBritishlinkbetweenthem,BritainalsoturneditsattentiontowesternandeasternportionsofAfrica.Tothewest,Britainreturnedtoitsoldpostsoftradeandstrengthenedthemintoindividualterritoriesandcolonies.ThesenewlycolonizedareasincludedNigeria,theGoldCoast,SierraLeone,andGambia.Totheeast,BritainstrengtheneditsholdonBritishSomaliland,Uganda,Kenya,andtheislandofZanzibar.

dominion a nation or region that retained some independence but also had to obey a governing European nation

This cartoon captures Cecil Rhodes’s idea of constructing a telegraph line from Cape Town in South Africa to Cairo in North Africa.



french and Belgian Interests in AfricaBytheendofthenineteenthcentury,Francehadjustasmuch,ifnotmore,imperialterritoryinAfricaasBritain.FromthesafefoundationofAlgeria,Franceexpandedin1881toTunisia.Next,theFrenchtargetedMoroccoandcreatedaprotectoratethere.Meanwhile,Franceexpandeditscoloniesinthewestandaroundtheequator,specificallyinFrenchEquatorialAfrica.France’smostimportantcoloniesinthewestweretheIvoryCoast,Guinea,andSenegal.Francealsoexpandeditsempiretotwoportionsoflandnearwaterways:FrenchSomaliland,locatedbytheRedSea,andMadagascar,anislandeastofAfrica.

BecausebothFranceandBritainhadbothexpandedsorapidly,conflictbetweenthemwasinevitable.Aftertensionssimmeredforseveralyears,theconflictfinallyhap-penedin1898andconcernedaregioncalledtheSudan,whichstandssouthofEgypt.Atthattime,EgyptwasunderBritishcontrol.Fourteenyearsearlier,agroupofsoldiersledbyGeneralCharlesGordon(1833–1995)andmadeupofBritonsandEgyptianshadfollowedtheNilefromEgyptandenteredtheSudan.AttheBritish-Egyptiansoldiers’baseinKhartoum,agroupofsoldiersfightingforareligiousfactionofMuslimsandledbyamantitledtheMahdi,attacked.TheMuslimsoldierscontinuedtheirattacksfornearly10months.In1885,whentheattacksfinallyended,theBritish-Egyptianforceswerecrushed.

ElevenyearsafterGordon’sdefeat,theBritishtriedagain.Thistime,theirBritishandEgyptiansoldiersfollowedthefamedleaderLordKitchener(1850–1916)backtotheSudan.TheymadetheirstandataplacecalledOmdurmanand,afteralmosttwoyearsoffightingclaimedvictoryovertheMahdiandhissoldiersinSeptember1898.ThisvictorycameatalowcosttotheBritishandahighcosttotheMahdi’smen:theBritishonlylost28soldiers,whiletheSudanesearmylost11,000.Yetlessthanaweeklater,asKitchener’stroopsmovedalongtheNile,theyranintoaFrencharmyataplacecalledFashoda.TheFrenchhadchosenMajorJeanBaptisteMarchand(1863–1934)toleadtheirtroopsintotheSudan.Marchand’stroopshadapproachedfromtheFrenchequatorialregionofthecontinent.

Tofacepotentialenemytroopssosoonafteralonged-forvictoryintheSudanmadeBritainedgy,andthesubsequentstandoffbetweentheBritishandtheFrenchbecameknownastheFashodaCrisis.Thetwocountriesfacedeachotherangrilyand,forawhile,manypeoplethoughttherewouldbeanAnglo-Frenchwar.Eventually,however,theFrenchwithdrewfromtheSudanandcededittoBritain.Becauseofthiscourtesy,FrancebegantomovebackintoBritain’sgoodgraces,andthetwocountries’relationshipsolidified.

BelgiumalsoangledforapieceoftheAfricancontinent.KingLeopoldIIofBelgium(r.1865–1909)soughtimperialholdingsinAfricathroughoutthe1870s.Interestingly,however,LeopolddidnotpursuethisimperialismaskingofBelgium,butasaprivate(wealthyandpowerful)individual.LeopoldhiredamanofBritishandAmericanextractionwhohadworkedasbothanewspaperwriterandexplorer,HenryNortonStanley(1841–1904),toactashisproxyinAfrica.StanleyhadthepowerandauthoritytosignagreementswithAfricanrul-ersonbehalfofLeopold,andhedidsoinareasthroughouttheCongo,anareainthecentralpartofAfrica.

2SeLf-cHecK

What happened during

the Jameson Raid?



In1884and1885,Germany’schancellorOttovonBismarckarrangedforaglobalmeetingtotakeplaceinBerlin,andthemeetingcametobeknownastheBerlinConference.BismarckarrangedfortheconferencetoattempttoclarifythevariousEuropeancountries’designsonAfrica.DuringtheBerlinConference,othercountriesagreedtoallowBelgium’sLeopoldIItocreatetheCongoFreeState,whichhewouldthengovernpersonally.Ultimately,however,thispersonalgovernancecausedmanyproblems.UnderLeopold’spersonaldirection,lifeintheCongorapidlydeteriorated.AsLeopold’sagentsforcedindigenouspeoplestoworkintheproductionandacquisitionofminerals,ivory,andrubber,aglobaloutcryaroseoverLeopold’sbrutaltreatmentofthenativepopulation.By1908,theformalBelgianregimesteppedinandtookoverLeopold’sruleintheCongo.

TheassignmentoftheCongotoLeopoldwasnottheonlyoutcomeoftheBerlinConference.Duringthemeeting,Europeannationsalsoagreedonastandardsetofmethodstofollowwhencreatingnewcoloniesfortheirrespectiveempires.Andthoughthesestandardandregulatedmethodsimprovedthecolonizationprocessfortheimperialistpowers,theymadethingsmuchworsefortheAfricanpeople.BasedonrulesestablishedattheBerlinConference,assoonasaEuropeancountrytookauthorityoveraportionofAfricancoastline,itcouldalsotakecontroloflandswithinthecontinent.TheEuropeanscouldportionoutAfricabasedonallkindsofexternaljustifications,simplybyremappingtheregion.ThusEuropeanswerenotboundtohonortheinternalseparationsofindigenouspeoples;therefore,theyignoredthingslikelanguagebarriersandtraditionalhomelandsthatdemarcatedwherecertain

Africans and Europeans gather elephant tusks to sell in the lucrative ivory trade.

peopleslived.GroupsofAfricanswererippedapartormashedtogetheronthewhimsofEuropeannationsandwithoutthoughtastowhetherornottheysharedcommonlanguages,religions,orotherculturaltraditions.

ManyrepresentativesofEuropeancountriesdidnotacthonestlywhenmakingtreatieswithAfricantriballeaders.BecausetheAfricanshadlittlefamiliaritywiththeEuropeans’lawsorfinancialhabits,whennegotiationsforrightstoareasandgoodstookplace,theAfricanleadersoftendidnotrealizethattheyhadwillinglygivenuptheirclaimstolandsorgoodsthathadpreviouslybelongedtothem.StrengthenedbytheiragreementsattheBerlinConference,EuropeannationscontinuedtopresstheiradvantageintheAfricancolonies.Whenthetwentiethcenturybegan,thevastmajorityofAfricahadbeencolonizedorsubjugatedtoEuropeangovernance.EthiopiaandLiberiaaloneremainedindependent.

Other european Nations Approach AfricaDespitethefactthatithadbeenGermany’sBismarckwhospearheadedtheBerlinConference,GermanydidnotactasaggressivelyinAfricaasotherEuropeannations.DuringBismarck’stenureaschancellor,whichlastedfrom1871to1890,hefocusedonstrengtheningGermanyfromwithinandbroadeningitspowerontheEuropeancontinent.

WhenBismarckcametopower,Germanyhadonlyrecentlybecomeunified.BismarckthoughtGermanywouldbebetterservedconcentratingondomesticissuesandimmediateEuropeanconcernsthantryingtoexpandoutwardintoanempire.YetBismarck’spowerwasnotabsolute,andhisviewswereeventuallychal-lenged.CertaininfluentialorganizationswithinGermanysuccessfullypressuredhimintomakingsomestridestowardGermanimperialism.MembersoftheseorganizationsthoughtthatcreatingGermancolonieswouldbefinanciallyben-eficialforGermanyandwouldalsomakeGermanylookmoreformidabletootherEuropeancountries.BismarckultimatelypursuedimperialistactionsonGermany’sbehalftostrengthenhisownparty’schancesduringGermanelections,reasoningthatmembersofinfluentialimperialistorganizationsweremorelikelytovoteforapoliticalpartythatalsosupportedimperialism.TowardtheendofBismarck’stenure,in1884,GermanytookoverthreeregionsinthesouthwestandthewestofAfrica:GermanSouthwestAfrica,theCameroons,andTogoland.Thefollowingyear,GermanyauthoritativelyclaimedGermanEastAfrica.

Germany’sinitialreluctancetoengageinimperialism,then,didnotkeepitfromflourishing.Incomparison,Italyapproachedimperialismenthusiastically,butitdidnotflourish.SeeingBritain’sexpansioninthesouthandFrance’sinthenorth,ItalytargetedtheeasternportionofAfrica,alsoknownastheHornofAfrica,foritsownimperialdesignattheendofthenineteenthcentury.In1889,ItalyestablishedthecolonyofItalianSomaliland,followedbyEritreain1890.Thenextdecade,ItalytriedtotakeoverEthiopia,thenknownasAbyssinia,butitsinvasionfailed.Atthe1896BattleofAdowa,theItaliansmetcrushingdefeat.TheItaliansdidnotmakefurthersignificantprogressinAfricauntil1912,whentheygainedgroundinTripoliinnorthernAfricabydefeatingtheTurkswhoruledthere.Foritspart,Ethiopia,remainedautonomous,joiningLiberiaastheonlyAfricanstatestoavoidimperialcontrol.Liberia,inthewest,achievedthisdistinctionbecause

3SeLf-cHecK

How can the events that

took place at Omdurman

be described?

4SeLf-cHecK

Which nation or

individual took

possession of the Congo?



peopleslived.GroupsofAfricanswererippedapartormashedtogetheronthewhimsofEuropeannationsandwithoutthoughtastowhetherornottheysharedcommonlanguages,religions,orotherculturaltraditions.

ManyrepresentativesofEuropeancountriesdidnotacthonestlywhenmakingtreatieswithAfricantriballeaders.BecausetheAfricanshadlittlefamiliaritywiththeEuropeans’lawsorfinancialhabits,whennegotiationsforrightstoareasandgoodstookplace,theAfricanleadersoftendidnotrealizethattheyhadwillinglygivenuptheirclaimstolandsorgoodsthathadpreviouslybelongedtothem.StrengthenedbytheiragreementsattheBerlinConference,EuropeannationscontinuedtopresstheiradvantageintheAfricancolonies.Whenthetwentiethcenturybegan,thevastmajorityofAfricahadbeencolonizedorsubjugatedtoEuropeangovernance.EthiopiaandLiberiaaloneremainedindependent.

Other european Nations Approach AfricaDespitethefactthatithadbeenGermany’sBismarckwhospearheadedtheBerlinConference,GermanydidnotactasaggressivelyinAfricaasotherEuropeannations.DuringBismarck’stenureaschancellor,whichlastedfrom1871to1890,hefocusedonstrengtheningGermanyfromwithinandbroadeningitspowerontheEuropeancontinent.

WhenBismarckcametopower,Germanyhadonlyrecentlybecomeunified.BismarckthoughtGermanywouldbebetterservedconcentratingondomesticissuesandimmediateEuropeanconcernsthantryingtoexpandoutwardintoanempire.YetBismarck’spowerwasnotabsolute,andhisviewswereeventuallychal-lenged.CertaininfluentialorganizationswithinGermanysuccessfullypressuredhimintomakingsomestridestowardGermanimperialism.MembersoftheseorganizationsthoughtthatcreatingGermancolonieswouldbefinanciallyben-eficialforGermanyandwouldalsomakeGermanylookmoreformidabletootherEuropeancountries.BismarckultimatelypursuedimperialistactionsonGermany’sbehalftostrengthenhisownparty’schancesduringGermanelections,reasoningthatmembersofinfluentialimperialistorganizationsweremorelikelytovoteforapoliticalpartythatalsosupportedimperialism.TowardtheendofBismarck’stenure,in1884,GermanytookoverthreeregionsinthesouthwestandthewestofAfrica:GermanSouthwestAfrica,theCameroons,andTogoland.Thefollowingyear,GermanyauthoritativelyclaimedGermanEastAfrica.

Germany’sinitialreluctancetoengageinimperialism,then,didnotkeepitfromflourishing.Incomparison,Italyapproachedimperialismenthusiastically,butitdidnotflourish.SeeingBritain’sexpansioninthesouthandFrance’sinthenorth,ItalytargetedtheeasternportionofAfrica,alsoknownastheHornofAfrica,foritsownimperialdesignattheendofthenineteenthcentury.In1889,ItalyestablishedthecolonyofItalianSomaliland,followedbyEritreain1890.Thenextdecade,ItalytriedtotakeoverEthiopia,thenknownasAbyssinia,butitsinvasionfailed.Atthe1896BattleofAdowa,theItaliansmetcrushingdefeat.TheItaliansdidnotmakefurthersignificantprogressinAfricauntil1912,whentheygainedgroundinTripoliinnorthernAfricabydefeatingtheTurkswhoruledthere.Foritspart,Ethiopia,remainedautonomous,joiningLiberiaastheonlyAfricanstatestoavoidimperialcontrol.Liberia,inthewest,achievedthisdistinctionbecause

3SeLf-cHecK

How can the events that

took place at Omdurman

be described?

4SeLf-cHecK

Which nation or

individual took

possession of the Congo?



ofitstiestotheUnitedStates.Yearsbefore,formerAmericanslaveshadfoundedLiberia,whichhadtheeffectofestablishingLiberiaassomethinglikeaprotectorateoftheUnitedStates.SowiththeexceptionsofLiberiaandEthiopia,allofAfricawasunderEuropeancontrolby1900.

OtherpowerfulEuropeannations,suchasSpainandPortugal,alsomadeinroadsintoAfrica.Portugal,likeBritain,alreadyhadportsoftradeasbasesfromwhichtopushintoAfrica.Eventually,PortugalestablishedcompletecoloniesinboththeeastandthewestofAfrica,withMozambique,andAngolaandPortugueseGuinea,respectively.Meanwhile,theSpanishconcentratedonthewestofthecontinent,withterritoriesinRioMuni,alsoknownasSpanishGuinea,andtheRiodoOro.Asthetwentiethcenturydawned,SpaindevelopedaprotectorateofitsowninwhatwascalledSpanishMorocco.

Extensions• GoonlinetofindadditionalinformationonthescrambleforAfrica.What

weretheshort-andlong-termconsequencesfortheAfricans?

• WatchthefilmOut of Africa.WhatevidenceofEuropeanimperialisminKenyacanyouseeinthefilm?Istheimpactlargelypositiveornegative?HowdoesthecharacterDenysFinchHattonrepresentAfrica?

SummaryDuringthelate1800s,themostpowerfulEuropeancountries—includingPortugal,Italy,Spain,France,Belgium,andBritain—participatedinthe“scrambleforAfrica,”rushingtodivideupthecontinentamongthemselves.BecauseEuropehadrecentlycomethroughtheSecondIndustrialRevolution,itsnationswerefarmoreadvancedintermsoftechnologyandwarfarethantheAfricanregionstheysoughttocon-quer.AfricahadplentyoftherawmaterialstheEuropeansdesired,anditspeopleprovidedlittleresistance.Indeed,theleadersofAfricanpeoplesoftenunknowinglyagreedtogivetheEuropeanscontrolovertheirregionswhentheymetwiththeEuropeansandmadetradingpacts.WhentheEuropeansclashedtooforcefullyabouthowtodividetheAfricancontinent,theymetattheBerlinConferenceandagreeduponaplan.WhilethisplankepttheEuropeansfromarguingoverAfrica,individualAfricantribessufferedasaresultofit.Asof1900,onlytwopartsofAfricahadnotsuccumbedtoEuropeancontrol:EthiopiaandLiberia.

Looking AheadTheEuropeansdidnotfocustheirimperialambitionssolelyonAfricainthe1800s.Duringthattime,EuropeancountriesalsocovetouslyeyedresourcesandterritoryinAsia.EuropeansbecameespeciallyinterestedinChina,andEuropeannationsmovedrapidlytosecuretheirintereststhere,justastheyhadinAfrica.Meanwhile,WesterncountriesapproachedJapaninthehopesoffosteringmoreglobaltrade.Tothesurpriseofmany,thesmallislandnationofJapansoonbecameasubstantialimperialistpower,justlikemanynationsinEurope.JapanexpressedinterestinimperialexpansionintoChina,aninterestthatresultedinwarbetweenthetwocountriesovertheirrightstoathirdAsianproperty:Korea.

5SeLf-cHecK

Throughout the 1800s,

which European

countries sought to

colonize the African

continent?



1. The khedive of Egypt, who owned a huge number of shares of the Suez Canal Company, was in debt and agreed to sell 44 percent of the company’s total shares to Britain, giving the British a controlling interest.

2. British colonists tried to invade and occupy Transvaal, an area colonized by Dutch settlers, but they were repelled by the Dutch.

3. The Mahdi’s army lost Sudan to Britain.

4. Belgium and its king, Leopold

5. France, Great Britain, Spain, Belgium, Germany, Italy, Portugal

SeLf-cHecK ANSWeRS


Early Imperialism in Asia

Unit 16, Lesson 3

Keywordsextraterritoriality

sphere of influence

Essential Questions• WhatformsdidimperialismtakeinIndia,China,andtheMiddleEast?

• HowdidtheJapanesepracticeimperialism?

• WhatwerethecausesandeffectsoftheRusso-JapaneseWar?



Set the StageAs the nations of Europe scrambled for territory and resources in Africa, they also concentrated on the Middle East, Asia, and India. However, European nations revised the imperialist tactics they had employed in Africa and used more subtle methods. When colonizing Africa, Europeans had created new nation-states that arbitrarily brought together people of different social and linguistic groups, often forcing traditional rivals to share new national boundaries. Europeans also tried to bring African societies into a political system similar to their own. In contrast, Asian societies typically had more similarities to European societies than African societies. Europeans had far less work when it came to incorporating Asian peoples into European empires. Thus, several nations, including Russia, France, Britain, and Germany hurried to claim portions of Asia. France laid claim to Indonesia, Britain occupied much of India, and Germany began making plans to lay claim to parts of China. Russia’s imperialist strategy would backfire, as the country targeted parts of China that Japan had already begun to dominate. When Japan and Russia came to blows over China, the Russo-Japanese War ensued.

Imperialism in Asia in the early 1800s The1800ssawtheriseofthenewimperialismandthe“scrambleforAfrica.”TheswayofimperialismextendedbeyondAfrica,however,asEuropeancountriesalsoturnedtheirattentiontoAsia.Inmanyways,EuropeanswouldfinditeasiertosubjectAsianpeoplestoEuropeancontrolthanAfricanpeoples.BecauseAfricancountrieshadsuchdifferentformsofgovernmentandsociety,theEuropeancolo-nizershadtoworkveryhardtosetupEuropean-stylesystemsinAfrica.SocietiesinChinaandIndia,ontheotherhand,hadsystemsofgovernmentandsocietywithmuchmoreincommonwithEuropeansystems.TheEuropeanscouldthusmoreeasilyadaptAsiansocietiestosuittheirownneeds.Inasense,theEuropeanscouldinstalltheirownwaysofgoverningtothosealreadyinplaceinAsia—asystemfareasierthantheonetheyhadembarkeduponinAfrica.

Britain,oneoftheEuropeancountriesmostinvestedinimperialistexpansioninAsia,initiallyturneditsattentiontotwoofthelargestAsiancountries:IndiaandChina.Britain’sinterestinIndiaoriginatedfromitsconflictagainstFranceduringtheSevenYears’War,whichFrancehadlosttoBritain.Aspartofthespoilsofwar,BritainreceivedtherighttomonitorIndia.ThismonitoringbecameorganizedandledbytheBritishEastIndiaCompany.Thismonitoringwasnotabsoluterule,yetthatwouldcomesoonenough.Inthefirsthalfofthenineteenthcentury,thepeopleofIndiacouldnotagreeonacohesivegoverningsystem,whichleftthemvulnerable,soBritaintookadvantagebydevelopingloyaltiesamongindividu-alsthroughoutthecountry.Meanwhile,theBritishEastIndiaCompanygainedpowerandauthority.Thisgroup,foundedin1600,hadfirstbeensetupsothattheBritishcouldparticipateintheAsianspicetradeandcompetewithitsprimary



tradingopponentatthetime,Holland.WhileittooktimetoestablishtheEastIndiaCompany’sinfluenceinIndia,bytheearlyeighteenthcenturycompanymembershadsignificantinfluenceoverIndiandomesticpolitics.ThecompanyalsofocusedonbringingBritishimportsintoIndia.BritainusedthecompanyasakindofarmytotakeovereachseparateregioninIndia,andby1848nearlyallofthesubcontinentwascontrolledbytheBritishEastIndiaCompany.

AsBritishcontroloverIndiastrengthened,manyIndianpeoplesawBritishattitudesasdiscriminatoryanddisrespectfultowardMuslimandHindupractices.ThepeopleofIndiacouldonlystandthisdisrespectforalimitedtime,andby1857,violenceerupted.Thatyear,soldiersoftheIndianarmyknownassepoysledacam-paignofresistanceagainstBritishrule.ThisuprisingbecameknownastheGreatMutiny,ortheSepoyRebellion.Eventually,Britainputdownthesepoyinsurrection-ists,showingthemlittlemercy.ThenextstepsBritaintookincludedremovingtheBritishEastIndiaCompanyasaninformalgoverningbodyandinstallingtheBritishruler,QueenVictoria(r.1837–1901),astheabsoluterulerofIndia.WhileVictoriastoodasthefigureheadofBritishruleofIndia,shedidnotreallyparticipateinday-to-daygoverning.Instead,theBritishParliamentruledIndia,assistedbyatinybutpowerfulgroupofbureaucratsinIndia,allofwhomwerewhiteandBritish.Forthemostpart,ParliamentandthebureaucratstreatedtheIndiansasinferiorsintermsofcultureandsociety.

Chinaputupastrongdefense,butendedupsubmittingtoBritainatapproximatelythesametimeIndiadid.Forcenturies,Chinahadtriedtokeepoutpeoplefromothernations,thinkingofthemaslesseducatedandlesscivilized.Astheyearswentby,however,China’spowerbegantowane,especiallyinrelationtotheadvancementsmadebyEurope’sindustrializednation-states.Bythenineteenthcentury,theQingDynastyhaddifficultymain-tainingChina’sisolationfromEurope.Formanyyears,powerfulEuropeannationshadsoughtaccesstoavarietyofproductsmadeinChina,buttradebetweenEuropeandChinawaslimitedbecausethesoleproducttheChinesehadbeenwillingtopurchasehadbeenopium,ahighlyaddictivedrugthatwasnotproducedinEurope.WhentheBritishstrengthenedtheirfootholdinIndia,theyhadaccesstothepoppyfieldsfromwhichopiumismade.TheBritishwantedtoexporttheiropiumsuppliesdirectlyfromIndiaandacrosstheChineseborder.China’srulersresentedtheopiumtraffickingoftheBritishandbannedthetrade.ChineseauthoritiesarrestedBritishtradersonthecommandoftheemperor.Inresponse,BritainwenttowaragainstChinain1839,sendingtroopstokeyChinesecitiesinwhatbecameknownastheFirstOpiumWar.TheconflictendedwiththesigningoftheTreatyofNankingin1842.ThistreatygavemanyadvantagestoBritishtraders.NotonlydidBritaintakepossessionofHongKong,akeyseaport,butChinaalsohadtoallowinternationalgoodsintoanumberofotherChineseports.TheSecondOpiumWar,fought

Britain’s Victoria ruled as the longest-reigning female monarch in history. She served as the “empress of India” from 1877 until her death in 1901.



bytheBritishandFrenchagainstChinabetween1856and1860alsoresultedinChina’sdefeat,furtheropeningofChineseportstoEuropeantraders.

Imperialism in Asia in the Late 1800s BritaincontinuedtostrengthenitsholdoverIndiathroughoutthecentury.IndiahadalreadybeguntoindustrializebeforethearrivalofBritishrulersandwasthere-forecapableofproducingitsowngoods,butBritainviewedIndiaprimarilyasasourcefornaturalresourcesandamarketforgoodsproducedinBritishfactories.Thus,BritishrulersofIndiatriedtoquashthesubcontinent’snascentindustrialdevelopment.Still,BritishruledidhavesomepositiveoutcomesforIndia.Forexample,theBritishconstructedrailroadsystemsthroughoutthecountryinanattempttomodernizeit.TheymadeitpossibleforIndiancitizenstolearnEnglish,soIndianscouldinteractwithandparticipateinBritishsociety.

TheBritishalsoculledthebestandbrightestIndianyouthandsentthemtoBritaintobeeducatedatcollegesthere.TheideawasthatthiskindoftrainingwouldhelpcreatemorebureaucratswhocouldworkonbehalfofBritaininIndiaandbeacceptedthereaslocals.Perhapsfittingly,thiseducationwouldworkinfavoroftheIndiansandagainsttheBritish.IndianseducatedinEuropereturnedhomeandbeganworkingtogethertofightfortheirrightsagainsttheBritish.By1885,theyhadfoundedagoverningbodytorepresentIndiannationalscalledtheIndianNationalCongress.ThemajorityofpeopleservingintheinitialcongresswereHindus.MembersofthecongressbegancallingforpoliticalautonomyandequalrightsforIndiaandIndians.Justafewyearslater,left-wingmembersoftheIndianNationalCongressbeganadvocatingtotalseparationfromBritain.Twoindividualsinparticular,JawaharlalNehru(1889–1964)andMohandasGandhi(1869–1948),wouldusewhattheyhadlearnedaboutBritishidealsandmoralcodestosupportIndia’sownquestforself-ruleandindependence.

Thatlibertywouldtakedecadestoarrive,however.In1900BritaingovernedIndiawithatightbureaucraticapparatus.Atthesametime,Britainhadotherworries.RussiahadbeenmakingincursionsintothecenterofAsia,establishingafootholdnorthofBritain’sownimperialoutposts.TheBritishbecameparticu-larlyconcernedwhentheRussiansmadeinroadsintoAfghanistan,aregionthatBritainhadalreadybeeninterestedinforsometime.BritainandRussiastoodatastalemateforquitesometimeinregardtoAfghanistan,asituationeasedonlyin1907whenRussiapromisedtoremoveitstroopsfromtheregion.BritainalsohadconcernsaboutFrance’simperialexpansion,takingplaceonIndia’seastwardsideinIndochina.In1886,tostrengthenitspositionontheeasternfront,BritaintookcontrolofBurma.BetweenAfghanistanandBurma,BritishIndia’sdefenseswouldbestrengthenedfromtwodirections.

BritainalsomadetreatiesoverterritorieswithGermanyandHolland.In1884,GermanyconfirmeditwouldworkwithBritaintodivideupthelargePacificislandknownasNewGuinea.Sevenyearslater,HollandandBritaindividedupBorneo,anotherislandintheEastIndies.

Meanwhile,beginninginthe1860sandextendingthroughtheendofthedecade,FrancecontinuedtodevelopitscontroloverterritoryinIndochina,close

1SeLf-cHecK

What were the

differences between

African and Asian

imperialism?

2SeLf-cHecK

What caused the

Opium Wars?



enoughtoBritishAsiatocreateathreatofconflictbetweenthetwoEuropeanpowers.WarbetweenBritainandFrancewasavoidedin1896whenthetwocountriesagreedthattheywouldworktogethertokeepanautonomousnationasakindofshockabsorber,orbuffer-state,betweenthem,topreventeithercountryfromexpandingtoofar.Thisbuffer-state,modern-dayThailand,wascalledSiam.

Bythe1890s,mostimperialistEuropeannationshadcometofocusonChina,wheretheManchuDynastyhadbeenrevealedascorruptandunabletodefendChina.Chinawasvulnerable,particularlytoencroachmentbyBritain,France,Germany,andRussia.Thesecountriescreatedspheres of influence inChineseterritory.ThesespheresdidnotbelongsolelytotheirrespectiveEuropeancountries,buttheEuropeannationsexertedtremendouspowerwithinthem.ThecloseproximityofEuropeanterritoriescausedgreatconcernamongtheChinese.FrancemovedfromitscontrollingpositioninIndochinatocreateitsspheresofinfluenceinthesouthofChina.BritainhadsignificantfinancialinvestmentinChina,aswellascontroloverHongKong.TheBritishusedtheirpowertoestablishasphereofinfluencethatradi-atedfromtheYangtzeRiverBasin.

TheexistenceofthesespheresofinfluencewerenotChina’sonlyproblem.Becauseofasystemcalledextraterritoriality,EuropeannationalswithinChinawerenotsubjecttoChineselaws.Thesenationalsonlyhadtoobeythelawsoftheirowncountryoforigin.WithsomanydifferentEuropeannationsestablishingcentersofpowerinChina,theinternationalabilitytoconducttradefreelythroughChinaseemedingravejeopardy.TheUnitedStates,whichwasrapidlydevelopingitsownimperialistinterestsinthePacificaswellastrademissionstoAsia,createdacompromisecalledtheOpenDoorpolicy.Thispolicy’sgoalsincludedkeepingChinawhole,ratherthansplit-tingthecountryamongEuropeannations.DespitetheOpenDoor policy, Chinese citizens grewincreasinglyfrustratedwiththeirtreatmentbytheEuropeans.AclandestinegroupofChineseindi-vidualsbandedtogetheragainsttheforeignpow-ersandledarevolutionin1900calledtheBoxerRebellion.Europeancountriesworkedtogethertoputdowntheinsurrection.Duringthecarnagethatfollowed,thousandsofChinesecitizenswhopracticedChristianitydied,andmorethan200 for-eignmissionariesinChinawerekilledaswell.AsaresultoftheBoxerRebellion,theChinesehadtopaytheEuropeansadditionalpenalties.TheBoxerRebellionalsousheredinthefinalchapterofrule

sphere of influence area where a foreign nation exerts political or legal control

extraterritoriality government policy that foreign nationals in another country, such as China, would be held responsible only to laws of their home nation, rather than those of the nation where they were located

British, German, Russian, French, and Japanese imperialists vie for pieces of China, while the Chinese protest to no effect.



fortheManchuDynasty,whichwouldcollapsecompletelyin1912.TheBoxerRebelliondemonstratedthepeople’sunhappinesswithEuropeanencroachmentinChinaand,byextension,withtheirowngovernment,theManchuDynasty,forpermittingit.After1900,EuropeancontrolinChinaincreasedasthecountry’sdomesticgovernmentfaltered.Differentorganizations,whichworkedagainstbothEuropeaninfluenceandtheirownChinesegovernment,schemedtotakedowntheManchurulers.Theirsuccessful1912revoltwouldresultinanewgovernmentsimilartoEuropeanmodels.

Japanese Imperialists AnotherthreattoChinacamenotfromEuropebutJapan.In1894,theJapanesedeclaredwarontheChineseoveraterritorialdisputeintheKoreanpeninsula.Bydoingso,Japanenteredintoagroundbreakingstageofimperialistconquests.Inlessthan50years,Japanwouldmovefromanisolatedandbackwardstatetoamodern,industrializednationwithamilitarycomparabletothoseofEuropeanpowers.Itwouldbecomeacountrywithaninternaltrainsystemandwellstaffedwithitsownmanufacturingsources.Itwouldmovefromhavingnocoloniestopossessingstrongfootholdsinanationmuchlargerandmuchmorepopulousthanitself:China.

Towardtheendofthe1600s,Japancutitselfofffromtherestoftheglobe.Thisself-imposedembargolastedmorethan150years,endingin1854whenasea-faringmilitarydelegationfromtheUnitedStates,ledbyCommodoreMatthewPerry(1794–1858),forcedtheJapanesebackintoglobalcommerce.

JapanbegantorapidlycatchupwithEuropebyupdatingitsgoverningregimeanditsfinancestocontendwiththenineteenth-centuryinternationaleconomy,andpreparingitsmilitarytodefendthecountryandfightusingmodernweapons.TheJapaneseevaluatedboththemisstepsandsuccessesofEuropeanimperialism,andappliedthemostsuccessfultacticstotheirownterritorialpursuits.ItsoonbecameclearthatJapaneseindustrializationhadbeensuccessful:duringtheSino-JapaneseWarof1894–1895,foughtprimarilyforcontrolofKorea,ittookrelativelylittletimefortheJapanesetodefeattheChinese.Japanhadbecomeakeyglobalauthority,whichtookmanynationalgovernmentsinEuropebysurprise.ThepeaceagreementattheendoftheSino-JapaneseWar,knownastheTreatyofShimonosekiof1895,includedmanyconcessionstoJapanbyChina,includingthecessionofTaiwan,knownthenasFormosa.ChinaalsoagreedtoJapanesecontrolofKoreaandgaveJapancontroloftheLiaotungPeninsula.ThispeninsulacamewithasignificantareacalledPortArthur.

TheserapidgainsonthepartofJapanworriedseveralEuropeancountries,includingFrance,Russia,andGermany.ThesethreenationswereafraidthatJapan’sauthorityinChinawouldgrowtoostrong.Asaresult,theydemandedthatJapangiveupitshegemonyinKoreaanditsrighttoleasetheLiaotungarea.

expansion in china and the Russo-Japanese War WhenJapanrelinquishedsomeofitsclaimsonChinaunderpressurebyEuropeanpowers,RussiaandGermanydidnothesitatetoprofitfromwhattheysawasa

3SeLf-cHecK

When France settled a

colony in Asia, which

area did it target first?

3SeLf-cHecK

When France settled a

colony in Asia, which

area did it target first?



potentialJapanesevulnerability.Bytheendofthe1890s,GermanyhadtakenoveranareaofChinacalledtheShantungPeninsula.EvenworsefromaJapaneseperspective,RussiahadreceivedpermissiontoleasetheLiaotungPeninsula,arightJapanhadwonintheTreatyofShimonosekibutlaterabandoned.Inaddition,RussiahadbegunconstructingrailsystemsthroughoutManchuria,includingtheChineseEasternRailwayinthenorth,whichwouldmakeanalready-existingroute,theTrans-SiberianRailroad,evenshorter.TheTrans-SiberianRailroadtraveledfromValdivostoktoMoscow.Tothesouth,theSouthManchuriaRailwaywasplannedbyRussiatoconnectotherpartsofChinaandRussiatoPortArthur.Throughoutthistime,bothBritainandFrancealsocontinuedtopresstheiradvantagesinChinatokeepupwiththeotherimperialistcountries.

ThiscombinationofeventsmadeJapanincreasinglywaryoftheEuropeanpowers,especiallyRussia.NotonlyhadRussiastartedbuildinganothersphereofinfluence,thisoneinManchuria,butitalsoseemedthatRussiahadideasaboutextendingitsreachintoKorea.InFebruary1904,JapandeclaredwaronRussia.Fewobserverssawitcoming:JapanlaunchedasurpriseassaultonRussianshipsatPortArthur.In1905,JapanwonanimportantconflictagainstRussiaintheBattleofMukden.InMayofthatyear,Japan’sarmieswipedoutshipsbelongingtoRussia’sBalticSeaforcethathadbeenpostedtotheFarEast.ThisconflictbecameknownastheBattleofTsushimaStraits.

Toresolvetermsbetweenthecountriesandcreatepeace,U.S.presidentTheodoreRoosevelt(1858–1919)servedasanegotiatorandhelpedforgetheTreatyofPortsmouth.Thistreaty,whichtookeffectinSeptember1905,includedfourimportantpoints.First,itrestoredtheleaseholdrightsofLiaotungtoJapan.Second,RussiawasallowedtoholdontoitssphereofinfluenceinnorthernManchuria,butJapanreceivedpermissiontocreateoneofitsowninthesouth.Third,RussiahadtogivethesouthportionofSakhalinIslandtoJapan,andfinally,JapanreceivedpermissiontooccupyKorea.In1910,JapanwouldtakeoverKoreacompletely.

Extensions• Readtheshortstory“ShootinganElephant”byGeorgeOrwell.Whatdoes

thisstoryrevealaboutattitudesheldbycolonizersandthecolonized?

SummaryAswellasexpandingtheirempirestoAfrica,EuropeannationsbroughtthemtoAsia.However,theimperialistmethodstheEuropeansemployedonthetwocon-tinentswereverydissimilar.Asiansocietiesalreadyhadcomplicatedfinancialandpoliticalinstitutions;Europeanscouldbendtheexistinginstitutionstotheirownendsratherthanstartingfromscratch.WhenBritainclaimedIndiaandportionsofChina,itsetastandardfortheotherEuropeancountriestoalsoadopt.FrancetookoverIndochina,whileGermanyandRussiamovedintoChinaasBritainhad.Inaddition,theUnitedStatesbeganestablishinganimportantpresenceinChina,throughmarkettreaties.TheUnitedStates’actionsalsobroughtJapanintocontactwithimperialistideas.InsteadofbecominganotherEuropeancolony,however,

4SeLf-cHecK

What happened

at the end of the

Russo-Japanese War?



Japanturnedintoanimperialistpowerinitsownright.Soon,JapanhadbegundisagreeingwithotherEuropeannations,suchasRussia,aboutauthorityoverChina.ThisdisagreementculminatedintheRusso-JapaneseWar.

Looking AheadImperialactionswouldbetiedtoanothernineteenth-centuryproblem,overpopula-tion,andprovideapossiblesolutiontoitthroughcolonization.Asthetwentiethcenturydrewnear,Europewouldexperienceatremendousanduniquepopulationincrease,whichwouldstrainitsresourcestothebreakingpoint.ManyEuropeanswouldendupleavingthecontinent,eithertemporarilyorforgood,insearchofbettercircumstances,food,andfunds.Astheytraveledaroundtheglobe,theywouldhelpenforceaneconomicseparationbetweentheworld’srichandpoor—aseparationalreadyestablishedbyEurope’simperialistbehavior.

1. Africa’s societies were so different from European societies that when European countries colonized Africa, they had to implement new political and financial systems from the ground up. In contrast, Asian political and financial systems were similar to European ones, meaning that Europeans could tap into these systems during the colonization process.

2. Britain and China’s struggle about whether Britain could import opium into China

3. Indochina

4. Japan defeated Russia: Russia had to make significant concessions to Japan when the war concluded. Then, Russia moved away from Asian imperialism to concentrate on Europe’s Balkan region, laying groundwork for World War I and the Russian Revolution.

SeLf-cHecK ANSWeRS


Migration and Inequality

Unit 16, Lesson 4

Keywordsdecolonization

dwarf economy

immigrants

migrants

pogroms

Third World

Essential Questions• Whatcausedtheglobalinequalityseenbytheearlytwentiethcentury?

Howwouldyoucompareglobalinequalityin1750and1970?

• Whatwastheimpactofpopulationpressuresandmigrationpatternsinthelatenineteenthcentury,especiallyonEuropeanandAsianmigrants?

• Whatdidthecriticsofimperialismandindustrializationuseastheirarguments?



Set the StageFacing the challenges posed by wars, starvation, droughts, and disease, Europeans born prior to the eighteenth century found life to be short and often painful. People raised large families and seemed resigned to relatively early deaths. As society advanced, however, people lived longer, often as a result of better medical care and more advanced technology. By the 1800s, people in Europe enjoyed longer life expectancies. Longer lives meant greater demand for resources that Europe alone could not provide. By the nineteenth century, Europe’s population began to exceed its resources. Europeans would have to travel outside their continent’s borders to bring in the resources their home territories could not yield.

The Rise of Global Inequality (1750–1970)ThedramaticchangesresultingfromEurope’snineteenth-centuryIndustrialRevolutionsaredifficult tomeasure.Yet the IndustrialRevolutionchangedtheworld;itwasadefiningmomentinhumankind’strajectory.TheIndustrialRevolutionchangedeverything—howpeoplelived,wheretheylived,whattheyate,andwhattheydid.Inshort,forthepeopleofEurope,everythingchangedasaresultofindustrialization.

OneofthemostimportantchangescreatedbytheIndustrialRevolutioncameinthewaysitshiftedthebalanceofpowerbetweenallthenationsoftheworld.Intheindustrialera,theworldbecamedividedintotwoseparate,unevencamps.Inonewerethecountriesthathadindustrializedandbecomericherandmorepowerful.Intheotherwerethecountriesthatdidnotindustrializeandbecamerelativelypoorerandlesspowerful.Astheindustrializedcountries,whichincludedthenationsofNorthAmericaandEurope,becamemorepowerfulandsophisticated,theybecamemoreandmoredominantontheworldscale.Inturn,thecountriesthathadnotbenefitedfromindustrialization,knownastheThird World,fellfurtherandfurtherbehind.

Bytheendofthenineteenthcentury,thedifferencesbetweenthetwogroupshadbecomeprofound.Astheworldbecameincreasinglyglobalized,thewealthycountriesgotwealthierwhileneedycountriesbecameevenmoreimpoverished.Theglobe’sfinancialmarketscametodependonthedividebetweenthewealthyandimpoverishedregions,asituationthatcontinuesinthetwenty-firstcentury.Globalresourcesarestilldividedunfairlybetweentheverywealthyregionsandtheverydeprived.

Mosteconomichistoriansagreethattheglobe’sfinanceshadbeenfairlyevenlydistributedaslateas1750.Atthattime,thetypicalpersonlivinginEuropehadaboutasmuchmoneyandpossessionsasatypicalpersonlivinginAfrica,Asia,ortheAmericas.Infact,inthemiddleoftheeighteenthcentury,Europedidnotstandoutasawealthygroupofcountries.Ofallthenationsin

Third World poorer half of the world that did not reap the rewards of industrialism; those who had worse economies and living standards than the “First World” West



Europe,eventherichest,Britain,didnothaveanyfinancialachievementstosetitapartfromcountriesoutsideoftheWesternworld.

Scholarsalsoagreethatthedivisionbetweenrichandpoorcountries,andthecorrespondinghealthandsocietalbenefitsthataccompanyastrongecon-omy,canbeblamedontheaftereffectsoftheIndustrialRevolution.Britain’shistoryprovidesaclearandilluminatingexampleofthischange.Historicrecordsshowthatby1830,BritainhadindustrializedfarmorerapidlythanotherEuropeannations.Correspondingly,citizensofBritainhappenedtobemakingfarmoremoneythancitizensofotherEuropeancountriesatthattime.However,asthecenturymovedforward,Britain’sadvantageovertheotherEuropeannations—andtheUnitedStates—becamesmaller.AsotherEuropeannationsbegantocatchuptoBritainfromanindustrialperspective,theirecono-miesalsostartedtocatchup.

Bythedawnofthetwentiethcentury,peopleinthepartsoftheworldthathadbeenfirsttoindustrializecontinuedtoprosper.Thissituationwentonfordecades,throughtheendofWorldWarII.Itwouldtakethenewpeacetimechangesandtheprocessofdecolonizationtofinallybegintochangetheingrainedglobalfinancialdisparity.NationsthathadformerlybelongedtotheThirdWorldcouldstarttotryandbreakoutofthatcategory.Theystartedtotrytoincreasetheirownnationalfinancestoencourageindustrialization.

Differencesbetweencountriesintermsoffinanceshasmeantrealdiffer-encesincitizens’qualityoflifeonalmosteverylevel.Onecanexpectthat,incomparisontocitizensofaFirstWorldcountrylikeBritainortheUnitedStates,thecitizensofapoor,ThirdWorldcountrywouldhavetodealwithpoorlivingconditions,lowlifeexpectancy,andinsufficientnutrition.Notsurprisingly,thisdisparityinlifeandfinancebetweenregionshasledtomuchdiscussion.OnegroupofscholarscontendsthatthepeopleoftheFirstWorldhaveworkedhardtocreateandmaintainahighersocialandeconomicstatus.AdifferentgroupofscholarscontendsthattheFirstWorldhasnothonestlygaineditshigherwealthandstatus,buttookitbyexploitingtheresourcesoftheThirdWorld.ThesescholarsblameFirstWorldcountriesforpracticingimperialismandcolonialpoliciesupthroughthetwentiethcentury,keepingThirdWorldcountriesimpoverishedbyforce,takingtheirresourcesandkeepingthemfromrisingupandmakingtheworldabetterplaceforthemselves.

The Population Push Priortotheeighteenthcentury,Europe’spopulationhadgrownslowlyanderrati-cally.Therehadalreadybeentwosharpincreasesinpopulation;thefirst,fromabout1050totheearly1300s,washaltedbytheBlackDeath.Thesecond,fromaboutthe1500stothemid-1600s,hadbeenaslowbutsteadyupswingofanincreaseofabout1percentperyear,leveledoffbydeathsfromwar,starvation,ordisease.ThepopulationofEuropehadbeenpreventedfromgrowingtoomuchbecausetherehadnotbeenenoughfoodorotherresourcestogoaround.Asaresult,thepopulationgrewquiteslowlyformuchofthelate1600sandearly1700s,beforebeginningyetanothersteepclimbinabout1750.

1SeLf-cHecK

How can the Third World

be described?

decolonization process of abolishing colonies in nations that had been under imperial control, and returning them to autonomous states



Withthe1700s,then,camethethirdandmostimportantincreaseinEurope’spopulation.Thisincreasewouldlastforalmost200years,intothetwentiethcen-tury.Whileduringthe1800sEuropeancitizensbeganhavingfewerchildren,thepopulationdidnotexperienceacorrespondingdecreasebecausefewerpeopleweredyingattherelativelyearlyagesthathadbeencustomaryinthe1700s.Peoplehadstartedlivinglonger,owingtoadvancesinhealthcareandtechnology,aswellasbetterhabitsinhygiene.In1800,about188millionpeoplelivedinEurope.Onehundredyearslater,thenumberhadmorethandoubledto432million.

Thosenumbersdonotdisclosethewholestory,nordotheyrevealjusthowmuchEuropecontributedtotheworldpopulationduringthattime.Anadditional60millionpersonsmovedawayfromEuropeinthecenturyfollowing1815.Iftheyhadstayed,Europe’spopulationcouldhaveconceivablyswelledtomorethan500 mil-lion.The60millionEuropeanswhomovedawayfromEuropeitself,knownasmigrants,traveledmainlytoregionsthathadalreadybeencolonizedbyEuropeancountries,suchasAustraliaandNewZealand,Siberia,andNorthandSouthAmerica.Inthesenewregions,theEuropeanmigrantshelpedquicklyraisethepopulationsthere.Forinstance,inthe100yearsfollowing1800,thepopulationsoftheUnitedStatesandCanadaroseby75million.Thisrapidincreaseinpopulationmeantthatthepercentageoftheworld’spopulationbelongingtopeopleofEuropeandescentcontinuedtogrow.Peopleonothercontinents,suchasAsiaandAfrica,didnotseetheriseinnumbersthattheEuropeansdid.BythetimeWorldWarIbeganin1914,Europeansandtheirrelationsonothercontinentsmadeupnearly40percentoftheworld’spopulation.

Itmakessense,then,thattheincreaseinEurope’spopulationwouldmakeEuropeancountriesevenmoreinterestedinimperialconquest,anddriveEuropeancitizensthemselvestoemigrateinsearchofland,resources,andpersonalgain.Facedwithalargerpopulationinthe1800s,Europeanshadthesameproblemstheyhadhadinthe1700s:shortagesoffood,notenoughland-basedresources,andtoomanypeopleinurbancenters.Bythenineteenthcentury,however,thereexistedfewermeansofkeepingthepopulationincheck,suchaswars,famines,anddisease.

ThepeopleofEuropebegantomigrateabouttwodecadesaftertheinitialexpansionofthepopulation.Aboutagenerationintotheexpansion,thenewcitizensrealizedthatverylittlechancesforfortuneorstabilityexistedforthemintheirhomecountries.Allthepropertyhadalreadybeendividedupamongexistingcitizens,anditwouldbedifficultfornewgenerationstoachieveupwardmobility.Asaresult,manyyoungpeopleleft.Thisswiftmigrationhappenedmostofallintheearly1800s,whenthelife-changingaspectsoftheIndustrialRevolutionhadnotyetbeenfullyfelt.TheIndustrialRevolutionwouldsupplynewmeansofemploymentforEuropeancitizens,andprovideameansofsupplyingEuropeancitizenswithresourcesandnewchancesforself-improvement—thingspreviousgenerationswouldhaveleftEuropetofindforthemselves.BeforetheIndustrialRevolution,Europe’spopulationhadsimplyoutstrippedtherelativeareaonwhichithadbeenraised.

Thus,intheearlyyearsoftheIndustrialRevolution,millionsofEuropeansbecamemigrantsmovingoutsideofthedomestichomestheyhadalwaysknown.

migrants citizens who travel to a foreign land in search of better circumstances but usually plan to come back home



WhilesomecitizenspreferredtostayonEuropeansoil,movingtourbancentersandawayfromtheirformeragriculturalhomes,otherswenttonewcontinentsentirely,hopingtomaketheirfortuneselsewhere.Ireland,inparticular,sawtwotremendouslossesofpopulation:first,duringtheIndustrialRevolution,asitscitizensseeminglyemigratedenmassetoEngland,andsecond,duringtheIrishpotatofamine,asitscitizenssoughttoescapehungerbyrelocatingtotheUnitedStates.

ManyEuropeanslefttheircountriesforbrighteroptionsoverseas.Toexam-inetheirjourneys,threeimportantelementsofnineteenth-centuryimmigrationmustbetakenintoaccount.Foronething,asthenineteenthcenturydrewtoacloseandWorldWarIapproached,itseemedasthoughmorecitizensemigratedfromEuropethaneverbefore.Inthefirstyearsofthe1900s,forexample,over11 millionpeopleemigratedfromEurope—astrongcontrasttotheapproximately2millionwhohademigratedhalfwaythroughthepreviouscentury.PeopleleavingEuropeinsearchofabetterlifeelsewherecanthusbeseenasanimportantandintegralpartofwhatitmeanttoliveinEuropeduringthenineteenthandearlytwentiethcenturies.ThosewhocontinuedtoliveinEuropeduringthattimeoftenexpectedsomeoftheirfriendsandrela-tivestomigrateoremigrate.FamilyunitsbecameseparatedasEurope’syoungcontinuedtomoveacrosstheglobe,butnotallEuropeancitizensemigratedinthesamewayoratthesametime.Basedontheircountryoforigin,Europeanimmigrants’approachestomigrationvariedconsiderably.Take,forinstance,emigrantsfromIrelandandBritain.Asearlyasthe1840s,citizensfromthosetwocountrieshadbegundepartingfromtheirhomelandsbythemillions—inpartbecauseBritishcitizenswhohadbeenlivinginthecountrysidebecameimpoverishedandneededtofindlivelihoodselsewhere.Anothercontributingfactor,though,camefromtheBritishEmpire’spoliciesthatgavecertaincolo-nialprivilegestocitizensofBritishextractionoverothers.ABritishemigrantwouldhaveabetterchanceatfindingworkinaBritishcolonythanaGerman,French,orItalianemigrant,andtherehappenedtobemoreBritishcoloniesthananyothers.ThismeantthatBritishcitizenswhohadreceivedsubstantialtrainingorhadbusinessexperiencebecamenearlyaslikelytoleaveBritainastheirpoor,ruralcounterparts.Inthe80yearsfollowing1840,nearly33percentofallEuropeanmigrantscamefromBritain.

Themigrationpatternsofothercountries,likeGermanyandItaly,variedgreatly.InGermany,themigrationofcitizensbeganslowlyafter1830,withgreatrushesoutwardevery20to30years.Afterthelastrushinthe1880s,though,Germany’semigrationsloweddowngreatly.Germanyhadbegunindustrializingverysuccess-fullyandhadstartedtocloseinonBritain.Assuchithadbeguncreatingmoreandmoreopportunitiesfordomesticemploymentofitsowncitizens.ThepeopleofItalydidnotseemsolucky.ItalianemigrationsawasteadyincreasethroughthebeginningsofWorldWarI.ThiscontinuedincreaseseemedtoindicatethatItalyhadnotbeenassuccessfulinindustrializingasGermanyorBritain,andthatpeopleintheItaliancountrysidecouldnotfindemploymentorresourceswithwhichtosupportthemselves.Overall,then,thenumberofpeoplewhomightemigrate

2SeLf-cHecK

Why did the amount

of people in the world

increase so much in

the 1700s?



fromanyEuropeancountrydependedonthatparticularcountry’sfinancialandsocietalstate,aswellastheconditionofthecountry’soverseasimperialcolonies.

ThemajorityofEurope’smigratingcitizenseventuallyendedupintheUnitedStates.However,ofallthemigratingcitizensintheworldduringthe1800sand1900s,lessthanhalfendedupmovingtotheUnitedStates.ThegreaterportionofthemigrantsofthisperiodendedupincountrieslikeAustralia,Argentina,Brazil,Canada,andRussia.WhiletheUnitedStateshadplentyofmigrantscomingin,thosepeopledidnotmakeupasgreatashareofthecountry’spopulationastheydidinothercountries,likeBrazil,Canada,andArgentina.ThiscanbeseenclearlybycomparingmigrantscomingintoArgentinaandtheUnitedStatesinthefirstdecadeofthetwentiethcentury.Everyyearduringthatdecade,thepercentageofnewmigrantsinArgentina’sentirepopulationequaled3percent;intheUnitedStates,thepercentagehoveredatabout1percent.Proportionally,moreimmigrantscametoArgentina.

Migrants from europe and Asia Nineteenth-centurymigrantscameprimarilyfromEuropeandAsia.Duringthatcentury,anumberofpeopleleftEuropeinwavesduetoavarietyofmotivatingfactors.AnoverwhelmingmajorityofEuropeanmigrantswereimpoverishedindi-viduals,andfrequentlytheycamefromthecountryside.AtypicalEuropeanmigrant,infact,couldbedescribedaseitheraruraltradesperson,orafarmerorfarmworkerfromthelowerclass.Frequently,thistypicalmigrantfounditimpossibletosustainaminimumstandardoflivingduetotheconfluenceofseveralnewfactors:theavailabilityofinexpensiveproductsmadeinfactories,thescarcityofarableland,andthepracticeoffarmingbylargelandholdersratherthansmallindividuals.

ThislatterpointisclearlyillustratedbythewaveofGermanmigrantswhodepartedsouthwestGermanyandtheRhinelandbetween1830and1854.TheseGermansfellpreytosomethingFriedrichListdescribedasthedwarf economy:Germanyhadonlyminisculeportionsofarablelandavailabletoindividualfarmersatthetime,andasindustrializedfactoryproductsbecamemoreprevalent,craftsmencouldnotfindamarketfortheirproducts.Europeancitizensfacedwiththesecircumstancesoftenfounditbettertoputmostoftheirpossessionsonthemarketandtaketheresultingfundstopurchasecheaperproperty,ofteninareasliketheMidwestoftheUnitedStates.Today,manypeoplerememberthesemigrantsfromEuropeasindividualswhohadabsolutelynomoneyandnoplacetogo,orasworking-classindividualsforcedoutofthecitiesofEurope.However,moreoftenthannot,thesemigrantscouldbestbedescribedashardworkersfromvariousprofessions,whobroughttheirtalentsandskillswiththemastheyemigratedfromtheirEuropeanhomelands.

Generallyspeaking,migrantsbroughtanethosofhardworkwiththemwhentheytraveledtonewlands.Manysoughttoriseintoahigherclassinanewcountry.Oftenthatmeantthatnewlycolonizednationswelcomedmigrants,becauseofthehardworkandgoodqualitiestheybroughttotheirnewhomes.Mostofthesemigrantshappenedtostillberelativelyyouthful.Forinstance,about66percentofthemigrantswhocametotheUnitedStateshadnotyetturned31.Evenmore

dwarf economy a stunted financial state made up of small pieces of property and failing systems of craft and trade



shockingly,nearlyallofthem—90percent—hadnotyetturned40.Manydidnothavespousesorfamilies.Whenthemigrantslandedonnewshores,theyhadmuchtooffer—health,ability,anddetermination.

Returning Home ManyoftheEuropeancitizenswholefttheirhomesonthecontinentduringthenineteenthcenturyhadeveryintentionofreturningtotheirhomecountriesafterspendingsometimemakingtheirfortunesabroad.Thisputthemindirectcontrasttoimmigrants,wholefttheirhomelandsandplanned,astheydidso,onleavingforgood.Forexample,approximatelyhalfoftheEuropeanswhomigratedtoArgentinadidnotstay.AboutathirdofallEuropeanswhohadmigratedendedupgoingbacktotheirhomecountries.Whetherornotmigrantsreturnedhome,ofcourse,seemedtocorrespondwithwheretheyhadbeenfrominthefirstplace.Balkanmigrants,forinstance,becamefarmorelikelytoreturnhomelaterinlifethanmigrantsfromIreland.OfalltheEuropeanmigrantswhotraveledtotheUnitedStatestoworkduringthelate1800s,87percentofthosefromtheBalkansendedupgoinghome,while90percentofthosefromIrelandendedupstaying.

Formanymigrants,decidingwhethertogohomedependedmorethananythingononemainfactor:whethertheywouldbeabletopurchaseterritoryoftheirownintheirprevioushomelands.InmostofBritain,itseemednearlyimpossibletopurchaseland.ThevastmajorityofBritishsoilwasownedbyarelativelyfewwealthyindividuals

immigrants citizens who travel overseas in search of better circumstances and plan on staying in their new nations

The assassination of Alexander II triggered violent mob attacks against Jews in Russia. These anti-Jewish pogroms resulted in large numbers of deaths and motivated many Jews to flee Russia in the late nineteenth century.



orcorporations.Returningmigrants,eventhosewhohadmadeagooddealofmoneyintheNewWorld,wouldhavelittlehopeofbuyingfarmlandbackhomeinBritain.

Financialreasonsfornotreturningtoaplaceoforigin,howeverunfortunate,paleincomparisontoother,morelife-threateningreasons.EuropeanJewslivinginRussia,forexample,didnotbegintomigrateinlargenumbersuntilthelate1800s,butwhentheyleftmostofthemhadnointentionofgoingback.UpuntiltheassassinationofTsarAlexanderIIin1881,theJewsofRussiahadmanagedtolivefairlycomfortably.EventhoughthefanaticswhokilledAlexanderIIhadnotbeenJewish,theRussianJewsreceivedblamefromthetsar’sdeath.Underthefollowingtsar’sregime,theJewssufferedtremendously,asthestatecreatedandenforcednewprejudiciallawsandimplementedpogroms.Atthebeginningofthe1880s,approximately5millionJewishpeoplelivedinRussia.Theyhadbeenforcedintocertainregionsofthecountry,andtheirmobilitythroughoutRussiahadbeenlimited.JewscouldliveintinyurbancentersinaregionknownasthePaleofSettlement.FewcareerswereopentoRussianJews,andthosetendedtobeinthecraftsorinsmall-scalemarketexchange,andtheyhadlittlehopeofpurchasingterritorytofarm.WithallthesefactorslimitingtheiropportunitiesforadvancementinRussia,itmadesensethattheJewishpeoplewhohadstartedtomigrateduringthatsamedecadewouldnotwishtoreturntoalandwherethegovernmentseemedprejudicedagainstthem,wheretheycouldnotownproperty,andwheretheywouldstruggletomakealiving.

The example of Italian Migrants AtypicalcaseofthetrajectoryofEuropeanmigrantscanbefoundinthemanypathsforgedbyItalianmigrantsduringthelatterpartofthenineteenthcentury.Whilepeoplefromothercountries,suchasBritainandGermany,hadbegunmigratingdecadesearlier,Italiansdidnotreallystarttomoveuntilthe1880sbecausetheyhadnotreallyhadareasontoleaveanyearlier.Bythe1880s,though,75percentoftheItalianpeoplereliedonfarmingtosupportthem-selves.WhenfarmmachinesandnewmethodsintheUnitedStatescreatedatremendousincreaseinwheatproduction,ItalybeganimportingtheinexpensivegrainfromacrosstheAtlantic.Italianpeopleoftheworkingclasshadalreadybeenfacingsignificanteconomichurdles.Nowtheysuddenlyfoundthemselvesunabletomakealivingbyproducingandsellingtheirownwheat.

Attheendofthenineteenthcentury,Italyhadnotyetbecomefullyindustri-alized,eventhoughitscitizenshadbeguntowitnessaswiftpopulationincrease.Severalgroupsofcitizenshadnochoicebuttodeparttheirnation,muchastheymighthavewantedtostayinItaly,becausetheycouldnotaffordtodootherwise.UnlikeBritishandIrishmigrants,whohadbeentenantfarmersorpersonsworkingonlandtheycouldneverhopetoown,manyItalianmigrantsdidabandontheirowntinyplotsofland.TheItaliancitizenswhoweretenantfarmersoftenendedupremainingintheirowncountry,whereinsteadofputtingtheirenergytouseinfarmingorindustry,theybecamepoliticallyactive,mostfrequentlyontheleft.Whiletheystayed,millionsofotherItaliansdepartedforgreenerpastures.Bymigrating,peoplehopedtoachievetwogoals:first,toleaveovercrowdedItaly,andsecond,tostartmakingmoremoney,whichsomemigrantshopedwouldenablethemtoreturntoItalyonedayandpurchasebackalltheterritorytheyhadlost.

pogroms state- organized prejudicial and brutal assaults, often aimed at a specific collection of people

3SeLf-cHecK

How can the

dissimilarities between

migrants and immigrants

be explained?



Italianmigrantsspreadoutacrosstheglobe.AlargepartofthemtraveledtotheUnitedStates,especiallyaftertheturnofthetwentiethcentury.Priortothat,anevenlargernumberofItalianmigrantshadtraveledtoSouthAmerica—specifically,toBrazilandArgentina.InthoseSouthAmericanregions,67percentofthemigrantswerefromItaly.ItalianmigrantsbecameparticularlydrawntotheopportunitiesofworkingonthegreatcoffeeplantationsofBrazil.BecausetheplantationsinBrazilhadlongreliedonthelaborofenslavedhumanbeings,therecentabolitionofslaveryhadcreatedalaborshortage.TheBraziliancoffeeindustryneededworkers,andquickly.TogetItalianmigrantstocomeandworkforthem,theBraziliansofferedtohelpoffsettheirvoyagecostsandpaythemmoremoneythantheycouldgetelsewhere.

EvenstableconditionslikethoseinBrazilcouldnotkeepItalianmigrantsteth-eredanywherefortoolong.Themajorityofthesemigrantsdidnotwanttobuildlong-termlivesoutsideofItaly.Instead,theythoughtofthemselvesasmigratingbirdswhowouldtravelsouthforthewintertofindsustenance(money).Inotherwords,theywouldcontinuetodotheirownfarmingathomeontheirdomesticItalianfarms,wheretheirproductsincludedflaxaswellasgrain.Then,inthecolderEuropeanmonths,theItalianmigrantswouldtraveltoSouthAmericaandworkonfarmsthere,leavingItalyinDecemberandstayinginSouthAmericauntilthefirstoftheEuropeanspring,inApril.AssoonastheygotbacktoItalyinApril,itwouldbetimetostartalloveragain.Today,tracesoftheseItalianmigrantworkersarevisiblethroughoutthecountriesinLatinAmerica,particularlyBrazilandArgentina.ManyItalianswhotraveledoutsideoftheirhomecountryhadtraininginconstructionandbuildingdesign.Theyheldapracticalmonopolyonthosecareersinothercountries,andmanyofthebuildingstheyhelpedcreateinLatinAmerica’surbancentershaveafeelthatisquitereminiscentofItalyitself.

Asonemightexpect,theItalianmigrantswhotraveledsoextensivelydidnothaveiteasy.Theycouldreapsubstantialfinancialrewards,however.IfanItalianmigrantworkedinbothItalyandSouthAmericaandsavedhismoney,hecouldcol-lectanywherefrom250to300dollarsinjustafewmonths.SomeItalianmigrantspreferredtostayrelativelyclosertohome,however,venturingacrosstheborderintoneighboringEuropeannations.Ofallthesurroundingcountries,mostItalianspreferredtoventuretoFrance.Inhardlyanytimeatall,ItalianimmigrantsinFrancehadbeguntocatchuptotheircounterpartsintheUnitedStates.By1911thenum-berofpeopleofItaliandescentborninFrancewasaboutone-thirdthenumberofpeopleofItaliandescentbornintheUnitedStates.

WhethermigrantscamefromItalyoranotherEuropeancountry,theyremainedinfluencedbytheirconnectionstofriendsandrelatives.Maintainingthoseconnec-tionswouldoftendeterminehowmigrantslived.Forexample,agroupofpeoplewhohadbeenfriendsinasmalltowninIrelandmightmigrateenmasse.Whentheyarrivedintheirnewlocation,theywouldputdownrootsinanarearelativelyclosetooneanother.Ineffect,theywouldhavepackeduppartoftheiroldtowninIrelandandbroughtitwiththemtoanewcityacrosstheocean.ThesemigrantswantedtoalterthedestinytheywouldhavehadasEuropeancitizens.Thiswastruenotonlyforworking-classmigrantsfromItalyorpersecutedJewsfromRussia,butalsoforcitizensofScandinaviancountrieslikeNorwayandSweden.Migrantssaw



life-changingopportunitiesinnewplaceswheretheycouldhelpformtheworldaroundthemandwherethemajoritycouldrule.Alltoooften,athometheirlifestylesandopportunitieswouldalreadybedictatedbytheirclassandfinancialstanding.Theywouldhavetobowtothewhimsofthemorearistocraticindividuals,whocontrollednearlyeveryaspectofEuropeanlife,especiallyitspoliticsandreligion.Unlikethemigrants,aristocratswantedthingstostaythewaytheywere.Norway’spoetlaureate,BjørnsstjerneBjørnson,spokeformanyofhisfellowcountrymenwhoplannedonbecomingmigrants,whenheclaimedthathehadnochoicebuttoleavehomeandgooutintotheworld—stayingwouldeathimupfromtheinside.

ThisbeliefthathomenolongerheldpromiseforyoungmigrantsalsospreadwithinUkraine’surbancenterofKiev.Attheendofthenineteenthcentury,KievhadalargepopulationofJews.Onespokeforallofthemin1882,claimingthatKievhadnothingleftforthem;iftheJewsstayedthere,otherpeoplewouldwalkalloverthem,disrespectthem,andstealfromthem.Thespeakerstatedthatiftheycouldnotbetreatedcivilly,theJewswouldhavenochoicebuttoleave.FortheJewsandtheNorwegians,then,forpeopleofminorityreligionsandmajoritylowerclasses,migrationstoodoutasthebestpossiblesolutionofbetteringthem-selvesandincreasingtheirsocial,financial,orclassstanding,oroverallwell-being,asthecasemighthavebeen.OnlywhensituationsbegantoimproveathomeinEuropeancountriesdidmigrationabate.Potentialmigrantshadtobeenticedintostayingbybeingpromisedcivilrights.

Migration from Asia Duringthesameperiodofthelatenineteenthcentury,Asiaalsoprovidedasignificantnumberofmigrantworkersseekingoutbetterworkingandlivingconditionsoverseas.TheworsethingsgotinareasoftheAsiancountrysidehitthehardestbyeconomicupheaval,themorepeoplelefttheirnationsbehindinsearchoflargeropportunities.FromAsia,themigrantsincludedpeoplefromIndia,Japan,China,andthePhilippines,aswellasother,smallercountries.LikeEuropeanmigrants,somewouldreturntotheirnativevillageseventually,whileotherswouldsettleintheirnewcountryandstay.ComparedtothelargenumberofEuropeanmigrants,whichtotaledover60million,thenumberofAsianmigrantsseemsrelativelysmall:approximately3millioninthefourdecadesleadingupto1920.

ThemajorityofAsianmigrantstraveledtotheUnitedStates(primar-ilyCaliforniaandHawaii),partsofAfricaandthesouthofAsia,Australia,andLatinAmerica.Innearlyallthesenewlocations,themigrantsservedasindentured,orcontracted,workerseitherminingforgoldortoilingonlargefarms.Frequently,themanagersoftheselandsbroughtinAsianmigrantstoworkbecauseabolitionhadeliminatedtheirabilitytoforceenslavedpeopletolaborforthem.Whenmanagerscouldnotrelyonslavelabor,theyturnedtomigrants.Thereisevidenceofthisasearlyasthe1840s:duringthatdecade,Cubadidnothaveenoughofalaborforcetomeetthedemandsofitshar-vest.Thegoverningregime,withrootsinSpain,hiredmigrantworkersfromChina.ThemigrantswhocamefromChinatoCubadidsoaftercommittingtoeightyearsofwork.Fortheirtroubles,theyreceivedmeagerfoodandpay,and



theirCubanoverseerspaidthemroughly25centsforaday’swork.CubacontinuedtoimportChinesemigrantworkersuntil1873,whentheChinesegovernmentputastoptoit.Inthelast20yearsofthemigration,some130,000Chinesecitizenslefttheirhomes,onlytodiscoverthattheirnewlivesinCubacon-sistedofexceedinglyhardwork,badconditions,andterriblepay.

AcomparablesituationgreetedAsianmigrantstoPeru,whereover100,000Chineselaborerswentduringthe1800s.OthernationsalsostrenuouslydraftedpeoplefromtheAsiancontinentasaninexpensiveworkforce.JustlikeEuropeanmigrants,Asianmigrantshopedtomakeabetterlifeinthesenewworldsandusetheirexpe-riencetotheirownadvantage.Assoonastheycouldmanageit,manyAsianmigrantswouldescapefromthedemeaningpositionsfarmingorminingandgotolarger,morepopulatedareastotryandmaketheirway.Unfortunately,theycontinuedtofacehard-ship.Asianmigrantshaddifficultybeingacceptedandassimilat-ing.IftheywenttoplacesalreadyinhabitedbywhiteEuropeans,theyweretreatedassecond-classcitizens,atbest.Thesamethinghappenedwhentheymetwithmigrantsofcolorinotherregions,liketheeasternpartofAfricaorinMalaya.Asianmigrantsfaceddiscriminationeverywhere.

To make matters worse, this discrimination was legallyenforced.OthermigrantsdidnotwantAsianmigrantstojointhemintheirnewcommunities,makingjudgmentsonracialbiasand,inmanycases,replicatingtheprejudicialtreatmenttheythemselveshadfacedintheirhomecountries.Inthe1880s,bothAustraliaandtheUnitedStateshadstartedtakinglegalstepstominimizethenumberofAsianmigrantsintheircountries—lawsthatremainedinplaceupuntilafterWorldWar I.Becauseoftheselaws,themajorityofmigrantswhocametosettleandstayinoverseaslandswereoverwhelminglywhiteorEuropean,notAsian.

Arguments Against Imperialism EventhoughthevastmajorityofEuropeancitizenslivinginthelate1800sandearly1900stookprideinmanyoftheirnations’imperialisticbehavior,believingthatbroughttheircountryhonor,power,andriches,thatdidnotholdtrueforeveryone.SomeEuropeansstoodupagainsttheircompatriotsandspokeoutagainstimperialism.Ofthosecriticalthinkers,twoofthemostwellknowncamefromverydifferentbackgrounds.JohnA.Hobson(1858–1940),whohadabackgroundinBritishfinance,arguedthatEuropeanimperialismcouldnotclaimreform-basedorreligiousmotives,becauseitrevolvedaroundacquiringwealthandpowerforindividualEuropeannations.Toincreasetheirwealth,Europeannationshadtodevelopglobaltradingarenasandspendmoneyabroadtoseereturns.Hobson’sradicalsolutionproposedthatEuropeshouldputitsmoneybackintoitsowncoffers.Nationalgovernmentsoughttotargetextremelyrichcitizensandtaxtheimperialwealththeyenjoyedtoassistthepoverty-strickenlowerclasses.Itis

4SeLf-cHecK

In what way can the

Asian migrant process be

characterized?

The California Gold Rush began in 1849. Like people from many nations, Chinese prospec-tors sought a share of the wealth. The Chinese began traveling abroad after European nations opened Chinese trade to the West.



easytoseewhyHobson’splanhadlittleappealforEurope’srichindividualsandcompanies,whohadmuchmoretogainthroughimperialism.

VladimirIlyichLenin(1870–1924),ismostwellknowntodayforhisrevolu-tionarysocialandpoliticalreformsinRussiaduringtheBolshevikRevolution.LikeHobson,hespokeoutagainstimperialism.His1916book,Imperialism, the Highest Stage of World Capitalism,arguesthatcapitalismandimperialismarelinked,andthatthefateofonetriggersthefateoftheother.LeninclaimedthatthetworelatedbehaviorshadcausedWorldWarIbecausebothgaveauthorityandwealthtotheselectindividualsatthetop,whilethemassessufferedandsawnogain.Tohelpthoseatthetopgetricher,capitalistshadtoturntoimperialism,acquiringmoreterritorytogainmoreresourcesandmakemoremoney.Theircapitalistdesiresforcedcountriestopursueimperialistpolicies,whichinturnfosteredinternationalconflictandworldwar.

NeitherHobsonnorLeninprovidesacompleteanswertoimperialism,how-ever,andneitheroneexplainswhathappenedinthecaseofItaly’simperialisticpolicies.LikeothercountriesinEurope,ItalysoughtterritoryinAfricatocolonizeforitself.Yetin1898,ItalylostanimportantbattletoEthiopiaandwasunabletopursueitscolonizationgoals.ThatyearmarkedthefirstinstanceofanimportantEuropeannationlosingtoanAfricanstate.Despitethisinitialhumiliation,ItalyperseveredinotherpartsofAfrica,eventuallycontrollingLibyain1911.Butatwhatprice?ItalyhadspenttremendousamountsofmoneyonitsLibyancampaign,andmanyItalianshaddiedasaresult.MeanwhileLibyaitselfofferedfewresourcestoitsnewrulersinRome.

Today,scholarsareinterestedinthefundamentalquestionofhowimperialisticpracticesinEuropealteredtheentireglobe,includingthosecountrieswherethepracticesbegan.Scholarspointtothreeimportantcriticalpoints.First,Europeanimperialismallowedforotherimportantnationstobecomerelevantplayersontheworldstage.Forinstance,becauseoftheirabilitytotakeadvantageofresource-richandstrategicallysituatedterritories,JapanandtheUnitedStatesusedEuropean-styleimperialismtoassertapower,makingthemequaltotheEuropeanpowers.Attheoutsetofthetwentiethcentury,aftertheSpanish-AmericanWar,theUnitedStateshadastrongcolonialfootholdinthePhilippinesandHawaii.Inaddition,itoversawanarrowisthmusinCentralAmericawhereitwouldsoonconstructthePanamaCanal;itcontrolledkeyislandsofthePacific,includingGuamandtheMidwayIslands;anditcontrolledthegovernmentinCuba,whichhadbeenoneofSpain’sfinalAmericanpossessions.Foritspart,JapanhadlaunchedanaggressiveimperialcampaignagainstKoreaandpartsofChina,provingitsstatuswhenitdefeatedRussiain1905.BoththeUnitedStatesandJapanwouldseeanincreaseininfluenceandauthorityuntiltheyclasheddirectlyduringtheSecondWorldWar.

AsecondpointscholarsmakeconcerningtheeffectsofimperialismconcernsthewayitcreateddiplomaticconflictbetweentheEuropeanpowers,leadingtorapidmilitarizationandgrowingradicalnationalism.ThegreatEuropeannationsdidnotcometoimmediateblowsorinternationalconflictovertheirimperialterritoriesonthecontinentsofAsiaandAfrica,buttheycertainlylaidtherootsoftheglobalwartocome.Forexample,twosetsofdisagreementsbetweendifferent



EuropeannationsintheearlytwentiethcenturylaidthegroundworkforWorldWarI.In1905,BritainandRussianearlycametoblowsoverPersia,wheretheimperialdesignsofbothstatesoverlapped.Meanwhile,FranceandGermanydisagreedoverhowtoresolveaseriesofcrisesinMorocco,causingbothsidestomobilizeforwar.Eachtime,though,theEuropeannationsnarrowlyavoidedwar,buttheirsimmeringimperialistictensionsremained.

Thirdandfinally,imperialisticpracticessetuplong-termevents,witheffectsthatarestillfeltinthetwenty-firstcentury.Theingrainedbehaviorsandattitudesofimperialcolonizersandtheeffectsofcolonizationuponmillionsofexploitedpeoplewouldnotjustsimplydisappearovernight.Prejudiceanddiscriminationwilltaketimeandpatiencetoeradicate.Asofthetwenty-firstcentury,imperialEuropemaybeathingofthepast,yetfromtimetotime,echoesofimperialistinvasionandresistancecanbeheardclearly.Actsofviolenceandterror,warsbetweendifferentregionsoftheThirdWorld,andthelaggingfinancialstatusofformercoloniesremindusthatimperialistbehaviorstillhasrepercussionstoday.

Extensions• ReadfromImperialism, the Highest Stage of World CapitalismbyVladimir

IlyichLenin.Howdoesheassociatecapitalismandimperialism?WhatpredictionsdidLeninmakeaboutcolonizednations?

SummaryTheIndustrialRevolutionchangedeverything—howpeoplelived,wheretheylived,whattheyate,andwhattheydid.Itdividedtheworldintotwoparts:theindustrialized“haves”andthenon-industrialized“have-nots.”Theindustrializedcountriesgainedmoreandmoreadvantagesoverthenon-industrializedbasedontheirbettereconomies,whichledtobetterqualityoflifefortheircitizens.Thisledtoalargefinancialseparationbetweenwealthyandpoverty-strickennations.Meanwhile,Europe’spopulationbegantoexpandrapidlyduringthe1700s,andsoonthecontinentbecameovercrowded.Becauselargegroupsofcitizenscouldnotearnenoughmoneytosurviveoraffordtopurchasepropertyoftheirowninthenationstheyhadgrownupin,theybeganmigratingtootherpartsoftheworld.MostmigratingindividualscamefromEuropeorAsia,andtheirmigrationdovetailednicelywiththepracticeofEuropeanimperialism.EventhoughmostpeopleinEuropeandtheUnitedStatessupportedthepracticeofimperialism,manyothersspokeupagainstit.

Looking AheadAsmorecitizensleftEuropeforotherwesterncolonies,Europewouldbegintoturnitscovetous,imperialeyeonAfrica.ThecomingyearswouldseeEuropeanimperialistspaynewandintenseattentiontotheresourcesandterritoryofAsia.TheBritishwouldcolonizeIndia,whilealargergroupofdifferentEuropeannationswouldmoveintoanddivideupChina.Meanwhile,aftertheUnitedStatessteppedintoforceJapanintotradingwithWesterncountries,Japanwouldsurpriseeveryonebybecominganimperialpowerinitsownright.

5SeLf-cHecK

How did Lenin describe

the connections

between capitalism

and imperialism?



1. Nations from the Third World were typically those that did not participate in the Industrial Revolution and became poverty-stricken as a result; this poverty led to a poorer quality of life in general.

2. The population increased because, even though fewer people were being born, most people were living longer because they had improved food and health care.

3. Immigrants move away from their original homes for good, while migrants hope eventually to go back.

4. The majority of Asian migrants ended up as indentured laborers in the United States and Latin America.

5. Lenin believed that capitalism caused imperialism: Because European countries needed more funds, they had to expand their trading systems with other nations and control them through colonization.

SeLf-cHecK ANSWeRS


Asian Responses to Imperialism

Unit 16, Lesson 6

KeywordsBoxers

gunboat diplomacy

home rule

racial discrimination

samurai

shogun

Essential Questions• HowdidIndiareacttoimperialism?

• HowdidJapanreacttoimperialism?

• HowdidChinareacttoimperialism?



Set the StageDuring the new imperialism, Europe’s imperialist taste for acquisitions soon spread from Africa to Asia. While the majority of African regions quickly succumbed to European advances, the Asian countries would react to Europe’s imperialism in a variety of ways. Social Darwinism practiced in Africa would be echoed in Britain’s racially prejudiced treatment of India. The isolated nation of Japan would be prodded by the United States into joining the nineteenth century, and would surprise everyone by becoming an imperial power in its own right. Meanwhile, China and its governing dynasty, once one of the world’s great powers, had begun a slow downward spiral that would leave it, like India, vulnerable to European imperial ideas.

Britain’s Indian empireBythenineteenthcentury,Britainwasfirmlyestablishedasoneofthegreatest,ifnotthegreatest,imperialpowersintheworld.WhiletheheadquartersoftheempireremainedBritainitself,ofalltheimperialpropertiesBritainhadincorporated,Indiastoodasitsmostpreciousgem.MorevaluablethananyotherBritish-controlledregion,IndiastoodasthemostimportantpieceoftheBritishEmpire.Inturn,ofalltheregionsBritainoccupied,India’schangeswouldbethemostdramatic.ThesechangesaroseinlargepartbecauseofthecompleteandtotalgovernanceBritainenforcedoverIndiaforcenturies.ThisputIndiaindirectcontrastwithotherregionsofAsiaandAfricathathadbeencolonizedindifferentways.Forexample,manyAfricannationsdidnotcomeunderEuropeanruleuntilthefinalyearsofthenineteenthcentury,whichmeantthatEuropeanssimplyhadlesstimetoswayandinfluencethepeoplethere.China,evenwhenconfrontedbypowerfulEuropeansseekingtoforcetheopeningoftraderelationships,clungtoitsownlimitedautonomy.Japanwieldedenoughpowertobecomeanimperialpowerinitsownright.

India’sconnectionstoBritainbeganinthe1600s.WhilePortuguesecoloniz-ershadfirstcometoIndiaduringthattimeinsearchoftheirownfortune,thePortugueseeventuallybecamesupplantedbytheBritishEastIndiaCompany.TheBritishEastIndiaCompany,witharoyalmonopolyonIndiantrade,wieldedmilitarypower.ThecompanyinfiltratedsmallgroupsofIndianpopulationsandtookoverseparate,smallerregionsonebyone;bythemiddleofthenineteenthcentury,theformerlyautonomousregionsofIndiahadsuccumbedtotheBritishEastIndiaCompany.Forthenextdecade,India’sformergovernmentmemberswouldstruggletoreclaimauthorityintheirowncountryandremovetheBritishfromtheirlands.

TheformerIndiangovernmentinitiallytriedthestandardmeansofusingitsownarmytofightBritain’scolonizers,culminatingintheGreatRebellionof1857and1858.DuringtheGreatRebellion,alsoknownastheSepoyMutiny,theBritish



EastIndiaCompanysawhiredIndiansoldiers—bothHinduandMuslim—withwhomtheyhadpreviouslyfoughtalongsideturnagainstthem.TheIndiansoldiers,calledsepoys,resistedwhenaskedtobiteoffthepapercartridgesfortheirrifles,whichtheybelievedweregreasedwithbeefandporkfat,aseemingviolationofthereligiousbeliefsofbothHindus,whodidnoteatbeef,andMuslims,whodidnoteatpork.TheuprisingspreadrapidlyintwogeographicregionsofIndia,thecenterandthenorth,butcouldnotbekeptgoinginthesouth,wherethesepoyscameupagainstotherIndiansoldiersfightingontheEuropeans’behalf.TheEuropeanseventuallywon.AftertheGreatRebellion,Britain’sgovernmenttookoverofficiallyfromtheBritishEastIndiaCompany.

IntheyearsfollowingtheGreatRebellion,IndiabecamegovernedbyBritain’sParliament,locatedinLondon,whichmadechoicesandlawsforthecountrythatasmallgroupofEnglish,India-basedbureaucratscarriedout.Bytheturnofthetwentiethcentury,Indiahadover300millioncitizens,butthecountryhadtobowtoagroupoffewerthan3,500high-rankingbureaucrats.Overall,theseEnglishbureaucratsseemed,forthemostpart,capableandsupportiveofthepoorcitizensundertheirgoverningcare.Thisgovernmentremainedfarfromperfect,however.ItkeptBritishandIndiancitizensapartinsocialsettingsandwasclearlyprejudicedintermsofwhichcitizenscouldparticipateindifferentkindsofemployment.

Unfortunately,themajorityoftheBritishbureaucratsinIndiasawtheentireIndiancitizenry,withawidevarietyofracialandclassbackgrounds,aslesserbeings.EventhegreatarmytacticianGeneralHoratioH.Kitchener,perhapsthemostillustriousfiguretotakechargeofBritain’sarmedforcesinIndia,believedinthisinnatesupremacyoftheBritish.KitchenerstatedthattheBritishhadinfactbeenabletoconquerIndiabecauseBritainhaddecideditsowncitizenswereraciallysuperiortoIndiancitizens.AccordingtoKitchener,itdidn’tmatterwhetheranIndiancitizenhappenedtobesmart,brave,orscholarly,becausethebestIndianwouldneverbeasgoodasaBritishsoldier.

Thisracialprejudicecanbeclearlyseeninanincidentthattookplacein1883.Thatyear,Britain’sParliamentbegandiscussinganimportantpieceoflegislation.Haditpassed,itwouldhavepermittedjudgesofIndiandescenttopresideoverIndiantrialsinvolvingAnglo-Europeans.Britishcitizensrecoiledattheproposedlegislation,andpopularopinionhelpedgetitoverturned.ManyordinaryBritishcitizenscouldnotcountenancetheideathatapersonofIndiandescentwouldpassjudgmentonthem.ThisincidentshowsthattheimperialstateinIndiahadbeenfoundedonprejudicedracialbeliefs.

Thatsaid,eventhoughtheBritishelevatedthemselvesabovetheirIndiancoun-terparts,theBritishstillthrewthemselvesintotheirworkinIndia,makingmanypositiveimprovementsthere.Forexample,theBritishrecognizedthattheywouldeventuallyneedtoreplacetheirownbureaucratswithnativeIndians,andthatthoseIndianrepresentativeswouldneedapropereducationtoparticipateinthatbureaucracy.Toachievethis,theBritishsetupschoolsystemtopreparestudentsforuniversityandtoworkinEnglish.DespiteotherelementsofprejudiceintheBritish-runIndiansociety,itmustbenotedthatBritishinfluenceenabledIndiancitizenstoimprovetheirfinancialstandingandsocialstatus,boththroughthekindoflearning

1SeLf-cHecK

What was the

significance of the

Great Rebellion?



EastIndiaCompanysawhiredIndiansoldiers—bothHinduandMuslim—withwhomtheyhadpreviouslyfoughtalongsideturnagainstthem.TheIndiansoldiers,calledsepoys,resistedwhenaskedtobiteoffthepapercartridgesfortheirrifles,whichtheybelievedweregreasedwithbeefandporkfat,aseemingviolationofthereligiousbeliefsofbothHindus,whodidnoteatbeef,andMuslims,whodidnoteatpork.TheuprisingspreadrapidlyintwogeographicregionsofIndia,thecenterandthenorth,butcouldnotbekeptgoinginthesouth,wherethesepoyscameupagainstotherIndiansoldiersfightingontheEuropeans’behalf.TheEuropeanseventuallywon.AftertheGreatRebellion,Britain’sgovernmenttookoverofficiallyfromtheBritishEastIndiaCompany.

IntheyearsfollowingtheGreatRebellion,IndiabecamegovernedbyBritain’sParliament,locatedinLondon,whichmadechoicesandlawsforthecountrythatasmallgroupofEnglish,India-basedbureaucratscarriedout.Bytheturnofthetwentiethcentury,Indiahadover300millioncitizens,butthecountryhadtobowtoagroupoffewerthan3,500high-rankingbureaucrats.Overall,theseEnglishbureaucratsseemed,forthemostpart,capableandsupportiveofthepoorcitizensundertheirgoverningcare.Thisgovernmentremainedfarfromperfect,however.ItkeptBritishandIndiancitizensapartinsocialsettingsandwasclearlyprejudicedintermsofwhichcitizenscouldparticipateindifferentkindsofemployment.

Unfortunately,themajorityoftheBritishbureaucratsinIndiasawtheentireIndiancitizenry,withawidevarietyofracialandclassbackgrounds,aslesserbeings.EventhegreatarmytacticianGeneralHoratioH.Kitchener,perhapsthemostillustriousfiguretotakechargeofBritain’sarmedforcesinIndia,believedinthisinnatesupremacyoftheBritish.KitchenerstatedthattheBritishhadinfactbeenabletoconquerIndiabecauseBritainhaddecideditsowncitizenswereraciallysuperiortoIndiancitizens.AccordingtoKitchener,itdidn’tmatterwhetheranIndiancitizenhappenedtobesmart,brave,orscholarly,becausethebestIndianwouldneverbeasgoodasaBritishsoldier.

Thisracialprejudicecanbeclearlyseeninanincidentthattookplacein1883.Thatyear,Britain’sParliamentbegandiscussinganimportantpieceoflegislation.Haditpassed,itwouldhavepermittedjudgesofIndiandescenttopresideoverIndiantrialsinvolvingAnglo-Europeans.Britishcitizensrecoiledattheproposedlegislation,andpopularopinionhelpedgetitoverturned.ManyordinaryBritishcitizenscouldnotcountenancetheideathatapersonofIndiandescentwouldpassjudgmentonthem.ThisincidentshowsthattheimperialstateinIndiahadbeenfoundedonprejudicedracialbeliefs.

Thatsaid,eventhoughtheBritishelevatedthemselvesabovetheirIndiancoun-terparts,theBritishstillthrewthemselvesintotheirworkinIndia,makingmanypositiveimprovementsthere.Forexample,theBritishrecognizedthattheywouldeventuallyneedtoreplacetheirownbureaucratswithnativeIndians,andthatthoseIndianrepresentativeswouldneedapropereducationtoparticipateinthatbureaucracy.Toachievethis,theBritishsetupschoolsystemtopreparestudentsforuniversityandtoworkinEnglish.DespiteotherelementsofprejudiceintheBritish-runIndiansociety,itmustbenotedthatBritishinfluenceenabledIndiancitizenstoimprovetheirfinancialstandingandsocialstatus,boththroughthekindoflearning

1SeLf-cHecK

What was the

significance of the

Great Rebellion?

theyreceivedandinthechancestheyhadtoworkintheBritish-runIndiangovern-ment.ThefirstpeopletotakeadvantageoftheBritishsystem’spotentialforupwardmobilitycamefromagroupofupperclassorhigh-casteHindus.TheysawanecessaryopeningforpeopletomediatebetweenIndia’smassesandtheBritishbureaucracy,andrealizedtheycouldfillthatopening.Overtime,thehigh-casteHinduscametooccupyaclassgroupfamiliarinmanycolonialsocieties,belowthosecitizensofthecolonialpowerbutabovetheirfellownative-bornpeople.AsmembersofthisnewIndiansocialclass,thehigh-casteHindusbecamesteepedintheideasandsocietaltraditionsofBritainandtheWest.

Theupwardlymobile,highclassgroupofHindusplayedahighlyimportantpartintheprocessofbringingIndia’sfinancesintothecontemporarymarket.ThisprocesscanbeseenasyetanotheroutcomeofBritain’simpactonIndia.Indeed,BritainmadeseveralchangesinIndiatosupportthisfinancialprocess.TheBritishsetupagriculturalestatestofarmjute,afiber,andtea.BritainalsobuiltarailwaysysteminIndiathatbecamethethirdlargestintheworld,andusedittoimprovethespeedandexchangeofcommoditiesandideasthroughoutIndia.Additionally,Britaindevelopedbetterlarge-scaleirrigationsystemsinIndia.Eventhoughalltheseimprovementscreatedmoreproductsandmoremoneycomingoutofthecountry,themajorityofpoorIndiancitizensdidnotappreciatethebenefits.EvenastheBritishandhigh-casteHindusproducedandtransportedmoregoods,thenumberofIndiansinthecountryrapidlygrew.Thegrowingnumberofsuppliesbarelykeptupwiththegrowingpopulation.

Ultimately,allthesefactorsandchangesbenefittedBritain,resultinginanIndiafusedtogetherunderBritishcontrolandrunbynativecivilservantswhospoketheimperialtongueandwereeducated.BritainbroughtIndiatogetherasasinglenationwithonegoverningbody,eventhoughthepeoplewithinthatsystemhadformerlybeenseriousopponentsormembersofvastlydifferentreligions.Forexample,bothMuslimandHinduIndiansbecamesubjecttothesamelaws.EveryfactionofIndiahadtobandtogetherasonecountry,eventhoughhundredsofyearsearlier,asfarbackastheMiddleAges,someoftheregionshadbattledagainstoneanother.WhetherMuslimarmiesorMongolianoneshaddefeatedthem,theyallhadtonowanswertoBritain.Themagnitudeofsuchaforcedunitycanbehardtograsp.Forcomparison’ssake,onecanimaginewhatwouldhappenifasingleimperialnationhadvanquishedeverysinglenationontheEuropeancontinentandbroughtthemtogetherasanewnation-state,responsibletoahigherfederalauthority.CountriesasdisparateasFranceandRomania,withtheirdifferentreligiousbeliefsandculturalmores,wouldhavetoleavethosebehindonthecommandofthegoverningpower.

ManyIndiansrejectedtheBritishtreatmentofthem.Upperclassnativemem-bersofformerlydifferentregions,nowunderthelargerumbrellaofIndia,begantoagitatefornationalismafterfacingyearsofprejudicethatcouldnotbeovercome.Unfortunately,theBritishremainedfundamentallyprejudicedagainsttheIndiansevenastheyprovidedthemwiththetoolstheyneededtosucceedinBritish-runIndiansociety.AnupperclassIndianmightreceivethebesteducationandtrainingavailable,buteventhenhewouldneverreceivethesametreatmentandrespectasanuneducatedBritishnative.Thereremainedanupperlevelofsocietysealed



totheupperclassIndians.Eventhehigher-casteIndiansweredeniedentrytothemostexclusivesocialestablishmentsandlodgingplaces.Theycouldnotgethiredinthemostupper-levelexecutivepositions,andsometimescouldnotevensitinspecificareasoftrains.

Overtime,upperclassIndiansrefusedtostandforthistreatment.Inaway,byprovidingIndiannativeswithalimitedamountoffreedoms,BritainhastenedthedevelopmentofIndiannationalism.HadBritainnotbroughtWesternizedideasoffreedomandcivilrightstotheIndianupperclasses,theIndianswouldnothavebeenabletorequesttheminBritishterms.HadBritainkeptmostofIndia’scitizensatthemostgeneral,poverty-strickenlevel,thosepeoplemighthavemorewillinglyacceptedBritishprejudice.ButIndiabecameincreasinglyfullofpeoplewhosawthatthefoundationofBritishcolonialrulewasracial discrimination,treatmentthatviolatedtheirhumanrights.TheIndianupperclassessawBritishtreatmentforwhatitwas:ahypocriticaldenialofthefreedomsandrightstheBritishthemselveshadlauded,andasystemofgovernmentthatdidnotfullyrepresentorspeakforits

racial discrimination bias against one group of people by another because of race

Cockfighting served as a popular blood sport and form of entertainment in Europe. This painting depicts British colonists watching a cockfight in India.



people.EveniftheBritishgovernmentseemedtobelesstyrannicaloverallbecauseithadgonetosomelengthstoimprovelifeinIndia,inmanyrespectstheoverseasgovernmentremainedimplacableandunchangeable.

Itshouldnothaveseemedsurprising,then,whentheupperclasscreatedtheIndianNationalCongressin1885.Thisgroup,madeupmostlyofHinducitizens,beganworkingtogethertoarticulatetheirrequestsformoreequalrightsforIndia’scitizensandmoreautonomyforIndiaitself.Tobolstertheirarguments,theIndianNationalCongresscomparedIndia’ssituationtootherareasthatBritainhadcolo-nizedbuttowhichithadgivenmorerights.Ofcourse,theseareas,likeAustraliaandCanada,happenedtobemostlywhite,whichfueledaccusationsofracialdiscriminationamongBritishcolonialauthorities.About20yearsaftertheIndianNationalCongresshadbeenfounded,someofitsmoreleft-wingmembersbeganadvocatingabsoluteautonomyforIndia.Duringthose20years,therestoftheworldhadseenJapan’stransformationfromanold-worldcountrytoanew-worldimperialistpower.Left-wingNationalCongressmemberswantedtoapplyJapan’smethodstoIndia.Thisdesireforautonomydidnotstaylimitedtotheleftwing,either.OthermembersoftheNationalCongress,includingthemoreneutralmem-bers,hadbegunrequestingIndianhome ruleandtheuseofaparliament,withvoted-inmembers,justasBritainhad.

IndiancitizensstartedcomingtogethertoprotecttheirowncountryagainsttheBritish.Despiteinitialregionaldifferences,IndiancitizenshadlearnedconceptsaboutequalityandfreedomfromBritaintoclaimthoserightsforthemselvesasaunifiedgroup.YettheIndianpeople’snationalismhadonlyjustbegun.AfterWorldWarIendedin1918,IndianswouldbandtogetherunderthevisionofpeacefuladvocateMohandasGandhiandhisdiscipleJawaharlalNehru.GandhiadvocatedforIndia’sindependence,buthedidsowithoutvio-lence.Instead,heurgedhissupporterstoemploypeacefulbuteffectivetech-niques,suchasboycottingBritishproducts.However,Gandhi’smethodscouldnotextendcompletelyoveradividedIndia,wheretheMuslimsandHinduscontinuedtodisagreewitheachother.Britainrefusedtogiveupitsauthorityoverthecountry,andremainednominallyinchargeofIndiathroughWorldWarII.Afterthewar,BritainfacedvirtualbankruptcyandpressurefromIndia’sindependencemovements.Gandhi,murderedin1948,diedoneyearaftertheBritishgrantedhiscountryitsindependencein1947.TheBritishannouncedthedivisionoftheirformerIndianEmpireintopredominantlyHinduIndiaandpredominantlyMuslimPakistan.

An Imperialist case Study: JapanBythemid-1800s,Japanhadbeenseparatedfromtherestofthecivilizedworldforcenturies.Itspeopleanditsgovernmenthadwithdrawntheislandnationfromglobalcommerceandexchange,preservingacomplicatedbutalmostmedievalwayoflife.Thiswayoflifewouldbedisruptedin1853,withtheentranceofCommodoreMatthewPerryoftheUnitedStates.PerryhadarrivedtopressureJapanintoresuminginterac-tionwiththerestoftheworld.Todoso,heemployedgunboat diplomacy,whichmeanthethreatenedtoopenfireontheJapaneseunlesstheycomplied.

home rule a nation’s right to internal control of its domestic govern-ment, but not its foreign policy

gunboat diplomacy threat to employ brute force by one negotiat-ing party if the other negotiating party does not cooperate



AtthetimeofPerry’sintrusionintoJapaneselife,thegovernmentinJapanhadbeenfairlystablefortwocenturies.Japanhadanominalruler,theemperor,buthedidnothavemuchsignificantauthority.Instead,truepowerrestedwiththeshogun,anarmedforcesgovernorwhoinheritedhispositioninmuchthesamewaytheemperordid.Theshogunreceivedassistancefromaristocraticfighterscalledsamurai.Together,theshogunandthesamuraireignedoverarelativelypeacefulnation.ThesamuraiwouldsufferthemostfromJapan’snewrelationshipswiththeWest.Frequently,thesamuraihadlittlemoney,eventhoughtheyhadpower.ThesamuraididnotlikethattheUnitedStateshadabruptlycomeinandchangedthebalanceofpowerinJapan.Additionally,thesamuraifeltembarrassedabouttheunfairagreementsJapanhadmadewiththeUnitedStatesandotherEuropeannations.

Beginningin1858,thesamuraiwagedacampaignofviolenceagainsttherepresentativesofothercountrieswhohadcometoJapan.Theserep-resentatives,primarilydiplomaticagentsandtraders,hadcometothelargeurbancenterofYokohama.From1858to1863,thesamuraimurderedforeignagentsandcommittedotherterroristactsagainstthenon-Japaneseagentsintheircountry.SomesamuraialsobeganworkingagainsttheJapanesegovernment.WesterncountrieswastednotimeinreactingagainsttheactionsJapanesesamuraihadtakenagainsttheirnationals.TheWesternersmadeitcleartheywouldnottoleratethatkindoftreatment.TheUnitedStates,France,Britain,andHollandcombinedforcesandsentagroupofshipstopunishJapan’smilitary.ThisWesternnavalgroupsuccess-fullytargetedimportantJapanesestrongholds.WhenthestrongholdsfelltotheWest,theweaknessoftheshogunandhismilitaryregimewasrevealed.ItbecameclearthatJapanwouldneedtoinstituterapidchangestocompetewiththepowersofEurope.

The Meiji RestorationAfewyearslater,in1867,agroupofsamuraiwhohadremainedfaithfultotheirmothercountrysuccessfullyrevoltedagainsttheshogun’sgovernment.Thesamurairestoredtheiremperortohisformerplaceofauthority,throughprimarilypeace-fulmeans.TheeventbecameknownastheMeijiRestoration.Inhindsight,itisclearjusthowimportanttheMeijiRestorationwasinbringingJapansafelyandsuccessfullyintothenineteenth-centuryglobalizedworld.Rightaway,theMeijiregimehadtodealwithitsmostsignificantproblem:howtoengagewithWesterncountriesandprotectJapanitself.

TheMeijiregimealteredtheirbehaviorsoquicklythatittookmanyobserversbysurprise.Fromanhistoricalstandpoint,theMeiji’salterationisarareexampleofasuccessfulandpositiveabruptchangeinaregime’sbehavior.TobegintheprocessofreformingJapanandrepairingitsinternationalrelations,theybroughtahalttothecrimesthesamuraihadbeenperpetuatinguponforeigners.Theychosetolearnfromtheforeigners.TheMeijievaluatedthesystemsofotherWesterncountriesanddecidedtheyhadbeendoingsomethingswell,particularlyinregardstocreatingmilitarydefensesandincreasingtheoutputofmanufacturedgoods.TheydecidedtoremaketheircountryusingpowerfulWesternnationsastheirmodels,mostnotablytheUnitedStatesandFrance.Thislargeandsweepingdesireforreform

shogun Japanese customary, armed head of state, who usually had more power than the nominal ruler, the emperor

samurai Japanese noble group of upper class, armed officers

2SeLf-cHecK

Briefly describe

home rule.

The Japanese samurai warrior protected and served his feudal lord with unflinching loyalty.



appliedtoalmosteverylevel,astheMeijitriedtoaccomplishtwoimportantgoals.First,theywantedtobringtheirnationuptospeedwithitsmostmodernglobalcounterparts,andsecond,theywantedtodefendtheirnation.Todoso,theywouldhavetofindawaytoreplicatetheindustrialandpoliticalchangesEuropehadalreadyundergone.

TheMeijigovernmentwastednotimeinimplementingitsideasforanewstate.Asearlyas1871,theMeijidiscardedthepreviousmedievalmeansofgovern-ingJapan,whichhadreliedonanupperclass.Initsplace,theycreatedapowerfulcentralgovernment.Upuntilthispoint,Japanesepeoplehadbeenheldtolawsthatdividedthemintofourdifferentclasses,andtheyhadnotbeenabletoleavethecountrywithoutbeingaccusedofdirelawbreaking.TheMeijitooktheideasoftheFrenchRevolutionastheirmodel,callingforequalityofallJapanesecitizens.ThepeopleofJapanwouldalsobeallowedtotravelastheywished.Inaddition,theMeijichangedtheveryfinancesofJapan,settingupfreemarketsinwhichmerchantscouldviewithoneanother.Theyalsostartingconstructingbothtrainsystemsandmanufacturingplants.Initially,then,itseemedasthoughtheMeijiregimehadtakenonsomeofthebestandbrightestEuropeanideasforcreatingacivilizationbasedoncivilrightsandequality.

LibertyandequalitydidnotstandasthemostimportantvaluesfortheMeiji,though.Morethananything,thenewregimewantedtomakesureJapanhadbecomeastrongandauthoritativenation.Tothisend,Japanrevampeditsmilitary.Forthefirsttime,Japanhadanavalfleet,andnotjustanyfleet,butastrongandup-to-dateone.Inaddition,theMeijitookastheirmodelstheGermanandFrencharmies,andusedthosecountries’ideastoremaketheJapanesearmy.Japan’snewarmy,ledbyhighlytrainedofficials,requiredeverymalecitizentobedraftedinforthreeyears.Thedrafted-inmembersofthearmyimmediatelyboosteditsranksandworkedwelltogether.Thearmyusedthemtosettlesmalldisagreementsinlessurbanareas.Justafewyearsafteritscreation,in1877,thearmysuccessfullysettledalargerevoltofunhappypeas-ants,whohadbeentryingtorecouptheirformerrights.

TheJapanesedidnotonlycopyWesternmilitaryideas.Theyimplementedideasfromavarietyofdisciplines,takingspecialadvantageofthegroundWesternershadgainedinthesciencesandintechnologicaldevelopments.Inanefforttowidenthecountry’sknowledgebase,itsbrightestcitizensweresentoverseastobecomebettereducated,whiletheMeijiregimebroughtinWesternspecialistsandprofessionalstosharetheirsecretsbyofferingbetterpaythanthespecialistsandprofessionalscouldreceiveintheirowncountries.However,thegovernmentkeptacloseeyeonthespecialistsandprofessionals,andwouldbringinJapanesesubstitutesfortheirpositionsasquicklyaspossible.

By1890,theMeijihadsuccessfullycreatedanew,morepowerful,globallycompatibleversionofJapan.OfalltheWesternexamplestochoosefrom,theMeijichoseGermany’ssystemofgovernment—withastrongcentralauthorityandarelativelyweaklegislativebranch—astheonetocopy.Japancreatedaconstitutionwithstrictauthoritarianprinciples.Whilethenewgovernmentincludedalegislativebody,liketheGermanReichstag,itwaslimitedinitspower.

3SeLf-cHecK

What distinguished

the shogun from

the samurai?



JapanalsoembarkedonanimperialisticquestofitsownjustasitspowerfulWesternmodelshad.Japan’simperialismservedtwopurposes.First,itshowedtheJapaneseandtherestoftheworldjusthowpowerfulJapanhadbecome.Second,itbroughtallJapanesecitizenstogetherinanationalisticproject.JapanbegandemonstratingitsimperialprowessearlyintheMeijiregime.In1876,JapansuccessfullyusedthesamegunboatdiplomacythatPerryhadusedagainstittoassertitsdominationofKorea.Nearlytwodecadeslater,JapanfounditselfbattlingChinaoverrightstocontroltheKoreanPeninsula.WhenChinalostoverwhelminglytoJapan,itsentastrongmessagetotherestoftheworldthatJapanhadarrivedasanimperialpower.AspartofitsprizeforbestingChinaoverKorea,JapanreceivedFormosa,knowntodayasTaiwan.

Inthe15yearsthatfollowed,Japanrepeatedlywenthead-to-headwiththemostpowerfulEuropeannationsinsearchofimperialresourcesandauthorityinChina.JapanconcentratedonManchuria,inwhichtheRussiangovernmentalsohappenedtohaveinterest.Japandidnothesitatetoconfrontanestablishedimperialpower,launchingasurpriseassaultonRussiain1904.Theconflictthatfollowedsawalargelossoflifeonbothsides,butultimatelyJapanprevailed.ItdidsowithanimportantgaininChineseterritory,takingoveraregionnearPortArthur,whichhadpreviouslybeenoneofRussia’sprotectorates.Japanstoodasatrulyimportantglobalplayer,whosequestforimperialexpansioncouldnotbeignored.AlthoughtheUnitedStates,whichsharedtheverylargeborderofthePacificOceanwithJapan,hadstartedtoobjecttoJapan’spresenceinChina,theJapanesecontinuedenlarginganddeepeningitsholdonthatcountry.

Bysuccessfullyreshapingitselfandembarkingonimperialisticquests,Japansetnewstandards.Forthefirsttime,acountryoutsideofEuropeandtheUnitedStateshadbeenabletoreformitselftocompetewiththosepowerfulWesternnations.Significantly,Japanhaddonesobyhonoringitsoldtraditionsandcustoms,andusedthemtomodifyWesternideas.Throughitsmilitarymight,particularlythroughitsdefeatofRussia,JapanhadshowntherestoftheworldthatthegreatEuropeannationswerenotinvincible.AcountryfromAsiacouldriseabovethem.ThegroundJapanhadgainedbecameofgreatinter-esttopeopleinChina,eventhoughtheyhadbeendefeated,andinVietnam.VietnamhadbeensubjecttoFrance’simperialauthorityformanyyears,andsomeofitspeople,particularlythoseinthesouthernpart,enviedhowJapanhadrisenupagainsttheWest.SomeVietnamesepeopledeployedfellowciti-zensandundergraduatestoJapanasameansofattemptingtofigureouthowthatAsianimperialismcouldbepossible.Overall,Japan’ssuccessfultrajectoryshowedcitizensinotherimperial-occupiedregions—thoseonthecontinentsofbothAfricaandAsia—thatanationcouldfreeitself,remakeitself,andbecomeaforcetobereckonedwith,inlessthana50-yearperiod.

china’s Overdue Rebellion Inthesecondhalfofthenineteenthcentury,asJapanstartedcomingtogether,Chinabegantofallapart.By1860,Chinahadbeenruledbyasingledynastyforthepasttwocenturies:theManchuDynasty.Yetbythatyearithadfounditself



onshakyfootingandmanybelieveditwouldfallapartcompletely.Despitethegovernment’sbestefforts,ChinahadbeenunabletokeepEuropeantradersandinvadersout,tothedismayofmostoftheChinesepeople.Chinabecamedividedbysmalluprisingsandgeneraldisorderandconfusion.Manyobserverswereshocked,then,whentheManchugovernmentpulleditselftogether,usingitspowersbasedonancientcustoms,toremaininpowerforanotherthreedecades.

TheManchuDynastycouldnothaverecoveredwithouttwoimportantele-ments.One,althoughthedynastyhadbeenfailing,itfooledeveryoneintothink-ingithadanewleaseonlifewhenitpresentedalternaterulerswhoseemedasthoughtheycouldguidethecountrysmoothlyandwell.Importantindividuals,includinghigh-rankingarmyofficialsandintellectualdiplomats,remainedfaith-fultothedynastyandsteppedintoputdownuprisings,includingtheTaipingRebellion,whichhadbegunin1850.ThisrebellionfoundChinesepeasantsrisingupagainsttheManchus,andthefightinglastedsolongthatChinabecamechaotic.Duringthismassiverevolt,scholarsnowestimate,upto20millionpeopledied.TheManchuarmyprobablywouldnothavesucceededwithoutoutsidehelpfromEuropeanmilitaryofficials.Inaddition,theManchusalsofoundthemselvesledbyasmartandresourcefulpolitician,theempressdowagerTzuHsi.Althoughhersontechnicallyruledthecountry,TzuHsitookpoweronhisbehalf.Shedramaticallyimprovedthemanagementandorganizationofthecountry,andencouragedherministerstobeproactive.

Two, theManchu Dynasty temporarily recovered because theEuropeancountriespulledbackfromtheirformerquestofmakinginroadsintoChineseterritory.TheEuropeansgavetheChinesesomebreathingspacelargelybecausetheyhadalreadyachievedthethingstheywantedmost:strongtradingrelationshipsandbetterdiplomaticinterchangeswiththeChinese.TheChineseacceptedoffersofaidfromWesternersbecausetheoffersthemselveshelpedChinafindanewbalancebetweenhonoringtheircustomsandmorals,whilealsoincorporatingnewideasofrunninggovernmentandmachinery,whichcamefromEuropeandtheUnitedStates.

DespitetheManchuDynasty’sbestefforts,however,thebalancecouldnotlast.WhileChinahadmadeprogresstowardreorganizingitself,thatallcametoanendwhenJapansteppedinandtriedtoapplyitsnewimperialpracticesinChina.Theresultingyearlongconflictbetweenthetwocoun-tries,theSino-JapaneseWarof1894to1895,demonstratedhowmuchmorequicklyJapanhadmodernizeditsmilitary.Chinasufferedahumiliatingdefeat.Inthepeaceagreementthatfollowed,ChinabecamehumbledbytheamountofconcessionsitwasforcedtogivetoJapan,includingitslossofFormosa.TheseeventspresentedChinatotherestoftheworldasaweakopponent,acountrythatcouldbeforcedtosubmittoimperialattacks.SoEuropeancountries,aswellasJapan,wereeagertopresstheiradvantagesandgainmoreinfluenceinChina.Tothatend,outsidenationsbeganjostlingforareasinChinatheycouldclaimasprotectorates,aswellasdemandingmoredispensationswithinChinaforoverseasnationals.

This photograph shows the empress of China, Tzu Hsi. After the Boxer Rebellion and humiliating concessions to Western powers, she pursued modernization for China.



LessthanthreeyearsaftertheSino-JapaneseWar,theEuropeanpresenceinChinaseemedatitspeak.ButEuropeancountriescouldnotworktogethertofeelconfidentaboutdividingChinaupamongthemselveswithoutreper-cussionsfromtheirneighbors.TheU.S.OpenDoorpolicyhelpedkeepChinafrombeingoverrunbyEuropeannations.Asia’spowerfuloverseasneighbordidnotwanttoseeanyothercountryofficiallytakeoveraportionofChina.AnyEuropeancountrythatattemptedtodosowouldriskraisingthewrathoftheUnitedStates.

PerhapsbecausethedifferentEuropeannationsdidnotofficiallydivideChinaamongthemselves,theirpresenceinChinataperedoffintheyearsfollowing1894.ThisallowedtheChinesetobringsomeoftheiroldcustomstotheforefrontagainand,inturn,theChinesebegantorelaxregardingtheramificationsofWesterninfluencesintheircountry.SomemembersofthepopulationhadbegunvaluingEuropeanandoverseasinfluencesforthepotentialbenefitstheycouldhaveinChina.TheseChinesereformersactedinamannerlikethatofJapaneseindividu-alsworkingfortheMeijiregime,tryingtobringJapansmoothlyintothenine-teenthcentury.EvenChina’sgoverningregimetriedtostepinandincorporateWestern-stylechangestoitsownstructurein1898,inaperiodthatcametobeknownastheHundredDaysofReform.Yetrevolutioncamefromoutsideofthegovernment,too,asexemplifiedbypersonsliketherebelliousformerpeasantSunYat-sen(1866–1925).SunhadgonetoschoolinHawaiiandstudiedwithChristianmissionaryworkers,whichmeanthebroughtverydifferentideastobearonthesituationinChina.HebelievedthattheManchuDynastyshouldbeforcedoutcompletelyandreplacedwitharepublic.

SunYat-sen’sbeliefsdidnotmeetwithapprovalfromallsides,nordidtheManchugovernment’sattempttointroducemoreWesternideasintoChineselife.ConservativesinChinawantedtoreturntooldercustomsandpreservetheirsystemofgovernmentasitwas.RatherthanwelcominganyoftheprogressiveideasthatcouldbebroughtinfromtheWest,thisgroupofChinesepeoplepracticedalmostobsessiveloathingofWesternoutsiders,whomtheyreferredtobydisparagingnames.Thesetraditionallymindedpeoplecultivatedasayingthatremindedthemtosafeguardtheirownnation,whileruiningpersonsfromoutsidecountries.TheseChinesetraditionalistsfrequentlyfoughtagainstChristianmissionaryeffortsfromtheWest.TheChinesetraditionalistsaccusedtheseforeignersofmanycrimes,suchastryingtoabolishtheancientChinesepracticeofhonoringone’sancestors.TheChinesetraditionalistsbelievedthatChristianmissionaryworkersendangeredsmallergroupsofrelativeswithinChina,aswellasChina’sverycivilizationandcultureitself.

SomeChineseindividualsbegantoformclandestinegroupsinwhichtheycouldairtheirworriesandfearsaboutthegovernment.Whentheclandestinegroups’desiresdidnotgetmet,andwhentheManchugoverningregimecontinuedtoincorporateEuropeanorWesternpracticesintoChineselife,theclandestinegroupsbecameangryandevenrevolted.Onegroup,calledtheBoxers,ledarevolt,theBoxerRebellion,inthenortheastportionofthecountryin1900.Thiswarhadmanyciviliancasualties:thousandsofChinesecitizenswhopracticedChristianity

4SeLf-cHecK

Name the major events

of the Taiping Rebellion.

Boxers Chinese citizens who did not want peo-ple from other countries in their own nation and expressed their feelings in the Boxer Rebellion



died,alongwithover200missionaryworkersfromothercountries.Inresponse,troopsfromEuropeannationsmarchedintoandraidedtheimportantChinesecityofPeking.Inaddition,Chinawasforcedtopayverylargefines.

Forthenextthreeyears,Chinaanditsgovernmentcontinuedtoexperienceawiderangeofproblems.TheManchuDynastyhadralliedforawhile,butitnowbegantocollapseagain.AstheManchufamilyweakened,disorderandchaosgrew.WesternimperialistsbeganagaintopushtheirboundariesinChina.Differentrebel-liousorganizations,whoworkedagainstboththeirownstate’sbureaucracyandagainstimperialistnations,continuedtoschemeaboutcreatingmassivechangeintheircountry.In1912,finallytheManchuDynastyfelltoaninternalrebel-lion.EmperorshadruledChinaformanycenturies.Nowthoseemperorsandthatwayoflivinghadgone.Instead,theleadersofthe1912uprisingbandedtogetheranddeclaredChinaarepublic,inthemannerofotherEuropeannations.Insteadofanemperor,theywantedagoverningbodywhosemembersreceivedseatsbybeingvotedin—inshort,aparliament.Withthisdrasticchangeingoverningstyle—indeed,withthisrevolution—ChinatookanothertremendousstepforwarddownapathtoWesternculture.Evenmoreshockingly,China’schangeshadonlyjustbegun.

Extensions• ReadThe Betrayal of the WestbyJacquesEllul.AccordingtoEllul,why

istheWestbetrayed?Whatdoestheauthormeanby“technologicaltotalitarianisms”?Whyevidencedoestheauthorsupplytosupporttheideathatcivilizationisonasuicidaltrack?

SummaryBritaintreatedIndiaasthemostpreciousgeminitsimperialcrown.Evenso,IndiaenduredmanyhardshipsunderBritain’sleadership.Thecountry’strajectoryisanexcellentexampleofhowyearsofimperialistcontrolcanalterasubjugatednation.WhileBritainslowlyimplementedmoderntechnologiesandsystemsintoIndia’sbureaucraticfabric,mostofIndia’speopledidnotbenefitfromthem.ElsewhereinAsia,JapanstudiedthebehaviorofEuropeandtheUnitedStates,especiallyasthosecountriesactedimperiallyinAfricaandChina.Soon,Japanalsobecameanauthoritativeimperialnation.WhileotherpartsofAsiafelltoEuropeanimperialists,ChinamanagedtoholdoutuptothebeginningoftheSino-JapaneseWar.AfterlosingthatwartoJapan,Chinaappearedfeebleandvulnerabletotheimperialistnationsoftheglobe.

Looking AheadWhilethenineteenthcenturyhadbeenconsumedwithimperialactivity,thebegin-ningofthetwentiethwouldwitnessitsrepercussions.GlobalattentionwouldshiftfrommarketsinAsiaandAfricatoconflictinEurope,asWorldWarIbegantorage.Afterthatfirstworldconflict,theyearsofpeacewouldbelimitedbeforeanotherwarragedagain.IntheSecondWorldWar,Japan’swouldjoinwithGermanyandItalytobattleagainstFrance,Britain,andtheUnitedStates.Ultimately,itwould

5SeLf-cHecK

What was Sun Yat-sen’s

primary goal?



1. It was the final, formal revolt by Indian citizens against Britain’s imperial takeover of their country.

2. In India, the citizens’ wish to become relatively independent from Britain and have their own governing body

3. Samurai were a high class of armed officers who helped the shogun, a customary armed head of state, second only to the emperor, in Japan before the 1850s.

4. Remarkably, Chinese intellectuals and military leaders banded together and eventually put a stop to the uprising, which lasted 15 years. The rebels were peasant class Chinese who stood against the Manchu army. As many as 20 million people died.

5. To replace the Manchu government with a new republic, in the Western style

SeLf-cHecK ANSWeRS

betheJapanesewhowouldexperiencethemostdevastatingweaponsofmassdestructionthathadeverbeenbuilt:theatomicbomb.Lessthan100yearsafteritaccelerateditsintroductionofmodernity,Japanwouldbecrushedalloveragain.Meanwhile,India’squestforautonomywouldhavetowait,tobepickedupafterthedusthadsettledfromWorldWarII.Chinawouldbefurthertornapartonlytofinditselfpiecedbacktogetherbycommunism.


Alliances and Crises

Unit 16, Lesson 8

KeywordsBurgfrieden

mass citizen armies

Serbs

system of alliances

Essential Questions• WhatwastheBismarckiansystemofalliances?

• WhatcrisestookplaceinEuropeandelsewherethateventuallyledtoWorldWarI?

• Whatwerethelong-termcausesofWorldWarI?

• WhatimmediateeventledtotheoutbreakofWorldWarI?



Set the StageIn the years leading up to the First World War, countries in Europe and across the globe seemed barely able to keep the peace. The only thing keeping European nations from battling with one another had become a strained assortment of alliances between countries. Ever since the Franco-Prussian War had ended, various countries had worked for peace in Europe. As Britain’s empire grew, other countries watched with envy. In the wake of the Franco-Prussian War, France’s power would temporarily crumble and the newly formed Germany’s power would increase immensely. Unfortunately, one calamity after another would occur to test the failing bonds between coalitions and allies, particularly in the heart of Europe. When the First World War began, it would be only too evident how the new demands of empire and the collapse of coalitions had led to international conflict.

Alliances in the Bismarckian SystemTheendofthenineteenthcentury,thefin de siècleasitisknowninFrench,begananewepochfordiplomacyandnegotiationsbetweenthenationsofEurope.ThefirstchangecameaspartoftheaftermathoftheFranco-PrussianWar.FrancehadlostitsdominationoverotherEuropeancountriesand,consequently,becameseenasalesspowerfulforceontheinternationalstage.TheGermans,bydefeatingtheFrenchintheFranco-PrussianWarandcreatingtheirownimperialstate,begantoriseupandfillthepowervacuumtheFrenchhadleft.

TheFranco-PrussianWarcametoasharphaltin1871,whentheGermansforcedtheFrenchtoyield.Asaresult,theFrenchhadtopayreparationstotheGermansforthelossestheyhadsustainedduringwartime.TheFrenchalsohadtosignovertotheGermansaregioncalledAlsace-Lorraine.UnderOttovonBismarck’sleadership,GermanyhadbecomenotonlyaunifiedspacebutalsothecountrywiththeforemostauthoritythroughouttheEuropeancontinent.BismarckpledgedthatGermanyhadnodesiretoseekoutotherlandinEuropetoaddtoitsboundaries,andthatGermanyhadnoquarrelswithanyotherEuropeannations.Repeatedly,BismarckclaimedthatGermanystoodcontentwithwhatithadachieved.

HavingsubduedFrancetothewest,Germanystillhadtoprepareitselftostandagainsttheeast,wherebothRussiaandAustria-Hungarystoodasstrongnationsdesirousofmorepowerintheirownright.BothRussiaandAustria-Hungaryheldswayoverimperialgroupsofnations,thuswieldingincrediblemilitarypowerandpresidingoverlargetractsofterritory.Sincetheyeachheldsomuchalready,thetwoimperialgroupsbegantoturntheirattentiontothefiniteamountofnationalresourcesleftintheworld.RussiaandAustria-Hungarybothwantedmanyoftheseresourcesforthemselves.ManyoftheseresourceswerelocatedintheBalkans.Meanwhile,theOttomanEmpire,whichruledoverthatregion,hadbecomewidelyregardedastheweakestnationinEurope,anditspowercontinuedtodisintegrate.



TheGermangovernmentworriedthatitsnewlyformednationwouldbecaughtinthemiddleduringanotherlargewar,thisonebetweenRussiaandAustria-Hungary.

Topreventsuchawar,Bismarckproposedasystem of alliances.Bismarck’sallianceshadthreeseparategoals.First,hewantedtoholdAustria-HungaryandRussiabackfromoversteppingtheirboundsandattemptingtotakeoverGermany.Second,Bismarckhopedtokeepthetwocountriesfromfightingbetweenthemselves.Third,BismarckplannedtosegregateFrancefromthealliancesinthestrategichopeofkeepingFrancefromfindingalliestojoinwithitagainsttheGermans.

Bismarck’salliancestookseveralforms.IntheThreeEmperors’Leagueof1873,rulersofGermany,Russia,andAustria-Hungaryjoinedinanagreementtopreserveconservativeideasandpreventradicalismandanextremistuprising.Duringthattime,RussiaenjoyedgreatsuccessinsubduingtheOttomanEmpireintheBalkans,whichmeantproblemsforotherwesternEuropeancountries.Austria-HungaryfeltthreatenedbyRussianauthorityintheBalkanregion.Meanwhile,BritainfeltthreatenedbytheRussiansintheMiddleEast.ItfelltoBismarcktosmooththingsoverandsatisfythepowerfulEuropeanstates.

Atfirst,itseemedlikeBismarcksucceeded,especiallygiventhenegotiationshepushedthroughduringthe1878CongressofBerlin.Atthatcongress,BismarcksucceededincalmingAustria-HungaryanddividedupportionsoftheOttomanEmpire,whichhadbeguntofallapart,intodistinctnewstates.BismarckenabledAustria-HungarytocontroltwoimportantregionsthathadformerlybelongedtotheOttomanEmpire,HerzegovinaandBosnia.GivingAustria-HungarytheseregionshelpeditfeelmoreequaltoRussiaintheBalkans.Meanwhile,otherregionsthathadbeenundertheOttomanEmpire’sswayreceivedtheirownautonomy.TheformerlypowerfulOttomanEmpirecontinuedtocrumble.

WhileAustria-HungaryremainedhappywithBismarck’sattemptsatdiplomacyandnegotiationattheCongressofBerlin,Russiadidnot.PeoplewhosupportedRussia’sempiresuspectedBismarckofaligningGermany’sintereststoocloselywithAustria-Hungary’s.Becauseofthis,in1879BismarckchosetoprotectGermanybyallyingitsmilitiawiththatofAustria-Hungary,intheeventofaRussianattack.Meanwhile,inotherpartsofEurope,ItalyhadbeenexperiencingproblemswithFrance—andFranceremainedseparatedfromGermany.Asaresult,itmadesensethatItalywouldwanttoparticipateinGermany’salliancewithAustria-HungaryandItalydidjoinformallywiththoseothercountriesin1882.ThisagreementamongthethreenationsbecameknownastheTripleAlliance.

BolsteredbyGermany’spositionintheTripleAlliance,BismarckreturnedtohisoriginalprojectofmaintainingharmonyincontinentalEurope,especiallyintheregionstotheeast.HetriedagaintosmooththingsoverbetweenAustria-HungaryandRussia.TheyearbeforethecreationoftheTripleAlliance,Bismarckhadstealth-ilyapproachedbothAustria-HungaryandRussia,playingoneachcountry’sconcernabouttheothertoconvincebothofthemtoparticipateinaclandestine,top-secretunion.Thisunion,referredtoastheAllianceoftheThreeEmperors,wouldremainineffectfrom1881through1887.Duringthosesixyears,thethreemembersofthisallianceagreedthattheywouldassisteachotherinanyfurtherseparationof

system of alliances scheme in which nations ally themselves with one another to defend each other against a potential third party



thecountriesintheOttomanEmpire.Shouldanyoneofthesecountriesgotowarwithafourthcountry,theothertwomembersofthealliancewouldstayoutofitandremainneutral,althoughsympathetictotheirally.FightingwiththeOttomanEmpire,theyagreed,wouldproveanexceptiontothisrule.

In1887,whentheAllianceoftheThreeEmperors’agreementexpired,thecountriesinvolvedcouldhaveagreedtorenewit.However,RussiaandAustria-HungaryworriedaboutdevelopingnationalismandPan-SlavismintheBalkanregion,whichwouldultimatelydividetheAustro-HungarianswhowantedtomaintaincontroloverSerbiaandtheRussianswhohadhistoricaltiestoandsup-portoftheSerbs.Russiathusbackedoutofthetreaty.Ratherthanloseholdofthisimportantally,BismarckcleverlywentstraighttoRussiawithatwo-countryagreement.GermanyandRussiasignedaReinsuranceTreaty,agreeingthatifeitherofthemshouldbeassaultedbyathirdcountry,theremainingallywouldstayimpartialintheensuingbattles.Overall,Bismarckdidtremendousworkinforeignaffairsintheyearsfollowing1871.Inanalmost20-yearperiod,BismarckwouldkeepGermanyattheforefrontofglobalpoliticsandinternationalpeace.DuringhistenureasGermany’sleader,BismarckwouldmaintainharmonyinEurope,keepingthetwomostdangerousimperialstates—RussiaandAustria-Hungary—atbayandinalliancewithhisowncountry.

changes in Western europeYetBismarck’speacecouldnotlastforever,norcouldhehimselfmaintainhisgriponpower.Bismarck’scareeraschancellorofGermanycametoanendin1890,whenGermany’skaiserWilliamII(r.1888–1918)askedBismarcktostepdown.ThefailuresofthechancellorswhofollowedBismarckshowedhowrarehisleadershipskillshadbeen.WithBismarckgone,Germanyfloundered.

Germany’sfirstmistakecamein1890,whenitsReinsuranceTreatywithRussiaexpired.Surprisingly,Germanyelectednottorenewthetreaty,reasoningthatitwasbecomingtoodifficulttostrikeacompromisebetweenRussiaandAustria-Hungaryindiplomaticrelations.Germany’sabandonmentofthetreatywithRussiashowedjusthowwillingtheGermansweretoabandonBismarck’sideas.ThefactthatGermanyactedsoquicklytodissolveitsbondwithRussiarevealsitsoptimisticopinionthatRussiawouldbeunabletosetupanagreementwithFrance,Germany’sformerenemy.GermanyheldthisopinionbecauseofitsperceivednotionthatFranceandRussiaweretoounlikelytoshareinterestssinceFrancewasarepublic,whileRussiaremainedadespoticmonarchy.YetGermanywouldbeprovenincor-rect—therepublicansandthedespotscouldworkwelltogether.

PoliticalchangesextendedfromGermanytoFranceandRussiainthe1890s.Francehadbeenwithoutmanyinternationalalliesformanyyears,andRussianowfounditselfinthesameposition.Itseemedonlynaturalthatthetwocountrieswouldfindsomecommoninterests.In1894,RussiaandFranceagreeduponaclandestinemilitarytreaty.Initially,atleast,thenewFranco-RussianAllianceseemedlikeapactthatworkedagainstBritain.Morethananyothercountry,BritaincompetedagainstRussiaandFranceforlandsandpowerinboththeAsiancontinentandintheMediterraneanregion.

Serbs an ethnic classification of southern Slavs, based in the Balkans and the center of Europe

1SeLf-cHecK

What was Bismarck’s

goal in using his

alliance system?



Meanwhile,theBritishbegantogrowlessfriendlytowardGermany.Inthelatenineteenthcentury,membersoftheBoernationinSouthAfrica,especiallyintheBritish-controlledregioncalledtheTransvaal,begantoagitateforfreedomfromBritishcontrol.In1896,WilliamIIpubliclysupportedtheSouthAfricanpresident,PaulKruger,inatelegram,effectivelyopposingBritishinterestsinSouthAfrica.Britainfoundthisinsultingandworrisome.BritainalsoworriedaboutGermany’smilitarybecomingmoreeffective,sincetheGermanshadstartednurturingagroupofshipscapableofdoingbattleindeepwaters.

FrancehaditsownproblemswithBritain,particularlyinregardtodisagree-mentsoverthetwonations’rightsintheirrespectivecolonies.However,bytheturnofthetwentiethcentury,FrancesawGermanyasmoreofapotentialthreattonationalsecuritythanBritain.TheFrenchstillvividlyrecalledtheirupsettingsurrendertoGermanyintheFranco-PrussianWar,stillsmartedfromthelossofAlsace-Lorraine,andstillconsideredGermanyanenemy.Thus,Francebeganalign-ingitselfwithBritainasthelesseroftwoevils,perhapsbecauseproblemswithcoloniesremainedmoredistantthanpotentialthreatsontheEuropeancontinent.In1898,whenBritainandFranceclashedovercontroloftheFashodaregionoftheSudan,anallianceseemedoutofreach.However,ThéophileDelcassé(1852–1923),theforeignministerforFrance,imploredhiscountry’sregimetostepbackfromFashodatoplacatetheBritish.WhenFrance’sgovernmentagreedwithDelcasséandyieldedtheSudanregion,theconcessionstoodasthefirststepdownanewpathfortheFrenchintermsofhowtheyapproachedinternationaldiplomacy.

Afterenduringanti-BritishglobalattitudesduringtheBoerWar,Britainhadbeguntounderstandthatit,too,neededallies.Inthespaceoftwoyears’time,BritainwouldcementrelationswithJapanandFrance.First,BritainstartedbyunitingitselfwithJapanin1902throughtheAnglo-JapaneseAlliance.Throughthisalliance,BritainandJapanhopedtoguardthemselvesagainstapossiblemovebyRussiatoincreaseitsholdingsintheeasternpartofAsia.Second,BritainandFrancecontinuedtoworktogether,eventuallyestablishinganagreement,calledtheEntenteCordiale,in1904.Thisagreementfocusedonproblemsthetwocountrieshadexperiencedinsharingandcontrollingtheircolonies.Eachcountrymadeamajorconcessiontotheother.BritainpromisedtohelpFranceinFrance’sworktocontrolMorocco.Inreturn,FrancepromisedBritaincontrolofEgypt.

OtherelementsoftheEntenteCordialehelpedBritainandFrancesmoothoutotherdisagreements.ThecountriesresolvedthemisunderstandingstheyhadoverpartsofAsia,Africa,andtheAmericas.Remarkably,theyputanendtoacenturies-olddisagreementtheyhadhadaboutwhichcountryhadtheprivilegetofishthewatersofNewfoundland’sNorthAtlanticcoast.Bolsteredbytheirdiplomaticagreement,BritainandFranceopenedaconversationonpolicy,conferringwitheachotheraboutimportantproblemsthatmightariseontheinternationalstage.

JustasBritainhadlookedoutsideFrancetoallyitselfwithJapan,FrancebeganlookingforotheralliesbesidesBritain.EventhoughItalyhadpubliclyalignedwithGermanyandAustria-HungaryintheTripleAlliance,FrancebeganpursuingItalytosupporttheirmutualinterests.By1902,FranceandItalyhadbrokeredaclandestineaccord.ItalywouldhelpFrancecreateaprotectorateintheregionofMorocco.In

2SeLf-cHecK

Describe the

Franco-Russian Alliance.



turn,FrancewouldsupportItalyinotherpartsofNorthAfrica.ThemoreFrancestrengtheneditsagreementwithItaly,theweakerGermany’sconnectionsbecame.Soon,onlyAustria-HungarywouldstandasGermany’slonepowerfulally.

Problems in Morocco Germany,worriedbyitsincreasinglyunstablepositionontheglobalstage,deter-minedtotakeaction.YetundertheleadershipofKaiserWilliamIIandthemanhehadselectedaschancellor,PrinceBernhardvonBülow(1849–1929),GermanydidnotactasdiplomaticallyasithadunderBismarck’sguidance.GermanytargetedFrancein1905,whentheFrenchgovernmentattemptedtoestablishaprotectorateinMorocco.TheGermansresolvedtouseFrenchambitionsinMoroccoasanexcusetotestinternationaltiesofdiplomacy.InMarchofthatyear,WilliamIItraveledtoTangier,acityinthenorthofMorocco.There,theGermanemperorannouncedthathiscountrysoughtstrongtiestoMorocco.WhileinTangier,WilliamIIalsoincitedMoroccannationalismbytalkingabouttheMoroccans’righttoautonomy.ThiscalculatedmovebytheGermanscamefromanassumptionthatFrance’sotherallies,BritainandRussia,wouldnotsupportFrenchclaimstoMorocco.GermanycountedonRussiabeingpreoccupiedwithitsongoingwaragainstJapan,whichRussiawaslosing,andassumedthatBritainwouldnotfollowthroughwitharealshowofsupportforFrance.Throughthismove,GermanyhopedtoweakenthebondsbetweenFranceanditsallies.

Toachievethisplan,Germanypushedotherworldpowersintoaninternationalmeeting,atwhichtheassembledbodieswoulddiscussMoroccoandtheFrenchclaims.Theconference,heldin1906,metinanareaofSpaincalledAlgeciras,nearGibraltar.ThismeetingdidnotgoasGermanyhadhoped.Ofallthecoun-triesassembled,onlyAustria-HungarystoodwithGermany.Theothercountries,includingRussia,Britain,andItaly,backedFrance.NooneelseopposedFrance’splantocreateaprotectorateinMorocco:infact,mostothercountriessupportedit.ThiseventbecameknownastheFirstMoroccanCrisis.ThefactthatGermanybehavedsoaggressivelyledtheothercountriestobecomewaryofGermaninten-tionsontheworldstage.Russia,Britain,andFrancebondedlargelybecauseofGermany’sattitude.

Atfirst,itseemedasthoughdiplomaticbondsbetweenRussia,Britain,andFrancemightbedifficulttoachievebecauseRussiahadgonetowarwithJapanintheRusso-JapaneseWar,causingproblemsforFrancebecauseofitscomplicatedrelationshipsbetweenbothcountries.RussiaandFrancehadalreadyformedanalli-ance,ashadBritainandJapan.HavingalliednationsinopenwarwitheachothermadeitdifficultforFranceandBritaintoworktogethertoformapoliticalalliance.Eventually,though,FranceachievedabreakwiththeAnglo-Frenchallianceof1904knownastheEntenteCordiale.Thus,bythetimeoftheAlgecirasConferencetwoyearslater,FrancecouldrelyonBritain’sassistanceinstandingagainstGermany.Meanwhile,whenJapanwonthewaragainstRussia,BritainrelaxedsomewhatinitspositionagainstRussiaasapotentialthreat.Russia’sdevelopmentintheeasternpartofAsiacametoastop.However,RussiaandBritainstilldidnotseeeyetoeyeregardingotherregionsoftheworld,suchasAfghanistanandPersia.



FrancepersistedinattemptingtoconvinceBritainandRussiatooverlooktheirissuesandcometogetherinanalliance,whichtheydidthroughtheAnglo-RussianEntenteof1907.TheAnglo-RussianEntentecreatedapotentialsolutiontolingeringproblemsinAfghanistanandPersia.Accordingtotheentente,RussiawouldassertitsauthorityonthenorthernhalfofPersia,whileBritainwouldfocusonthesouthernhalf.RussiaconfirmedtoBritainthatitwouldpullitsforcesoutofAfghanistanaltogether.Inaddition,BritainandRussiaconfirmedtoeachotherthattheywouldbothhonortheboundariesofathirdcountry,Tibet.Withbothsidesofferingconcessionstooneanother,BritainandRussiawereabletomoveforwardasallies.

WiththeAnglo-RussianEntente inplace,Russia,Britain,andFrancecementedastronger,three-wayalliancecalledtheTripleEntente.BalancedagainsttheTripleEntentecameanotherthree-wayalliance,formedbyItaly,Austria-Hungary,andGermany,calledtheTripleAlliance.Atfirstglance,itmightseemlikethesetwoallianceswouldbewellbalancedagainsteachotherintermsofpowerandauthority,butthatturnedoutnottobethecase.Whilepriorto1890,GermanyhadstoodatthetopoftheEuropeanpowerchain,afterBismarckfellfromhispositionofGermanleadership,sodidGermanyfallfromitspositionofEuropeanleadership.Now,itseemed,FrancehadbecomethemostpowerfulcountryinEurope.

Evenwiththesetwoimmensealliancesinplace,Europeremainedfarfromthesecure,peacefulregionenvisionedbyBismarck.Intheyearsfollowing1907,therewouldbeaseriesofglobalissuesandproblemsthat,overall,wouldesca-latetheconflictsanddoubtsamongdifferentEuropeannations.TheseconflictswouldcreatetheconditionsthatledtotheoutbreakofWorldWarIin1914.

ProblemsfirstappearedinBosnia.Priorto1907,Austria-HungaryhadwantedtotakecontroloftheBalkans,andGermanyhadstoodintheway.Butby1907,Austria-HungarywasGermany’ssoleloyalpartnerinitsgreatalliance,andthekaiser’sgovernmentrelaxeditsoppositiontoAustrianambitionsintheBalkans.WithoutGermany’ssteadyinghand,thebalanceofpowerintheBalkansthreatenedtotip.AsconditionsintheBalkansworsened,citizensinothercountriesbegantofearforthebalanceofpowerinEurope.

Atfirst,Austria-HungaryreachedouttoRussiainthehopesofforminganalliancetostrengthenAustria-Hungary’sholdingsinBosnia.Theforeignmin-istersofeachcountrycametogetherinBuchlau,todayintheCzechRepublic,inSeptember1908.Attheirmeeting,theministerscametoanaccordcalledtheBuchlauAgreement.Thisagreementhadtwopartsthatwouldbenefiteachofthetwocountries.Austria-HungarywouldbenefitbecauseRussiawouldstandbyitasAustria-HungarytriedtotakeoverbothBosniaandHerzegovina.Russia,ontheotherside,wouldbenefitbecauseAustria-HungarywouldstandbyitasRussiaworkedtobeabletotransportnavyforcesinanareaoftheTurkishStraits.

ThegoalsdecideduponintheBuchlauAgreementshouldhavegoneintoeffectatthesametime,witheachcountryworkingtosupporttheother.Yetonemonthlater,Austria-HungarymovedwithoutRussiaatitssideandclaimedBosniaandHerzegovina.Bydoingso,Austria-HungarynotonlyangeredRussia,whichbecame

3SeLf-cHecK

Describe the events of

the Algeciras Conference.



upsetthatAustria-Hungaryhadviolatedtheiragreement,butalsoincensedSerbia.SincetheircountrylayclosetobothBosniaandHerzegovina,theSerbshadtheirownambitionsinthosecountries.Asdiplomaticconditionsworsenedbetweenthethreecountries,GermanysteppedforwardandbackedAustria-Hungary.SerbiacouldnotstandagainstthecombinedmightofGermanyandAustria-Hungary,andlikewiseRussiadidnotwishtotesttheoutcomeofafull-scalewarwiththetwopowers.SoRussiasteppedbackintheearlymonthsof1909anddidnotseektopunishAustria-HungaryforviolatingthetermsoftheBuchlauAgreement.Whenthisevent,knownastheBosnianCrisis(1908–1909)cametoaconclusion,itcre-atedinternationalembarrassmentforRussia.

Thenextbiginternationalincidentcamein1911withtheSecondMoroccanCrisis.AftertheAlgecirasConference,GermanyhadstoppedprotestingFrance’sprotectorateinMorocco.By1911,though,Germanyhadonceagainbegunmakingnoiseaboutit.TohaltFrance’sprogressinMorocco,Germanydeployedagun-boatcalledthePanthertotheMoroccanharborofAgadir.Atthetime,GermanyclaimedtheshipwastheretoprotectGermaninterestsintheregion,butthecrisisthreatenedwarbetweenthetwomightyEuropeanneighbors.Inthenegotiationsthatfollowed,FrancesmoothedthingsoverbetweenthetwonationsbygivingtheGermansaportionoftheFrenchCongo.Inexchange,GermanypledgedtostayoutofFrance’swayinMorocco.Eventhoughthislatestcrisisappearedresolved,Germany’sactionswouldhavefar-reachingconsequences.WhileGermanyhadnotmadeanassaultoraninvasion,thecountryhadactedwithunusualaggres-sion,whichworriedothernationsofEurope.Thosenationsresponded.BritainsentmorenavalshipstoprotecttheNorthSea,andFrancesentmostofitsnavalshipstotheMediterranean.ThismeantthatFrancetrustedBritaintoprotectitfromthenorthshouldaninternationalwartakeplace.

WhileFranceandBritainpreparedforpotentialwar,Italyhadbegunfightingoneofitsown.Fightingeruptedin1911,inwhatbecameknownastheItalo-TurkishWar,whenItalytriedtooccupyapartofnorthernAfricaknowntodayasLibya,butreferredtoatthetimeasTripoli.TogainTripoli,ItalydeclaredwarwiththeOttomanEmpire.ItalyhopedtogainTripolitoboostitsownreputationdomesti-callyandincomparisontootherEuropeannations.ItalyalsoworriedthatFrancehadpulledtoofaraheadintermsofholdinginternationalpowerbysuccessfullyestablishingaprotectorateoverMorocco.TheTurkish,fightingfortheOttomanEmpire,founditdifficulttocontendwithItaly’ssuperiormilitaryforces.WhentheTurkishsurrenderedtoItalyin1912,theygaveupTripoli.

Wars and Murder in the BalkansCrisesinMoroccosoonledtowarsintheBalkans.BecausetheItalo-TurkishWarhadbeenresolvedsoquickly,andtheTurkshadbeenshowntobenomatchfortheItalianmilitary,othernationsfromtheBalkanshopedtosimi-larlychallengetheOttomanEmpire.IntheFirstBalkanWar(1912–1913),agroupofBalkannationsincludingGreece,Montenegro,Serbia,andBulgariabandedtogetherwithRussia’sguidancetobecomealargerassemblyknownastheBalkanLeague.Workingtogether,theBalkanLeaguechosein1912toalsodeclarewaronTurkey.ThewarwasresolvedinMay1913,whentheopposing

4SeLf-cHecK

Which countries made

up the Triple Alliance?

The Triple Entente?



countriesmetinEnglandandsignedtheTreatyofLondon.Accordingtothistreaty,theOttomanEmpirehadtogiveupallthelandsitpossessedinEurope,withthesoleexceptionbeingtheregionadjacenttotheTurkishStraits.

Asthiswarended,RussiaandAustria-Hungarybothinsertedthemselvesintotheinternationaldiscussion,hopingtoaccomplishtheirownends.TheirsharedpointofcontentionbecameSerbia,whichwantedtoincreaseitster-ritoriesandholdings.Austria-HungarydidnotwantSerbiatogrowanylargerandarguedfortheestablishmentofanewnationintheBalkanscalledAlbania.RussiabackedSerbiaandwantedtohelpSerbiareceivelandontheAdriaticSea.AglobalmeetingoccurredinLondonin1913.ThemajorityofthecountriestheresidedwithAustria-Hungary,ratherthanwithRussiaandSerbia.AlbaniaaroseandwithitadiminishmentforbothSerbiaandRussia,whosawtheirplansforincreasefoiled.Onceagain,RussiahadstoodupforsomethingintheBalkanregionandlost.

AnotherwareruptedintheBalkansin1913,asadirectresultofthefirst.SerbiaremainedunhappywiththeoutcomeoftheLondonconference.SinceSerbiahadnotreceivedtheregionnowknownasAlbaniaandithadalsobeenkeptfromestablishingaportontheAdriaticSea,Serbiawishedforsomeotherrecompense.InsteadofAlbania,SerbiademandedaportionofMacedoniaoriginallyallocatedtoBulgaria.ThisupsettheBulgarians,whothenclaimedthattheydeservedanadditionalamountofMacedonianland.

Becauseofthesedisagreements,theSecondBalkanWarbegan.SerbiafoundalliesinTurkey,Romania,Greece,andMontenegro,andthatcombinationofcountriesprovedstrongenoughtoconquerBulgaria.BecauseofSerbia’svic-tory,asdecidedintheAugust1913TreatyofBucharest,Bulgarialostevenmoreground.NotonlydidtheBulgarianshavetogiveupthemajorityofMacedoniatoGreeceandSerbia,theyalsohadtogivesomeoftheirlandstoRomania.

EventhoughneitheroftheseBalkanwarshadresultedinafull-scaleglobalconflict,Europeancountriesstayedtenseandpoisedfornewconflict.Meanwhile,Russiahadbecomeaggravatedbythefactthatitcouldnotgainmoregroundforitselfintwodesir-ableareas,theTurkishStraitsandtheBalkans.Thisfrustrateddesirewouldlaythegroundworkforfutureproblems.Movingforward,RussiawouldbemoredeterminedthanevertosupportSerbia.Meanwhile,GermanycontinuedtobecompletelyloyaltoAustria-Hungary.

Intothisscenariocame,oneyearlater,thelast,mostcrucialevent.IttookplaceinSarajevo,thecenterofBosnia,whichatthattimeremainedunderAustro-Hungariancontrol.OnJune28,1914,thesuccessortoAustro-Hungarianrule,ArchdukeFrancisFerdinand(1863–1914),andhiswifewerevisitingSarajevo.ASlavfromthesouthwhowasaferventadvocateforSlavindependence,namedGavriloPrincip(1895–1918)murderedtheroyal

The assassination of Francis Ferdinand sparked World War I and led to the eventual loss of 11 million lives.



couplebyshootingthemtodeath.InvestigatorslaterdiscoveredthatPrinciphadreceivedaidfromaclandestineseparatistSlavgroupcalledtheBlackHand.Serbia’sgoverningregimehadnotofficiallybeenpartoftheplan,butimportantmembersoftheregimehadknownaboutit.Despitethatknowledge,theSerbiangovernmentstoodbyanddidnothingtostopPrincipfromgoingthroughwithhisactionsorevenlettingtheAustro-Hungariangovernmentknowofthepotentialdanger.Thisroyalmurderwouldtriggerinternationalwar.

Mobilization and AlliancesSeveralfactorscontributedtothebuildupofWorldWarI.FirstamongthemcametheincreaseinmilitarystrengtharoundtheEuropeancontinent.Throughoutthemiddleofthenineteenthcentury,battlesfoughtformergersofsmallercountriesintolargeroneshadresultedinincreasinglybiggernation-states.Thesenation-statesneededtodefendthemselves,andtodosotheycreatedarmiesthatwerebothlargerandbetterequippedthanthoseofthepast.Thesearmiesreceivedsupportinweaponsandsuppliesthroughthedevelopmentofthelarge-scalemanufacturingofgoodsandtheresultsoftheSecondIndustrialRevolution.Growthinthebusinessofcreatingweapons,aswellastechnicaldevelopmentsinthedesignofthoseweapons,meantthatarmiescouldgotowarmoreeasilyandcauseevenmoreharmthaneverbefore.

Inaddition,armieshadmorepeopleworkingforthemandtakingadvantageofthesedevelopmentsinweaponstechnology.Infact,theproportionofpeopleservingineachcountry’sarmyhadneverbeensolarge.Thesemilitaryforces,referredtoasmass citizen armies,cameaboutthroughthecombinationofnationaldraftsandtraditionalarmedforcesplanning.Entirecivilizationsbecamecompletelymilitary-oriented.Thisdesireforanincrediblystrongmilitarydidnotremainlimitedtooneortwocountries,butbecamefeltinnearlyeverycountryinEurope.ThroughoutEurope,rulersofdifferentregimesbeganequat-ingtheprowessandpoweroftheircountriestothegreatnessoftheirarmiesandweaponry.High-rankingofficialsoftenworemilitaryuniformsatimportantevents.

AfocusonnavalmilitarybuildupcausedparticularproblemsbetweenBritainandGermany.Germanydecidedthatitssecurityrequiredanavalforcethatcouldmatchanyotherintheworld.BritainsawtheGermannavalbuildupasathreat.WilliamIIhaddecidedthatGermanyshouldstrengthenitsnavalforcesafterreadingabookcalledThe Influence of Sea Power on History.Afterreadingthisbook,WilliamIIformedthebeliefthatGermanyhadtoachievethesamekindofimperialandprofitableauthoritythatBritainhad;creatingastrongernavalforcestoodasanintegralcomponentofthisbelief.YetWilliamIIhadanuneven,overbearingwayofbehaving,andhedidnotpresenthisplanstotheinternationalstageinadiplomaticmanner.

Inadditiontoembarkingonaprogramtomodernizeitsnavy,theGermanshadalsobeguncraftingastrategycalledtheSchlieffenPlan.AccordingtothisplanincaseofwaragainsttheTripleEntente,theGermanswouldfightintwoseparatefronts,battlingwithFranceonitswestsideandwithRussiaonitseast.WhiletheSchlieffenPlanprobablystoodasthemostwell-knownstrategy

mass citizen armies large militaries strength-ened through the incorporation of national drafts



craftedintheyearsleadinguptoWorldWar I,Germanyhadagreatdealofcompanyinclandestineplansforwar.Everycountryhaditsowncomplicated,clandestinestrategyforactionincaseofinternationalconflict.Thesestrategiesincorporatedmanagementofgroupsofsoldiers,delineationoftrainschedules,andplansforpossiblecombatevents.NationswouldusetheseplanstomakechoicesabouthowtheyinteractedwithothercountriesinEuropeand,indeed,theworld.Thesestrategieshinderednationalleadersinmakingchoicesabouthowcountriesshouldconductthemselvesinternationally.Frequently,whennationsstuckbytheirpreviouslyconceivedstrategies,smaller-scaleconflictseventuallyledtoglobalbattles.AninstanceofthiscanbeseenclearlyinGermany’sactionsfrom1914.In1914,theGermansstuckbytheirpreviouslyagreed-uponSchlieffenPlan,andusedittorapidlymobilizefollowingthecrisisinBosnia.Doingsocutoffanychanceothercountrieshadatusingdiplomacytoforestallorcurtailalarge-scaleconflict.Inadditiontothemilitarymobiliza-tion,thealliancesystembetweengreatpowersalsocontributedtotheGreatWar.Startingin1871,whenGermanyhadbecomeanunifiedstate,BismarckhadtriedtokeepthepeaceinEurope.

Throughhissystemofalliancesandtreaties,Bismarckhadcreatedaprecari-ouspeaceinEurope.IfanyofEurope’smostpowerfulnationswantedtogotowarwithanyoftheothers,itwouldnotbeabletoturntoanyremainingnationasitsally.Instead,thenationclamoringforwarmightendupopposingalltheothernations—andthewarwouldbeoverswiftly.

WhenBismarckfellfrompowerin1890,however,underKaiserWilliamII’scommandGermanyrapidlyinvalidatedallthealliancesBismarckhadworkedso

William II’s construction of a powerful German navy strained diplomatic relations with Britain.



diligentlytocreate.First,theGermankaiserdidnotbothertorenewGermany’sReinsuranceTreatywithRussia.WilliamIIbelievedthatbecauseheandtheRussianrulerhappenedtobecousins,thatfamilybondwouldbeenoughforGermanytorelyuponRussia’ssupport.However,Russia,onceseparatedfromtheReinsuranceTreaty,wastednotimeinmakinganofficialalliancein1894withFrance.Germany’sformerallyhadnowconnecteditselfwithGermany’sformerenemy.UnderWilliamII’sdreamofraisingGermany’sempireuptoalevelequivalenttothatofBritain’s,othercountrieswatchedwithapprehensionasGermanycreatedmoreoverseasterritoriesandmechanizeditsmilitaryproduction.

Asaresult,in1904BritainsoughtoutthediplomaticagreementwithFrancecalledtheEntenteCordiale.Justthreeyearslater,RussiamadeitsalliancewithBritain,theAnglo-RussianEntente,sothatitcouldstabilizeitsplaceinAsia.Asaresult,Britain,Russia,andFranceallbecameconnected,formingaTripleEntente.TheTripleEntentestoodinoppositiontotheTripleAlliance,whichincludedGermany,Austria-Hungary,andItaly.Bismarck’speacehadnotevenlasted20 years.Instead,WilliamIIhaddestroyedthearrangementBismarckhadestablishedandputGermanyinapositionofbeingsurroundedbypotentialenemies.Twogroupsofthreepowerfulcountriesfacedeachother,andeachhadproblemsorissueswiththeother.Insteadofkeepingthepeace,theselargealliancesprepareddiversenationsforwar.Eachformationofanallianceaddedtoasequenceofeventsthatcouldonlyleadtointernationalbattle,oncetheparticipantshadbeenpushedovertheedgeintowar.

empires and NationsColonialempiresandtheimperialdesignsofEuropeanpowershelpedcreatetheconditionthatledtoWorldWarI.Largerempiresdisagreedoverquestionsofexpansionandauthority,whichreinforcedthenewsystemofalliancestakingshape.First,ItalyendeduptakingaplaceintheTripleAlliancein1882becauseitwantedtocolonizeaportionoflandinnorthernAfrica.BecauseofitsdisagreementwithFrance,ItalylookedtoalignitselfwithFrance’sopponent,Germany.Overadecadelater,Germany’sWilliamIIbecameapprehensiveovertheTripleEntentethathaddrawnFranceandBritainclosertogether.WilliamIIwantedtoseehowstrongthisalliancehadbecome,sohepushedforwardtwoMoroccanCrises.ThesecrisesalsofocusedonFrenchinterestsinNorthAfrica.Insteadofsplittingtheserelativelynewalliesapart,WilliamII’sbelligerentattemptsbackfired.ThemembersoftheTripleEntentebecametighterthanever.

Meanwhile,BritainhadproblemsinitsowncoloniesduringtheBoerWar(1899–1902),whenithadnothadotherEuropeannationsasallies.Asaresult,Britaintooktheinitiative,andintheyearsleadingupto1912BritainformedallianceswithRussia,France,andJapan.Duringthepreviouscentury,RussiaandBritainhadprimarilybeenatodds.YetwhenRussialosttoJapanontheAsianfront,RussiafounditselfreachingbacktoBritaintoprotectitselfagainstfurtherdefeatsinAsia.Inaddition,Italy’scontinueddesireforapresenceinNorthAfrica,focusedby1911onLibya,withitsconnectiontotheOttomanEmpire,leddirectlytotheeventsofWorldWarI.WhenItalydeclaredwaronOttomanrule,asequenceofeventsfollowedwithincreasingproblemsintheBalkans.

5SeLf-cHecK

Briefly explain how

Bismarck’s system

of alliances aided in

creating the First

World War.



Inadditiontotheseimperialissues,Europeancountrieshaddomesticdif-ficultiestodealwithin1914.Withintheirownborders,manycountrieshadtheirownissuesofaggressivebehavioragainstethnicgroups,workersstriking,problemswithextremepolitics,andwithindividualsconcernedwithcivilrightsoftheirown.Tostemtheseinternalproblems,manyregimesturnedtoimperialconquestandthegloryofthenationtobringpeopletogetherandkeeptheminline.Itispossiblethatonereasonmanydifferentgovernmentsagreedtogotowarstemmedfromaviewthatsawwarasachancetocircumventinternalproblemsandstabilizetheirnations.

Indeed,afteralarge-scaleconflicthadbeendeclared,manyworking-classEuropeansrejoiced.Peoplewhohadformerlydisagreedaboutdomesticissuesworkedtogethertoputtheseseeminglymoreminorproblemsonholdsothattheycouldsupporttheircountriesonthisinternationalscale.Forexample,theGermansinstilledaBurgfrieden,whichtranslatesroughlyas“nationalharmony,”duringwartime,whiletheBritishputatemporaryhalttotheproblemsofhomeruleinIrelandandwomen’srighttovote.Overall,itseemed,pushingpublicsupportthroughthemasseshadbeenanexcellentstrategyandhadgottenthemajorityofpeopleineachnationtoapplaudthewareffort.

Atthesametime,manyscholarshadcometobelievethatwarinEuropewasinevitable.Themostrecentlarge-scalebattle,theFranco-PrussianWar,hadtakenplacemorethan40yearsearlier.Certainindividualsapplaudedwarasanorganiccomponentofhumanity’sgrowth.Thesepeopleclaimedthatwarinspiredpeopletobemoredevotedtotheircountriesandtomorereadilygivethingsup.LikeDarwin’snaturalselection,theheartiernationswouldsurvive.Thisbeliefemerged,forinstance,inabookbyFriedrichvonBernhardi,amanofGermanextraction,calledThe Next War(1912).BernhardistatedhisexcitementoverwarbecausehethoughtglobalconflictwouldprovetoeveryoneelsejusthowwonderfulandpowerfulGermanywas.Bernhardisuggestedthatweaponshadbecomesosophis-ticatedthatwarwouldbeshortandswift.Inretrospect,thiswasaninnocent,ifnotnaive,belief.

Ultimately,thefinalcomponentthatledtoWorldWarIcamefromthepracticeofnationalism,orpatrioticbeliefinanddevotedbehaviortowardone’snation,onbothgrandandspecificscales.Countriesrefusedtobackdownfromwarbecausetheydidnotwantanyonetoinsulttheirnationalintegrity.Additionally,nationalismcausedproblemsamongnationsandethnicgroupsintheBalkanregionthatledtoclashesbetweenRussiaandAustria-Hungary,andeventuallytointernationalwar.

Extensions• ReadOttovonBismarck’sTripleAlliance.Summarizehisargumentforthe

alliancesystem.

SummaryIntheyearsfollowingtheFranco-PrussianWar,GermanyandFrancestillmistrustedoneanother.Thepossibilityofanotherlargeconflictthreatened.Germany’schan-cellor,OttovonBismarck,workedhardtoavoidconflictbysettingupacomplex

Burgfrieden German policy of “national harmony” in the First World War

diligentlytocreate.First,theGermankaiserdidnotbothertorenewGermany’sReinsuranceTreatywithRussia.WilliamIIbelievedthatbecauseheandtheRussianrulerhappenedtobecousins,thatfamilybondwouldbeenoughforGermanytorelyuponRussia’ssupport.However,Russia,onceseparatedfromtheReinsuranceTreaty,wastednotimeinmakinganofficialalliancein1894withFrance.Germany’sformerallyhadnowconnecteditselfwithGermany’sformerenemy.UnderWilliamII’sdreamofraisingGermany’sempireuptoalevelequivalenttothatofBritain’s,othercountrieswatchedwithapprehensionasGermanycreatedmoreoverseasterritoriesandmechanizeditsmilitaryproduction.

Asaresult,in1904BritainsoughtoutthediplomaticagreementwithFrancecalledtheEntenteCordiale.Justthreeyearslater,RussiamadeitsalliancewithBritain,theAnglo-RussianEntente,sothatitcouldstabilizeitsplaceinAsia.Asaresult,Britain,Russia,andFranceallbecameconnected,formingaTripleEntente.TheTripleEntentestoodinoppositiontotheTripleAlliance,whichincludedGermany,Austria-Hungary,andItaly.Bismarck’speacehadnotevenlasted20 years.Instead,WilliamIIhaddestroyedthearrangementBismarckhadestablishedandputGermanyinapositionofbeingsurroundedbypotentialenemies.Twogroupsofthreepowerfulcountriesfacedeachother,andeachhadproblemsorissueswiththeother.Insteadofkeepingthepeace,theselargealliancesprepareddiversenationsforwar.Eachformationofanallianceaddedtoasequenceofeventsthatcouldonlyleadtointernationalbattle,oncetheparticipantshadbeenpushedovertheedgeintowar.

empires and NationsColonialempiresandtheimperialdesignsofEuropeanpowershelpedcreatetheconditionthatledtoWorldWarI.Largerempiresdisagreedoverquestionsofexpansionandauthority,whichreinforcedthenewsystemofalliancestakingshape.First,ItalyendeduptakingaplaceintheTripleAlliancein1882becauseitwantedtocolonizeaportionoflandinnorthernAfrica.BecauseofitsdisagreementwithFrance,ItalylookedtoalignitselfwithFrance’sopponent,Germany.Overadecadelater,Germany’sWilliamIIbecameapprehensiveovertheTripleEntentethathaddrawnFranceandBritainclosertogether.WilliamIIwantedtoseehowstrongthisalliancehadbecome,sohepushedforwardtwoMoroccanCrises.ThesecrisesalsofocusedonFrenchinterestsinNorthAfrica.Insteadofsplittingtheserelativelynewalliesapart,WilliamII’sbelligerentattemptsbackfired.ThemembersoftheTripleEntentebecametighterthanever.

Meanwhile,BritainhadproblemsinitsowncoloniesduringtheBoerWar(1899–1902),whenithadnothadotherEuropeannationsasallies.Asaresult,Britaintooktheinitiative,andintheyearsleadingupto1912BritainformedallianceswithRussia,France,andJapan.Duringthepreviouscentury,RussiaandBritainhadprimarilybeenatodds.YetwhenRussialosttoJapanontheAsianfront,RussiafounditselfreachingbacktoBritaintoprotectitselfagainstfurtherdefeatsinAsia.Inaddition,Italy’scontinueddesireforapresenceinNorthAfrica,focusedby1911onLibya,withitsconnectiontotheOttomanEmpire,leddirectlytotheeventsofWorldWarI.WhenItalydeclaredwaronOttomanrule,asequenceofeventsfollowedwithincreasingproblemsintheBalkans.

5SeLf-cHecK

Briefly explain how

Bismarck’s system

of alliances aided in

creating the First

World War.



1. Bismarck wanted to prevent war on a larger scale by maintaining small, individual peace treaties among a variety of countries.

2. Russia and France agreed to a coalition of armed defense.

3. Germany convened an international meeting over whether France would take over Morocco as a protectorate or not; Germany hoped it would not.

4. Triple Alliance: Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy; Triple Entente: Russia, France, and Britain

5. Because of the alliance system, countries that would not originally have joined in the war had to join to defend their allies, when their allies went to war against third parties.

SeLf-cHecK ANSWeRS

andfragilealliancesystem.Thislasteduntil1890,whenthenewGermankaiser,WilliamII,removedBismarckfromoffice.Withoutthefragilealliances,themis-trustbetweenEuropeancountriessoonbecametremendousproblems.WiththeexceptionofAustria-Hungary,GermanyalienatednearlyeveryotherEuropeannation.Soon,twolargealliances,theTripleEntenteandtheTripleAlliance,existedinEurope.Theseallianceswereforcedintointernationalconflictin1914whenthemannextinlinetoruleAustria-Hungary,ArchdukeFrancisFerdinand,wasmurderedinSarajevo.AsWorldWarIbegan,EuropeanscouldseethatthelastingdisagreementsbetweentheircountriesandthedisbandingofBismarck’salliancesystemweretoblame.

Looking AheadWiththeassassinationofArchdukeFrancisFerdinand,aterribleseriesofeventshadfinallybeensetintomotion.WhileBismarckhadattemptedtokeepthepeaceinEurope,andsucceededforalmost20years,whenhefellfrompower.Europeanempires’interestsinimperialexpansionandnationalprowesslaidthefoundationforanincendiaryconflictthelikesofwhichtheworldhadneverseen.Thetwogreatalliances,sorecentlyformed,wouldtesttheirloyaltiesandprowessonlandandsea.ThedeathanddestructionthatfollowedwouldbelikenothingEuropehadeverseenbefore.


The Beginnings of World War I

Unit 16, Lesson 9

Keywordsblank check

stalemate

submarine warfare

trench warfare

ultimatum

Essential Questions• WhatwastheimmediatecauseofWorldWarI?

• Whoweretherivalcamps?

• WhatcoursedidthewartakeontheWestern,Southern,andEasternfronts?

• Whateffectdidthewarhaveoncoloniesandtheseas?



Set the StageEurope’s New Imperialist practices could not last forever, nor could the countries so invested in expanding their empires evade consequences. Germany’s chancellor, Otto von Bismarck, had managed to keep the peace among the burgeoning empires until almost the end of the nineteenth century, but when his system of alliances fell apart, nothing remained to keep the great empires in check against one another. It would take just one act of violence to spark international conflict and provide Europe’s empires with excuses to target even more portions of land. The battles that followed would be some of the most devastating the world had ever seen.

Primary causes of the War WhileEuropeanimperialexpansionlaidthefoundationforinternationalconflict,severalspecificeventsinthefirstyearsofthe1900shastenedtheoutbreakofwar.By1910,severalsmaller-scaleconflictshadoccurredintheBalkansbecause,priortothetwentiethcentury,muchoftheareahadbeencontrolledbytheOttomanEmpire,whichhadsuddenlybeguntocollapse.OtherEuropeannationssawthisweaknessasamomentofopportunity.By1908,RussiaandAustria-HungarysentrepresentativestoclandestinelymeetandarrangeapacttodividetheBalkans.RussiaandAustria-HungarysawthattheOttomanEmpirehadbecomeweakfromwithin,andvulnerabletoanoutsideattack.WhileAustria-HungaryalreadyhaditstroopsfullyspreadoutthroughoutBosnia-Herzegovina,in1908itgainedpermissionfromRussiatotakepossessionoftheregion.ThisinturnangeredSerbians,whohadideasofcreatingacountryforthemselves.InexchangeforRussianconcessionsinBosnia,Austria-HungarycededRussiaanimportantoceanregionknownastheDardanelles,givingRussiacontroloverwaterwaysbetweentheMediterraneanSeaandtheBlackSea.

YetRussiaandAustria-Hungary’ssecretagreementsdidnotgoasplanned.TherestofEuropealsosawtheOttomanEmpire’sproblemsandworriedthatcountrieslikeAustria-HungaryandRussiawouldtakeadvantage.So,whenRussiaattemptedtomoveitsnavalforcesintotheDardanelles,therestoftheEuropeannationsopposedthemove,andRussiawasforcedtoretreat.Despitethisfailurebyitssecretally,Austria-HungarymovedaheadandtookcontrolofBosnia-Herzegovina.Austria-HungaryhadanadvantageintakingoverthatregionthatRussiahadnothadintheDardanelles:anon-ground,immediatepresence.Austria-Hungary’sactions,succeedingwhereRussiafailed,seemedtorewardbadbehaviorovergood.WhenRussiawasforcedtoabidebyinternationaldictatesandstepbackfromtheDardanelles,itnotonlylostwhathadseemedtobeanewlypromisedregion,butitwasembarrassedupontheworldstage.Austria-Hungary,incontrast,blatantlyignoredinternationaldictatesandforciblygrabbedBosnia.Justasdiplomatshadfeared,Austria-Hungary’sactionsangeredtheSerbians,manyofwhomhadanationalisticvisionforthefutureexpansionofSerbia.Anespeciallyradicalband



ofSerbiannationalistshadcreatedarevolutionarygroupknownastheBlackHand.TheBlackHand’smissionwouldbetocreatealargerSerbia,whereallSlavscouldlive,anditsfirststepwouldbetoforcetheAustro-HungariantroopsoutoftheBalkanregion.

ProblemsintheBalkansdidnotstopthere.TheOttomanEmpirecontinuedtoweaken,andthetinycountriesoftheBalkans,withtheirproximitytotheOttomanEmpire,thoughtitwouldsoonbetimetocontroltheirowndestinies.TheywaitedandpreparedtostrikeassoonastheOttomanEmpirefell.TwowarsintheBalkansquicklyfollowed.Theinitialconflict,theFirstBalkanWar,lastedfrom1912to1913.ThiswarignitedafteraconflictbetweenTurkeyandItaly,whichItalywonhandily.Afterthat,fourothercountriesinthesurroundingregion,Montenegro,Bulgaria,Greece,andSerbia,joinedtogetherandmadeastronger,largergroupcalledtheBalkanLeague.Thesecountriesactedasasingleleagueandmadeadirect,eventuallysuccessfulattackontheOttomanforces.WhentheOttomanEmpirelosttotheBalkanLeague,theBalkannationsgainedevenmoreground.Serbia,inparticular,cameoutofthewarwithanewpositionofrelativestrengthintheBalkans.

OthercountriesinEurope—especiallyAustria-Hungary,whichhaditsownproblemswithSerbia—wantedtopreventSerbiafromreachingtheAdriatic.Thus,duringalengthymeetingthatlastedfrom1912to1913andbecameknownastheLondonConference,SerbiaacceptedthetermsdemandedbytheotherthreepowerfulEuropeannations.Germany,Austria-Hungary,andItalydemandedthatanew,autonomouscountrybesetupbetweenSerbiaandtheAdriatic.ThiscountrywouldcometobeknownasAlbania.InadditiontoSerbia’sangerinthematter,Russiaalsoresentedthisconference.Rapidly,ontheheelsofRussia’sdefeatovertheDardanelles,Russiahadlostfaceinaseriesofinternationalnegotiations.

TheaftermathoftheFirstBalkanWarledtotheSecondBalkanWar,whichtookplacethesameyearthattheFirstBalkanWarconcluded.TheprimarycauseoftheSecondBalkanWarcamefromtheregionofMacedonia,whichtheBalkanLeaguehadwonfromtheOttomanEmpireduringthefirstwar.YettheleagueranintoproblemswhendetermininghowbesttopartitionMacedonia.Bulgaria,inparticular,grewangrywiththeotherleaguemembersandchallengedthem,aswellastheremainingOttomanforces,tothissecondwar.ButBulgariacouldnotmatchitsformeralliesandlost.

Ultimately,whilethetwoBalkanWarsstirredupconflictbetweenthecountriesintheregion,aswellaswithRussiaandtheOttomanEmpire,therealproblemslayintherelationshipoftwocountriesinparticular:Austria-HungaryandSerbia,whohaddevelopedverydifferentandcontradictoryplansforthefutureoftheBalkans.

War Begins (July 1914) By1914,tensionsranhighinEurope,andthepeacefulbalanceofpowerhadbeenknockedaside.OnJune28,themannextinlinetoberulerofAustria-Hungary,theArchdukeFrancisFerdinand,traveledtoSarajevowithhiswife,SophietheDuchessofHohenberg,onbehalfofAustria-Hungary’sgovernmenttopresentapossibleideathatcouldassuagetheSerbs.Thearchduke’sideaaimedtogivetheSlavsofBosniasomemeasureofindependencewithoutgivingthemtotalself-government.Rather



thanhavinganationandgovernmentoftheirown,withseparateboundariesandlaws,asthemoreradicalSerbsandSlavsdesired,theywouldbeasemi-independentpresenceinsidetheHapsburgEmpire.

TheBlackHandwouldnotentertainanyplanotherthanitslong-helddreamofanexpandedandautonomousSerbia.TheBlackHanddecidedtotakedrasticandviolentaction.WithatwofoldgoalofbothhumiliatingtheHapsburgEmpireandputtinganendtowhattheysawasthearchduke’sfoolishidea,theBlackHandorganizedaplottomurderthearchduke,aswellashisspouse,duringtheirvisittoSarajevo.Theradicalorganizationbroughtseveralyouthful,especiallyferventpartymemberstogetherandinstructedtheminwaysandmeansofpoliticalmurder.AyoungmannamedGavriloPrincipsuccessfullycarriedoutthemurdersbyfatallyshootingboththearchdukeandhispregnantwife.Soontheentirecontinenteruptedinchaosasaresult.

First,ofcourse,Austria-HungaryandSerbia’srelationshipimmediatelybecamemorehostile.EventhoughtheBlackHandhadbeenresponsibleforthearchduke’sdeath,Austria-HungaryblamedthegoverningregimeofSerbiaitself.BytheendofJuly,Austria-HungaryhadgivenSerbiaanultimatumasaresult.Austria-HungaryalsofoundimmediatesupportfromGermany,itslong-termally.SinceAustria-HungaryhadbecometheonlynationwillingtostandbyGermany,Germanycouldnotaffordtoletitdown.Thus,WilliamIIwentaboveandbeyondinsupportingAustria-Hungarybybestowinguponitwhat

ultimatum a serious request, followed by the threat of severe consequences

Francis Ferdinand and his wife, Sophie, shortly before their assassinations, which sparked World War I and led to the eventual loss of 11 million lives.



peoplereferredto,metaphorically,asa“blank check”totakecareofitsproblemswiththeSerbianshowevertheAustro-Hungarianssawfit.Becauseofthisblankcheck,GermanywouldsupportAustria-Hungaryinwhateveractionittook.WithGermany’ssupport,Austria-Hungarycouldaffordtoriskalienat-ingotherEuropeancountries,likeRussia,Serbia’sprimarysupporter.Russia’swrathmighthavestoppedAustria-HungaryfromgoingafterSerbia,butsinceGermanyhadpromisedtosupportAustria-HungaryifRussiabecameaproblem,Austria-HungarycouldproceedininitiatingconflictwithSerbia.

Thisbehaviorcausedachainreactionofalliancesandarguments.RussiahadpreviouslyallieditselfwithFrance,whichnowworriedaboutGermany’spotentialforjoininginthisnewwarandsidedwithRussiaagain.AlthoughBritainhadtiestobothRussiaandFrancethroughtheTripleEntente,itattemptedtostayneutralinthisconflictatfirst.Eventhoughitsinterventionsoonappearedtobequiteuseless,BritaindidattempttostepinandsmooththingsoutbetweenAustria-HungaryandSerbia.Yetthatwasn’tenough.SerbiarefusedtoacceptoneaspectsetforwardintheultimatumofAustria-Hungary.Inresponse,Austria-HungarymadepreparationsforwaronSerbia.Immediately,RussiaproclaimedimminentconflictwithAustria-Hungary,indefenseofSerbia.UnfortunatelyforRussia,itsgovernmenthadtoplanforaconflictinwhichitmighthavetodobattlenotonlywithAustria-Hungary,butwithGermanyaswell.

PerhapsitwasatthistimethattheroyalcousinswhoheldthronesinGermanyandRussia,KaiserWilliamandTsarNicholas,respectively,regrettedrelyingontheirfamilialbondtokeepthepeaceratherthanhavingmadeaformalalliance.Eventhoughthetwomensentmanynegotiatingtelegramsbackandforthinanattempttosmooththingsover,Germany,obligedbytreatytostandbyAustria-Hungary,announceditwouldgotobattlewithRussiaaswell.WithsomanyimportantEuropeannationsalreadyenteringthefieldofbattle,othercountrieswereforcedtoenter,too,drawninbytheirprevious,standingalliances.First,France,whichhadalreadypubliclydeclareditssup-portforRussia,officiallyannounceditwouldbattleGermany.ThenBritain,theformerlyimpartialnation,joinedthebattleontheRussianside.Britainsteppedinbecauseofproblemsanother,smallerimpartialnation,Belgium,hadbeenhavingwithGermany.

GermanyhadcreatedastrategyforthewarcalledtheSchlieffenPlan,whichinvolvedmovingtroopsthroughBelgiumtoFrance.TheSchlieffenPlanhadtwoparts,andservedasastrategyforGermanygoingtowarintwoverydifferentdirections,targetingbothFranceandRussia.Accordingtothefirstpartoftheplan,GermanywouldmovequicklythroughBelgiumandunleashitsarmyonFrancebeforeFrancecouldpreparetoretaliate.Then,afterengagingwithFrance,GermanywouldsendasecondarmytoengageRussia.Belgium,aneutralparty,wouldbecrushedasGermanymovedthroughittogettoFrance.Belgiumhadnottakensidesinthewar,andBritainhadswornyearsbeforetoprotectthesmallcountrybetweenFranceandGermany.Thus,BritainhadtostepintotrytopreventGermany’sadvance.ForitspartGermanynowfounditselfatwarwiththreeothersignificantEuropeanpowers:Britain,France,andRussia.Whilemanypeoplehad

blank check literally, a paper promise by one person to give another money in any, unspeci-fied amount; politically, a promise by the leader of one country to stand by another country no mat-ter what actions it takes

1SeLf-cHecK

Who killed Archduke

Francis Ferdinand?



anticipatedsomekindofconflict,notmanycouldhavepredictedhowdevastatingtheconflictwouldbe.Inthemiddleof1914,whenthewarhadjustbegun,peopleremainedoptimisticandthoughtthewarwouldberelativelybrief,endinginlessthansixmonths.Theyhadnoconceptofwhatlayahead.

The War’s Opposing SidesDuringWorldWarI,thebattlecamedowntotwoopposinggroupsofcountries.Ononeside,theAlliescamefromthreepowerfulcountries,membersoftheTripleEntenteandthuslong-termalliesthemselves:Britain,Russia,andFrance.AsRussia’sally,SerbiaalsobecameamemberoftheAllies.Lateron,theAllieswouldalsoincludeGreece,Romania,Italy,theUnitedStates,andJapan.JapanenteredthewarnottopreserveorfightforanygroundontheEuropeancontinent.Instead,thestillrelativelynewimperialpowerhopedtotakeoverlandGermanyheldoverseas,includingareasinChinaandislandsinthePacificOcean.

Ontheotherside,theCentralPowerswerecomposedofonlytwonations,Austria-HungaryandGermany.Later,though,countriesfromtheBalkanregion,includingtheOttomanEmpireandBulgaria,joinedthem.

The Western front (1914–1917)TheEuropeannationswastednotimeinactingupontheircommitmenttointerna-tionalconflict.LessthantwomonthsafterthedeathofArchdukeFrancisFerdinand,warbeganinAugust1914.Onthefourthdayofthatmonth,GermanysentitstroopsintoBelgiuminaccordancewiththeSchleiffenPlan,effectivelyforcingBritaintocometoBelgium’said.TocountertheGermans,theBritishdeployedaspecialgroupofsoldierscalledtheBritishExpeditionaryForce,orBEF.TheBEFheadedstraighttoFrance,tomeettheGermanswhentheyarrived.

TheBritish,French,andGermansmetattheBattleoftheMarne,whichtookplaceinthefirstdaysofSeptember1914.GermantroopsmarchedthroughthelowcountryofBelgiumandintoFrance,advancingupontheMarneRiver,whichlayjustalittleover10milesfromtheFrenchcapitalofParis.TheGermansadvancedwithnearly1.5milliontroops,butastheycrossedtheMarnetheyfacedstiffresistancefromover1millionFrenchsoldiers,supportedbysixBritishdivisions.Theweek-longbattleleftnearlyhalfamillionmendead,some220,000oneitherside,butitrepresentedagreatvictoryfortheAllieswhohadthwartedtheGermanadvance.

AftertheMarne,foratimeFranceandGermanyfoundthemselvesinastalemateovertheWesternFront.WhileFrancehadkepttheGermansfromadvancing,GermanystillheldabigportionofFranceinthenorth,aswellasthemajorityofBelgianterritory,whichithadswiftlyconquered.Theopposingarmiesemployedanewstrategyoftrench warfare.AlongeachsideoftheWesternFront,armiesdugtrencheswheresoldierscouldtakecover.Bothsidesalsocre-ateddifferentdefensivebarriersforthetrenches,includingtoughandsharpbarbedwire,andsmall,stonefortsfortheirguns.Littledidthesoldiersknowthattheyhadembarkedonaformofdefensivefightingthatwouldlastfornearlyfouryears.

Generally,theopposingarmieswouldsendoutgroupsoffootsoldierstoattacktheotherside.Fewofthefootsoldierswouldreachtheopposingarmy,

stalemate an impasse (often in warfare) where two entities are frozen in the midst of their conflict and neither can advance or be defeated

trench warfare a style of warfare in which opposing sides construct trenches for their soldiers to hide in and then launch weap-onry (including machine guns, poison gas, and tanks) at the trenches opposite them



though,becauseeachsideusedmachinegunstokillanyonewhocamenearitstrenches.SincebothFranceandGermanyhadtrenchesandmachineguns,nei-thercountry’sarmycouldpullaheadanddefeattheother.Growingdesperate,bothcountries’armiesbeganusingevermoresevereanddevastatingweapons:heavy,high-poweredartilleryandpoisonousgas.Otherinnovativeanddeadlyweaponrythatwouldbeusedincludedflamethrowers,smallbombsorgrenades,zeppelins,andairplanes.However,intheearlyyearsofthewar,noneofthesenewwaysofkillingwasenoughtobreakthestalemate.

Verdun and the SommeTwoyearsafterthewarbegan,twomoretremendousbattlesfollowed.Thefirst,knowntodayastheBattleofVerdun,occurredinFebruary1916.Atthetime,France’sarmyhadcreatedadefensivefortintheFrenchcityofVerdun.Thatmonth,Germanysentsome1.2milliontroopstotheareainthehopeoffinallybreakingthroughtheAlliedlinesandreturningtotheoffensive.TheFrenchwithstoodtheinitialattack,however,andthefightingdraggedonforthenext10monthsinthelongestandoneofthemostdevastatingbattlesintheFirstWorldWarandthehis-toryofwarfare.ByJuly,FrancehadmovedfromdefensetooffenseatVerdun,andbyDecemberhaddrivenbacktheGermanassaultcompletely.WhentheBattleofVerdunended,Germanyhadlostnearlyallthegroundithadgainedinthearea,andFrancehadstrengtheneditsdefensiveposition.ThisvictoryforFrancecamewithaseverepriceonbothsides,though:morethan430,000Germansoldiersdied,aswellasmorethan540,000Frenchsoldiers,accordingtorecentestimates.

A German trench in 1914, at the beginning of World War I



AnotherdevastatingbattlebeganbeforeVerdunhadevenconcluded.WhatbecameknownastheBattleoftheSommebeganinJuly1916.FranceandBritainlaunchedalargesurpriseattackalongtheSommeRiver,foradistanceofapproxi-mately30miles.TheopeningdayofthebattlesawtheBritisharmysuffernearly60,000casualties.Gradually,however,theGermanswerepushedback,althoughtheAlliesneverforcedacompletebreakthroughastheyhadhoped.ByNovember,thebattlewasover,andtheresultwasindecisive.Germanyhadbeenforcedtowithdraw,butthestalematecontinueddespitethecombinedlossofover1millionlives.Inadditiontoitsgreatlosses,theBattleoftheSommeisalsorememberedasahistoricmomentinwarfarebecauseitwasthefirstinstanceoftanksbeingusedinwarfare.

DuringtheyearfollowingthetwogreatbattlesofVerdunandtheSomme,FrenchsoldiersaswellasordinaryFrenchcitizenshadbeguntogrowexhaustedandfedupwiththewar.Theyhadbeenfightingforthreebloodyyears.Thousandsandthousandshaddiedinbattle,andmanymorehadperishedfromdiseaseandstarvation.TheFrenchlandscapewasablastedandsmokingruin.Britain’sarmyhadnochoicebuttostepinandsupportitsally,evenatacontinuedhighprice.Thatyear,Britain’sarmyledassaultsinBelgium,whereinapartofYprescalledPasschendaeleas,asmanyas700,000British,French,Belgian,andGermansoldiersdiedduringthreemonthsoffiercefighting.TheseengagementscostBritainmoney,men,andarmsbutdidnotachievemuchintheoverallscaleofthewar.Ineffect,theAlliesandGermanyhadreachedanotherstalemate.

PerhapsinpartbecauseoftheBritishandFrenchpeople’sfrustrationwiththisstalemate,bothcountriessawtheirgovernmentschangesubstantiallyin1916and1917.First,Britainelectedanewprimeministerattheendof1916.WhileDavidLloydGeorge(1863–1945)belongedtothesameLiberalPartyasthepreviousminister,HerbertAsquith(1852–1928),hecameintopowerassomeonebackedbythepeople’sgoodopinionandknownfondlytomanybyhiscommonnickname,the“WelshWizard.”InNovemberofthefollowingyear,asimilarchangingoftheguardwouldoccurinFrance.JoiningtheWelshWizardcameFrance’s“Tiger,”GeorgesClemenceau(1841–1929),takingtheofficeofpremier.ClemenceauandLloydGeorgewoulddirecttheircountriesstronglyandwithauthorityasthewarcontinued.

The eastern front (1914–1917)AsifthebattlesontheWesternFrontwerenotenough,GermanyalsohadtocontendwiththeEasternFront:ineffect,Germanywasfightingawarontwofronts.Initially,Germanyseemedtobedoingwellintheeast,justasithadinthewest.Atfirst,thebattlesontheEasternFrontoccurredveryclosetohomeinitsterritoryofEastPrussia.ThishappenedbecauseRussia’sarmiessprangintoactionalmostimmediatelyafterwarwasdeclared.RussiasenttwolargeforcestooccupyEastPrussia.However,theGermanarmyrespondedrapidlyandbrutally,emergingvictoriousovertheRussianarmyintwoseparatebattles.First,inthelastdaysofAugust1914,RussialosttoGermanyintheBattleofTannenberg.TheninearlySeptember1914,RussialosttoGermanyintheBattleoftheMasurianLakes.Onthosebattlegrounds,atleast,Germanycouldnotbematched.

2SeLf-cHecK

Germany suffered heavy

losses in many battles.

Of all the conflicts on

the Western Front,

which one had the most

German casualties?



YetsinceGermanyhadtoexpendsomanyofitsforcesinEastPrussiabattlingRussia,itleftitsallyAustria-HungarymorevulnerabletoRussia’sattacks.GermanyhadtocomeupwithawaytodrawRussia’sstrengthawayfromAustria-Hungaryandfocusitelsewhere.Tothatend,GermanysentanarmytoeasternPoland,aim-ingultimatelyatWarsaw.Afewmonthslater,as1915approached,Germanyhadmanagedtooccupyalmost25percentofwhathadbeenRussian-controlledPoland.Russiadidnothaveenoughbusinesses,factories,orproductionmeanstocreateenoughgoodstofuelitsownarmies.Thearmiesoutonthefrontswouldsoonbeinwantofarms,tools,andotherproductstheyneededtofighteffectively.

WhileRussiastruggledtosupplyitsmilitary,Germany’sarmykeptonpush-ingagainstRussia’scontroloverPolandthroughout1915.As1916approached,GermanyhadnotonlytakenoverthemajorityofRussianPoland,butithadalsotakenoverLithuania.Inthemeantime,RussiakeptlaunchingattacksagainstthedefensiveAustro-HungarianarmiesontheGalicianfront.RussiadidgainsomegroundinGalicia,butnotenoughtomakeaclearvictoryduring1915.Asaresult,inSeptemberofthatyear,TsarNicholasIIsteppedintoleadRussia’smilitarypersonally.Morethansixmonthslater,inJune1915,Russia’sarmylaunchedamajorassaultinGalicia,targetingtheAustro-Hungarianarmy.Almostimmediately,Germanyrespondedbysending15battalionstosupportanddefendAustria-Hungary.NosoonerhadtheRussianattackbegun,thenitwasfinished.BeforeRussialostGaliciatoGermany,though,ithadfoundanotherallyinRomania.RomaniahadjoinedupwiththeAlliestofurtheritsowngoaloftakingoverTransylvania,whichatthattimewasunderAustro-Hungariancontrol.AsRussiaweakened,however,sodidRomania,butevenmorerapidly.Byearly1917,RomaniahadfallentotheAustro-Hungarianarmy.

Romania’sfalltookplacenearlyayearafterRussiahadessentiallylosttoGermanyinPoland.ThemissedopportunitytostrikeinGaliciain1916seemedonlytorubsaltinthewound.AnychancethatRussiamighthavehadtocomebackalongwithitsfellowAlliesandfightmorestronglyagainstGermanywouldbeturnedasidebyitsowndomesticrevolutionsduring1917.AfterapopularrevolutionoverthrewthetsarinFebruary1917,andanotherrevolutioninstalledtheBolsheviksinpowerafewmonthslater,RussiawasforcedtobowoutofWorldWarI,signingtheTreatyofBrest-LitvoskasapromisethatitnolongerwouldengagemilitarilywithGermanyorAustria-Hungary.AccordingtotheTreatyofBrest-Litvosk,thenewBolshevik-ledRussiangovernmenthadtomakemanyconcessionstoGermany.Inexchangeforpeacebetweenthetwolargercountries,Russiahadtorelinquishcontroloverseveralregionsnearitswesternboundary,includingtheUkraineandFinland.RussiaalsolostthealreadymuchdisputedPoland,aswellassomeareasneartheBalticSea.Ineffect,thatRussialostabout33percentofitscitizensalongwiththelandstothewest.WithRussiaoutoftheway,GermanycouldturnitsattentionbacktoFranceandtheWesternFront.

The South: Italy and GallipoliIntheyearsleadinguptothewar,ItalyhadbeenlinkedwithbothAustria-HungaryandGermanyasapartoftheTripleAlliance.Assuch,theothertwocountriesmighthaveexpectedItalytojoinforceswiththemwhenWorldWar I



commencedin1914.However,ItalydidnotjoinwiththeCentralPowersandinsteaddeclareditselfanimpartialparty.DoingsomadecountrieslikeFranceandBritainhopefulthatItalywouldjoinforceswiththemasamemberoftheAllies.ThishopetooklegaleffectinaclandestineagreementwithItalycalledtheTreatyofLondonof1915.Accordingtothecomponentsofthistreaty,ItalycouldexpectlandsinbothTurkeyandAustria-Hungaryafterthesuccess-fulconclusionofthewar.InMay1915,ItalyjoinedtheAlliestofightagainstGermanyandAustria-Hungary.

UnfortunatelyforItaly,itsarmiescouldnotmatchAustria-Hungary’s.Twoyearsafterjoiningthewar,ItalyfounditselfinternationallyembarrassedwhenitlosttoAustria-Hungaryinthe1917BattleofCaporetto.InsteadofItalylendingaidtotheAllies,thereverseoccurred.BritainandFrancequicklyhadtomobilizetheirownarmiestohelpItalyrecoverafterCaporetto.ThealliancedidnotseemtobeworkingoutaswellasBritainandFrancehadhoped.

Meanwhile,sincetheearlymonthsofthewar,theAllieshadbeenstrugglingtogainaccesstootherpartsoftheBalkans.Initially,inNovember1914,theAllieshadfoundthemselvesshutoutoftheTurkishStraitswhentheOttomanEmpire,whichcontrolledthestraits,lentitssupporttoGermanyandAustria-Hungaryaftertheoutbreakofwar.ThestraitswouldhaveservedasthemostdirectwaterroutebetweenBritainandFranceononeside,andtheirallyRussiaontheother.Withoutthestraits,BritainandFrancecouldnotsendRussiaarmsandproductsthecountrydesperatelyneeded.Tosolvethisproblem,futureBritishprimeministerWinstonChurchill(1874–1965)steppedforwardwithaplan.DuringWorldWarI,ChurchilloccupiedthepositionofFirstLordoftheAdmiralty,anofficethataffordedhimsufficientpowertopresentastrategythatwouldallowtheAlliestorecoverthestraitsfromtheOttomanarmy.UnderChurchill’sleadership,BritainsentsoldiersbylandandseatoattacktheGallipoliPeninsulainearly1915.Thispeninsula,situatedatakeypointinthesouthDardanelles,wouldbeagoodpositionfromwhichtheAlliescouldpressontotheotherportionsofthestraits.Unfortunatelyforthem,Churchill’sstrategywasimperfect;theAllies’grasponthepeninsulaslowlyeroded.Nearlyayearafterarriving,Britain’ssoldiershadnochoicebuttoretreat.

InthemiddleofthestrugglesovertheGallipoliPeninsula,theAllieslostanotherpotentialregiontotheCentralPowers.InOctober1915,BulgariaallieditselfwithGermanyandAustria-Hungary.Themovecameasasurprisetofew,sinceSerbiahadbeenconnectedtotheAlliesfromthefirstdaysofthewar,andBulgariaandSerbiahadaverytenserecenthistory.Indeed,Bulgariastillsmartedsinceits1913lossintheSecondBalkanWarandheldagrudgeagainstSerbia.ThisinternationalconflictseemedtoprovideanidealopportunityforBulgariatotakeitsrevenge.Indeed,BulgariahadthesatisfactionofseeingSerbiacrumbleundertheCentralPowers’assaultthatveryyear.

War Around the GlobeWhileEuropewasthehotbedofinternationalconflictduringWorldWarI,itwasbynomeanstheonlytheaterofbattle.Forexample,brutalfightingoccurredintheMiddleEast,especiallyoverlandbelongingtoTurkey.Infact,Turkeysuffered

3SeLf-cHecK

At what point and how

did Russia bow out of

World War I?



badlyinthebattlesinthisregionwhiletheAlliesthesteadilywonground.First,RussiaandTurkeycametoblowsovertheareaknownastheCaucasusin1915.Russiaemergedvictoriousandinretaliation,TurkeychosetoblamethepeopleofArmeniandescentwithinitsborders,claimingtheyhadactedasspiesandhelpedtheRussians.Toexactrevenge,theTurkishgovernmentinstitutedacampaignofslaughteragainsttheArmenians.ManyimportantindividualsinArmeniansocietydied,assassinatedbytheirowngovernment.Manyothersfacedexile.Historiansspeculatethatsomewherebetween1and1.5millionArmeniansdiedatthehandsoftheTurkishgovernment.

WhenChurchill’sstrategyintheGallipoliPeninsulafailed,BritainandRussiagaveuphopeoftakingovertheTurkishStraits.Instead,theytargetedthenearbyregionofMesopotamia,alsoatthattimecontrolledbyTurkey.ThisnewplanwentintoeffectayearaftertheBritisharmyhadextracteditselffromtheDardanelles.InMarch1917,Britain’sarmysuccessfullycapturedBaghdad,andtherestofMesopotamia,forthemostpart,quicklyfollowed.There,Britain’sarmyworkedquicklyandrapidlytoroundupArabpeoplewhohadpreviouslybeenruledbytheTurksandincitedthemtorevolution.Inthis,BritainreliedontheaidofthepopularColonelT.E.Lawrence(1888–1935).

Ocean BattlesDespitethefactthatonesignificantinternationalproblempriortoWorldWarIhadbeenBritain’sfrustrationwithGermany’sattempttobuildanequivalentnavy,theGermannavyactuallydidnotcontributemuchtotheoceanbattlesduringWorldWarI.TheBattleofJutlandwasanexception.Thistwo-daybattlebeganonthelastdayofMay1916,inaportionoftheNorthSeaneartheDanishcoastline,whereBritainhadsetupanoceanbarricadetokeepGermanshipsfromcrossingtheseatoBritain.Duringthisbattle,BritainhadhopedtosoundlydefeattheGermanshipsandtakebacktheportionoftheBalticSeaitcouldusetosendsuppliestoRussia.Theendresultedinyetanotherstalemate.EventhoughBritishshipshadtakenmanymorehitsthantheGermanshipshad,neithersideachieveditsgoal.ThebattleresultedinamodifiedvictoryfortheAlliesonlyinthat,afterward,GermanysentitshighseasshipstotheBalticSeaandkeptthemawayfromtheBritishhighseasships,whichwouldbesmallconsolationintermsofwhatcamenext.

EventhoughGermanyhadtakenpainstocreatealargeandwell-stockedbattleshipcontingent,itsunderwater-onlyships,submarines,woulddothemostdamageinwhatcametobeknownassubmarine warfare.Submarinewarfarebecameparticularlylethalbecausetheopponent’shighseasshipscouldnotusuallydetectastealthsubmarineattack.Germanybeganusingitssubma-rinesearlyinthewar.Inthefirstmonthsof1915,theGermannavyuseditssubmarines,calledU-boats,tocreateanoceanbarricadearoundBritain,pre-ventingfoodandsuppliesfromreachingBritainbysea.Thisblockaderesultedinthelossofmanyinnocentlives,however,whentheGermansubmarinestargetedaBritishshipnamedtheLusitania,whichwasnotawarship,butanAtlanticpassengervessel.Amongthenearly1,200peoplewhodiedwhentheshipwastorpedoedbyaGermanU-boatwere128U.S.citizenswhosecountryremainedofficiallyneutralinthewar.Still,thesinkingofthepassengership

submarine warfare stealth warfare conducted by undersea boats



sparkedatremendousoutcryfromtheUnitedStatesagainstsubmarinewarfare.ThisoutcryforcedtheGermannavytocurbitsuse,atleastforsometime,toavoidbringingtheUnitedStatesintothefrayonthesideoftheAllies.

Americaninfluencecouldonlylastsolong,though.Oneyearlater,aftertheLusitaniasank,Germanyreturnedtothestrategyofusingsubmarinewarfare.Thistime,GermanysawitastheonekeystrategythatitcouldusetodefeatBritain;thus,byextension,submarinewarfaremadeavictoryagainstalltheAlliesseemmuchmorepossible.GermanyputthisplanintoactiononthefirstdayofFebruary1917.

OnFebruary26,GermansubmarinestargetedanddestroyedaBritishshipcalledtheLaconia.Twoofthe12peoplekilledwereU.S.citizens.TheUnitedStatesasserteditsauthoritytoprotectitscitizensabroad,evenifwarfarewasrequired.Then,justafewdayslater,onthefirstdayofMarch,theUnitedStatesbecameawareoftheZimmermanTelegram,apieceofcorrespondencebetweenGermanandMexicandiplomatsthatcontainedstrategicpointsforapossiblealliancebetweenthetwocountries.Inthetelegram,GermanycommittedtogivingMexicobackthreelargesectionsoftheAmericanSouthwestshouldMexicojointheCentralPowers.

Thenextmonth,withanti-GermansentimentstokedbyU-boatwarfareandtheZimmermanTelegram,theUnitedStatesofficiallydeclaredwaronGermanyandenteredWorldWarI.HelpfromtheUnitedStateswouldbeslowtoarriveabroad,however.While20,000orsotroopsoftheAmericanExpeditionaryForceshadarrivedinFrancebymid-summer1917,ittooknearlyayearfortheUnitedStatestosendmorethan1millionsoldiersandhelpturnthetideagainstGermany.

Extensions• Read“TheKaiser’sCommentsontheOutbreakoftheWorldWar”from

Outbreak of the World War: German Documents Collected by Karl KautskybyMaxMontgelasandWaltherSchücking(No.401,1924,pp.348–350,trans.byCarnegieEndowmentforInternationalPeace).WhywasthemobilizationoftheRussianarmysosignificanttotheKaiser?HowdidtheKaiserfeelaboutEngland?WhywasGreatBritainalignedagainstGermany?

SummaryTheBalkanconflictssetthestage,andthemurderofArchdukeFrancisFerdinandplungedEuropeintointernationalconflict.TheinitialstrugglebetweenAustria-HungaryandSerbiatriggeredalliancesacrossthecontinentandresultedinfull-scalewar.OntheWesternFront,GermanyinvadedBelgiumandthennorthernFrance.Britaincametotheaidofbothcountries.By1917,manyliveshadbeenlostthroughtrenchwarfareattheBattlesoftheMarne,Verdun,andtheSomme.YetGermanyandtheAlliesremainedatastalemate.OntheEasternFront,GermanyslowlyprevailedoverRussiainPoland.Russia,inturn,lostimportantterritorytoAustria-HungaryandGermany;then,afteritsownrevolutions,Russialeftthewaraltogether.Inthesouth,ItalyjoinedtheAllies,whobattledTurkeyforapathwayto



1. Gavrilo Princip

2. In the Battle of the Somme, 650,000 Germans died.

3. After suffering its own internal rebellion in 1917, Russia’s new government could not balance engaging in an outside war with governing its new

country. Rather than lose to Germany outright, Russia signed the Treaty of Brest-Litvosk with Germany and stepped out of World War I. By the terms of the treaty, Russia lost about 33 percent of its population and a great deal of land on its western border: Finland, the Ukraine, Poland, and the Baltic countries.

SeLf-cHecK ANSWeRS

theeast.Meanwhile,GermanyresortedtosubmarinewarfareinanattempttodefeatBritain.However,Germany’sactionscausedthedeathsofinnocentAmericans.ThecombinationofsubmarinewarfareandtheUnitedStates’discoveryofGermany’ssecretplotswithMexicoresultedintheUnitedStatesjoiningtheAlliesandthewarin1917.

Looking AheadBy1917,manyliveshadbeenlostandneitherside—theAlliesnortheCentralPowers—hadaccomplisheditsdesiredvictory.Peoplewouldbecomedisheartenedbythelossoflifeandtheofwartime.Europeancitizenswouldsufferavarietyofterriblehardships,fromlackoffoodtocensorship.WiththeUnitedStatesjoin-ingthewarontheAllies’side,victoryfortheAlliesfinallyseemedlikeadistantpossibility.ByNovember1918,WorldWarIwouldend.Then,itwouldbetimeforEuropetoputitselfbacktogether.


World War I’s End and Aftermath

Unit 16, Lesson 10

Essential Questions• WhathappenedinWorldWarItomakepeoplefeel

dissatisfiedwithanddisappointedbybothsocietyandhumanity?

• Whatinnovativemethodsofdoingbattleemergedbetween1914and1918?

• Whatwasthewarlikeforthoseleftbehindonthehomefront?

• HowdidWorldWarIend?

• WhatpoliciesweresetdownintheTreatyofVersailles?

Keywordsbuffer state

demilitarized

genocide

mandate system

no-man’s land

over the top

press censorship

rationing

war bonds

War Ministry

women with yellow hands



Set the StageBy 1917, World War I had been raging for three years, and many European countries had lost hundreds of thousands of citizens. Yet no country had come closer to victory, and the war remained in a stalemate. France’s army had begun to weaken under the strain, and Britain had to step in. Meanwhile, Russia had already exited the war because of its own domestic revolutions. Germany had prevailed over Poland and began to target the British fleet, posing a real danger to the Allies. When the United States officially joined the war on the Allies’ side, it seemed as though the Allies might have a chance for victory. Even with a potential victory and end to the war in sight, tremendous, irrevocable damage had already been done, and much more destruction and death would occur before the war ended.

Negative effects of World War I on SocietyInretrospect,itseemsclearthattheeventsofWorldWarIservedasacatalystforawidespreadchangeinthewayhumanbeingsperceivedtheworld.Whilethechangeinperceptionhadbeenbuildingforsometime,duringthewarpeoplebegantothinkaboutitmoreclearlyandtalkaboutitmoreoften.Thegeneralpublicbecamesoshockedandshatteredbytheeventsofthewarthattheyhadnochoicebuttoabandontheideologiesandbeliefsystemstheyhadpreviouslyheldastheybegantolookforanswers,explanations,andhope.

Priortothewar,peoplelivinginEuropeandtheWesternworldhaddevelopedspecificpatternsofthoughtandbeliefsystemsthathadbecomewidely,ifnotuniversally,shared.Thesepatternshadbeenshapedandinformedbytwospecifichistoricperiods:first,bythepopularscientificandphilosophicalbreakthroughsoftheEnlightenmentduringthe1700s,andsecond,bytheimprovementsoftechnol-ogyandmanufacturingthatdevelopedduringthenineteenthcentury’sIndustrialRevolutions.Inadditiontothesechangesintechnology,manypeopleofthe1800shadbeguntoacceptDarwin’sideasaboutevolutionandthesurvivalofthefittest.

Bythebeginningofthetwentiethcentury,eventhoughsomeaspectsoftheirpersonalfaithshadbeenchallengedbyscience,manypeoplecontinuedtoshareafaiththattheworldandsocietywouldcontinuetomoveforward,thatrationalitycreateabettersociety,andthateveryindividualhadcivicprivileges.Peoplebegantoexpecttheycouldhavemoregoodsandmoremoney,andtoaspiretohigherclasses.Thissocietalchangecorrespondedtotheexpansionofurbancenters,thegrowthofthemiddleclassinEuropeancountries,andthewidespreadmassimple-mentationofeducatingyoungpeople.

Forthemostpart,allthesechangesseemedlikepositiveones,andtheyhelpedgivepeopleduringthistimeanalmosttangibleproofthattheirliveswouldinvolvecontinuousimprovement.Generallyspeaking,inthelatenineteenthandearlytwentiethcenturies,peoplefounditeasytohavefaithinaworldrunbyreasonandorder,aworldwheretherationalphysicsasexpoundedbyIsaacNewtonmade



perfectsense.Thingstheycouldnotexplainthroughreason,theycouldjustifythroughtheirbeliefinahigherpower.Inotherwords,betweentheirdualfaithsinreasonandreligion,itseemedasthougheverythingaroundthemhadsomeexplanationoranothertobackitup.Nothingoccurredwithouteventualpurposeorjustification.

Withinthisorderedworld,peoplebeganadvocatingforevenmorecivilliber-tiesforcommoners.Womenhadstartedtocatchuptomenintermsoftherightstheyheldintheworld,suchastherighttopropertyortherighttovote.Working-classcitizensalsohadbeguntoreceivemoreprivileges,suchasfairhours,fairwages,andunionization.Governmentshadstartedimplementingothercommonprogramsofawelfarestate,suchascreatingretirementfundsfortheelderlyandotherpublicprograms.

AllthesefactorscombinedtomakelifefairlygoodformostpeopleinEuropeandtheWestattheendofthe1800s.Whileexceptionstothisruleexistedforthemostpartpeoplelivedinaworldoforderandrationality.Yet,somestartedques-tioningcommonlyheldbeliefs,evenasthemajorityprospered.Thesecriticshadbecomedissatisfiedwiththepopularwayofthinkingabouttheworld.Contrarytowhatmanyotherpeoplethought,theydidnotagreethattheworldwascontinu-ingtomoveforwardinapositivemanner.Furthermore,theyeitherhadlostfaithinthereasonabilityofothers,orhadstartedtoworrythatreasonalonecouldnotexplainalloftheeventsintheworldsurroundingthem.

PeoplewhoalreadyfeltthiswaycouldfindnaturaljustificationinsomeoftheshockingandterribleeventsofWorldWarI.Moreover,evenpeoplewhohadbelievedwholeheartedlyinareasonableandlogicalsocietypriortothewarwouldfindthemselvesquestioningeverythingtheyknewasthewar’shorrificeventsbecamefullyknown.Unfortunately,WorldWarIquicklyrevealeditselfasawarmoredamagingthananyother.Thedarksideofhumanitythatthewarrevealedmademanyreevaluatesociety.Withoutreason,itseemed,peoplefounditdifficulttocontinuepolitelyadvocatingforordiscussingcivilliberties.Fargreaterbasicneedsseemedtobeatstake.

Thissad,worriedfeelingspreadquickly.Negativitycouldbefoundalmosteverywhere,asthegeneralpopulacebegantodoubtthedirectionhumanityhadtaken.Thisnegativitywouldbefosteredandgrowevenmoreinthedecadestocome,especiallyduringthe1930s.Duringthattime,manyofthefearsandworriespeoplehadalreadydevelopedorbeguntoholdduringtheFirstWorldWartookter-ribleshape.ThesenewrealitiescouldbeseeninthemanytyrannicalleadersrisingtopowerineasternEurope,forexample,orintheterribleplummetofworldwidefinancesthatbeganwiththe1929stockmarketcrashandsoonspreadintothefollowingdecadeastheGreatDepression.

Postwar,peoplefeltlostandadrift—iftheyhadnotlostsomeoneclosetothem,theirneighborsprobablyhad.ItseemedthateveryoneinEuropehadbeentouchedinsomewaybythewar,anditbecamehardforanyonetobelieveinthegeneralgoodnessofmankind.Akindofinnocencethathadexistedpriortothewarseemedforeverlost,andnooneknewwhattoputinitsplace.PaulValéry(1871–1945)spokeformanypeopleofhistimewhenhedescribedhisinterpretationofwhat



hadhappenedtosocietyasthewarconcluded.Writingatthebeginningofthedecadefollowingthewar,hebelievedthathispeershadcomenottoacrossroads,buttowhatseemedliketheendoftheroad.Valéryfamouslycomparedthewarthathadjustpassedtoanaturaldisaster,likeatempest,writingthateventhoughthedisasterwasover,peoplekeptwalkingaroundandworryingthatithadbarelystarted.Valéryworriedthatpeoplehadbecomepsychologicallydisabledbytheeventsofthewar,andhedidnotknowhowanyonewouldbeabletorecoverfromit.Quitefrankly,Valérydidnotreallyunderstandhowanyreasonablepersoncouldcopewithallthereverberatingeffectsofthewar,whichhadalteredsomanythingsabouttheworld.Severalcountrieshadnearlybankruptedthemselvestryingtopayforthewar,whileothershadlostandgainedentiregoverningregimes.Civilizationsseemedcompletelyturnedontheirheads.Nothingremainedasithadbeen.

Noareaoflifeintheyearsfollowing1918seemedsafefromthisworryaboutthelossofrationalityandthepotentiallackofhumandecency.Inadditiontopro-fessionalswhostudiedthemindandhowitworks,suchasscientists,philosophers,writers,andpsychologists,othergreatintellectualsofthetwentiethcenturywouldalsohavetoadjusttothisnewworldview.Peoplewhohadreliedonreasonandorderwouldhavetofindanewwaytomakesenseofexternalchaosanddespair.

New Methods of Doing BattleThechaosanddespairsomanyfeltcameinlargepartfromwitnessingthedestructionthataroseasaresultofnewkindsofweaponrythatmadekillingonamassscaleeasierthananythinganyonehadseenbefore.Inmanyways,thedestructionandhighcasualtyratesofWorldWarIweretheresultofmilitarytechnologythathadoutpacedmilitarytactics.WhenWorldWarIdawned,themeninchargeoftheopposingarmieshadbeentrainedinthestrategiesandtacticsoftheNapoleonicWars.Atthattime,armiesfollowedtwomainstrategies:one,swiftlychangingcourseandpositiontoevadetheenemy;two,sendingtremen-dousnumbersoffootsoldierstoattacktheenemyandattemptingtodefeattheothersidewithsheernumbers.

Eventhougharmieshadbegunusingmoreadvancedarmaments,suchasmachinegunsandlong-rangeartillery,andhadstartedtouseaerialequipmentsuchasplanesforthefirsttime,inWorldWarIbothsidesbelievedthattheycouldsimplyaddtheseelementstotheircurrenttheoriesofwarfare.Theydidnotrealizethattheymighthavetoalterthetheoriesandstrategiesthemselves.Officersinchargeonbothsidesbelievedtheycouldusealltheirnewweaponsinfullforceuponeachotheraccordingtotheirusualpractices,bytargettingenemiesandwip-ingthemoutwithsheerforce.Thenewweaponryactuallyworkedbetter,however,whenuseddefensively,ratherthanaspartofanattack.WorldWarIbecameadefensivewar,wherewaveafterwaveofattackingarmiesbrokeapartunderheavyartilleryfire,rapidmachine-gunbarrages,andpoisongas.Ittooknearly10millionEuropeans’livesformilitaryleaderstorealizethatindustrializationhadchangedthefaceofwarfareforever.

AsbattlesragedinFranceandBelgiumduringWorldWarI,theAlliesandtheGermansduginalongthefront,buildingheavilyfortifiedtrenchesasthefighting



becameastalemate.Tofurtherprotecttheirtrenchlines,soldiersonbothsidessetupprotectiveguardsaroundthetrenches,withgunsandbarbedwire.Therewouldbealargespacebetweenthetrenchesofeithersidethatpeoplecommonlyreferredtoas“no-man’s land.”No-man’slandwouldbeanempty,bleaktractwithnoth-inguponitbutthefallenbodiesofsoldiersfrombothsides.

Asthestalematedraggedon,boththeAlliesandtheCentralPowersbecamedesperatetobreakthroughtheotherside’sdefensivepositions.Inbattleafterbattle,hundredsofthousandswoulddietolayclaimtojustafewmilesofter-ritorythatsimplynarrowed,orwidened,thetractsofno-man’sland.Eachsidewouldpropelbombsandexplosivesintotheother’strenches,hopingtoweakentheotherside.Then,inagreatsurge,thousandsoffootsoldierswouldbesenttotrytomakeitallthewayovertothetrenchesontheotherside,whichbecameknownasgoing“over the top.”Soldiersgoingoverthetophadtomakeitthroughno-man’sland,butastheyranacrossthebarren,smokinglandscapetheybecamemovingtargets.Itwasadeadly,hopelesspractice,anditcreatedaghastlydeathtoll.

Asthedeathtollmounted,thefruitlessnessofthebattlesseemedmoreandmoreevident.Later,manypeoplewouldviewthiswayofdoingbattleasatragicsymboloftheentirewar.Itseemedasthoughbothsideswerehappytohurlinnocentlivesatalargerconflictwithnothoughtfortheindividualvictims.Manyfeltasthoughtheircherishedlovedoneshadperishedinvain.

ThemilitaryofficialsinvolvedinWorldWarIintroducednewkindsofland,air,andseavehiclesinbattle.Ontheground,tankswereusedforthefirsttime,althoughnotinnumbersthatmadeitpracticaltolaunchlarge-scaleassaultswiththearmoredvehicles.Soldiersonthegroundalsohadtofearattacksfromtheair,whichcamefromairplanesandfromzeppelins.Theseaircraftdroppedbombsonstrategicareas.Finally,thenavalfleetssoexperiencedinacertainkindofhighseasbattlenowhadtocontendwithsubmarinesorU-boats,whichcouldattackstealthilyandwereverydifficulttoprepareagainst.Usingothernewmilitarytechnologies,soldiersprotectedtheirtrencheswithbarbedwire.Theyusedflamethrowersandhandgrenadestoattackeachotheroverno-man’sland,aswellasunleashinghigh-poweredartilleryandpoisongasontheirenemies.Allthesenewweaponsmeantfewerpeoplecouldkillmorepeopleatatimefromagreaterdistancethaneverbefore.

effects of War on the Home frontWorldWarIaffectedpeoplethroughoutEuropeand,eventually,acrosstheglobe.Whilethemajorityofpeoplewhodiedinthewarenlistedorsigneduptopartici-pateinfighting,eachcountry’sciviliansalsocontributedtothewareffort.EverycountrythatparticipatedinWorldWarIhadtoputallofitspeopletoworkonthewareffort,andeachcountryalsohadtocommitallofitsnaturalresourcestofuelingthewareffort.Bothtookatremendoustolloneachcountrybythetimethewarhadended.EventhoughtheIndustrialRevolutionhadspedupmanufacturingandproduction,andeventhoughthearmiesfightinginthewarhadaccesstomoreinnovativeweaponrythaneverbefore,thewargobbledup

no-man’s land contested area between opposing sides’ trenches that does not belong to either side

over the top act of attempting to cross over no-man’s land and make it to the other, opposing side’s trench

2SeLf-cHecK

How many soldiers from

the European continent

perished in World War I?

1SeLf-cHecK

Who summed up the

disappointed feelings of

a generation after World

War I, and how did he

describe them?



vastresources.Intheyearsfollowingthewar,asaresult,dissatisfiedindividualswouldblametheirgovernmentsforignoringtheirneedsandcreatingcondi-tionsthatleftmillionsofpeoplestarvingandhomeless. Incountriesthathadpreviouslyallowedfree-marketcompetition,smallbusinessownersandlaborersfoundthemselvesworkingtogetherfortheircountry’scommongoodtoproduceenoughweaponsandotherkeyitems.Inmanycases,therulingbureaucracyineachcountrysteppedintothefreemarketanddeclaredthattheeconomywouldberunbythestate,notbythepeople.

Eventhoughtheyfoughtondifferentsides,countrieslikeGermanyandBritainapproachedtheproblemofproducingenoughwarmaterialinasimilarway.BothGermanyandBritaincreatednewgovernmentpositionstooverseemanufacturinginwartime.WalterRathenau(1867–1922),abusinessman,tookupthispostinGermany’sWar Ministry.Fromthisvantagepoint,hehelpedtheGermangovernmentmanageitsresourcesandavoidrunningoutofany.Similarly,inBritainDavidLloydGeorgebecameministerofmunitionsin1915.Bytheendofthewar,LloydGeorgewouldbeBritain’sprimeminister,butbeforethenhehadtoworktomakesureBritainhadenoughbombcasingsforallofitsexplosives.

Meanwhile,eachcountryinWorldWarIhadtocomeupwiththefundstowagewar.Evennationsthatwererelativelywelloffpriortothewarwouldseefundsdisappearasnationaltreasuriesstruggledtokeepupwiththecostsofsuchanundertaking.Eachcountryonlyhadlimitedoptionswhenitcametotryingtosolvethisproblem.Perhapstheleastpalatablechoice,thestatecouldprintmoremoney,butthatmadethenationalcurrencyworthless.Second,thestatecouldincreasetaxesonitscitizens,whichwouldbringinmoneybutmightangerthepopulace,whowereneededforthewareffort.Initially,manystatesemployedthistactic.Yettheycouldnotkeepincreasingtaxationwhencitizenshadconsistentlybeenearninglessandgivingupmorewithoutincit-inganuprisingorevenrevolution.Third,astatecouldreachouttoanothercountryandarrangeforaloan.DuringWorldWarI,theUnitedStatesloanedsubstantialsumstotwoofitsallies,BritainandFrance.Theloanswouldcomedueafterthewarhadconcluded.

Thecountriesinvolvedinthewardidhaveonefinaloptionforraisingmoneywithintheirownborderswithoutresortingtotheabovethreetactics:sellingwar bonds.Eachstateurgeditsownpeopletoputtheirmoneyandsavingsinwarbonds.Ineffect,thismeantthegovernmentscouldborrowmoneyfromtheirowncitizenswhilepromisingtopayitbacklater.Peoplewhodidnotbuywarbondsmightruntheriskofbeinglabeleddisloyaltotheirownnation.

Whenthesemethodsofraisingrevenueareincluded,WorldWarIcamewithaheftypricetagindeed:morethan$350billion.Tomakemattersworse,eachcountryhadprintedmoremoneyforitselfduringthewar.Onaworldwidescale,thismeantthevalueofmoneyhaddecreased,causingpriceincreasesonmostgoods.Becauseofthissituation,itwouldtakeevenlongerforthecountriesthathadfoughtinWorldWarItoreclaimtheirfinanciallossesinthedecadesthatfollowed.

War Ministry govern-ment office in Germany created to deal specifi-cally with war

war bonds type of government-sanctioned investment where citi-zens would deposit their money and the govern-ment would eventually pay it back



Unhappiness at Home Countriesinvolvedinthewaralsohadtoconcentratetheirattentionontheirhomefrontsandtakecareoftheirownpeople.Politicalenemiesathometriedtotakeadvantageofthewartofurthertheirobjectives.OneinstancecanbeseeninIreland’srelationshiptotherestofBritainduringthewar.Priortothewar,theIrishhadbeenagitatingforgreaterindependencefromtherestofBritain.WorldWarIovershadowedthenegotiationsforIrishautonomyandleftIrishnationalistsdissatisfied.

GermanysawthispotentialcrackinBritain’sunitedfrontandreachedouttodisgruntledIrishcitizens.GermanyassistedIrelandbysupplyingweaponsandasmallexpeditionaryforceduringthe1916EasterRising.Duringthatevent,agroupofIrishcitizensrevoltedagainsttheBritishgovernment.IttooksubstantialtimeandenergyonthepartofBritaintodealwiththisdomesticconflict—timeandenergythatcouldhavebeenspentontheWesternFront.Ultimately,evenwithGermany’shelp,Irelanddidnotachieveindependenceatthattime.TheproblemofIrishautonomywouldriseagainafterthewar,however.

BritainhadmoreluckmeddlingwithGermany’sally,Austria-Hungary.Austria-Hungaryheldalargeempirethatencompassedmanyindividualeth-nicgroups,includingCzechsandPoles.BritainandtheotherAlliessubtlypressedmembersoftheseindividualethnicgroupstoagitatefortheirownautonomy.BritaintargetedGermany’sotherallies,too,includingtheOttomanEmpire.There,Britainemployedasimilartactictotheonesithasusedinthe

This image shows the destruction to a post office in Dublin during Ireland’s fight with England for home rule.



Austro-HungarianEmpire—dividingcitizensinternallyaccordingtoethnicpro-files.Themanknownas“LawrenceofArabia,”ColonelT.E.Lawrence,workedthroughouttheOttomanregiontogettheArabpeopleinterestedinseparatingfromtheempireandsettinguptheirownnation-state.Thisresultedinaslow,simmeringriseinunhappinessamongpeoplelivingunderOttomanrule.SimilartoGermany’sactionsinIreland,Britain’sactionsintheAustro-HungarianandOttomanempiresdidnotmakethedifferencebetweenagloriousvictoryandanignominiousdefeatinWorldWarI,buttheylaidthefoundationforfurtherturmoilintheyearstocome.

Otherproblemsemergedonthedomesticfronts.Inthesecondhalfofthenineteenthcentury,followingtheIndustrialRevolution,thegovernmentsinEuropehadslowlyshiftedfromrepresentingtheveryfewelitetoincludingmoreandmoreofthecitizenswholivedinthosecountries.BythetimeWorldWarIbegan,commonershadmorerightsandprivilegesthantheyeverhad,althoughnosituationwasperfect:womendidnotyethavetherighttovoteinBritain,forexample.Yetoncethewarstarted,peoplehadtopauseintheirindividualquestsforself-bettermentandputtheirenergyintotheircountries’warefforts.

Theotherwaypeoplehelpedtheircountrieswasbyparticipatinginandacceptingtherationingoffoodandgoods,givinguptheirownwantsandneedsforthegreaterpurposeofthewar.Whileallcountriesparticipatedinrationing,Germanywasmostaffectedbyit.Halfwaythroughthewar,in1916,Germanyhadbasicallybecomeastateundercontrolofthemilitary.KaiserWilliamIInolongerruledinthetruestsenseoftheword.Instead,twomenjoinedtogethertorunthecountrylikealargerversionoftheGermanarmy.Thesemen,ErichLudendorff(1865–1937)andPaulvonHindenburg(1847–1934),askedagreatdealoftheircitizens.Together,LudendorffandHindenburgmanagedasysteminwhicheachcitizenreceivedacertainamountoffood,aration,eachday.Thesemeasurements,detailedinsmalldocumentscalledrationbooks,becamesospecificthattheywouldlisthowmuchapersoncouldeatintermsofindividualcalories.Overtime,conformingtotheseseriousrestrictionsmeantthatmanyGermanssufferedfrommalnutritionand,throughthecumu-lativeyearsofthewar,didnotgetenoughtoeat.Sometimescitizenswouldsupplementtheirfoodbyaddinginedibleobjects,likeaddingsawdusttotheirbreaddough.

Rights Whilemanyindividualshadtogiveuptheirquestsformorerightsandprivilegeswhenthewarbegan,WorldWarIactuallyadvancedwomen’srightsinanumberofways.Duringthiswar,youngmendidnearlyallofthefightingatthefront,whichmeantthatfamiliesonthehomefrontlackedtheyoung,able-bodiedmenwhohadperformedmanyofthejobsinthevillagesandcitiesofEurope.Beforethewar,womenhadlargelybeenexpectedtostayhome,raisechildren,andperformotherdomesticduties.However,withthemengone,thefactoriesandbusinessesneededworkerssogoodscouldbeproducedandthewarcouldcontinue.Manywomensteppedintotakeontheseroles.

rationing limited distribution of food, clothing, and other goods according to gov-ernment regulations



Thisadvanceinopportunityforwomenalsocamewithaprice.ManyBritishwomentookjobsinmunitionsfactories,makingshellcasingsandexplosives.Yetthefactoryownersandleadersdidnottakeenoughcareintrainingandprotectingthesewomenworkingaroundsuchdangerousobjects.Sadly,manywomendiedinthefactoriesasaresultofaccidentsanddangerousconditions.Otherwomensufferedlong-termpoorhealthasaresultofexposuretounsafechemicals.Femalefactoryworkersbecameknownasthe“women with yellow hands,”becausetheiryellowhandsweresymptomsofpoisoningthatresultedfromworkingwithTNTatthefactories.TheirinadvertentsacrificeshelpedtheBritishgovernmentandpeoplerealizetheimportantpositionwomenhadtakenupintheworkforceandtherightstheyshouldenjoy.Becauseoftheirlosses,thesewomenwouldserveasinspirationforothersintheyearsafterthewar—notjustinBritain,throughouttheworld.Theywouldcontributetowomeneventuallywinningtherighttoparticipateinthevotingprocess.

Inmostcountries,womendidnotserveinthearmedforcesincombat.However,Russiamadeanexceptionforthem.Followingtheoverthrowofthetsar,theRussianProvisionalGovernmentorganizedaunitcalledtheWomen’sBattalionofDeath.Thisbattalionfoughtbothonenemylinesandhometerritory.Itwasnotagrouporganizedforshoworpropaganda.Apartfromthisgroup,though,women’ssacrificesduringthewarremainedprimarilyonthedomesticfront.

Womendidnotstandaloneintermsofbenefitingfromwartimeactivity.Highlytrainedlaborersalsobenefitedfromwartimeconditions,whichenabledpeoplewithtalent,ability,anddeterminationtothrive.Bytheendofthewar,

women with yellow hands women who worked at the munitions factories in Britain and were poisoned by TNT

This shell factory produced armaments for World War I.



trainedlaborershadbeenabletoachievemorerightsfortheirunionsandincreasetheamountofmoneytheywerepaid.Evenso,laborersandthestatedidnotalwaysgetalong.Sometimesthelaborerswouldgoonstrike.Usuallythesestrikeswouldbeansweredbytemporarycompromisesonthepartofthegovernment,butthestatewouldalsousuallyfollowthosecompromiseswithpromisesofmuchharshertreatmentifthelaborersdidnotreturntowork.Thiskindofnegotiatingtacticwasnotgoodforthemoraleofworkers.Whiletheymanagedtokeepmanufacturinglevelshighthroughthewar’sendin1918,afterthatmanyworkersnolongerfeltcompelledtoswallowtheirprideorabandontheirrightsinthenameofthewar.Instead,theystoodupforthemselvesinfullforce.Asaresult,severalsmallgoverningregimesfellwhentheylostthesupportoftheworkingclasses.

Suffering Asinmanyotherwars,nationsoftenputindividual,internalrightsonholdintheirquesttoachievevictory.Certainly,nationsfocusedonupholdingmoraleandkeepingtheircitizensingoodspirits,inpartsothosesamecitizenswouldbuywarbondsandkeepfundingthewar.Morethanever,though,governmentsworriedaboutkeepingtheircitizensloyal.Wartime,asaspecial,extenuatingcircumstance,offeredgovernmentsadditionalwaysofcontrollingtheirpeopleascanbeseeninoneofthemostliberaloftheWesterncountries,Britain.Almostassoonasthewarstarted,Britain’sgovernmentsetupanewlawcalledtheDefenseoftheRealmAct,orDORAforshort.ItachievedthreemaingoalsfortheBritishgovernment.First,ithelpedthegovernmentdictateaspectsoftheBritishlife.Second,itenabledthegovernmenttopracticepress censorshipandmakesurethattheonlystoriesbeingtoldinthenewsweretheonesthatreflectedwellonBritain.Third,propertywasneededforthewareffort.Clearly,DORAaffordedBritain’sgovernmenttremendousrightsoveritspeople.

Meanwhile,asinanywartimescenario,mostnationscreatedstrongerpenaltiestoprotectthemselvesfromforeignagentsandsaboteurs.EventheUnitedStates,anoceanawayfromthewarzone,passedlawsthatlimitedcivillibertiesinexchangefortheperceptionofgreatersecurity.Peoplewhospokeoutagainstthewarorthecountry’spoliticalleadersfacedtheprospectofjail.Onoccasion,somecountries,likeGermany,setupdoubleagentstoobservepotentialprotestersorenemiesofthestate,andreportback.

Tohelpmaintainthemoraleofcitizenpopulations,thenationalgovernmentswhowagedWorldWarImadewideuseofpropaganda.PropagandahadtwomainfunctionsduringtheGreatWar.Governmentsusedpropagandatokeeppeopleinterestedinthewareffort,supportiveoftheirnations,andcommittedtotheircause.Thiskindofpropagandareliedonimagesorfiguresthatsignifiedpositiveprideinone’snationandurgedpeopletoactontheirownprideintheirnation.Nationsalsousedpropagandatodehumanizetheiropponents,describingpeopleandsoldiersfromtheothersideascruelmonstersouttodestroytheworld.Thiskindofnegativepropagandahaditsrootsinthewaynationalism

3SeLf-cHecK

What happened to

the women with

yellow hands?

press censorship government control over what can and cannot appear in the news and media

This World War I poster encourages citizens to enlist in the military cause.



haddevelopedoverthe50yearsleadinguptothetwentiethcentury.Atitsmosteffective,propagandachanneledexistingprejudiceintoanagendaforthestate.

Occasionallythiskindofpropagandaandprejudicialpracticehadterribleconsequences,includingmassmurderandevengenocide.In1915,astheOttomanEmpirebattledRussia,alargegroupofChristiansofArmenianheritagebecamethetargetofTurkishgenocide.TheOttomansworriedthattheArmenianshadcloselinkstotheRussiansandmightfeelcompelledtohelpthemoverthrowtheOttomanrulers.Toprecludeanysuchevent,theOttomanEmpireorderedamassattackontheArmenianpopulationwithinitsborders.HundredsofthousandsofArmenianswereforciblyremovedfromtheirhomesandsenttolaborcamps.Manyotherswerekilledoutright,includingmanycommunityleaders.Today,historiansestimatethatanywherefrom1to1.5millionArmeniansdiedintheArmenianMassacre.

The Last Year of the WarForthreelongyearsofwar,despiteimmensebattlesandunprecedenteddestruction,thestalematecontinuedontheWesternFront.Neithersidehadbrokenthrough,yetmillionsofpeoplehaddied.By1918,boththeAlliesandtheCentralPowershadgrownsomewhatdesperate.Thus,inMarch,GermanyattemptedanotherfocusedattackagainsttheAlliedlinesinFrance.Withthislastadvance,Germanyhopedtofinallyemergevictorious,whateverthecost.Instead,Germany’sarmyfounditselfconfrontedbyaweakenedFrencharmy,buttheFrenchnowhadsignificantsupportintheformofBritishandAmericantroops.TheUnitedStateshadjoinedthewarnearlyayearearlier,andby1918over2millionAmericansoldiers,affec-tionatelyknownas“doughboys,”hadjoinedtheFrenchandBritishinthetrenchesofFrance.TheAmericanswereledbyGeneralJohnJ.Pershing(1860–1948),oftencalled“BlackJack.”OnemonthaftertheGermanslaunchedtheirassault,theystruggledtofendoffacohesiveAlliedforceunderthecommandofaFrenchfieldmarshalnamedFerdinandFoch(1851–1929).Adesperatebattleensued.

Formonthsthebattleraged,withneithersideabletoexploitanadvantage.Bymidsummer,however,Germanybegantofallback.TheunifiedAlliedforcesstruckbackagainsttheGermanarmyandslowly,butfirmly,begantopushitback.InAugust,theGermanarmyreceivedaheavyblow,incurringsignificantlossesatAmienswhenattackedbytanksmannedbyBritishsoldiers,whichfinallyprovidedtheabilitytobreakthroughthetrenchlines.TheGermanswerepushedbacksomesevenmilesinasingledayoffighting,andmorethan15,000GermansoldierssurrenderedtotheadvancingAllies.Theday,August8,becameknownastheBlackDayoftheGermanArmy.

AftertheBlackDay,theCentralPowers’defeatseemedimminent.ThefirstcountrytosurrendertotheAllies,Bulgaria,didsoonthelastdayofSeptember 1918.Soon,Bulgaria’sformeralliesfolloweditinadmittingdefeatandsubmittingtotheAllies.OnemonthafterBulgariaadmitteddefeat,Turkeyfollowed,signingapeacetreatyonOctober3.Justfourdayslater,Austria-HungarycededvictorytotheAllies.Thus,onlyGermanyremainedatwaragainsttheAllies,untilNovember11,whenGermanyagreedtoanarmisticetoendhostilitieswiththeAllies.TheAllieshadwonWorldWarI.Yetinasense,they,too,hadlost,sincetheysharedinthe

genocide mass murder of a group of people based on the character-istics of that group, such as race or religion



hugenumbersofkilledormaimedindividualsthewarhadcaused.Alltold,morethan10millionpeoplediedduringthecourseofWorldWarI.Twiceasmanymoresufferedgraveinjuries.Thesenumbersincludedbothpeopleofficiallyfightingonthefrontsandinnocentbystanders.

WhilethewarendedinNovember,negotiationsconcerningpeacedidnotfullybeginuntilJanuary1919,whenrepresentativesfromaroundtheworldgatheredinParistoconferabouthowtoshapeglobalpeaceintheyearstofollow.Germany,forbiddenfromcontributingtothenegotiations,hadnovoiceinwhatfollowed.Russia,nowundercontroloftheBolsheviks,didnotparticipateinthepeaceconfer-enceeither.Approximately32othercountriesdidparticipate,however,butonlyfourreallymattered.TherepresentativesfromeachofthesecountriescametobecalledtheCouncilofFour,andtogethertheywieldedtremendouspower.U.S.presidentWoodrowWilson(1856–1924),FrenchprimeministerGeorgesClemenceau,BritishprimeministerDavidLloydGeorge,andItalianprimeministerVittorioOrlando(1860–1952)madeupthiscouncil.

Wilsonhopedtoguidethecounciltoadoptapeaceplanthatincludedhisblueprintforanewworldorderinwhichsuchterrificwarcouldneveragainoccur.HisplanbecameknownastheFourteenPointsforthedifferentpolicychangesWilsonadvocated.Theseincludedtheprotectionofeachcountry’saccesstothehighseas,morefreemarketsthroughouttheworld,fewerweaponsheldbyeachcountry,andashared,honestinterchangeofinternationalnegotiations.The

The Council of Four who contributed to the Treaty of Versailles from left: British prime minister Lloyd George, Italian prime minister Orlando, French prime minister Clemenceau, and U.S. president Wilson



FourteenPointsalsoproposedautonomyfordifferentethnicgroupscurrentlysubjecttoimperialauthorities.Thefinalpointcalledfortheestablishmentofanorganizationofcountries,theLeagueofNations.WilsonenvisionedtheLeagueofNationsasakindofglobalmediatorthatcouldintercedeininternationaldis-agreementsandpreventanotherglobalconflictoftheGreatWar’smagnitude.ThispointmatteredmuchmoretoWilsonthanitdidtotheleadersofBritain,France,orItaly.Itmeantpotentialtroubleforinterpretingpeaceonaninternationalscale.

Indeed,therepresentativesofBritainandFrancehadotherideas.FrancehadsufferedbrutallyinitsstruggleagainsttheGermanarmy,andFrance’sClemenceauwantedtoensurethatwouldneverhappenagain.HewantedtoweakenGermanysignificantly,sothattherewouldnotevenbeaquestionofGermanyrisinguptothreatenFrance.ClemenceaublamedGermanyforthedamagesFrancehadincurredasaresultofthewarandwantedGermanytopaymassivereparations.HewantedGermanytofinancetherebuildingofFrance.Theothertwomembersofthecouncilhadtheirownagendas,too.Britain’sLloydGeorgesoughtassur-ancesthatBritainhadaclearplayingfieldinternationallyandcouldgetbacktobalancingitsempire,whichhadbeguntoshrinkintheyearssince1901.Todoso,Britainrequiredacontinentalbalanceofpower.Italy’sOrlandohopedtoreclaimevenmorelandforItalythaneverbefore,perhapstomakeupforthecountry’sinabilitytogainmorecoloniesduringthelargepushofimperialismduringthelatenineteenthcentury.

Peace and the Treaty of VersaillesThus,thenegotiatorswhoassembledatthepeaceconferenceinPariscametogetherasabiasedgroupofindividuals,eachwithhisownagenda.Bythetimeitwascomplete,theTreatyofVersailleshadbecomeoneofthemostimportantnegotiatedaccordsinEuropeanhistory.Itwouldstronglyinfluenceimmediateeventsinthedecadesthatfollowed,aswellasthewayscountriesbehavedtowardeachotherforthenext80years.Initsimportanceandimpact,theTreatyofVersaillesissimilartoanagreementofahundredyearsearlier:theCongressofVienna.BothViennaandVersaillesmadelargechangestoglobalsafety,andbothhadlong-lastingeffects.

Thetreatyaddressedthequestionoflandinthreeseparateregions.TheformerAlliesdisagreedseverelyoverthefirstregionoflandinquestion,theRhineland,anareainwesternGermanyneartheborderwithFrance.Clemenceauworriedabouthisnationsharinganationalboundarywithitsformerenemyandwantedtocreateabuffer statebetweenthetwocountriesintheRhineland.Todoso,theRhinelandwouldhavetobecutawayfromGermanyandmadeintoitsownstate.AlthoughFrancefoughthardforthispoint,theUnitedStatesstronglyopposedit.AsinhisFourteenPoints,Wilsonclungtonationalself-determinationandarguedthatGermancitizensshouldbeallowedtoremainso.Eventually,thenego-tiatorsarrivedatamiddleground.TheRhinelandwouldbecomedemilitarizedforgood.GermancitizensoftheRhinelandwouldremainpartoftheGermanstate,butFrancewouldnothavetofearamilitaryinvasionfromtheeast.

IntheFranco-PrussianWarnearly50yearsearlier,FrancehadlostcontrolofAlsace-Lorraine.WiththeTreatyofVersailles,Francereclaimedtheregion.

4SeLf-cHecK

Which Central Power

ceded victory to the

Allies first?

buffer state neutral region along the bound-ary of two separate nations, to protect each from the other

demilitarized removal of the military



Thus,inadditiontolosingtherighttostationtroopsintheRhineland,GermanyhadlostanotherimportantstripofterritoryalongtheboundaryitsharedwithFrance.FrancealsopenalizedGermanythroughitstreatmentoftheregionoftheSaar.TheSaarwasthearegionfullofadesirablenaturalresource,coal.Underthetermsofthetreaty,theLeagueofNationswouldtakeovertheSaarfor15yearswithFrancecontrollingthecoalindustry.ThispointbecameaddedtothetreatytocompensateforthelossesincoalFrancehadincurredduringthewar.ThetreatydictatedthatthepeopleoftheSaarwouldbeabletopar-ticipateinaplebiscitetoremaininGermanyortojoinwithFranceafterthe15yearshadpassed.

EachelementofthetreatyerodedGermany’sempirealittlebitmore,asotherpointscarvedofftinyregionsandreassignedthemtothenationsofDenmarkandBelgium.Thethirdregionaffectedbythetreaty,Poland,madeGermany’sempireevensmaller.WiththeTreatyofVersailles,Polandbecameanationonceagainafterhavingbeenabsorbedintoothercountries’empiresforsolong.Totheeast,aportionofwhathadformerlybeenGermanywasgiventoPoland,includingasectioncalledthePolishCorridor.ThePolishCorridorservedtwofunctions:first,itprovidedPolandwiththeabilitytoaccesstheBalticSea,andsecond,itservedasaboundarybetweenGermanyandEastPrussia.WithinthePolishCorridor,acitynamedDanzigalsobecameseparatedfromGermanyasacomponentofthetreaty.DanzighadanimportantharborintheBalticSea.EventhoughitwasinthePolishCorridor,thepeoplewholivedtherewereprimarilyGerman.TheAlliesfelttheyhadnochoiceinassigningDanzigtoPoland.

InadditiontoforcingGermanytogiveupsomuchterritory,theTreatyofVersaillesalsohumiliatedthedefeatedcountrybysettingupaseriesofmilitaryrestrictions.Germany’sformerlylargearmy,alreadydepletedbydeathsinthewar,becamelimitedtoonly100,000soldiers.Germany’snavywasdrasticallylimitedundertermsofthetreaty.ItwouldbepermittedonlytoprotectGermany’scoastandonlytoactuponthehighseas.Germanylostallitssubmarines.Itlostanyaerialdefenseoroffense,anditssoldierswerenotpermittedtousetanks.

Article231ofthetreatyplacedalltheblameforWorldWarIonGermanyandtherestoftheCentralPowers.Itisoftencalledthe“warguiltclause.”BecausealltheblamefellonGermany,itthuswasresponsibleforreparations.GermanywasforcedtopaysubstantialamountsofmoneytotheAllies,particularlyFrance.Despitetheseharshandhumiliatingconditions,Germany’srepresentativeagreedtoandsignedthepeaceagreement.SinceGermanyhadnotbeenpermittedarepresentativeatthenegotiationsforthetreaty,thefirsttimetheGermansreallysawitcameonJune28,1919,whenGermanrepresentativesreceivedpermissiontotraveltoParisandformallyagreetothetreaty.Fightinghadendedsixmonthsearlier,butonlywiththesigningoftheTreatyofVersaillesdidWorldWarItrulycometoaclose.

Other Ramifications of the TreatySwiftly,theTreatyofVersaillesalsoactedtoevisceratetheimperialstatesoftheAllies’opponents,byzeroinginonGermanyandtheCentralPowers’overseas

5SeLf-cHecK

Which two important

Allies disagreed over the

fate of the Rhineland,

and why?



coloniesinbothAsiaandAfrica.Thetreatydispersedthecoloniesthroughanewprogramcalledthemandate system.Underthesystem,coloniesessentiallystillbelongedtoothercountriesasmandates,whiletheLeagueofNationswouldoverseetheprocessofcolonialadministration.Ideally,thenegotiatorsattheTreatyofVersaillesviewedthemandatesystemasonethatwouldeventuallygiveautonomytothenativepeopleslivingintheformercolonies.ButevenundertheLeagueofNations’watch,powerfulEuropeancountriessimplytookoverthecoloniesassignedtothemthroughthemandatesystem.

Priortothewar,GermanyhadhadmanycoloniesontheAfricancontinent.Yetunderthemandatesystem,theGermancoloniesweresplitupbetweenFrance,Britain,andtheUnionofSouthAfrica.GermanyhadalsoheldislandterritoriesthroughoutthePacificOcean.JapansweptupGermany’sholdingsinthenorth,whileNewZealandandAustraliatookovertheonesinthesouth.Themandatesystemalsoappliedtootherpeacetreaties,includingtheAugust1920TreatyofSèvres.Accordingtothetermsofthistreaty,TurkeylosttheregionsithadheldarounditintheMiddleEast:Palestine,Iraq,andTransjordan,whichalltransferredtoBritain;andLebanonandSyria,whichtransferredtoFrance.

WhileFrance’sClemenceaucaredmostaboutensuringGermanywouldbecometooweaktobeaneffectiveenemythroughtheTreatyofVersailles,theUnitedStates’WilsonremainedevenmoreinterestedinsettinguptheLeagueofNations.WilsonhadoriginallyproposedasystemsimilartotheLeagueofNationsinhisFourteenPoints.In1919,theideabecameaddedtotheTreatyofVersailles.ThebasicideaoftheLeagueofNationswasthatthecountriesoftheworldwouldgathertogetherinapowerfulorganizationthatcouldinterveneinglobalconflicts.Theorganizationwouldtrytomediatetheconflictsinanonviolentway.

Wilson’splansfortheleaguebecamesetdownofficiallyintheCovenantoftheLeagueofNations.Accordingtothecovenant,allthecountriesthathadjoinedtheleaguewouldhaveenvoysparticipateinalargerAssembly,Council,andSecretariat.TheSecretariatwouldorganizethesmalldetailsfortheleague,theCouncilwouldbeasmallgroupoflong-termenvoysconnectedtothemostauthoritativenationsandotherelectedenvoys,andtheAssemblywouldincludeenvoysfromeverycountryintheleague.ThecovenantdictatedthatallmembersoftheLeagueofNationswouldworkoutofaneutralterritoryinSwitzerland.APermanentCourtofInternationalJustice,alsoknownbeasthePCIJortheWorldCourt,wouldlegallyupholdtheleague.TheWorldCourtwouldhaveitsownbylaws,separatefromthecovenant,andwouldworkoutofanareaseparatefromtheLeagueofNations.

Wilsontriedtoensurethattheleaguestoodasanimportant,vitalcomponentofallthepeacetreatiescreatedinParisatthepeaceconferencein1919.Somewhatironically,then,theUnitedStatesitselfdidnoteverbecomeamemberoftheleagueafterotherEuropeancountrieshadagreedtoit.DespiteWilson’sfiercecampaigningforit,theU.S.SenatedislikedtheTreatyofVersaillesasawholeanddidnotratifyit.Asaresult,eventhoughWilsonhadsignedthetreatyastherepresentativeoftheUnitedStates,theUnitedStatesneverformallyacceptedthetermsofthetreaty—or,inturn,joinedtheLeagueofNations.

mandate system system by which former colonies were parceled out to new nations, overseen by the League of Nations; basically a form of appropriation



Italy’sOrlandoattendedthepeaceconferencewiththeprimarygoalofgain-ingmorelandforItaly.Innegotiations,ItalyappearedtobetargetinglandthathadpreviouslybelongedtotheAustro-HungarianEmpire.TheAustriandelega-tionpresentattheconferencebecameveryunhappyaboutalltheregionsthatitscountrylosttoItaly,particularlyaregioncalledTrentino,whichhadmanycitizensofGermandescent,andIstria,whichhadtheimportantharborofTrieste.ItalyalsovaluedTriestebecausemostofthepeoplelivingtherewereofItaliandescent.AccordingtoWilson’sideasofnationalself-determination,thepeopleinIstriashouldhavebeenallowedtochooseiftheywantedtojoinItalyoranothernationthathadbeencreatedbythenegotiators,Yugoslavia.TerritorialdisputesbetweenItalyandYugoslaviahelpedcreatetensioninthedecadethatfollowedthecompletionofthetreaty.Italy’squestforevenmoreterritoryelsewherewasthwartedwhentherestofthenegotiatorsdenieditareasonthecontinentsofAsiaandAfrica.

AfterWorldWarI,mapsoftheEuropeancontinenthadtoberedrawntoreflectlargereassignmentsoflandtakenfromthemanyfallenempiresandgiventothenewlyestablishedstates.TheHapsburgEmpirefell.ThegreatnationsofAustriaandHungary,whichhadcontrolledsomuchterritory,becamereducedtotwosmaller,independentnations.Otherpartsoftheformerempireweredividedintotwonewcountries,CzechoslovakiaandYugoslavia.GermanygaveupportionsofitslandtoFrance,Denmark,andBelgiumandtotheformationofPoland,whichalsoabsorbedterritoryformerlyattachedtoHungaryandRussia.TheOttomanEmpirecollapsedaswell,separatingintoPalestine,Iraq,Transjordan,Turkey,andwhatlaterbecameLebanonandSyria.Russia,too,sawwesternregionsofitscountrybecomeseparatedintoEstonia,Latvia,Lithuania,andFinland.Theageofimperialismwasover,andEuropewouldbeforeveraltered.

Extensions• ReadtheTreatyofVersailles.WastheVersaillestreatyafairtreaty?Howdid

theVersaillestreatygeneratearoadmapforthetwentiethcentury?HowdidtheVersaillestreatyplanttheseedsforconflictinthetwentiethcentury?

SummaryAsthewardrewtoanend,peoplebecameconcernedabouttheworlditself,disap-pointedintheeventsofthewarandinhumanity.Peoplebegantogrowhopelessanddisillusionedastheystruggledtoabandontheirprewarbeliefsystems.Theyseemeddevastatedbytheoverwhelminglossesincurredduringthewar,whichweredueinlargeparttonewmeansofwagingwar,likesubmarinesandpoisongas.Participationinthewareffortledtomorerightsforwomenandlaborers,whilegovernmentsexertedmuchmorecontrolthantheyhadinpeacetime.In1917,theUnitedStatesjoinedinthewarandsidedwiththeAlliesinthelastgreatbattlein1918.TheCentralPowersweredefeated.ThearmisticethatendedthefightingwentintoeffectonNovember11,1918.Discussionsconcerningthepeacebeganin1919andresultedintheTreatyofVersailles,whichplacedblameforthewaronGermanyandstronglyinfluencedthefuture.



Looking AheadIntryingtomakesuretheyhadpunishedGermanyhardenoughintheTreatyofVersailles,theAlliesendeduppunishingGermanyseverely.Ultimately,theiractionswouldleadtotheonethingtheyhadtriedtoprevent:abrokenGermanyregroup-ing,risingup,andreemergingasamoreterrifyingopponentthanbefore.WorldWarIwasthemostdevastatingwaranyonehadeverwitnessed.Unfortunately,anevenmorebrutalwarwoulderuptinameretwodecades.

1. Paul Valéry said World War I was like a natural disaster and even though it was over, people had only begun to acknowledge their fear of it.

2. About 10 million

3. Many of them were poisoned and either died or lost their fertility as a result.

4. Bulgaria

5. Clemenceau thought it should belong to France, to keep the French-German boundary neutral. Wilson thought it should remain part of Germany because of national self-determination.

SeLf-cHecK ANSWeRS


Revolutions Begin in Russia

Unit 16, Lesson 11

Keywordsdictated peace

gold standard

legislate by decree

proletarian socialist revolution

redemption dues

soviet

zemstvos

Essential Questions• WhatweretheimmediateeffectsofWorldWarI?

• WhathappenedinRussiabetween1905and1917?

• WhowerethepeopleandpartiesinvolvedintheRussianRevolution?



Set the StageIn the four years of its duration, World War I had fulfilled its name and become truly a global battle. Countries from around the world had participated, their hopes rising and falling as each side attempted to achieve a victory. It was difficult for any country to focus on anything other than the war, so many domestic disputes and internal struggles had been put on hold. Yet in the middle of the war, Russia dropped out of the conflict, plagued by problems within its own borders. Russians did not have fundamental civil rights, like free speech, and resentment of their autocratic government had grown overwhelming. Russia’s internal discord had become so terrible that it could no longer engage in the massive war that so consumed the rest of Europe. By 1919, when peace began to settle over the rest of the continent, Russia’s troubles would be far from over.

Reverberations of World War IWorldWarIwasthelargest,mostviolentconflicttheworldhadseenuptothatpoint.Thenewmannerofwarfareleftnearlyanentiregenerationoftheconti-nent’sbestandbrightestburiedinunmarkedgraves.Afterthewar’sendin1918,itseemedasthoughtheEuropeansdidnotknowhowtomoveforwardandachievepeaceagain.WorldWarIthreatenedtobringlifeaspeoplehadknownittoahalt.Empireshadtoppled,andeventhenationsthathadmadeitthroughthewaronthewinningsidewereshakenandscattered.

ThroughthenewboundariesdrawnintheTreatyofVersaillesandinternalrebellionsinmanyofthedefeatedcountries,severalformerlypowerfulimperialstatesendeduplosingmuchofthelandtheyhadclaimedduringtheeraofimpe-rialismthatprecededthewar.WhiletheOttomanEmpirehadbeenindeclineforyears,upuntiltheendoftheGreatWarGermanyhadbeenaformidable,powerfulimperialstate.Austria-Hungary,whilesmallerthanGermany,hadbeendevelopinganextensiveseriesofcoloniesuntilthey,too,werelostintheTreatyofVersailles.Meanwhile,RussiahadbeenaformidableempirepriortotheGreatWarbutdroppedoutofthewarbeforeanyofothermajorpowersbecauseofdomesticproblems.Itwouldtakeasignificantamountoftimetofigureoutwhattheworldwouldlooklikewithouttheempiresthatruledforsolong.

ThefirstmajorchangetotheseformerlyimperialregionscamethroughtheTreatyofVersailles,whichdictatedthefoundationofseveralbrand-newnations.InplaceofthefallenimperialfederationsthathadbelongedtoAustria-HungaryandGermany,thetreatydictatedthatmuchofthelandthetwoimperialpowershadabsorbedwouldbereformedintonew,smallercountries.WhileGermanylostsomelandtoitsenemyFrance,itwasalsoforcedtogiveupsomeareastothenewlyformedPoland.PolandalsoabsorbedsomelandthathadbelongedtotheHapsburgEmpire.Austriabecamereducedtoitsown,smallersovereignstatus,whileseveralothernationsformed,includingCzechoslovakiaandYugoslavia.IntheBalticregion,threesmallernationsformedoutofwhathadbeenHapsburg



territory:Estonia,Lithuania,andLatvia.Eachofthesenewcountriesseemedtoosmallonitsowntoposeaseriousinternationalthreat.TheAllieswereusingapolicyofdivisionsonoonecouldbeconquered.Alliedrepresentativesworkedtoestablishmoreliberal,representativegoverningregimesinalloftheseregions.

Despitetheintentionsofthoseparticipatinginthepeaceagreements,theestablishmentofaseriesofnew,smallnationsdidnotfullysolvetheproblemsofashakenEurope.Groupsofpeoplecontinuedtorebel,sometimesviolently.InwhathadsorecentlybeenknownasRussia,anothergoverningregimeroseinthenewSovietUnion.Thisregime,unlikethemonarchythathadgovernedRussiasolong,practicedaninclusiverulethatinvolvedallthecitizensofitscountry.

Literal and Metaphorical costsInthemeantime,asthemapsofEuropewereredrawnoncemore,thepeoplewholivedonthecontinentstruggledtocometotermswiththepricetheyhadpaidtowageWorldWarI.Duetovariouscircumstancesofthewar,scholarstodayarenotexactlysurehowmanypeopleperishedasaresultoftheconflict,bothdirectlyandindirectly.Manysoldierswholivedthroughthewarhadbeenpermanentlydisfigured.Manysufferedfrompost-traumaticstressdisorder.MillionsofpeopleinEuropegrievedforthefriendstheyhadlostorthementheyhadkilled,andsomecontinuedtosufferfromtheeffectsofbreathinginpoisongaswhileparticipatingintrenchwarfare.Asmanyas10millionsoldiersdiedduringthewar,whetherasaresultofcombatordisease,andmorethantwiceasmany—23millioninall—wereseverelyinjured,resultinginanapproximatetotalof33millionindividualskilledorhurtinthewar.

Ofthose33million,approximately6millioncamefromGermanyandnearlyasmany,5.5million,camefromFrance.WhileonthesurfaceFrance’sandGermany’snumbersappearnearlyequal,thepercentageofFrenchdeathsishigher.Whenthewarbeganin1914,thenumberofpeoplelivinginGermanyhadbeenapproximately33percentmorethanthenumberofpeoplelivinginFrance.Thenumbersofdeadtodayseemalmostunimaginable.ThehighdeathcountmeantthatnearlyeveryoneinFranceknewsomeonewhodiedinthewar.TheFrench,deeplymovedbythedeathsofsomanyoftheirfellowcitizens,erectedcommemorativemonumentsincities,towns,andvillages.

Followingthewar,anotherevenmoredevastatingblowtotheglobalpopula-tionarrivedintheformofadeadlystrainofinfluenza thatkilledapproximately30 millionpeople.ThatfiguretripledthenumberofpeoplewhohaddiedinWorldWarIandpracticallyequaledthetotalamountofpeoplewoundedandkilledinthewar.Natureandfateseemedequallycruel.Inlessthanadecade,40millionpeoplehadbeenlost.

Inadditiontothehumanlosses,Europe’sinfrastructureandlandscapealsolayinruinsfollowingthewar.BothFranceandBelgium,sitesofsomanybattlesontheWesternFront,lostentiremunicipalities.Thecountrieswouldberesponsibleforrebuildingmuchoftheirterritoryfromthegroundup,withfewerworkerstotakeonjobsandlittlemoneytopaythemwith.Insomecases,thegrounditselfwasstilltreacherous.Notalltheexplosivedevicesusedinthebattleshadgoneoff,andsomelingeredinsafe-lookingfarmland.Goingbacktoworkthus

soviet Russian term for local government



requiredexceptionalbravery.IntheFlandersareaofBelgium,someexplosivesstilllieburiedinpastureseventoday.

Bankrollingthewarhadrequiredvastamountsofmoney,moneythatcouldnotberaisedwithinanysinglenation’sborders.ThesinglecountrythathadtakenpartinthewarandemergedwithnosignificantinternationaldebtwastheUnitedStates.Afterthewar,theUnitedStateswasowedtremendoussumsbysev-eralEuropeancountries,whichdidnotsitwellwiththeEuropeans.Upuntilveryrecently,theyhadbeenaccustomedtolendingtoothercountries,notborrowingthemselves.Theextraordinaryamountofwardebt,andthefinancingofthewarinU.S.dollars,helpedlaythefoundationofthemodernglobaleconomy.

AccordingtotheCarnegieEndowmentforInternationalPeace,theFirstWorldWarcostasmuchas$338billion.Thisfigurecannotbequiteexact,butitgivesafairlygoodideaofthekindofmoneyitwouldtaketoplacesomanycountriesinfinancialjeopardy.SadlyfortheEuropeans,theyhadgonefromhavingmoremoneythaneverbefore,asaresultoftheinfluxofbusinessandcapitalthatcamefromacombinationofimperialismandtherewardsoftheSecondIndustrialRevolution,tobecomingpoorerthanever.

Ofallthecountrieshitfinanciallybythewar,Germanysufferedthemost.UnderthetermsoftheTreatyofVersailles,Germanywasforcedtopaytheothercountries’wardebt,aswellasitsown.Germany’sdiplomatshadhadlittlechoicebuttoagreetotheTreatyofVersailles,eventhoughitdisadvantagedGermanyanditscitizenstosuchagreatextent.ThegeneralpopulaceofGermany,however,blameditsbureaucracyforgivingin.

Anybureaucracywouldhavehadadifficulttimebalancinginternationalpeaceagreementswithpopularfeelingathome.Likesomeothercrumblingempires,though,Germanyhademergedfromthewarwithafardifferentpoliticaladmin-istrationthanithadbeforethewar—orevenduringit.Thisnewpoliticaladmin-istrationbecameknownastheWeimarRepublic,Germany’sfirstattemptatatrulydemocraticgovernment.Unfortunately,thefirstmonthsundertheWeimargov-ernmentbecamemarkedbyunhappinessanddissatisfactionamongGermanciti-zens.ThisdissatisfactionlaidafoundationfordiscordbetweenGermanyandtheAlliedcountriesthathadpunishedandhumiliateditintheTreatyofVersailles.AlthoughblameforthetermsoftheTreatyofVersaillescouldnotbestrictlylaidontheWeimargovernment,Germany’speopleblameditnonetheless.Germansaccusedtheirleadersofsuccumbingtoa“dictated peace.”TheWeimarRepublic’sfailurearrivedevenmorequicklythanitotherwisemighthave,however,becausefringeorganizationsthroughoutGermany,includingradicalpoliticalfactions,pushedatitsboundariesandpointedoutitsflaws.

GermanswerenottheonlyoneswhofoundtheTreatyofVersaillesunjust.PeopleinothercountriesagreedthatthefinancialburdenplacedonGermanyinanalreadyshakenglobalfinancialscenehadbeentoosevere.TheBritishfinan-cierJohnMaynardKeynes(1883–1946)stoodoutforhiscondemnationofthefinancialtreatmentofGermany.Inadditiontohistraininginfinance,KeynesspokefromanexpertpositionregardingtheTreatyofVersaillesbecausehehadbeenpresentduringthetreatynegotiationsin1919.Thatsameyear,Keynes

1SeLf-cHecK

Which killed more

people, World War I or

the widespread attack of

influenza that followed

the war? How many

people died in both?

dictated peace a forced ceasefire agreement that, unlike other peace nego-tiations, has one side determine all terms



wouldwriteEconomic Consequences of Peaceinwhichheclaimedthattheentirefinancialstructureoftheglobewouldsooncollapse.Hewouldbeprovenrightinjustoveradecade’stime.

Ultimately,theTreatyofVersaillesdidnotachievepeaceforotherreasons,aswell.Inpart,thiscamefromtheUnitedStateschoosingnottoparticipateinWilson’shard-wonLeagueofNations.Anorganizationliketheleaguecouldnotexertitspotentialpowertothefullestwithouttheparticipationandsupportoftheworld’slargesteconomy.TheUnitedStatessteppedawayfromEuropeanpoliticsinotherways,too.Inaddition,Russiahadundergonetremendouspoliti-calchangeandevolvedintoanewnation,theSovietUnion.OthercountriesinEuropeworriedaboutthenewagendaoftheSovietsandthepracticeofcom-munism,andbegantoquestionthelegitimacyofthereorganizednation.Twoofthelargestcountriesintheworld,theUnitedStatesandtheSovietUnion,thusbecameremovedfromEuropeintheyearsfollowingWorldWarI.TheTreatyofVersailles,ultimately,didnotdoenoughtomaintainpeaceinEuropeintheyearsfollowingthewar.Just20yearslater,thepeacewouldbebrokenagain.

Groundwork for Revolutions in Russia (1905–1917)AmongthemanylossessufferedinWorldWarIwasthecollapseofthelong-standingRussianmonarchy,representedatitsendbydescendentsoftheRomanovDynasty.Thelastrulingtsarandtsarina,NicholasIIandAlexandra,remainedcommittedtoautocracy.Butwhiletheprevioustsar,AlexanderIII,hadbeenabletoruleautocraticallyupuntiltheendofthe1800s,NicholasIIhadamoredifficulttimemakinghissubjectsconformtohisownabsoluterulethanhisfatherhad.Bythetwentiethcentury,Russiancitizensbegantoagitateformorerights.

Incomparisontoothercountries,Russiancitizensenjoyedfarfewercivilrightsandfreedoms.ThislackoflibertyinmonarchicalRussiaresultedforavarietyoffactors.Russiadidnotstartindustrializinguntilthelatenineteenthcentury,soithadalotofcatchinguptodo.First,Russiaworkedtobringitsrailsystemsuptospeedwiththerestoftheworld.Second,thecountrystartedminingcoalingreaterandgreateramounts.Becauseoftheincreasedmining,Russiacouldalsoproducemoregoodsnecessaryforindustrialproducts,suchasforgingatypeofcastironandthenforgingsteel.Bothcastironandsteelwouldbenecessarymaterialsforavarietyofindustrialproducts.

WhenRussiadidenterfullyintothekindsofindustrialpracticesemployedbytheotherEuropeannations,itdidsoprimarilybecauseoftheeffortsofoneman,SergeiWitte(1849–1915).WitteadvisedtheRussiangovernmentonmattersofeconomyandusedhisfinancialconnectionstobolsterindustrythroughoutRussia.OneofthemostimportantthingsWittedidwasbringRussiaintofinancialparitywiththerestoftheworld,whichheachievedbytransferringRussia’scur-rencytothegold standard.Doingsofosteredinternationalcommerce,sinceothercountriesaroundtheworldfeltthat,bysharingthegoldstandard,Russia“spokethesamefinanciallanguage”astheydid.Russiabegantoappearmore

gold standard a con-stant financial exchange system based on an agreed value of gold



financiallyreliableininternationalfinancialcircles.Becauseofthat,outsidersinvestedinRussianbusiness,which,inturn,fosteredthegrowthoftechnology,business,andindustrializationthroughoutRussia.

Wittealsobecameinterestedintransportation.ThecreationattheturnofthecenturyoftheTrans-SiberianRailroadcouldbecreditedlargelytohim.RussianscouldtravelallthewayfromVladivostok,aharborcityontheeasternshoresofRussia,tothemajorurbancenterofMoscow.ThisrailsystemcrossednearlytheentirelengthofRussia,coveringadistanceofmorethan4,970miles(8,000km).Intermsoffinance,industrialization,andtransport,Russiahadstartedtocatchuptotherestoftheworld.

Inotherareas,however,Russiastilllagged.SmallercountriesinEuropehadincorporatedindustrializationintomuchoftheircitizens’dailylives,sometimeswithoutachoice.Peopleinthosecountriesflockedinlargenumberstotheirnewcities.Incontrast,Russiabuiltfewcitiesacrossitsvastterritory.Eventhoughpro-ductionhadincreasedconsiderablywithinthecountry,themajorityofitspeoplelivedonfarms.Infact,bythetimeWorldWarIbegan,about82percentofthepeoplelivinginRussiastilllivedonfarmsratherthanincities.Theiroccupationsandlifestylesstayedthesameastheyhadbeenforcenturies,andtheRussianlowerclassesdidnotseetheadvancesthatcitizensofothercountrieshadenjoyed,andtheydidnotseemtobenefitfromanyoftheagrarianinnovationsthathadarisenasaresultoftheIndustrialRevolution.ManyfarmersinRussiasimplycouldnotmakeenoughmoneytosupportthemselves.WhilearistocratsandtheRomanovslivedinglorioushighstyle,thepeasantswhotilledtheirfieldshadbeguntostarve.

Thefarmersbecamesopoor,infact,thattheycouldnotevenaffordtokeepupwiththeformofrenttheyhadtypicallybeencharged,knownasredemption dues.Muchlikelandlordschargingtenantsrent,thefewrichpeopleinRussiawhoactuallyownedthefarmschargedthepeasantsredemptiondues,orloans,thatrequirednearlyhalfacenturytopayoff.Thefarmersgottoliveonandworkthelandthatbelongedtoothers,buttodosotheyhadtopaysteeppricestocompensatefortheirstaysthere.Thetimeperiodfortheduesoftenlastedaslongasorlongerthanapeasant’slifetime.Tomakemattersworse,farmshadbecomeincreasinglycrowded,asmoreandmorefarmersstartedlivingonthesameplotsofland.ThefewwhotriedtoleavethefarmsdidnothavemanyoptionsandusuallyendeduptravelingtothefrontierregionofSiberia.EvenwithsomefarmerstravelingtoSiberia,though,Russia’sfarmlandremainedoccu-piedbylargenumbersofincreasinglyunhappycitizens.Withsomanypeoplelivinginsuchpoorconditionsforsuchalongtime,itseemedthatunrestwaswaitingtohappen.

Indeed,unresthadbeguntobuildamongRussiancitizensfromavarietyofwalksoflife,notjustthepoorpeasantclasswhomadeupthemajorityofthecountry’spopulation.Asthenineteenthcenturygavewaytothetwentieth,NicholasIIandhisbureaucratsstruggledtomaintaincontroloverthecountry.Lawsbecamestricterandtheirimplementationmoreunforgiving,asNicholasIIworkedtomaintainthepowerhisfatherhadgraspedmoreeasily.Inresponsetotheseharsherconditions,however,theRussiancitizensbegantogrowrestlessand

redemption dues like rent, the 49-year charge peasants had to pay for the privilege of farming land that belonged to others



evenmoreunhappy,ratherthanbucklingdownandgivingintotheadministra-tion.Slowly,organizationsofrebelliousindividualsformed.

Thefirstoftheseorganizationsformedin1898,justsixyearsafterNicholasIItookthethrone,andembracedMarxism.TheRussianMarxistswhoformedthisorganization,calledtheRussianSocialDemocraticLaborParty(RSDLP),basedtheirideasonthoseofGeorgePlekhanov(1857–1918),animportantfoundingfigureoftheMarxistPartyinRussia.ByformingtheRSDLP,theserebelshadbrokenthelaw.Whatcompelledthemtoformtheirnewpartyinspiteofthedangerseemedtobethedesiretogainmoreofavoiceforthemassesinthegovernment.Todoso,theRSDLPknewitwouldeventuallyhavetotakedrasticaction.Thatkindofactioncouldonlybetakenwithaseriousbodyofpeopletoengageinanuprising.TheSocialDemocratsmeanttogathersuchagroupbyunitingRussianlaborers.Withinfiveyears,however,thisgrouphaditselfgrowndividedintoopposingsides,baseduponvaryingdegreesofradicalism.Themajorityfactionfollowedtheideasofarisingpoliticalstar,VladimirLenin,andhadbecomemuchmoreinvestedinaviolentuprising.TheytookthenameBolsheviks,fromaRussianwordmeaning“majority.”TheremainingmembersoftheRSDLPwhoadvocatedalessradicalapproachtookonthenameoftheMensheviks,or“minority”faction.

Inthemeantime,anothersocialistorganization,theSocialistRevolutionaryParty,formedaboutthreeyearsaftertheRSDLPhadformed.Inadditiontotheirsocialistpractices,thetwopartieshadmanysimilarities.Bothorganizationshadgrownoutofpreviouspoliticalparties.TheSocialistRevolutionaries,madeupprimarilyofextremistindividualsfromtheRussiancountryside,hadtheirrootsinanotherorganizationcalledthePopulists.ThePopulistsoriginallyhadtraveledwidelytotrytostirupthelowerclassessothatamasscitizenuprisingcouldbegenerated.WhilethePopulistshadbeenunsuccessful,theSocialRevolutionariescontinuedtotrytoimplementtheirideas.Liketheirpredecessors,theSocialRevolutionarieswantedtounitethepeopletoeffectchange.TheirsocialistvisionincludedpeoplefromallwalksoflifeinRussiaworkingsidebysideinamoreequalgovernmentandsociety.

Twoyearslater,anothergroupformedwithafarlesssocialistideology.Thepeopleinvolvedinthisgroup,calledtheUnionofLiberation,sharedacommonbackgroundofparticipatinginthezemstvos,whichhadgiventhemexperienceingoverningatthesmall,locallevel.Thisgroupalsoadvocatedamoredemocraticapproach,inwhichcitizensofRussiawouldhaveastrongervoiceintheirowngovernment.Lessradicalthantheothergroups,theLiberationPartywantedtosetupaconstitutionalmonarchyinRussia,somewhatpreservingtheexistinggovern-ment.Thequickformationofsomanynewpoliticalgroups,howeverextremisttheyseemed,couldonlymeanonething:changewouldbecoming,andsoon.

first Revolution (1905)Duringtheearly1900s,RussianinstabilityworsenedbecauseoftheeventsoftheRusso-JapaneseWar(1904–1905).Duringthiswar,thesmallislandnationofJapan,stillrelativelynewtoimperialism,humiliatedRussia.Inthepeaceagree-mentsmadeattheendofthewar,adefeatedRussiawasforcedtoacknowledgeJapanesecontrolofterritoryRussiahadbeentargetinginthesouthofManchuria

zemstvos smaller politi-cal administrations, with members gaining seats through an electoral process that governed regions of Russia



andinKorea.PeoplealreadyunhappywiththestateofaffairsinRussiabecameevenmoreirate,andthepoliticalregimeledbyNicholasIIfounditselffur-therweakened.Almostimmediatelyafterthewar,thefirstofseveraluprisingsoccurred:theRevolutionof1905.

OnJanuary22,1905,adaythatsoonbecameknownas“BloodySunday,”agroupofRussianpeoplegatheredatthetsar’sWinterPalaceinSt.Petersburgforanonviolentprotest.AreligiousmanfromtheRussianOrthodoxChurch,FatherGeorgeGapon,organizedtheprotestasawayforpeopletomaketheirvoicesheardtothegovernment,torequestchangeinacalmanddiplomaticway.SadlyforGaponandhisfellows,theprotestquicklyturnedviolent,asthegov-ernmentorderedthemilitarytofireonthepeopleprotestinginSt.Petersburg.Accordingtothetsaristgovernment,fewerthan100protesterswerekilled,butantigovernmentradicalsclaimedthat4,000hadbeengunneddown.Today,estimatessuggesttheactualnumberwascloseto1,000deadandwounded,includingthosetrampledintheensuingpanic.TheincidentoutragedpeoplethroughouttherestofRussia,andotherprotestsquicklyfollowedacrossthecountry.Workstoppagessoonfollowedtheprotests,asRussianstriedtogivevoicetotheirhorrorandshockovertheeventsofBloodySunday.CitizensfromallwalksoflifeinRussiaprotestedthegovernment’sactionsonBloodySunday,butthemilitaryremainedloyaltothegovernment,atleastforthetimebeing.Exceptionseventothisruleoccurred,ofcourse.ThemostnotablecamefromanuprisingononeofRussia’simportantships,thePotemkin.Thisuprising,whichtookplacewhilethePotemkinwaspostedtotheBlackSea,remainedanisolatedincidentatthetime.

Followingthenationwideprotests,theRussiangovernmenttooktherela-tivelyradicalstepofabolishingallremainingredemptionduesforthelowerclass.Bydoingso,thestateseemedtobetryingtoavertanevenbiggeruprisingbythefarmers,anditwasnottheonlystepthestatetook.InOctober1905,NicholasIIpublishedtheOctoberManifesto,whichofferedthreeimportantreformstoRussiancitizens.One,asafoundation,themanifestopledgedthatthegovernmentwouldcreateaconstitution.Two,withinthatconstitutionwouldbeapromised,government-sanctionedsetofcivilliberties.Three,thegovernmentwouldupholdthatconstitutionandthoselibertiesbysettingupalegislativebody,withmembersvotedinbythepublic,calledtheDuma.Initially,thereformssetforthintheOctoberManifestoseemedtopacifytheRussiancitizens.Thetsarandhisfellowbureaucratsstartedtorelaxintotheideathatperhapstherevolutionhadfullyendedin1906.Withoutwaitinganylonger,NicholasIImovedquicklytoamendsomeofthepointshehadmadeintheOctoberManifestosothat,astsar,hecouldstillemployasmuchpowerandauthorityaspossible.

NicholasIIenforcedtheseamendmentswhencreatingthenewconstitu-tion,knownastheFundamentalLaws.HemanipulatedtheFundamentalLawsinsuchawayastoplacemanylimitationsontheauthorityoftheDuma.First,theDumahadnoauthorityintwoveryimportantareas:theRussianeconomyandRussia’sengagementininternationalaffairs.Thosetwoareasremainedthe



provinceofthetsarasheadofthegovernment.Second,theDumacouldbedissolvedatanytimethetsarwishedit.Third,iftheDumawasdissolvedorotherwiseunabletoconvene,thenthetsarwouldhavetheabilitytolegislate by decree,orcreatenewlawswithoutanydueprocessinvolvingthepeople’srepresentatives.Fourth,theimportantmembersofthetsar’scabinetcouldnotbecontrolledbytheDuma,leavingmanyotherregionsorelementsofthegovernmentoutsidetheDuma’sprovince.Finally,theDumalostitspositionasthesolelegislativebodyintheRussiangovernment.Instead,itbecamethelowerhouseandhadtobowtotheauthorityofanewlegislativebodycalledtheCouncilofState.ThemembersservingintheCouncilofStatewouldbemuchmoremoderatethanthoseelectedtoserveintheDuma.ThetsarmusthavehopedthatseriesoflimitationswouldhelphimkeeptheDumasubservi-enttohisowngovernment.

AspartoftheOctoberManifesto,participatingingroupsliketheSocialDemocraticLaborParty,theUnionofLiberation,andtheSocialistRevolutionaryPartybecamelegalinRussia.Peopleinthesegroupsdidnothavetohidetheiractionsorbeliefsforfearsofreprisal,andtheycouldstartopenlyadvocatingforchange.Soon,thecurrentpartiesfoundthemselvesjoinedbytwoadditionalparties.Thesenewerpartiesof1905representedlessconservativeindividualsinterestedinpromotingtherightsofpeopleinbusinessandotherprofessions.ThefirstnewgrouptieditsidentitydirectlytotheOctoberManifesto.WhiletheybecameknownmorepopularlyasOctobrists,theirproperpartynameemphasizedthedaythemanifestowentintoeffect,sincetheyformallytitledthemselvestheUnionofOctober17.OfallthepoliticalpartiesinplayinRussiaduringthistime,theOctobristsseemedmostwillingtoworkwiththeexistingstatusoftheRussiangovernment,asadaptedbyNicholasIIinthemanifesto.Theyapprovedoftheconstitution,theDuma,andthenewdefinitionoftheircivilliberties.

The other new group to form during this time, officially called theConstitutionalDemocratsandknownastheCadets,divergedfromtheOctobristsinremainingunsatisfiedwiththestateofgovernmentalchange,andcontinuedtoadvocateformorerights.EventhoughNicholasIIhadestablishedaconstitutiontoworkintandemwithhisowngovernment,membersoftheCadetswantedtoseeRussiabecomeatrueconstitutionalmonarchy.TheylookedtoBritain’sgovernmentasastrong,workingexampleofthekindofregimetheywouldliketohaveintheirowncountry.InBritain,importantofficialsliketheprimemin-isterhadtoanswertotheParliament,nottheking.TheCadetswantedtoseethesamethinginRussiaandhavetheirimportantofficialsanswertotheDuma.

Second Revolution (March 1917)TheoutbreakofWorldWarIprovidedaninternationaldistractionforthoseconcernedaboutRussia’sdomesticproblems.WhenGermanyattackedFrance,RussiaenteredthewarontheAllies’sideduetoitsparticipationintheTripleEntentealliancewithFranceandBritain.Atfirst,RussiaseemedabletomarshalitsmilitaryandmeetGermanyonfairlyequalterms.Soon,though,Germany’s

legislate by decree ruler’s power to create new laws on command without interaction with a legislative body



militarybeganoverpoweringRussia’s.Justafewmonthsintothewar,inthefallof1914,Russialosttwoimportantbattles,thebattlesofTannenburgandoftheMasurianLakes,anditsarmywouldcontinuetosufferdefeatswhenitengagedwithGermany.

Inthepast,Russia’scapacitytoheavilystockitsmilitarywithpuremanpowerhadmadeitaformidableforce.YetinWorldWarI,themoretechnologicallysavvycountrieshadalargeadvantage.Russiasimplycouldnotkeepup.Thecountrydidnothaveenoughresourcesinmanufacturingtosupportparticipationinaconflictofsuchmagnitude.Thefactthatitspeoplewerescatteredthroughoutthecountrysideonlymademattersworse.

Alittleoverayearintothewar,NicholasIIdecideditwouldbebestifthemilitaryfollowedhisordersdirectly.HesteppedbackfromgoverningRussiamoregenerallytoconcentrateonmilitarystrategy.SoTsarinaAlexandra,hiswife,tookoverthegovernmentofRussiainhisabsence.ThisturnofeventsultimatelyproveddevastatingfortheRomanovs.DuringNicholasII’sabsencefromcourt,AlexandraturnedmoreandmoretothecounselofGrigoriRasputin(1872–1916),aself-styledreligiousmysticknowntosomeasthe“MadMonk,”althoughheneverofficiallyworkedfortheRussianOrthodoxChurch.AlexandrabelievedRasputinpossessedhealingabilitiesthatcouldcurehersonandtheheirtotheRussianthrone,Alexei,whosufferedfromhemophilia,adangerousbloodcondition.

Havingcapturedthetsarina’sdevotion,Rasputintookanactiveroleingovernmentdecisionmaking,leadingAlexandradownanumberofunfortunatepaths.RussiancitizensdislikedthedirectionthegovernmenthadtakenunderAlexandra’s—really,Rasputin’s—direction,andbegantoexpresstheirdislikeanddisrespectfortheentireroyalfamily.InDecember1916,Rasputinlosthislife.Theexactnatureofhisdeathremainsamystery,butitisclearthathewaskilledbyasmallfactionofroyalists,whoremainedloyaltothetsarandhopedthatbyeliminatingRasputintheycouldreturnRussia’sgovernmenttoamorepopularcourse.Bythen,however,itwastoolate.Theroyalfamily’sgriponthethronehadbeguntoslipandultimatelycouldnotberestored.

TheremaininggovernmentbecameshakierandshakierinthemonthsfollowingRasputin’sdeath.Russiancitizenslaunchedamassiveprotestmove-mentinSt.Petersburg,recentlyrenamedPetrograd,inearly1917.Thecitysawrepeatedprotestsandworkstoppagesascitizenstriedtomaketheirfeelingsknown.Inadditiontotheirproblemswiththetsaristgovernment,theRussianpeoplewerefedupwiththeongoingwar.Becauseofthewar,citizensdidnothaveenoughtoeat,andtheyhadtomakeothersacrificesforthewareffort.Theirmoneyhadbecomealmostworthlesssinceinflationhadrisensohigh.

Theunrestcontinued.Totrytoputdownsomeofthepotentialuprising,NicholasIIexercisedhisrightasdescribedintheOctoberManifestotodissolvetheDumaandlegislatebydecree.Yetthepeople’srepresentativesintheDumadidnotappreciatethetsarexercisinghispowerinsuchaway.Soeventhoughtheyhadbeenreleasedfromtheirassembly,themajorityoflegislatorsstayedinthecapital.Indirectdisobedienceofthetsar’sorders,theDumaconvenedunderitsownauthorityonMarch12,1917.Inaprivatesession,itheldits



ownrapidelectoralprocessandselectedasmallsubgrouptostandforitinthelargergovernment.

Meanwhile,citizenscontinuedtoprotestinPetrograd,andNicholasII,ashehadbefore,commandedhisforcestogetinthecityandstoptheprotestors.ItseemedasthoughBloodySundaymightberepeated.Butinadirectmutinyagainstthetsar,thearmedforcesrefusedtofollowhisorders.Onceinthecity,thesoldierssidedwiththeprotesters,notagainstthem.Nooneremainedtoprotecttheroyalfamily,NicholasIIranoutofoptions.ThreedaysaftertheDuma’sprivatemeeting,NicholasIIchosetoabdicatefromhisthroneonMarch15,1917,accordingtotheGregoriancalendar(accordingtothecalendarthenusedinRussia,thedatewasMarch2).HisfamilyhadledRussiaformorethanthreecenturies,butitsendcameswiftly.Theseriesofeventsthatledtothetsar’sabdicationcametobeknownintheWestastheMarchRevolution.BecauseoftheiruseatthetimeoftheJuliancalendar,RussiansoftencallittheFebruaryRevolution.

WhetherpeoplereferredtotherevolutionastakingplaceinMarchorFebruary,though,thefactremainedthatRussiahadlostitstsaristregime.AnewregimewouldhavetoemergetogovernRussia,andthatregimegrewoutofthesmallgroupofDumamemberswhohadbeenelectedintheprivatemeetingonMarch12.ThissmallergrouptransformedintotheProvisionalGovernmentofRussia.NearlyalltheparticipantsintheProvisionalGovernment,includingitshead,GeorgeLvov(1861–1925),camefrommoreradicalparties.AsingleindividualfromtheSocialist

2SeLf-cHecK

Why did the Russian

people dislike Tsarina

Alexandra?

A Bolshevik crowd of revolutionaries demonstrates during the Russian Revolution of 1917.



RevolutionaryParty,AlexanderKerensky(1881–1970),representedsocialistthoughtsandinterests.TheProvisionalGovernmenttoldpeoplethatsoontheywouldhavealargervoiceinthewaytheybecamegoverned.Thenewgovernmentenvisionedaneventualregimethatpartookofthebestcomponentsofdemocracyandrepublican-ism,withitsfoundationinafirmconstitution.Itwouldtakeseveralstepstoreachthatstatus,however,includingvotingonmembersofanewelectoralcouncilwhowouldcreatesuchadocument.

ThesocialistpartiestookactionaroundthenewProvisionalGovernmentbymarshalingcitizens,especiallymembersofthelowerclasses,intosocialist-friendlyorganizations.SocialistsinPetrogradencouragedtheRussianpeopletofindrepre-sentationinagroupcalledtheSovietofWorkers’andSoldiers’DeputiesthatstoodbehindtheProvisionalGovernmentanditsplantocreateanewconstitution.ThisprimarysovietinPetrogradsetanexampletoRussia’sotherurbancenters,aswellastolaborersinthecountry,andmoreandmoresovietstookshape.

OnemonthintothecreationoftheProvisionalGovernment,theBolsheviks’leaderLeninarrivedinPetrograd.LeninhadcreatedasystemofideascalledtheAprilThesesandhadbecomedeterminedtoimplementthemthroughoutRussia.First,hetaughttheAprilThesestotheothermembersoftheBolshevikParty,inthehopesthattheotherBolshevikswouldhelpspreadhisnewpoliticalgospel:theideaofproletarian socialist revolution,oranuprisingbylowerclasspeoplethatwouldplaceallthecitizensofRussiaonequalfooting.

proletarian socialist revolution uprising of blue-collar workers and other lower class individuals to gain a government directed by the people

The Bolshevik leader and leading figure of the Russian Revolution, Vladimir Lenin, delivers a speech in Red Square in 1918.



TheBolshevikswhocalledforthisrevolutionspreadthemessageacrossRussia.Together,underLenin’sleadership,theyfoundedtheirrevolutiononaselectgroupofsignificanttenets.Firstandforemost,theywantedanendtothewar,whichtheyviewedasaimperialisticstruggleinwhichthepoordiedfortheinterestsofthewealthy.Second,theywantedtodrasticallyalterthefarmrentandownershipsystemsetupthroughoutRussia.TheBolsheviksbelievedthatthepeoplewhoshouldownfarmlandwerethefarmers,notthewealthyaristocratswhoneverworked.Givethefarmlandsbacktothepeople,theyurged.Asmembersofsovietsinurbanareas,theysawfirsthandthemalnourishmentthathadoccurredduetothecombinationofaristocraticlandownershipandwartimesacrifice.TheBolshevikswantedtotakenourishmentfromthefarmsandbringittotheirurbancenters.Tosumupalltheserequests,theyusedthesimplesloganof“Peace,Land,andBread.”TheBolsheviksdemandedthesethreethingsrepeatedly.

Inresponse,theProvisionalGovernmenttriedtofindacompromise.Theliberalmembersoftheregimerealizedthatthefarmerslivingonthearistocrats’farmstrulydidneedpropertyoftheirown.However,whiletheBolshevikswantedtosimplyrearrangethepropertiesofownershiponthoseregions,Kerensky,recentlychosenasprimeminister,andtheProvisionalGovernment—whichincludedsomearistocratsinitsranks—didnotwanttostealfromsomeRussianstogivetootherRussians.Kerenskythoughtrearrangingownershipofpropertieswouldencouragefarmerstoabandonthemilitaryandprovokemorediscord.Becauseofthat,theProvisionalGovernmentcouldnotfollowtheBolsheviks’requestforlandorbread.ThelandandbreadtheBolshevikswantedtoappropriatebelongedtootherpeople,andtheProvisionalGovernmentrefusedtotakeitfromthemforredistribution.

What’smore,unliketheBolsheviks,theProvisionalGovernmentdidnotwanttoendRussia’sinvolvementinWorldWarIifitmeantdefeat.KerenskyhadgreatnationalprideandwantedtoprotectRussia’sinternationalreputationbystayinginthewar,ratherthanleavingitonGermany’sterms.ProtectingthisnationalpridebecamelessaquestionofaidingtheotherAlliesandmoreaquestionofrefusingtosurrender.UndertheProvisionalGovernment’sdirection,Russia’stroopsmadeafinalefforttotakebackterraininGaliciaagainstAustriansoldiers.TheRussianslastedonlyalittlewhileinGalicia,though,beforetheAustriansdefeatedthem,whichwasdou-blyhumiliatingforagovernmentwhoseownpeoplewantedittogetoutofthewar.

FailureinGaliciamighthaveledtoarebellionathomeanyway,buttheProvisionalGovernmentdidn’thavethechancetofindout.InPetrogradprotes-torsbegansignalingtheirdisapprovalofthegovernment,especiallyasledbyPrimeMinisterKerensky,anditscommitmenttocontinuingthewarevenmoreaggressively.ThispopularuprisingbecameknownastheJulyDays,andthosepar-ticipatinginitwouldfindtheirfuryagainstthegovernmentincreasewhentheylearnedabouttheRussiandefeatinGalicia.TheJulyDaysshowedjusthowlittlethepeopleofRussiasupportedthenewProvisionalGovernment.

FollowingtheJulyDays,theBolsheviks’leaderLeninworriedthattherebelshadpulledthetriggertoosoonandwithoutanorganizedplanoffollow-through.Withoutsuchaplan,anyshort-termgainsmadethroughtheuprisingwouldbedifficulttoconverttolong-termadvantages.Somewhatsurprisingly,mostofthe



peopleintheBolshevikPartybackeduptherebelsparticipatingintheuprising.Bydoingso,theywentagainstLenin.Inspiteofthat,LeninwouldbeblamedfortheJulyDaysrebellionasmuchasanyoneelse.HeandthePetrogradSoviethadbeenrightinthattheJulyDaysrebellioncouldnotbesustained—theProvisionalGovernmentdidmanagetoputtherebelliondown.Then,LeninfoundhimselftargetedbythestateandhadtodepartrapidlyfromRussiatoFinland.

WeatheringtheJulyDaysaffectedtheBolsheviksinacomplexway.TheyhadtemporarilydisagreedwithandthenfoundthemselveswithouttheirleaderLenin.Whenlifesettleddownaftertherebellion,theBolsheviksweretargetedbythegovernment.TherelationshipbetweentheProvisionalGovernmentandtheBolshevikPartybecamequitestrained,astheformerdidnotfeelasthoughitcouldtrustthelatter.However,outsidethecurrentgovernmentandamongthepeopleofPetrograd—andRussiainalargersense—theBolsheviksbenefitedgreatly.CommonpeoplelookedattheBolshevikPartywithnewrespectafterdiscoveringtheBolsheviks’supportoftherebellion.Morefanaticalgroupsofcitizens,particularlymembersofthearmedforcesandlaborers,admiredtheBolsheviksandwantedtostandbehindthem.Soon,theBolshevikParty’sranksbegantorapidlygrow.

ThatSeptember, another rebellionagainst theProvisionalGovernmentoccurred.Thistime,itcamefromthemilitary.Themaninchargeofthecountry’sarmedforces,GeneralLavrKornilov(1870–1918),ledthisuprising,oftencalledtheKornilovaffair.KornilovtriedtooverthrowthecurrentgovernmentandmakeRussiaintoamilitarizedstate.HefanciedsettinghimselfupasthesupremerulerofRussia.Hadhesucceeded,eventsinRussiamighthaveturnedoutquitedifferently.KerenskyandtheProvisionalGovernment,caughtbetweentwonearlyimpossiblepositions,reachedouttotheBolshevikPartyforassistanceagainstthemilitarycoup.ThroughtheaidoftheBolshevikPartyandthePetrogradSoviet,Kornilovfailedingainingthegovernmentandoverthrowingthecurrentregime.WhiletheProvisionalGovernmentstillstood,Kerensky’sgrasponpowerhadgrownweaker.WithoutthesupportoftheBolsheviks,thecurrentregimewouldhavecrumbled.

Third Revolution (November 1917)ThefinaluprisingofthisperiodwouldbeknownintheWestastheNovemberRevolutionandwouldcomefromtheveryquartertheProvisionalGovernmenthadsorecentlyreachedoutto,theBolsheviks.LeninandtheBolsheviksstartedplottingtheirmoveagainsttheProvisionalGovernmentinearnest.Lenin’splanwouldworkasfollows:thesecretmilitarybranchofthePetrogradSoviet,knownastheRedGuard,wouldspringintoactiononaspecificdate.TheRedGuardwouldmovethroughoutPetrogradandtakeoverimportantareastolimitthemovementoftheProvisionalGovernment.ThentheRedGuardwouldmovetoswiftlyoccupyallmajorgovernmentbuildings,includingtheWinterPalace,theseatoftheProvisionalGovernment.ThePetrogradSovietwouldassumecontrol.TheBolsheviksputthisplanintoactiononNovember7,1917,anditworkedasLeninhadenvisioned.Noliveswerelost,andonlyafewpeoplewereinjured.Againbecauseofthecalendartheyusedatthetime,fortheRussianstherevolutionoccurredinOctoberandisoftencalledRedOctober.

3SeLf-cHecK

What was the Bolsheviks’

slogan, and to whom

did it appeal?



Thedayfollowingtherevolution,anewgovernmentheadedbyLeninwasinplace.Inoppositiontothemonarchyandthepreviousprovisionalregime,Lenin’sgovernmenttookthetitleoftheCouncilofPeople’sCommissars.Leninwouldserveasheadofstate,althoughhisofficialtitlemarkedhimasthechairpersonofthecouncil.TwomenwhowouldfigureprominentlyinRussianpoliticsintheyearstocomealsoheldplacesonthecouncil:LeonTrotsky(1879–1940)andJosephStalin(1879–1953).ThecouncilturneditsattentiontospreadingitsgovernmentandvoicethroughouttherestofRussia,usingPetrogradasabase.IttooklittletimefortheBolshevikinfluencetobefeltthroughoutRussia.OneexceptioncameinMoscow,wherethecitizensdisagreedviolentlywiththenewregime.Inlessthanaweek,however,MoscowalsobelongedtotheBolsheviks.UnderLenin’sdirection,theBolshevikregimeandthecouncilinparticularwouldfindthatrevoltinghadbeenthesimplepart.GoverningRussia,whichtwootherregimeshadsorecentlyfailedindoing,wouldbemuchmoredifficult.

Extensions• ReadaneyewitnessaccountoftheBolsheviks’seizureofpowerinJohn

Reed’sTen Days That Shook the World(NewYork:BoniandLiveright,1919,pp.123–129).HowdidJohnReeddescribeLenin?WhatwashisdescriptionofthefailingsoftheProvisionalGovernment?OfallthegroupsvyingforpowerinRussia,whydotheBolsheviksgetthevictoryaccordingtoReed?

SummaryPeoplearoundEuropereeledfromWorldWarIasnewsmallernationswerecreatedandtheshapeoftheworldchangeddrastically.Thewarcostatremendousamountinmoneyandlives,andthepeaceagreementsatitsendactuallyincreasedthechancesoffutureconflict.Meanwhile,Russiahadalreadygonethroughasignifi-cantrevolutionbeforeWorldWarIbegan.Inthatfirstrevolution,thetsaragreedtogranttheRussianpeoplemorerights,buttheyremaineddissatisfied.Dissenterscreatedpoliticalpartiestoadvocateforcitizens’rights.WorldWarImadelifeinRussiaevenharder.Thetsar’spowercrumbledandheabdicated,resultinginanewregimecalledtheProvisionalGovernment.ThisgovernmentwithstoodtwomorerevolutionsbeforegivingwaytotheBolshevikParty.Attheendof1917,LeninandtheBolsheviksruledRussia.

Looking AheadAsRussiascrambledtodealwithitsownseriesofrevolutions,ithadfallenoutoftheinternationalconflictknownasWorldWarI.WhenLeninandtheBolsheviksrosetopower,theywouldtakethatopportunitytoextricateRussiafromtheconflict,eventhoughitwouldmeanlosingatremendousamountofterritoryandcitizenstotheCentralPowers,atleastforthetimebeing.Whenthewarended,Russiawouldnotevenattendthepeacenegotiations,asitwascaughtupinitsowndomestictroubles.Russiahadgottenthroughthreerevolu-tions.Upnextlayacivilwar.



1. More people died of influenza, 30 million in all. In World War I, by comparison, 10 million people died and 23 million more sustained injuries.

2. She was German, not Russian, and she trusted too much in Rasputin.

3. The slogan, “Peace, Land, and Bread,” particularly appealed to lower and middle class Russian citizens. Farmers in particular wanted to own their own land; almost no one had enough food; and the longer the war went on, the more citizens wanted their country out of the conflict.

SeLf-cHecK ANSWeRS


Lenin and the Russian Revolution

Unit 16, Lesson 12

KeywordsCommunists

Marxism

telescoping

vanguard party

weakest link in the chain

world revolution

Essential Questions• WhateventsoccurredduringLenin’srisetopower?

• WhathappenedfollowingtheBolsheviks’NovemberRevolution?

• WhatwastheoutcomeoftheRussianCivilWar?



Set the StageIn Russia, the tumultuous events of World War I would be eclipsed by a series of revolutions as the long-standing Romanov Dynasty gave way to a new regime: the Provisional Government. Yet the Provisional Government did not satisfy Russian citizens, many of whom wanted to get out of World War I, or grant them all the rights to which they believed they were entitled. While Russian soldiers continued to fight in the international conflict, at home a new faction, the Bolsheviks, plotted yet another revolution, offering Russian citizens a peace the Provisional Government seemed unable to provide. The Bolsheviks’ eventual rise to power would pull Russia out of the war completely but also, to the people’s dismay, plunge it into civil war.

The Rise of Lenin and the BolsheviksWhileintheyearsleadinguptoWorldWarIRussia’sfatehadbeensteeredbyoneman,TsarNicholasII,asthewarendedanothermanwouldemergetoleadRussiaintothepostwarera:VladimirLenin.Thetsarcametohispositiontheold-fashionedway,throughinheritance.Lenin’sroadtopowerwouldbeanythingbuttraditional.Lenin’slifebeganin1870,inaruralpartofRussiacalledSimbirsk.SimbirskencompassedasmallvillagenearMoscow,nestledonthebanksoftheVolga.Lenin,whoserealnamewasVladimirIlyichUlianov,wouldgrowupfarawayfromthecapitalcityofSt.Petersburg(rebrandedPetrogradatthebeginningofWorldWarI)wherehewouldforgehisfate.

Atanearlyage,itseemedasthoughLenin’sfutureheldmanypossibilities.PerhapsLeninmighthaveendeduplikehisfather,whohadrisenfrompovertyandheldanimportantleadershiproleintheeducationofyoungchil-dreninthearea,asdirectorofpublicschools.OrmaybeLenincouldhaveendedupintroublelikehissiblingAlexander.WhenLeninwas17yearsold,hisbrotherwasaccusedofplottingtomurderTsarAlexanderIII.Becauseofhisparticipationintheplot,Alexandermethisdeathin1887asastate-mandatedpunishment.

Alexander’sdeathmusthaveaffectedhisbrotherseverely,giventheactionsLenintookintheyearsfol-lowingtheloss.Lenindid,atfirst,attempttocontinueinhisfather’spathbyfurtheringhisowneducation,tak-ingclassesattheUniversityofKazan.However,LeninnevergraduatedfromKazan.Earlyinhiscollegecareer,herevealedhistruepassionbybecominginvolvedincam-pusprotests.AsaresultLeninwasexpelledfromcollege,butheremainedamotivatedanddisciplinedscholar.Hedecidedtopursueacareerasalawyerandbeganteachinghimselffromlawbooks.Bythe1890s,justafewshort

Nicholas II, the last of the Romanov tsars, poses with his family. This group met a tragic end during the Russian Civil War.



yearsafterhisbrother’sdeathandhisownfailededucation,LeninearnedcertificationtopracticeasalawyerinRussia.

Duringthe1890s,LenintraveledtoSt.PetersburgandbeganlearningmoreaboutMarxism,apoliticalphilosophybasedontheideasofKarlMarx.Lenin’sgrowingMarxistbeliefsledhimtoparticipateinillegaleventsandprotests,althoughnottotheextentthathisbrotherhad.Nevertheless,theauthoritiessooncaughtLeninandsenthimtoaRussianprison.Afterashorttimeinprison,Leninreceivedasentenceofexile.HehadnochoicebuttoleaveSt.PetersburgforSiberia.

Attheturnofthetwentiethcentury,Leninmanagedtoimprovehissitua-tionslightlybyescapingfromSiberiatoSwitzerland.HeplannedoneventuallyreturningtoRussia,butuntilthatdayarrived,LeninstayedbusypromulgatinghisMarxistideasandreachingouttotheRussiancommunityinSwitzerland.LeninachievedthisbyprintingaregularnewsjournalcalledIskra,whichtranslatesfromRussianas“Spark.”OtherEuropeanindividualsriskedagreatdealbyperiodicallybreakingthelawandsneakingissuesoftheIskrabackintoRussia.Eveninexile,Lenin’svoicecontinuedtobeheard.

Infact,eventhoughhehadbeenexiled,LeninsoonmadeaconnectionwithaRussianpoliticalparty,theRussianSocialDemocraticLaborParty(RSDLP).PartiesliketheRSDLPhadtobeclandestineandcareful,whichpartiallyexplainswhyRussianpartymemberstraveledtoLondonforaspecialgathering.Lenin,theninSwitzerland,traveledtoLondontotakepartinthemeeting.Duringthemeeting,thepartyfounditselfdividingintotwoseparatefactionsbasedonhowradicaltheiridealswere.Leninheadedupthemoreradicalside,whichgrewintoanewgroupcalledtheBolsheviks.OpposingthemwasthesmallergroupofMensheviks,whoadvocatedlessradicalchange.

TwootherissuessplitthepartyintoMenshevikandBolshevikfactions.First,theMenshevikswantedtoletmoreindividualsjoinupwiththeircause.Incontrast,theBolshevikswantedtokeepthepartynumberssmall.Ironically,eventhoughMarxistpoliciesultimatelyrestedonlarge-scalesocialchange,theBolshevikswantedtokeepthepartyasasortofexclusivehome,wheretheycouldoperateacommandcenterandexercisealargerdegreeofcontrol.Second,theMenshevikswantedtomakeaslowandsteadyprogresstowardeventualrebellion,basedonanincreasingfoundationofbusinessandfinancialsupport.AsRussiabegancatchingupwiththeWestintermsoftransportationandcommunication,theMensheviksthoughtitspeoplewouldsupportalarge-scalerevolt.Thatrevoltcouldthentakeplaceinalogicalandthoroughmanner.Again,incontrast,theBolshevikstooktheoppositeapproach.TheywantedtoinstigateaRussianuprisingrightaway.

MorethanadecadeafterthatLondongathering,Leninreturnedtohismothercountryin1917,inthemiddleofWorldWarIaspopularrevolutionwrackedRussia.LeninreturnedtoaRussialedbytheProvisionalGovernment,aregimefarmorepermissiveoftheBolsheviks’practicesthantheprevioustsaristregimehadbeen.InApril1917,LeninwroteandpublishedtheAprilThesesthatlaidouthisideasaboutsocialismandMarxism.HispiecemadeiteasierforRussianstounderstandMarxistideaswhilesimultaneouslyurgingRussiancitizensthatanothertimeforrevolutionhadcome.

Marxism philosophy and politics based on Karl Marx’s ideas



AsexpressedintheAprilTheses,LeninmademanyimportantcontributionstoMarxistpracticesinRussia,andfivestoodoutasespeciallyimportant.First,LeninexpandedonwhatKarlMarxhadarguedaboutcapitalism.Leninurgedhisreaderstorealizethatcapitalismdidnotactalonetoholdbacksociety,buthadtremendoustiestothepracticeofimperialism.Imperialism,Lenincontended,hadmadecapitalismevenmoredangerous.BothMarxandLeninagreedthatcapitalismactedtogiveaminorityofpeoplethemajorityofcontrol.ForLenin,thismeantthatiftheRussianpeopledidnotactupontheirrevolutionarydesiressoon,theywouldnotbeabletoatall.Byintegratingcapitalismandimperialismandcondemningthemboth,LeninsharplyinfluencedthewaysRussianMarxistsunderstoodBolshevikpoliticalbeliefs.

Second,LeninshapedRussianMarxismbychangingthefocusonwherethefirstgreatrevolution,inaseriesofworldwiderevolutionspredictedbyMarx,wouldtakeplace.Marxistsaimedatchangingtheentireworld,notjustindividualcoun-tries.Previously,Marxistshadbelievedthatthefirstpeopletotruly,successfullyrevoltwouldbetheoneslivinginthecountriesthathadtakentheircapitalisticpracticestoofar,andwhohadbecomethemostindustrialized.Thus,manyMarxistsexpectedsucharevolutiontotakeplaceinacountrylikeBritain,whereitdidnot,orGermany,whereindeed,asWorldWarIended,arevolutiondidarise.Leninproposedaradicallydifferentideacalledthe“weakest link in the chain.”AccordingtoLenin’sidea,allthecountriesaroundtheglobethatpracticedcapital-ismhadbecomeconnectedbycapitalismitself,forminga“chain”ofinterlocked,interdependentunitsor“links.”LeninsurmisedthattheMarxistscouldtriggeraglobaluprisingbypullingonorbreakingsomeofthe“weakest”elementsofthechain,therebyaffectingtheother,strongerlinks.ForLenin,thismadeanevengreaterargumentforstartinganuprisinginRussia,asaweakorunderdevelopedlink,andthenexpandingitinternationally.

Third,LeninclungtohisearlierbeliefsthathadseparatedhimfromtheMensheviksbackin1903.Hesuggestedtheideaofavanguard party,orapoliti-calsubgroupthatcouldactasthefrontlineforalargerrebelliouscause.BecauseofthewayRussia’snewProvisionalGovernmenthadsetitselfup,Leninbelievedthataproperrevolutioncouldnottakeplaceinthecountrywithoutemployingavanguardpartymadeupofseriousandexperiencedpoliticalactivists.

Fourth,LeninwentagainsttheMensheviksyetagainbyadvocatingforanimmediateuprising.TheMensheviksdidnotstandaloneintheirbeliefsofexercis-ingmoderationandrestraintinbuildinguptorevolution;othermembersofsocialistpartiesfeltsimilarly.ThesemoremoderaterevolutionariesworriedthattheiruprisingwouldbeunsuccessfuliftheyattempteditbeforeRussiahadfullycaughtuptothetwentiethcenturyintermsofbusinessandindustry.ForLenin,incontrast,notimelikethepresentexistedforrevolution.Tosetitinmotion,Leninproposedtheprocessoftelescoping.Hisparty’ssocialistrevolutionwouldpiggybackontheonethathadjusttakenplace.

Fifthandfinally,Leninemployedsomenewsimpleyeteffectiverevolutionarytactics.Ratherthanadoptingacomplicatedschemetotargetpeoplefromdiffer-entsocialgroupsandclasses,orgettingencumberedbycomplexlistsofcitizens’desiredreforms,Leninhadotherideas.Headvocatedcreatingplain,straightforward

weakest link in the chain idea that capitalist countries had become connected through their capitalism and that by targeting the least strong country, revolutionaries could affect all of them

vanguard party small political subgroup that would move out ahead of a larger rebel-lious cause and direct it

telescoping for Lenin, sliding the socialists’ uprising into a revolution that had already taken place, skipping many steps to get to the final and desired result of a socialist government



slogansthatlargegroupsofpeoplecouldpickup,suchaschantslike“AllpowertotheSoviets!”and“Peace,Bread,andLand!”Theseshort,powerfulmantrascouldbeeasilyandrapidlyexpressedbylargegroupsofpeoplemarchinginuprisings.Overall,thesetacticsshowedLenintobeasavvymarketerwhounderstoodhisaudience.Aseventsshortlyrevealed,hewouldbeabletoimplementthemwithgreatsuccess.

The November Revolution and the end of World War ILeninhadpreparedhisfellowBolshevikPartymembersforrevolutionwell.EmployingtheconceptoftelescopinghisrevolutionintothelargeroneofMarch1917,Leningavethego-aheadtohispartytostrikeinNovemberofthatsameyear.Itworked.Ifanything,therebellion’ssuccessseemedalmosttooeasy.TheBolshevikPartyhadlongbeenalignedwiththesmallsovietsorcouncilsthroughoutbothPetrogradandvariouspartsofRussia.ThatNovember,theRussianmilitaryelectedtoabandontheProvisionalGovernmentinfavoroftheBolsheviksandthesoviets.Thisleftthecur-rentregimewithoutpopularormilitarybacking,andtheBolshevikshadbarelyanyproblemsforcingitout.Ateverystep,theBolshevikssucceeded,targetingthemoststrategicareasofthegovernmentforthefirstnightoftherebellionandconqueringthemwithnoproblems.

Shortlyaftertherebellion,animportantCongressofSovietsoccurred,wherethemembersofthecouncilsmetandheldelectionsfornewmembers.Thisclosenessofeventsdidnotoccurbyaccident;LeninhadspecificallyorderedhispeopletomoveinearlyNovembersothat,aftertherevolution,theycouldquicklybecomelegiti-mizedthroughthesoviets.Indeed,thesovietsfollowedthatplanexactly.ThroughtheCongressofSoviets,theBolshevikscreatedanewgovernmentlegislativebodycalledtheCouncilofPeople’sCommissars.Tonoone’ssurprise,Leninwaselectedasthechairofthenewcouncil.TheBolsheviksalsotookthistimetoexpandthesuccessoftheirrebellionthroughoutRussia,whilesimultaneouslyachievingtwogoalsthathadbeenimportanttopartymembers.First,theBolsheviksmadesurethatpeopleofthelowerclasses,likefarmers,hadbeenabletotakethefarmstheyworkedonawayfromtheirformerowners,thearistocrats.TheBolshevikssawthisasrestoringlandtothepeople.Second,theBolsheviksworkedtoensurethatallthemanufacturingplantsinRussiabecamereorganizedandledbythelaborers,ratherthancapitalistowners.TheBolshevikssawthis,too,asanecessarymeansofrestor-ingthemasses’powerandrights.

Justafewmonthslater,theBolshevikpartytookevenmoredrasticaction.TheRussianshadrecentlyheldelectionstosendrepresentativestofillspotsontheConstituentAssembly,anotherimportantlegislativebody.Yet,despitetherecentandsuccessfulBolshevikrevolution,membersoftheBolshevikPartyhadnotreceivedasmanyseatsasanotherpartycalledtheSocialistRevolutionaryParty,whichthreatenedtoposesomeseriousproblemsfortheBolsheviks.Theirresponse,underLenin’sdirection,cameintheformofeliminatingtheConstituentAssemblyaltogether.Theotherpartiesresistedthismovestrongly,asdidmanycitizens.AstheRussianCivilWarbegantounfoldasareactiontoLenin’smovetoignorethe

1SeLf-cHecK

What concepts did

Lenin add to socialist

philosophy, as explained

in his April Theses?



willofthepeople,LeninandtheBolsheviksre-formedintoanewgroupknownmoreformallyastheCommunistParty.TheBolshevikswouldtrytotakesupremeandabsolutecontrolofRussia.

UnderstandinghowtheBolsheviksreactedtotheConstituentAssembly’snewmakeupandthecivilwarthatresulted,though,requiresanunderstand-ingoftheNovemberRevolution.ThisuprisingtookplaceatthebeginningofNovember1917,andtheProvisionalGovernmentwasoustedquicklyandwithlittlebloodshed.LeninsteppedintocreatearegimefocusedonachievingmanysignificantchangesinRussianlife.Thefirsttookplaceonaninterna-tionalscale.UnliketheProvisionalGovernment,whichkeptRussiafightinginWorldWarIeventhoughmanyRussiancitizenswantedtheircountryoutoftheconflict,theBolsheviksagreedwiththeirfellowcitizensthatthewarshouldend.Lenin’sregimeagreedtoarapidsettlementtotheconflict,andbeganplanningwaystobestextricateRussiafromthewar.

Theotherchangesoccurredclosertohome.Priortotherevolutions,Russiahadbeenasocietycomposedoffewaristocratsandmanypeasantfarmers;themajorityhadworkedforthepleasureandluxuryofthefew.TheBolshevikswantedtochangeallthat.Thus,theBolsheviksappropriatedthefarmsthathadpreviouslybelongedtotherichandsuccessfulmembersofsocietyandbestowedtheminsteadtothemembersofthelowerclassesthatlaboredonthoseproperties.Atmanufacturingplants,author-ityandpowershiftedfromthefewinmanagerialpositionstothemanylaborerstheplantsemployed.

Otherchangeswouldbeevenmoredrastic.Thenewgovernmentwantednodistractionsfromitsinexperiencedauthority,soittargetedthetwoechelonsofsocietythatstillpossessedsomepowerthroughoutRussia:religiousorganizationsandaristocraticpeople.TheRussianOrthodoxChurchposedamajorthreattotheBolshevikgovernmentbecauseofitstraditionalinfluenceoverthecountry’scitizens.Inpreviouscenturies,thechurchhadbecomecloselyintertwinedwiththearistocratic,rulingregime.TheBolshevikswantedtomovereligionfartherawayfromthegovernment.Todoso,theyclaimedtheRussianOrthodoxChurchhadbecomeresistanttosocialchange.TheBolsheviksstartedshuttingdownplacesofworship,aswellastheplaceswheremonksandnunslivedandworked.Thegovernmentalsostartedseizingchurchproperty.

TheBolshevikshobbledthechurch’spowerinotherways.Itbecameillegalforofficialmembersofthechurchtosharereligiousideaswithothers.Moreover,thegovernmentrefusedtoacknowledgechurchweddingsasvalid.Peoplecouldonlygetmarriedlegallyaccordingtoagovernmentritual.Thechurch’slossofpowersoonspreadtothearistocracy.Individualsofthearistocraticlevelsofsoci-etyfoundthemselveswithoutthestatussymbolsoftheirclass,astheBolsheviksdidawaywiththepowerofpeoplelikecountsorlords.Anaristocraticpositionbecameworthnothing.

Finally,theBolshevikschangedthewayRussianswrotebymakingtheshapeofCyrillicletterslesscomplicated.AndtheregimeabandonedtheformercalendarRussianshadusedforcenturies,theJulian,infavoroftheGregoriansystemusedbyWesterncountries.

communists formerly the Bolsheviks, a politi-cal group led by Lenin, who wanted to establish a socialist society after an uprising led by the working class



TheBolshevikssoonhadtheopportunitytomakeotherlegislativechangesaswell.LeninhaddeliberatelyselectedthebeginningofNovemberasastrategictimefortheBolshevikstomaketheirplayandtakedowntheProvisionalGovernment.Oneofthereasonshehadselectedthattimewasbecauseofitsproximitytoaplannedelectoralprocess.TheProvisionalGovernmenthadlaidthegroundworkforavotingprocessthatwouldaddmemberstothenewConstituentAssemblyattheendofthesamemonth.Byswoopinginandtakingoverthegovernmentpriortothevoting,Leninhopedtoquicklygainlegitimacyforhisnewregimethroughthevotingprocess.UnfortunatelyforLeninandthenewBolshevikregime,theresultsofthevotesdidnotfullylegitimizeorgiveauthoritytotheBolsheviks.Thishappenedbecause,atthetime,alargegapstillexistedinRussiabetweenthesmallernumberofpeoplewholivedinurbancentersandthefarlargernumberofpeoplewholivedinruralorisolatedareas.TheBolshevikshadsuccessfullytargetedandwonovermanyofthepeoplelivingintheurbancenters,butwinningoverthewidelyspreadoutlowerclasswouldtakemoretime.ManyofthepeoplelivingonfarmsthroughouttheRussiancountrysidesupportedtheSocialistRevolutionaries.MembersofthispartyreceivednearlydoubletheamountofrepresentationinthenewConstituentAssemblyastheBolsheviks.ThiskindofmajorityintheConstituentAssemblyensuredthattheSocialistRevolutionariescouldkeeptheBolsheviksfromgoverning.

Becauseofthisdynamic,thereignoftheConstituentAssemblywasshortlived.TheassemblycametogetherintheRussiancapitalofPetrogradforthefirsttimein1918,anditsfirstmeetingwasalsoitslast.SincetheBolshevikscouldnothopetocontroltheassembly,theysimplyeliminatedit.TheBolsheviks’nextmove,underLenin’sdirection,cameintheformationofanelite,clandestinelawenforcementteam.ThisteamtookonthenameoftheChekaandworkedsilentlybutmercilesslyonbehalfoftheBolshevikstokeeptherevolutionsafe.ThecombinationofthesetwoactionsshowedthatdespiteLenin’searlierclaimstoreformsocietyonbehalfofthepeople,hehadbecomemuchmoreinterestedinsafeguardingpowerforhimselfandhisparty.OnemanatthetopstillcontrolledthefateofthemanyinRussia.

LeninexercisedhiscontrolfirmlyinMarch1918whenheachievedthelong-awaitedgoalofextricatingRussiafromWorldWarI.DoingsorequiredaseriesofdiscussionswiththeGermangovernmentandculminatedinapeaceagreement,theTreatyofBrest-Litvosk,thatseverelycostRussia.Accordingtothetermsofthetreaty,Russiawouldloseagreatdealofitsterritoryinthewest,aswellasthecitizenswholivedthere:asubstantialamountofitspopulationandlandmass.TheregionsthatwouldbelostincludedanewgroupofsmallcountriesintheBalticscalledLithuania,Estonia,andLatvia.RussiaalsohadtoagreetogiveupPolandandFinlandentirely,andtocedecontrolofpartsofseveralotherregions,includingtheUkraine,Transcaucasia,andBelorussia.DespitethehighcostsoftheseconditionsLeninagreedtothem.

LeninbackeduphisclaimthatRussiahadnootherrecourseinacceptingthetreaty,becauseitsimplycouldnotaffordtocontinuefightinginthewargivenconditionsathomewithanother,morewishfulidea.Hebelievedthetreatywouldbetemporary,sinceGermany’spowerwouldbe,too.Leninbelievedthat

2SeLf-cHecK

How did the Bolsheviks

restrain the power of

the Russian Orthodox

Church?



Germany’spowerwouldfadewhenthesocialistideasandreformspresentinRussiaspreadoutaspartoftheworld revolution andencompassedGermany.Germanywouldbecomeconsumedbyitsownrevolution,andRussiacouldreclaimthelandsithadlost.

Russian civil War and RebirthLenin’sswiftstrategiesandcleverplanningoftheNovemberRevolutionhadtakentheProvisionalGovernmentbysurprise,andboughttheBolshevikssometimetosetupanddelineatetheirnewregimebeforefacingorganizedopposition.Whileothersstruggledtocometotermswiththechangeingovernment,theBolsheviksmovedaheadandrapidlystartedmakingchangestoRussia’sbureaucraticfabric.ThisincludeddisbandingtheConstituentAssembly,thensigningtheTreatyofBrest-LitvoskandwithdrawingfromWorldWarIinMarch1918.Soonafter,though,membersofotherpoliticalparties,includingtheSocialistRevolutionaries,beganplottingagainsttheBolsheviks.

Bythemiddleof1918,theBolshevikshadbeguncallingthemselvesCom-munists.FromtheirpositionattheheadoftheRussiangovernment,theCommunistsenteredthecivilwarwithmanyelementsofsupport.First,theCommunists’centerofpoweralsohappenedtolieinRussia’scapitalcity,Petrograd.WhilethisdidnotgivetheCommunistswidespreadpowerovermoreruralareas,itmeanttheycouldreachmanypeoplequicklyandenjoyedmoreauthorityinurbancenters.Second,theCommunistshadmadeinroadsintocontrollingmanufacturingplantsandother

world revolution breaking the “chain” of capitalism and estab-lishing socialist reform across the globe

The Red Army served as the revolutionary militia during the Russian Civil War (1918–1922).



businesseswhentheyturnedthemovertotheworkers,whotheycalledproletariats.Thismeanttheyhadbetteraccesstoproducts,weapons,andtechnologythantheiropponents.Third,becauseofthecombinationofbeingbasedinurbancentersandhavingbetteraccesstomanufacturing,theCommunistscouldsendmessagesandmovefoodorweaponsamongthemselvesmuchmorequicklythantheiroppo-nents.Finally,theCommunistsorganizedanarmytodefendthemselvesfairlyquickly.ThepartyinstalledLeonTrotsky(1879–1940)asthecommanderofthisforce,whichbecameknownastheRedArmy.TrotskyreceivedtheofficialtitleofCommissarofWarand,throughtheRedArmy’ssuccess,soonrevealedhisaptitudeformilitarystrategy.

Incomparison,thesidefightingagainsttheCommunistshadmuchtoover-come.ThissidebecamereferredtocommonlyastheWhites,inoppositiontotheReds.TheWhiteshadamoredifficulttimeorganizingthemselvestocompetewiththeRedArmy.NotonlydidtheWhiteslackthebenefitstheCommunistscouldrelyon,theydidnotpossessacommonunderlyingpoliticalideology.Certainly,theysharedmanycommonideas,buttheydidnothaveaplatformthatunitedthem.Instead,theyrepresentedamélangeofmanylesserpoliticalideologies,withamajorityofSocialistRevolutionaries,butalsocomprisingtheMensheviks(formerlyoftheRSDLP),Cadets,andotherindividualswhohadremainedloyaltothedeposedtsar.PeoplewhoremainedundecidedaboutthecivilwarinotherrespectsworriedthattheWhites’overallplanwouldbetoreinstatethetsarandputthegovernmentbackthewayithadbeen,especiallywhenotherAlliedcountriesintercededtohelptheWhites.

Despitethesesignificantsetbacks,theWhiteArmysurprisedmanybyinitiallywinningsignificantterritory,especiallyinmoreruralregionsofthecountry.Atfirst,theRedArmyhadeveryrighttobeworried.AsearlyasJuly1918,theWhiteArmyclosedinontheregionoftheUralMountains,whichworriedtheBolsheviksbecausethedeposedroyalfamilyhadbeenlivinginEkaterinburg,atownnearthatregion.ItseemedasthoughtheWhiteArmywasdeterminedtofreetheroyalsasafirststepinalonglineofrestoringtheautocracy.Toputastoptoit,theCommunistsintheUralshadtheentireroyalfamilyexecuted,includingthechildren.

Despitethisbrutalact,theWhiteArmypusheditstroopsintothefarreachesofRussia,reachingtheCaucasus,theUkraine,theBaltics,andSiberiaoverthenexttwoyears.However,theRedArmypushedback,gainingvictoriesoverthebranchesoftheWhiteArmyonebyone.IntheCaucasus,PiotrWrangel(1878–1928)andhistroopslosttotheReds;intheUkraine,GeneralAntonDenikin(1872–1947)hadtoadmitdefeat.GeneralNikolaiYudenich(1862–1933),fightingintheBaltics,hadtoconcedethatregiontotheRedArmy,justasAdmiralAlexanderKolchak(1874–1920)hadtogiveupinSiberia.By1920,allofthemostimportantWhiteArmyleadershadbeenvanquishedbytheRedArmy.YetthewarcontinuedastheWhiteArmyrefusedtogiveupfortwomoreyears.

Inthemeantime,Russiahadtocontendwithinternationalaffairs,asJapan,Britain,France,andtheUnitedStatesallsteppedintotrytoaffectmattersinRussia’sdomesticproblems.JapansteppedinduringthebattlesinSiberiatotrytohelpthe



WhiteArmy.TheotherthreeAllies,actingagainstGermany,alldeployedforcestoRussiainanattempttoprotectsomenaturalresourcesthatGermanycoveted.ManyoftheAlliesaidedtheWhiteArmyagainsttheRedArmy.Butthisaidcamemoreasagesturethanathoroughhelpinghand;theAlliesdidnotactsignificantlyagainsttheCommuniststohelptheWhiteArmyrevoltcompletely.Ultimately,then,thisinterferencematteredmorebecauseofwhatitwasthanwhatitaccomplished.Thewinningside,theRedArmy,wouldenterintothenextyearswithangeragainsttheAlliesforcrossingitsbordersandattemptingtomeddleinwhatitsawasaprivatematter.ThisattitudewouldaffectthewayRussiaapproachedinternationalrelationswiththeotherWesterncountriesforyearstocome.

civil War consequencesThecivilwarhadseriousconsequencesforRussia.TheCommunistshadonlyrecentlyregainedtheterritoriestheyhadlostasaresultofsigningtheTreatyofBrest-LitvoskwithGermany.NearlyalltheregionsRussiahadregainedaftertheofficialendofWorldWarIwouldreengagewithRussiatosecuretheirownauton-omy,andabouthalfofthemwouldsucceed.Indeed,fourcountries—includingFinlandandthethreenewlycreatedterritoriesofLithuania,Estonia,andLatviaintheBaltics—managedtosuccessfullywithdrawfromRussiaandemergeasautono-mousentities.Anothercountry,Bessarabia,didnotachieveitsownautonomybutfellinsteadtothecontrolofRomania.TheUkraine,Georgia,andArmeniaallwenttobattlefortheirautonomy,butultimatelydidnotsucceed.Morechangeswouldcomein1920.Priortothatpoint,Polandhadbowedtopressurefromlarger,morepowerfulcountrieslikeRussiaandGermany.Butin1920,thetablesturned,andPolandattackedRussia.PerhapsbecauseRussiahadbecomeweakenedbytheongoingwarbetweentheRedandWhiteArmies,PolandgainedenoughgroundtomakesignificantdemandsbyMarchofthefollowingyear,whenthetwocountriesagreedtotheTreatyofRiga,whichgrantedPolandsignificantterritorythathadformerlybelongedtoRussia.

Inthemeantime,theCommunistsutilizingtheRedArmycontinuedtoreshapeRussiansocietyaccordingtotheirideals.Inparticular,theypromotedatemporarysetofpolicies,calledWarCommunism,whichgavethegovernmentevenmorepowerovertheentirenation.First,thegovernmentusedWarCommunismtoseizecontrolofmanybusinessesandmanufacturingfirms.Thegovernmentalsotookoverotherimportantorganizationsusedbycivilians,suchasthosethatprovidedcoverageagainstdisasteranddeath,andfinancialinstitutions.Inaddition,thegovernmentforbadepeoplefrommarketingorexchanginggoodswithoutgoingthroughthestate.ItsoonbecameevidentthattheCommunistswantedthegov-ernmenttobeconnectedtoeveryimportantaspectoftheeconomy.

TheideasofWarCommunismdidnothingtohelpdefraythefinancialandothercostsofthecivilwar.Itisimportanttorememberthatevenbeforethecivilwarbegan,theRussianshadencounteredsevereshortagesoffoodandsuppliesfromfightinginWorldWarI.Thegovernmentsoonstartedemployingapolicyotherregimeshadpreviouslyrejected,demandingthatfarmersgiveuptheirhard-wonfoodstuffstopeopleinurbancenters,wherefoodshortageshadbecomesevere.Naturally,this

3SeLf-cHecK

Which two sides fought

in the Russian Civil War,

and what politic parties

were they made up of?



causedanimositybetweenfarmersandothercitizenswhosawthemselveslosingtheproductsoftheirlabor,oftenwithoutfaircompensation.

EvenwithaspecialcommitteecalledtheSupremeEconomicCouncilsetuptowatchoverRussia’sfinances,thecountrystruggledtomakeendsmeet.Russia’sentirefinancialsystemthreatenedtocollapsealtogetheras,onebyone,eachele-mentofitsinfrastructurestartedtogiveway.Thecollapseofoneareawouldleadtothecollapseofanother,asnothingexistedtoartificiallybolstertheeconomy.First,theoutputoffoodandotherproductsfromfarmsthroughoutRussiasloweddownsubstantially,followedalltooquicklybydecreasedoutputfromfactories.Eveniffoodandproductshadbeenproducedatahigherrate,Russianswouldnothavehadthemoneytoaffordthem.Trainsandothermeansoftravelsloweddownandthreatenedtostopaltogether,whichinturnseverelyhamperedtheRussians’abilitytosendmessagesbackandforthtoeachotheracrossgreatdistances.AllofthisseparatedtheurbancentersfromthesurroundingfarmlandofRussiaevenmore.Theurbancenters,isolatedfromthefarmlands,quicklybegantorunoutofsupplies,andstarvationloomed.

TheCommunistgovernmentdealtwiththisdilemmamercilessly,punishingthosewhodisobeyedtheircommands.TheCommunistsusedcurrencywithverylittleactualvaluetopurchasedesperatelyneededproducts,andthenpunishedpeoplewhoattemptedtoprotesttheblatantunfairnessofsuchexchanges.Publicfeelingworsened,particularlyinagriculturalandruralareas,becauseofunfairtreatment,lackoffood,andincreasingpoverty.Soon,theproblemsbetweensocialclassesthatCommunistshadhopedtoeradicatereturnedwithavengeance.ThisnewRussiahadbecomedividedintofarmersaccumulatingvaluableproducts,likefood,livingoutonthelandandcityfolkwhosawtheirfinancesslippingdailyforlackoffood,theverythingthefarmershoarded.

Ultimately,theCommunistsemergedvictoriousfromthecivilwar.Thisvictorycameaboutbecauseofacomplexconcentrationofelements.Foremostamongthoseelementswasasharedpoliticalideology.ThisBolshevikideology,towhichmostCommunistssubscribedabsolutely,hadatransformativepower.ItfilledtheRedArmywithdeterminationandconviction.TheCommunistsdrewontheRussiancivilians’dislikeoftheWhiteArmy’swillingnesstoinvolveforeignersoroutsidersinRussianmatters,evenastheyemployedtheChekatodotheirdirtywork.ThesecretpolicespiedontheWhiteArmywithgreatsuccess.Moreover,whilebreakdownsinsendingandreceivingmessagesaffectedbothsidesofthewar,theCommunistshadamorecentrallocationthantheWhiteArmyandfounditeasiertoexchangecommuniquésamongthemselves.

Incontrasttotheseelements,theWhiteArmycouldnotpresentastrongfront.Theydidnotshareapoliticalideologyandhadtoendureinfightingwithintheirownranks.Asaresult,theycouldnotmeettheRedArmywithasmuchconviction.TheWhiteArmyhadalsobecomefarmorescatteredandwidespreadthantheRedArmy,givenitsconnectiontoalargerpopulation.Whentransportbrokedownandmessagescouldnotbeexchanged,theWhiteArmybecameforciblyseparatedintoisolatedgroups.Asof1922,itseemedthattheCommunistshaddefeatedtheWhiteArmyandheldRussiafirmlyintheirgrasp,eventhoughpocketsofrebellionpersisted.



Afterstabilizingthegovernment,theCommunistssetouttopunishtheirformerenemiesandextinguishanypossibilityofafurtherrebellion.Indoingso,RussiahopedtosetitselfapartfromFranceintermsofpostrevolutionarybehavior.SomeoftheFrenchrebelsbecamemorelenientaftertheirvictoryandpermittedsomeoftheiropponentstolive.Incontrast,theCommunistswantedtoeradicatealltheiropponents.ThiserabecameknownastheRedTerror.TheCommunistsjustifieditbypaintingthetargetsoftheRedTerrorasopponentsofthestateandtheworkingclass.Onceagain,theyusedtheChekatodotheirdirtywork.ThetargetsoftheRedTerrordidnotgetchancestodefendthemselvesorevenappearincourt.Onceaccused,theycouldbeimmediatelyexecuted.ManymembersoftheWhiteArmy,aswellasmembersofthearistocracyandtheupperclasses,diedduringtheRedTerror.Later,historiansspeculatedthatthenumbersofthedeadcouldhavereachedmorethan2 million.TheCommunists’brutalpoliciesbecamesupremelyeffective.Followingtheendofthecivilwar,theCommunistswouldnotencounteranyfurtherproblemswithpotentialrevolutionariessupportingpreviousregimesorpoliticalparties.

Meanwhile,evenasthecivilwarended,theCommunistregimehadbeenforcedtoadmitthatRussia’scurrentfinancialsituationcouldnotcontinue.TheyearpriortotheRedTerrorsawasignificantmilitaryuprisingagainstthegovernment.Thisupris-ingtookplaceinFebruaryandMarch1921andinvolvednavalforcesstationedatKronstadt.SinceKronstadthadpreviouslybeenontheRedArmy’sside,thisuprisinghitLeninandtheCommunistshard.ThegovernmentrealizedatlastthatsomethinghadtogivewayandthatthecurrentfinancialstateinRussiasimplycouldnotbesustained.LenincreatedanewmeansofapproachingfinanceinRussiacalledtheNewEconomicPolicy(NEP).DespitetheCommunists’passionatedesiretoabolishcapitalism,thenavaluprisinghadmadeLeninrealizethatRussiansocietycouldnotyetsucceedwithoutit.Asaresult,Lenincompromisedbyreturningtosomecapital-isticpracticesandincorporatingthemintoRussianfinance,allthewhilestressingthetemporarynatureofsuchcapitalism.LeninwantedtousecapitalismonlytomaketheRussianeconomystronger.OnceRussia’sfinancialstrengthhadreturned,capitalismcouldbeabolishedforgood.

LeninthenembarkedonanotherseriesofstepstohelpstrengthenRussia’sfinances.Tobolsterpopularpublicopinion,Leninhaltedthecurrentpolicyoftakingfoodfromthefarmersandotherruraldwellerstogivetopeopleinurbanareas.Tosupportthischangeinpolicy,Leninimplementedotherfinancialplanstoswellthemarkets.Insteadofhavingtogiveuptheirfoodtotheurbandwellers,farmerswouldsimplyhavetopaytaxesonit.However,thetaxwouldbecollectedingrains,ratherthanmoney.Thegovernmentcouldthenredistributethegrains.Whateverthefarmershadleftoveraftertheyhadpaidtheirtaxesandfedtheirfamiliestheycouldthenexchangeforothergoodsormoney.Thismorepositiveapproachtofarmingandtaxationenabledfarmerstoworktowardgreaterharvests,whichinturnincreasedRussia’stradeandproduction.Leninalsosetuplegislationthathelpedlowerclassfarmersincreasetheirproduction.Theycouldtemporarilyleasefarmstoplanton,aswellasundertakeharvestsontheirown,andtheygainedtherighttotakeonlaborerstoworkallthelandintheircontrol.

Slowly,theseelementscombinedtoincreaseandstabilizetheRussianeconomy.Russianfinancesgotyetanotherboostfromoverseasentrepreneurs.Inreturn



forspecialdeals,theseentrepreneurshelpedboostRussia’sfinancesbackupsothatthecountrycouldentermoresecurelyintointernationalfinance.FiveyearsaftertheRedTerror,in1927,theRussianeconomyhadrecoveredsubstantially.

Extensions• WatchthesilentfilmTen Days That Shook the World.Thisfilmchroniclesthe

BolshevikRevolutionof1917.HowcouldthisfilmserveaspropagandaforaCommunistgovernmentinRussia?Ofthecharactersinvolved,whoisthemostcompellingandwhy?

SummaryAsthetsarfellfrompower,Leninsawhisownpoliticalfortunesrise.HisearlytraininginthelawandMarxistthoughtpreparedhimforthejobastheleaderoftheBolsheviksafterthatgroupsplinteredfromthelargerRSDLP.IntheAprilTheses,LeninstronglyinfluencedthepracticeofsocialisminRussiaandlaidgroundworkforrevolution.AfterthesuccessfulNovemberRevolution,LeninandtheBolsheviksmademanyreformstoRussia.TheyremovedtheConstituentAssemblyanddecreasedthepowerofthechurchandthearistocracy.InMarch1918,LeninmadeapeacetreatywithGermany,andRussialeftWorldWarI.Thecountrythenplungedintoacivilwar,inwhichover2millionpeopledied.By1922,theCommunistgovernmenthadtakenfirmcontrolofRussia.

Looking AheadAsRussiadealtwithcivilwarandthenattemptedtorebuilditseconomy,othercountrieswatchedclosely.Downtroddenmembersofformerempiressawthepositive(forsome)outcomeoftheRussianRevolutionwithenvyandaspiration.Soon,othercountrieswouldstarttryingtomimictheRussians’success.Lenin’sprojectedvisionofaworldrevolutionwouldbegintocometrue,atleasttempo-rarily.ItwouldbeginnowhereelsebutwithintheboundariesofRussia’sformerlybitterenemy,Germany.

1. The connection between capitalism and imperialism; the idea of a “vanguard party”; the belief that capitalist nations had become “weakest links in a chain”; the concept of “telescoping”; and new plain, bold strategies for revolutionary groups to follow when explaining their wants and needs

2. By taking away its lands and goods, by closing its places of worship, by making it illegal to share

religious ideas, and by invalidating religious marriages

3. The Red Army was made up of Communists, formerly Bolsheviks. The White Army was made up of Cadets, Mensheviks, Social Revolutionaries, and royalists. The Whites received aid from Allied countries, including Britain, France, Japan, and the United States.

SeLf-cHecK ANSWeRS


Russian and German Revolutions

Unit 16, Lesson 13

Keywordsauthoritarian

monarchy

liberal provisional republic

Essential Questions• HowdidtheGermanandRussianrevolutions(in1918and1917,

respectively)compare?

• WhathappenedintheGermanRevolutionof1918?



Set the StageRussia’s revolution in 1917 toppled a dynasty that had ruled the country for more than 300 years and had become one of the few remaining monarchies in the West. The years that followed the revolution would trace a bloody trajectory in Russia. However, immediately afterward, in 1917, people in other countries admired the Russians for liberating themselves from an oppressive government and creating real political change. Other nations’ citizens would try to emulate the Russians by attempting their own revolutions grounded in Marxist ideology. The first country to do so would be the beleaguered nation of Germany.

Similarities and Differences Between the Russian and German RevolutionsRussiaofferedothercountriesinEuropeanexampleofasuccessfulgovernmentaluprisingfollowingahumiliatingsurrenderinWorldWarI.AfterbothAustria-HungaryandGermanysubmittedtotheAllies,thepeopleofbothcountriesbegantoagitateforsocialchange.TheuprisinginAustria-HungarydifferedsubstantiallyfromtheonethathadtakenplacesorecentlyinRussia,however.Theuprisinginthisformerlypowerfulempireconcentratedontwoprincipalelements:individualnationbuildingandgovernmentbyelectoralrepresenta-tion.Theoldimperialnationwantedtotransformintoindividual,autonomouszonesthatrepresentedallcitizens.Fouryearsearlier,itwouldnothavebeenpossible.Austria-Hungary,thenledbytheHapsburgDynasty,hadbasicallyenteredintothewartosafeguarditsmassiveimperialstate.IthadbeentherumblingsofdesireforautonomyfromsmallerregionssuchasSerbiathathadlaidgroundworkforeventualwar.Inshort,Austria-Hungaryhadgonetowartoprotectsomethingthatnolongerexisted.Itsimperialstatewasdissolvedatwar’send.

Thus,Austria-Hungarysplitintodisparateparts.AustriaandHungaryseparatedfromoneanotherandformedtheirownsmallnations.Anothernewcountry,Czechoslovakia,emergedfromtherubble.Meanwhile,theSerbianpeople,strength-enedbythewar,formedanothernewnation:Yugoslavia.YugoslaviaincludedSlavicpeoplesfromthesouthernregionoftheformerHapsburgEmpire.Thus,justlikethat,theHapsburglinedisappeared.Initsplace,severalsmallnationsbeganconcen-tratingoncreatingtheirowngovernments.Theyhadmanymoreproblemsaheadofthem.Yetinaworldwheredistinctionsamongclassesofpeoplehadmatteredsogreatlyforsuchalongtime,assoonasWorldWarIhadended,theseparationofclassesbecamelessimportant.PeopleinthisregionofEuropeworkedtogetheracrossclassestoformtheirnewnations.Problemsbetweenclasseswouldpersist,ofcourse,but,momentarilyatleast,classwarfarewasreplacedwithadesiretobuildnewandimprovedcountries.



WhileeventsinpostwarAustria-HungaryborelittlesimilaritytotheRussianRevolution,thatwouldnotbetrueofeventsinGermany.TheGermanRevolutionofNovember1918hadmanysimilaritiestotheRussianRevolutionthathadprecededit.

TheWeimarRepublicisthenamegiventothefederalrepublicandparlia-mentaryrepresentativedemocracyestablishedin1919inGermanytoreplacetheimperialformofgovernment.ItwasnamedafterWeimar,thecitywheretheconstitutionalassemblytookplace.Generallyspeaking,GermanyandRussiabothwentfromonesimilarstatetoanothersimilarstateduringtherevolution-aryprocess.Atfirst,eachcountryhadbeenruledbyasystemofauthoritarian monarchy,whichresultedinafewpleasedpeopleatthetopofsocietyandagreatdealofunhappypeopleinthemiddleandbottomofsociety.ThepeopleinGermanyandRussiaallfinallybecamefedupwiththiskindofgovernment,whichdidnotrepresentthem,andmostofeachcountry’spopulationspartici-patedinasubstantialrebellion.Aftertheserebellions,bothcountriesendedupwithanewformofgovernmentthatcanbestbedescribedasaliberal provisional republic.Bothgovernmentsproclaimedthemselvesastemporary,bothremainedcommittedtogradualchange,andbothseemedtopromiserepresentationbyelectiontothepeople.Moreover,eachoftheseliberalprovi-sionalrepublicscenteredonsocialistpoliticianswithbeliefsthattendedmoretothesideof“slowandsteady”change.Inoppositiontoeachofthesegovern-ments,bothcountrieswatchedasunionsoflaborersandmembersofthearmedforcesbegantospringup.

ThesimilaritiesbetweeneventsinRussiaandinGermanyendedwiththeprovisionalrepublics.InRussia,atthispoint,moreextremerebelssuchastheBolsheviksperseveredandeventuallylaunchedasecondrevolution.Russia’sProvisionalGovernmentfelltotheBolshevik,laterCommunist,regime.Incontrast,inGermanythemorecautiousmembersoftheSocialDemocraticPartytriumphedoverthecommunistrevolutionaries.TheGermancommunists,inretrospect,wouldbelievetheyhadfailedandawealthiermiddleclasshadtriumphed.Russia’sBolshevikshadsucceededinlargepartbecauseofLenin’sleadership;GermanydidnothaveaLenintoguideitsfellowMarxists.

Results of the German Revolution TheabsenceofaleaderlikeLeninwasnottheonlyreasonGermany’srevolutiondidnottakethesameultimatepathasRussia’s.ManyotherfactorscombinedtokeepGermany’sgovernmentmoremoderate.Russia’sMarxistssimplyhadbecomemoreradicalthantheGermans.GermanyhadapoliticalpartyknownastheSocialDemocrats,whichpresentedamixtureofsocialistandMarxistideas,andhadexistedpriortoWorldWarI.InGermany,though,thispartywasmoreradicalinnamethaninaction.

TheGermanSocialDemocrats,likeearlyrevolutionariesintheUnitedStates,wantedtobringdemocracytotheircountry.Thepeopleinthispartyalsowantedtoestablishmoreindividualrights,orcivilliberties,forpeopleinGermany.Ratherthanabolishcapitalismoutright,theywantedtoslowlyease

1SeLf-cHecK

What two things did

the people of Austria-

Hungary hope to achieve

through revolution?

authoritarian monarchy system of government where a royal leader has nearly absolute control

liberal provisional republic temporary form of government that has popularly elected representatives and is invested in gradual reform



awayfromitastheymovedtoanotherfinancialsystem.AllthesegoalsmarkedthemasverydifferentfromtheBolshevikrebels.Additionally,theGermanSocialDemocratsremainedveryinvestedinkeepingtheirnationunitedandsecure—unlikeLenin,whodidnothesitatetoreleaseterritoriesintreatiesorplungetheBolsheviksintocivilwar.Inotherwords,theydoubledasGermannationalists.Assuch,theyremainedunabletotolerateanyhintofinternaltroubleintheirowncountry,suchasthepossibilityofyetanotherrevolutionorinternalwar.

InRussiatheBolshevikshadfoundaidandcommongroundwiththecoun-cils,whichrepresentedbothlaborersandmembersofthearmedforces.Withthecouncilsbehindthem,theBolshevikshadbeenabletoapproachrevolu-tionwithsomeconfidence.InGermany,theoppositewastrue.PeopleintheGermancouncilsfavoredamoderateapproach.Inthesuccessful,large-scaleuprisingsinhistory,themajorityofthemmovedforwardbecausetheyhadthebackingandsupportofthemasses.Theyfoundtheirstrengthinnumbers.Ittookmanypeopletomakenewpolitics.WithoutthatkindofmasssupportinGermany,futurerevolutionarieswouldbeisolatedandalone.

Russia’sProvisionalGovernmenthadformedafteraninternalstrugglewhenthecountry’srulerabdicated.Atthetime,RussiahadbeenengagedinWorldWar Iandhadbeenlosing,buthadnotyetbeendecisivelydefeated.Incontrast,the

Karl Liebknecht cofounded the Communist Party of Germany with Rosa Luxemburg.



GermanSocialDemocratswhoruledGermanyaftertheNovemberRevolutionbegantheiradministrationontheexactsamedaythatGermanycededvictoryinWorldWarItotheAllies.TheSocialDemocrats’regimewouldbeforeverlinkedtotheendofWorldWarI.

Initially, insomewaysthisconnectionbecameapositiveonefortheGermans.BythetimeGermanyacknowledgeditslossinthewar,itsarmedforceshadbecomedepressedanddistraught.Incedingvictorywithdignity,thegovernmentbroughtitsarmedforcesbacktogetherandgavethembacktheirself-respect.Manyofthemorepowerfulfiguresinthearmedforceshadtraditional,moderatebackgrounds,anditempoweredthemtosharetheirvalueswiththegovernment.

Thisconnectiontothemilitaryinfactpreservedtheprovisional,moderateregime,whichwastestedsoonafteritsemergence,inJanuary1919.JustasLeninhadinspiredtheBolshevikstorevoltagainsttheprovisionalgovernment,sotoodidtwoGermanextremists,KarlLiebknecht(1871–1919)andRosaLuxemburg(1870–1919),attempttogatherfollowersandrevoltagainsttheirownprovisionalgovernment.Leninhadthesupportofanarmy;LiebknechtandLuxemburgworkedagainstit.Facedwithpossiblerebellion,theGermanSocialDemocratsactedimmediatelytobringinthesympatheticarmedforcesontheirbehalf.Therebellionendedalmostassoonasitbegan,asthetwoleaderssurrenderedtothearmedforcesandweresummarilyexecuted,afardifferentfatethanLenin’s.ThefactthatLiebknechtandLuxemburgdiedfortheirideassplittheSocialDemocratsintwo.Themoreradicalmembersofthepartyleftitasanactofprotest,andsetupaCommunistpartyoftheirown,onethatsharedsimilarideastothoseofLenin.

Yetdespitethecrueltythemoreliberalpartymembershadendorsed,thefactthattheyhadpreventedaBolshevik-stylerebellionprobablypreservedGermany.True,thegovernmenthandledtheuprisingwithgreatviolence.Hadtherebellioncontinued,however,Germanywouldhaveprobablyendedupingreatdanger.InJanuary1919,Germanyoccupiedavulnerableplaceontheworldstage,withitsformerenemieswatchingitcloselyastheypreparedthetermsofpeace.InRussia,asuccessfulrevolutionbytheBolshevikswouldbefollowedbyintensecivilwar.WhatifthesamethinghadhappenedinGermany?Givenotherconditions,itseemslikelythathadthearmynotstoppedLiebknecht,Luxemburg,andtheirfollowers,Germanywouldhavebeensetonapathtowardinternaldiscord,tornbetweentwoseparatebutequalopposingparties.ThatwouldhaveleftGermanyvulnerabletoAlliedinterference.AsoneconditionoftheNovember1918initialpeacetreaty,theAlliedforceshadlefttroopsinpartofGermanywhiletheycompletedtheTreatyofVersailles.ItwouldhavetakenverylittletimeforthesetroopstoreachBerlin,theGermancapital,andiftheAllieshadenteredinthemiddleofacivilwar,Germanyasanationmighthaveneverrecovered.

ScholarshavefrequentlycriticizedGermany’sgovernmentduringthistimeforitsoverlyharsh,crueltreatmentofitsrebelsandforitspoliticalparty’sabandonmentofMarxisttenets.However,itseemslikelythattheterribleactionsthispartyendorsedalsoworkedtokeepitsnationtogether.

2SeLf-cHecK

What was the

German Social

Democrats’ attitude

toward capitalism,

as opposed to the

Bolsheviks’ attitude?

3SeLf-cHecK

Which two people tried

to spur a Communist

revolution in Germany?

What happened

to them?

Rosa Luxemburg became a popular and outspoken revo-lutionary in Germany after the armistice in November 1918. She was an important leader in the Spartacist movement.



Extensions• Read“Oh!How—GermanIsThisRevolution!”byRosaLuxemburginThe

Class Struggle(Vol.III,No.4,August1919).HowdoesthepenalsysteminGermanyin1918demonstratebourgeoisbrutality?HowdoesLuxemburgfeelaboutcapitalpunishment?Why?WhatisthefirstdemandofLuxemburgtotheWorkers’andSoldiers’Council?

SummaryRussia’srevolutionarymovementsinspireduprisingsinmanyothercountries.Austria-Hungarydissolvedintoagroupofindependent,republicannations:Austria,Hungary,Czechoslovakia,andYugoslavia.ItsrevolutionsseemedverydifferentfromRussia’s.Initially,Germany’s1918revolutionseemedeerilyliketheRussianRevolutionof1917,asbothcountriestransferredfrommonarchiestoliberalrepublics.YetwhileRussiaenduredanotherrevolutionandbecameaCommunistcountry,Germany’srevolutionstoppedwiththeliberalrepublic.Itwouldcontinuetochangeaccordingtomoderateterms,aftercruellyavertinganotherpotentialCommunistrebellion.

Looking AheadGermanyweatheredthepotentialradicalrebellionandcomethroughwithitsmoderategovernmentstillintact.Lifewouldbegoodforashorttime,andanewgovernment,theWeimarRepublic,wouldrise.Yetbythesummerof1919,whenthetermsoftheTreatyofVersailleshadbeenrevealed,Germanywouldbeplungedintodespair,devastatedbytheharshtermsofthepeace.Manycitizenswouldblametheirgovernmentforthoseterms,althoughinthatmatterofinternationalnegotiation,theWeimarRepublichadbeenpowerless.WoundedbytheTreatyofVersailles,Germanywouldfallunderthespellofanewpoliticianwhopromisedrevengeforthehumiliatingpeace.Anotherinevitableconflictloomed.

1. Autonomy for individual nations, government by electoral representation within those nations

2. The German Social Democrats wanted to phase out capitalism slowly, while the Bolsheviks wanted to abolish it right away.

3. Karl Liebknecht and Rosa Luxemburg; both were executed

SeLf-cHecK ANSWeRS


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