Unit 12, Lesson 1 The Industrial Revolution...

The Industrial Revolution Begins

Unit 12, Lesson 1

Keywordsmechanized

production

merchant-capitalist

Essential Questions• WhydidtheIndustrialRevolutionbegininBritain?

• Whatwerethefirstfactorieslike?

• Whatwerethekeycomponentsofprotoindustrialization?

• Whatwascottageindustry?

• HowdidtheagriculturalrevolutionmotivatetheIndustrialRevolution?

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580 Unit 12, Lesson 1

Set the StageMany dynamic and dramatic changes took hold in almost every aspect of European life during the eighteenth century. These changes occurred for all classes of people. They also set the stage for the Industrial Revolution. During the late 1700s, many unique circumstances—from geographic location to the abundance of cheap food—converged in Great Britain, thus stimulating industrial innovation. Although the Industrial Revolution began in England, the associated spirit of innovation, the desire for increased profit, and the use of new productive capacity began to spread across Europe throughout the 1830s and 1840s. While poverty certainly did not disappear, scarcity for all was no longer the norm. The Industrial Revolution raised the standard of living in Europe and put manufactured goods within the grasp of most Europeans.

Great Britain at the Close of the Eighteenth CenturyThemanychangesinthought,economy,agriculture,politics,andsocietythatoccurredduringthe1700ssetthestagefortheIndustrialRevolution,whichbeganinGreatBritainduringthelastdecadesofthecentury.WhileFrancewasinturmoilbecauseofthepoliticalupheavaloftheFrenchRevolution,Englandwasonthebrinkofaneconomicandsocialrevolutionthatwouldtransformsocialclassmembership,workpatterns,andthepoliticalstatusamongnations.ThefirstinventionsandmechanizedfactoriesoftheIndustrialRevolutionaroseoutofaneedtoincreasetheproductionofthreadintheBritishtextileindustry.Additionally,severalgeographical,political,economic,andsocialconditionsthatexistedinGreatBritainattheendoftheeigh-teenthcenturymadeEnglanduniquelysuitedforindustrialinnovationandexpansion.

Defining the Industrial RevolutionTheIndustrialRevolutionwasagradualprocessofindustrialgrowth,utilizingnewmethodsofmechanized production.ItbeganinGreatBritainduringthelatedecadesoftheeighteenthcenturyandcontinuedthroughmostofthenineteenthcentury.TheIndustrialRevolutionreplacedoldpatternsofscarcityandwantwithnewpatternsofmaterialabundanceandincreasingaccesstofoodandgoods.Also,theworkandenergyofhumansandanimalswasreplacedbytheworkandenergyprovidedbymineralresourcesandmachines.Thesenewsourcesofenergywerebelievedtobeinexhaustible,unlikehumaneffort.Overall,theIndustrialRevolutionwascharacter-izedbyarisingstandardoflivingandmoregoodsproducedatcheaperrates.

Cottage Industry and the Period of “Protoindustrialization”Theeighteenth-centurysystemofruralindustrialproductionwascalledtheputting-outsystem,domesticindustry,orcottageindustry.Thetermprotoindustrializationhasalsobeenusedbyhistorianstodistinguishthisphaseofruralindustrialworkfromworkinmechanizedfactories.

mechanized production the use of machines to produce manufactured goods, rather than relying on human work and hand tools


Unit 12, Lesson 1 581

Thisruralworkwascharacterizedbytheuseofhandtoolsandthecreationoffinishedproductsonepieceatatime.Cottageworkerswerepaidbythepiecefortheirlabor.Theputting-outsystemwasanearlyformofcapitalism.Merchant-capitalistswithcapital,intheformofrawmaterials,wouldlendoutthatcapitaltoworkers.Workersthenturnedthosematerialsintofinishedgoodsintheirhomesorworksheds.Forexample,somemerchantsprovidedruralworkerswithrawwool.Merchantsalsooftensuppliedworkerswithspinningwheels,looms,orotherequipmentfortheprocessingofrawmaterials,butthemerchantsretainedownershipoftheequipment.Asinglefamily,ormultiplefamilies,wouldthenspinthewoolintothread,weavethethreadintocloth,anddyethecloth.Theclothmightthenbetakento“clothiers”or“drapers”toproduceafinishedprod-uctthatthemerchantcouldsellontheopenmarket.Aftersellingthefinishedproducts,merchantshadprofitstopayworkerswithandmorecapital,whichtheywouldthen“putout”again.

Cottageindustriesoperatedoutsideoftheguildsystem,whichgavemerchantsandworkersmorefreedomtodevelopnewmethodsofproductionandmakeadap-tationstofittheirneeds.Andthereweremanyadaptations.Sometimesworkersmadeproductswiththeirownrawmaterialsandsimplyemployedmerchantstoselltheirwares.Othertimes,workersfacedcomplicatedtasksthatrequiredadditionalhelporspecializedskills,andsotheyhiredsubcontractorstocompleteaproject,therebybecomingemployersthemselves.Astheeighteenthcenturyprogressed,moreandmoreworkersearnedatleastpartoftheirincomeincottageindustries,sotheimportanceofthesewagesincreased.

Cottageworkwasusuallydoneinahome,typicallybyfamilymembers.Thesettinginitselfwasmorecomfortablethanworkingatafactoryunderasupervisor.Theenterprisewasoftendirectedbythefather,whowasassistedbyhiswifeandchildren.Certainlythereweredeadlines,butworkerswerefreetodirecttheirownschedule.Theycouldworkortakebreaksattheirowndiscretion.Sincetheywerepaidforfinishedproducts,therewasincentivetofinishone’sworkasquicklyaspossible,butthepaceofworkwasultimatelyinthehandsoftheworker.Inaddition,itleftthepaceofworkinthehandsoftheworker.Workincottageindustriescouldalsobedictatedbytheseasonsoreventhetimeofday.Forinstance,itwascommonforworkersinthedairybusinesstobequitebusymilkingcowsinthemorningandintheevening,buttohavenobusinessresponsibilitiesintheafternoon.Likewise,cottageworkerswhowerebothweaversandfarmersmightbebusyinthespringplowingandsewingseedsorbusyinthefallwiththeharvest,andwouldthereforefocuslessonweavingduringthosetimes.

Itwaspossibletomanufacturemanydifferentkindsofproductsincottageindustry,andworkersproducedeverythingfromtextiles,buttons,andglovestosilverware,housewares,clocks,andmusicalinstruments.Andthemajorityofgoodsmadebyruralworkerswereofaqualitythatmadethemsufficientforeverydayuse.However,luxurygoodsforthewealthy,suchasfineporcelainandfancytap-estries,stillrequiredspecializedtrainingandaworkshoptomake,sotheywerenotgenerallyapartofanycottageindustry.

merchant-capitalist urban entrepreneur who provided raw materials and equipment to cottage workers, paid for labor by the piece, and sold the finished manufactured goods



TheEnglishwerethefirsttodevelopcottageindustriesbroadlyandsuccess-fullyinlargepartbecauseEnglandlackedinternaltariffsandhadaweakguildstructure.AlthoughtheBritishdidnotleadtheworldinmanufacturingin1750,Englanddidhavethemostrapidlyexpandingtextileindustry,andtheBritishbecameknownforthequalityoftheirspunandwovenwoolencloth.Asearlyas1500,halfofEnglishtextilesweremadeinthecountryside,andbythestartoftheeighteenthcentury,thetextileindustryreliedmoreoncottageindustrythanurbanindustrialproduction.

Agricultural Innovation Stimulates Industrial InnovationTheroleofagriculturalinnovationinbringingabouttheIndustrialRevolutioninEnglandcannotbeoverstated.In1700,agriculturalproductivityinGreatBritainwassecondonlytoHolland.Furthermore,theEnglishwereconstantlyimplement-ingnewfarmingmethodsoverthecourseoftheeighteenthcentury.Twomajorresultsofallthisinnovationwereplentifulcropsandlowprices.Ordinaryfamilies,inadditiontohavingenoughtoeat,couldnowaffordtobuymanufacturedgoods,causingdemandtoincrease.

Britishnobleswhoownedlandwereanxioustoincreasetheprofitabilityoftheirlandholdings,whichwouldalsoincreasetheircashflow.Thus,noblespracticedselectivebreeding,utilizednewagriculturaltechnology,suchasseeddrillsandfer-tilizer,andplantednewcrops,includingpotatoes,turnips,sugarbeets,andvarioushardygrains.Asaresultofthesenewfarmingmethods,GreatBritainproduced2.5timesmorefoodperacrethanFranceattheendoftheeighteenthcentury.

TheEnclosureActspassedbyParliamentalsocreatedconditionsfavorabletoindustrialinnovationinEngland.SomeenclosedlandthathadpreviouslybeenusedforfarmingwasthereafterusedtograzesheepforuseintheflourishingBritishwoolandtextileindustries.Bysellingwool,landownerscouldbringinagoodprofitwithverylittlelabor.Otherenclosedlandshadpreviouslybeensharedbypeasantvillagersforthecommunalgrazingofanimals.Peasantfarmersthuslostgrazinglandandmanycouldnolongerraiseanimals,whichforcedthemtoseekotheravenuesofearningaliving.Bythetimeenclosurewascomplete,75to90percentofEnglishpeasantshadbecomehiredagriculturallaborers.Mobilerurallaborers,alongwithcottageworkers,formedapotentialindustriallaborforceforcapitalistentrepreneurs.Furthermore,migrationtocitiesprovidedlaborforindustry.Therewereworkerstorunminesandtobuildandrunfactories,recruitsforthearmyandnavy,peopletocolonizenewlands,andmoreconsumersformanufacturedproducts.Yetifworkersweremovingtotownsandcities,thefoodsupplyhadtobeabundantenoughtofeedallthepeoplewhowerenolongerfarming.Hereagaintheincreasedcropyieldsfromtheagriculturalrevolutionwerebeneficial.

Great Britain’s Unique Capacity for Industrial InnovationManyadvantageshelpedmakeGreatBritainahubofindustrialinnovation.Oneofthoseadvantageswasgeographical.Asanisland,GreatBritainwasseparatedand

1SELf-ChECK

What was cottage

industry?



somewhatprotectedfromthemilitarythreatsthatcountriesincontinentalEuropecontinuallyfaced.ThustheBritishdidnotneedtomaintainamassivestandingarmyandcouldfocustheirenergiesontheirnavaldominanceandoverseasempire.Furthermore,nolocationinEnglandwasmorethan20milesfromwater—whetheritwascanal,river,orocean.Sincethecheapestwaytomovegoodsfromoneloca-tiontoanotherwasbywaterratherthanbyland,theprevalenceofwaterwayswasadistinctadvantage.Finally,GreatBritainalsohadanabundanceofironoreandcoal,twoincrediblyimportantandusefulnaturalresourcesthatwouldproveindis-pensibleforindustrialization.

GreatBritainalsohadseveralpoliticaladvantagesoverotherEuropeannations.InGreatBritain,thoseofroyalandaristocraticbirthwerenottheonlyoneswhohadinfluenceinthegovernment.Parliamentenactedlaws,suchastheEnclosureActs,thatpromotedcommercialagricultureandthegrowthofamarketeconomy.Manyparliamentarypoliciesprotectedprivatepropertyandpromotedlaissez-faireprinciples,whichhadtheeffectofincreasingmerchantwealth,notjustthewealthofthecrownandthestate.Furthermore,insteadofexpendingallofitswealthinwarfarewithothernations,Britaindevelopeditsnavy,whichthencouldaidinacquiringmorecolonies,whichinturnprovidedevenmorerawmaterialsandmarketsforBritishproduction.

TheBritisheconomyalsohadaleguponmanycountriesincontinentalEurope.GreatBritain’spromotionoftheagriculturalrevolutioncreatedalarge,wellfed,andmobileworkforcethatcouldworkfirstincottageindustriesandeventuallyinindustrialfactories.Furthermore,unlikeFranceandGermany,Great

A Weaver’s Workshop by Johannes Dircksz van Oudenrogge



Britainhadnotariffstohinderinternaldomestictrade.TheagriculturalrevolutionthatgraduallyspreadthroughoutBritainduringthe1700smadefoodincreasinglyplentifulandinexpensive.SinceanordinaryBritishfamilydidnothavetospendeverypennyitmadeonfood,someincomewasfreeduptobuymanufacturedgoods,aswell.Thenation’sstablegovernmentallowedfortheestablishmentofastablefinancialnetworkofbanksandcreditinstitutions.Theseinstitutionshadcapitaltolendtoentrepreneursandtoinvestingrowingindustries.Additionally,profitmadefrommercantilistglobaltradecouldbereinvestedinmanufacturingenterprisesinGreatBritain.

Finally,GreatBritainhadnumeroussocialadvantagesoverotherEuropeannations.AristocratsoftheoldstyleEuropeansocialstructurewantedtoaccu-mulatewealth,butdidnotpursueprofit,asthatwasseenasacrude,middleclasstrait.Incontrast,overallsocialattitudesinGreatBritainfavoredprofitandinnovation.BoththeBritisharistocratsandthemiddleclasssharedaninterestincommerceandprofitaccumulation.Protestantdissentersweregenerallytol-erated,aswell.However,becausetheywereexcludedfromthepaidclergy,thetraditionaluniversitysystem,andgovernmentpositions,theygenerallymadealivingthroughcommercialtradeandindustry.Theywereofteneducatedatdis-sentingacademies,whichprovidedpracticalbusinessandtechnicaltrainingtotheirstudents.Therefore,manyoftheinventorsoftheearlyIndustrialRevolutioncamefromthisgroupofProtestants.

The first factoriesCottageindustryexpandedallacrossEuropeduringthe1700s,butitwasthemostestablishedinEngland.AscontinentalandcolonialdemandincreasedforBritishtextiles,thelimi-tationsoftheputting-outsystembecameapparent.Becausethetraditionalprocessforspinningwasnotfastanddidnotproducealargeyieldofthread,therealwaysseemedtobeashortageofthreadforweaverstoweaveintocloth,especiallyafter1760.Creativeandindustriousmerchantsandworkersunderstoodthatthedevelopmentofabetter,moreefficientspinningwheelwouldbeextremelyprofitable.Inthiscircum-stance,necessitywasdefinitelythemotherofinvention.Severalsimpletechnologicalbreakthroughs,beginninginthe1730s,pavedthewayforthemechanizationofspinningunderoneroofinthefirstfactories.Theabilitytomanufacturecottonclothmorequicklyandcheaply,whichcausedrapidgrowthinthetextileindustry,wasthefirstmajorinnovationoftheIndustrialRevolutioninEngland.

In1765,JamesHargreavesinventedthecotton-spinningjenny.Earlymodelsofthismachine,whichweresimpleandinexpensive,hadseveralspindlesthatwereconnectedtoaslidingcarriagethathousedslenderthread.Theopera-tormovedthecarriagebackandforthwithonehandand

2SELf-ChECK

What made England

geographically suited for

industrial innovation?

Power looms



turned a wheel to supply powerwiththeother.Thecotton-spinningjennywassmallenoughtobeusedinahomeaspartoftheputting-outsystem.Thus,factorieswerenotimmediatelynecessary.Atroughlythesametime,RichardArkwrightinventedthewaterframe,anothermachinethatgreatlyimprovedandspedupthespinningprocess.Thisinventionhadthecapacitytospinseveralhundredspindlesatonetime.Yetitrequiredwaterpower,sohadtoberunataspecializedmillbuiltnearawatersource.Theseinventionscausedamassiveincreaseincottonyarnproductionduringthe1780s.Tentimestheamountofcottonyarnwasbeingproducedin1790ashadbeenproducedin1770.Cottontex-tileproduction,whichwasprimar-ilymechanized,madeupasmuchas22 percentofEngland’sindustrialproductionby1831.

Factoryproductiondidnotimme-diatelyputanendtotheputting-outsysteminthetextileindustry.Mechanizationandcottageindustryworkedsidebysideandcooperativelyforquitesometime.Thiswasespeciallytruebecausetheproductionoftextilesinvolvedmanystepsbeyondthespinningofthread.Inaddition,themechanizationofmanyotherindustriesdidnotevenbegintooccuruntilafter1830.

Becauseworkingconditionsweremuchbetterforcottageworkersthantheywereinearlyfactories,peoplewerereluctanttotakejobsinfactories.Furthermore,thereadyavailabilityofcottageworkleftspinnersandweaverswithachoiceofwheretheytoiled.MostEnglishfactorieswerebuiltinruralareasuntilthelate1780sbecausetheyreliedonwaterpower,whichwassuppliedbythemanyriversthatrunthroughtheEnglishcountryside.Tofilltheneedforlabor,factoryownerswould“apprentice”orphanchildrenthathadbeenabandonedbytheirparentsandbringthemtoworkintextilefactories.Thesechildrenwerelittlebetteroffthanslaves,astheygenerallyworkedforroomandboardratherthanwages.Inaddition,manywereforcedtoworkforupto14yearsbeforetheywerefreefromtheirapprenticeship.Thesechildrenworked6daysaweek,forupto14hoursaday.Somesufferedbrutalbeatingsfornotworkinghardenough.Althoughitwasnotunusualforpoorchildrenoftheeighteenthcenturytoworklonghoursoutsidetheirhomes,thelarge-scaleexploitationoforphanchildrenduringthisperiodwas

Men in London carrying coke, which was used in blast furnaces, as fuel for the first locomotives or for smelting iron

3SELf-ChECK

What prompted the

invention of the

spinning jenny? Who

invented it? What did

this invention do?



unmatched.Fortunately,thedeplorableworkingconditionsoffactorychildrendidnotcontinueuncriticized,asreformersoftheearlynineteenthcenturyworkedtoendsuchexploitationofchildren.

TheIndustrialRevolutionwasagradualprocessofindustrialgrowth,utilizingnewmethodsofmechanizedproduction.Theinventionofabetter,moreefficientspinningwheelwasjustoneexampleoftheprofit-drivenimpulsetowardinnova-tionthatwouldcharacterizethenineteenthcenturyandmoderncapitalism.AstheIndustrialRevolutionspread,moreandmoreEuropeansrecognizedthatinventingawaytoproducesomethingmorequickly,moreefficiently,andmorecheaplythananyoneelsecouldproduceitwasapathtowealthandpower.

Extensions• ReadsomeofthedebatesbyhistoriansabouttheIndustrialRevolution

inEnglandinThe Causes of the Industrial Revolution in England(R.M.Hartwell,ed.).Whosepositionsorargumentsdoyoufindtobemostinterestingandmostvalid?

SummaryTheIndustrialRevolutionwasagradualprocessofindustrialgrowth.Thisgrowthwasduetothedevelopmentandutilizationofnewmethodsofmechanizedpro-duction.Theworkandenergyofhumansandanimalswerereplacedbytheworkandenergyofmineralresourcesandmachines.Withtheuseofnewmechanizedinventions,eachworkercouldproducemoregoodsatacheapercost.Furthermore,theagriculturalrevolutioninEnglandprovidedanabundanceofinexpensivefood.Thus,evenordinarypeoplehadextramoneytobuymanufacturedgoods.Lowpricesforfoodandgoodsbroughtaboutarisingstandardofliving.Asacoun-try,GreatBritainhadmanyadvantages—geographical,political,economic,andsocial—thatmadeittheideallocationforthedevelopmentofindustrialinnova-tion.Inaddition,thedisplacementofpeasantfarmersbecauseoflandenclosurecreatedalargeandmobilegroupofruralworkersabletoworkincottageindustryandeventuallyinnewfactories.TheIndustrialRevolutionemergedfromthehighlyprofitableandgrowingcottageindustryinEngland.ThefirstinventionsandmechanizedfactoriesaroseoutofaneedtoincreasetheproductionofthreadintheBritishtextileindustry.

Looking AheadTheIndustrialRevolutionincludedtheinventionofnumerousnewmachinesanddevicesthatspeduptheproductionofmanymanufacturedgoods.Oneinventionofextremeimportancewasthesteamengine.Theinventionandperfectionofthesteamengineallowedforadependableandefficientsourceofpowerfornewindustrialmachinery.Theinterrelationshipamongthesteamengine,coalmining,andironproductionwasaprimaryfactorofgrowthduringtheearlyIndustrialRevolution.Furthermore,thesteamengineandimprovementsinthequalityofironledtotheconstructionofrailroads.TheIndustrialRevolutionbeganinEngland,butthengradu-allyspreadacrosstheEuropeancontinentthroughoutthenineteenthcentury.

4SELf-ChECK

Who worked in the first

British factories?



1. A merchant provided equipment and raw materials to cottage workers who used hand tools to produce finished products one piece at a time in their home. Then cottage workers were paid by the piece for their work.

2. First, as an island, Britain was separated and protected from continental military conflict. Second, no location in England was more than 20 miles from water, and water was the cheapest and easiest way to transport goods. Third, Great Britain had an abundant supply of iron ore and coal.

3. The spinning process was slow, and there was a continual shortage of thread that could be woven into cloth. The spinning jenny was invented by James Hargreaves. Early models of this machine, which were simple and inexpensive, had “six to twenty-four spindles . . . mounted on a sliding carriage, and each spindle spun a fine, slender thread. The operator moved the carriage back and forth with one hand and turned a wheel to supply power with the other.”

4. Orphan children

SELf-ChECK AnSwERS


The Invention Explosion

Unit 12, Lesson 2

Keywordscustoms union

locomotive

trunk lines

Essential Questions• Whateighteenth-andnineteenth-centuryinventionsimprovedproduction?

• WhatsimilaritiesanddifferencesaretherebetweencontinentalindustrializationandBritishindustrialization?

• Whatimpactdidrailroadshaveonurbandevelopment?



Set the StageBy the late eighteenth century, Great Britain was primed for industrial expansion. The rise of capitalism, the acceptance of laissez-faire ideas, overseas expansion, and the growth of cottage industry all prepared England for industrialization. Furthermore, British advantages such as access to water for transportation and power, ample natural resources, a stable government, a stable financial system, and a profit-driven marketplace also made England well suited for industrial innovation. Most inventions were developed when investors or entrepreneurs sought to solve a problem that was holding back increased production and profit. In contrast to Great Britain, continental Europe industrialized much more slowly, making advancements when it suited individual countries’ needs.

Inventions of the Industrial RevolutionTheIndustrialRevolutionwitnessedtheinventionofnumerousnewmachinesanddevicesthatspeduptheproductionofmanymanufacturedgoods.Yetindustrialexpansionwasnotfullypossiblewithoutthedevelopmentofpowersourcesmorepowerfulandefficientthanhumanoranimaleffortandwater-power.Thebreakthroughinventionofthesteamengine,increasedproductionofcoal,andimprovementsinthequalityofironallcontributedtosolvingthisearlyenergycrisis.Additionally,theinterrelationshipsamongthesteamengine,coal,andironalsoeventuallyledtotheconstructionofrailroads,thecrowningachievementofindustrialization.TheIndustrialRevolutionbeganinEngland,butthengraduallyspreadacrosstheEuropeancontinentthroughoutthenineteenthcentury.

flying Shuttle (1733)JohnKay’s(1704–1764)flyingshuttle,inventedin1733,cuttheweavingprocesstimeinhalf.Italsoallowedasingleloomoperatortoworkwithwiderclothbecausethisnewweavingmachinehadashuttlethatcouldbeoperatedwithonehand.Thisinventioncreatedagreaterdemandforspunyarnbecausenowweavingtookmuchlesstimethanithadbefore.Unfortunately,spinningwasstillaveryslowprocess.Theflyingshuttlecanbecreditedwithstimulatingatleastaneedforthespinningjenny,ifnottheinventionitself.

Spinning Jenny (1765)In1765,JamesHargreaves(1720–1778)inventedthespinningjenny.Namedafterhiswife,thismachinewasanimprovementonthetra-ditionalspinningwheel.Earlymodelsofthismachineweresimpletooperateandinexpensivetouse.Thecotton-spinningjennywassmallenoughtobeusedinahomeandcontributedtotheputting-outsystem.

The spinning jenny and similar devices led to phenomenal growth for England’s textiles industry.



Thus,factorieswerenotimmediatelynecessaryforthismachinetobeusedinproduction.Oneproblemwiththisfirstspinningmachinewasthatitproducedfairlythinandweakthread.

water frame (1771)RichardArkwright(1731–1792)inventedthewaterframein1771,anothermachinethatgreatlyimprovedandspedupthespinningprocess.Inessence,Arkwrightintroducedwaterpowertotheprincipleofthejenny.Hisinventionhadthecapacitytospinseveralhundredspindlesatonetime.However,itrequiredwaterpower,soithadtoberuninaspecializedmillbuiltnearawatersource.Thewaterframecouldspincoarsethreadthatwouldbefurtherspunonhand-poweredcottagejennies.

Mule (1780)In1780,SamuelCrompton(1753–1827)improvedonboththespinningjennyandthewaterframebycombiningthebestfeaturesofbothmachinesintoanewmachinecalledamule.Thismachineproducedthreadthatwasbothfineandstrong.

Power Loom (1785)Thepowerloom,initiallyinventedbyEdmundCartwright(1743–1823)in1785,wasnotimmediatelycost-effective.Afterdevelopmentoverseveraldecades,however,thepowerloomwasfinallyutilizedeffec-tivelyduringthe1830s.Thisinventiondrovemanyhandloomweaversoutofbusiness.

Cotton Gin (1793)Withanincreaseintheuseoftextilemachinery,demandforrawcottonalsoincreased.Yetjustastheslowspinningprocesshadbeenaproblemthatneededsolving,theproblemofhowtoquicklyremovethemanytinyseedsrawcottonhadtobeaddressedtospeedupthetimerequiredtoprocessit.AnAmerican,EliWhitney(1765–1825)inventedthecottonginin1793.Thismachineprovidedaneffectiveprocessforremovingseedsfromcottonfiber.

Precision PartsThecottontextileindustryalsobenefittedfromthedevelopmentofprecisionpartsforvariousnewspinningandweavingmachines,whichimprovedtheoperationalefficiencyofthemachines.Basically,theseprecisionpartswerecreatedbymechani-calengineersusingtechniquestraditionallyappliedbywatchmakers.Thisimpor-tantstepthenledtothecreationofstandardized,interchangeablepartsfortextilemachinery.WorkinginanarmsfactoryinConnecticut,EliWhitneymadesomeimportantcontributionstothedevelopmentofstandardizedpartsformachinery.

Rolling Press (1780s)Duringthe1780s,arollingpressforprintingtextileswasdeveloped.Therollingpressreplacedaslowerandlessefficientprocessofprintingtextileswithhand-operatedplates.

Richard Arkwright, inventor of the water frame



french Technology Francewasalsothelocationofsomeimportantinventionsthatfurtherincreasedproductioninthecottontextileindustry.ThechemistClaude-LouisBerthollet(1748–1822)originatedtheprocessofusingchlorinetobleachcloth.Thisnewprocesscutthetimeittooktobleachclothfrommonthstohours.Furthermore,Joseph-MarieJacquard(1752–1834)inventedapowerloomthatwoveelaboratepatterns.

The Energy Problem and Inventive SolutionsThemainissueforindustrialexpansion,beyondtheabilitytoinventmachinesthatcouldvastlyincreaseproduction,wastheage-oldproblemoffindingsuf-ficientenergyorpowertorunnewmachines.Humanandanimalefforthadalwaysbeentheprimarysourcesofenergyutilizedbypeople,butthesewereinherentlylimited.ThegrowthofthecottontextileindustryinEnglandresultedfromtheuseofwaterpowerfromriversandstreams.Yetthisgrowthcouldnothavecontinuedatitsrapidpacehadfactoryownerscontinuedtorelysolelyonwaterasaprimarysourceofpower.

DuringtheMiddleAgesinBritain,coalwasfirstusedasasourceofheat.By1640,coalwasusedtoheatmosthomesinLondon,aswellastoprovideheattomakebeer,glass,soap,andotherproducts.Asthedemandforcoalincreased,coalminesweredugdeeperanddeeper.Deepminesfrequentlyfilledupwithwater.Atfirstmechanicalpumpspoweredbyhorseswalkinginacirclewerebuilttopumpthewateroutofthemines.However,theuseofmanyhorses(sometimeshundreds)wasextremelyexpensiveandrequiredmuchupkeep.Thefirstprimitivesteamengineswerebuiltinanattempttosolvethisproblem.

Thedevelopmentofthesteamenginewasanextremelyimportantstepforwardforindustrialization.Theinventionandperfectionofthesteamengineprovidedadependableandefficientsourceofpowerfornewindustrialmachin-ery.In1700,theEnglishinventorThomasSavery(1650–1715)builtapracticalsteampump.Afewyearslater,ThomasNewcomen(1663–1729)builtasteamenginethatwasfirstusedin1712topumpwaterfromacoalmine.Theprocesswastedfuel,butthisinventionwasnotdesignedtomeetthedemandsoffueleffi-ciency.By1760,about100NewcomenengineswereoperatinginGreatBritain.

In1763,JamesWatt(1736–1819),acraftsmanemployedbytheUniversityofGlasgow,wasassignedtofixaNewcomenenginethatwasbeingusedinaphysicscourse.Watt’sobservationsofthisengineledhimtodesignanevenmoreenergy-efficientsteamenginethathepatentedin1769.Then,afterpartneringwithatoy-makerwhocouldprovidebothcapitalandafactory,Watthiredskilledmechanicstoinstall,regulate,andrepairhisengines.Inaddition,Wattcontinuedtoimproveonhisenginedesign,whichbecameacommercialsuccessinBritainbythelate1780s.

Mostearlysteamengineswereusedtopumpwater.Theyburnedcoaltocreatesteam,andthesteamprovidedthepowerthatthenoperatedthepump.However,steamenginetechnologysoimprovedthroughoutthe1700sthatby1800severalhundredsteamengineswerepoweringthemachineryincottontextilemillsandotherfactories.Steamenginesalsotransformedtheironindustry.Yetthemostimportant

1SELf-ChECK

Who invented the cotton

gin, and what was it for?



andtransformativeuseofthesteamenginecameintheformofthesteam-poweredlocomotivetrain.

Theinterrelationshipbetweenthesteamengine,coalmining,andironproductionwasaprimarycatalystfortheearlyIndustrialRevolution.Incoalmining,thesteamenginewasusedtopumpwateroutoftheminesandtopowerventilatingfansthatpushedfreshairintothemines.Theventilat-inginnovationsmadeitpossibleforminerstoworkforlongerhoursunder-ground.Furthermore,newlyinventedsafetylampsallowedworkerstospotandavoiddeadlygasesinthemines.British coal production increasedgreatlyasaresultofthemanyadvance-mentsinminingtechnology.

Inadditiontoaplentifulsupplyofcoal,GreatBritainalsohadironore.Forseveraldecades,ironproduc-tioninEnglandreliedonprocessedwood or “charcoal” to make pigiron.In1740,ashortageofwoodinEnglandledtoacharcoalshortage,whichpresentedaproblemfortheBritishironindustry.Yetthankstotheincreasedproductionofcoalandtheapplicationofthesteamenginetoironproduction,theironindustrywasabletoexpandonceagain.In1709,AbrahamDarby(1678–1717)inventedthefirstblastfurnaceusingcokeasanagenttoheatironore.Thisprocessburnedcleaner,allowedfortheproductionofgreateramountsofiron,andproducedapurer,strongeriron.Thesteamenginewasanessentialpartoftheblastfurnace.Furthermore,theproductionofstrongerironallowedforthemanufacturingofevenmoreefficientsteamengines.After1770,thesteam-poweredbellowsusedinblastfurnacesallowedironmakerstoabandontheuseofcharcoalinfavorofusingcoke,whichismadefromcoal.

Ironproductionexpandedevenmoreinthe1780swhenHenryCort(1740–1800)inventedthepuddlingfurnace.Thisimprovedfurnace-refinedpigironwithcoke.Cortalsoinventedheavy-duty,steam-poweredrollingmills,whichwereabletopressfinishedironintovariousshapesandforms.Becauseofadvancesintechnology,theBritishironindustryexpandedatanacceleratedrate.Furthermore,ironservedasanaffordablebuildingblockforindustrialpro-duction.Itdidnottakelongforfactoryownerstocombineallironproductionprocessesunderoneroof.ThisproductioninnovationagaingreatlyincreasedtheBritishproductionofironintheearly1800s.

locomotive a self-propelled vehicle for pulling or pushing freight or passenger cars on railroad tracks

An early steam engine



Steelisironthathasgonethroughanintenseheatingprocess,greatlyreducingitscarboncontent.Steelisastrongerandmoreflexiblematerialthaniron,butintheearlynineteenthcenturyitwasveryexpensivetoproduce.In1856,amachinethatcouldefficientlyandeconomicallyproducesteel,theBessemerconverter,wasinventedbyaBritishinventornamedHenryBessemer(1813–1898).

TheAmericaninventorWilliamKelly(1811–1892)developedasimilarprocessduringroughlythesametimeperiod.Tenyearslater,CharlesWilliamSiemens(1823–1883)andhisbrotherErnstWernervonSiemens(1816–1892),bothGermaninventorslivinginEngland,developedtheopen-hearthprocessofsteelmaking.Thisimportantinventionallowedthesteelindustrytoexpandrapidlyfromthatpointon.

The Impact of Railroads on Urban Development Forseveralgenerations,horse-drawncarts,operatingonplankroadsorwoodenrails,hadbeenusedtomoveheavyloadssuchascoalandiron.Ironrailsandironcartwheelsreplacedwoodrailsandwheelsduringthe1700s.Thenextstepsweretodevelopasteam-poweredlocomotivetopullthecartsinplaceofhorsesandtodeveloprailsthatcouldsupportaheavylocomotive.GeorgeStephenson(1781–1848),aBritishinventor,wasthefirsttoinventaneconomicallysuccessfullocomotive.After

2SELf-ChECK

Name three men

responsible for inventing

and improving the

design of early steam

engines.

A locomotive using a steam-powered engine



10yearsofhardwork,Stephensonfinallybuiltaneffectivelocomotivein1825.Thislocomotivewasquicklyputtoworkrunningabout40milesfromthecoalfieldsofDarlington,innorthernEngland,totheportofStockton.By1830,Stephenson’sRocketcouldtravel16milesanhouronthetrackthatranfromLiverpooltoManchester.TheLiverpool-to-Manchesterrailwaylinewastheworld’sfirstnotablerailwayline,anditwasasmashingsuccessfinanciallyandtechnologically.

Overthenext20years,othermajortrunk lines werebuiltbyprivateinves-torsthroughouttherestofEngland.Thiswasonlythebeginningofagreatboominrailroadconstruction,notonlyinEngland,butacrosstheEuropeancontinentandNorthAmerica.Whereasonlyafewmilesofrailroadswereinoperationin1830,by1870Europeanrailwaymileagetotaledalmost900,000miles.

Theinventionofshippingandtravelbysteam-poweredrailwasanextremelysignificantturningpointforEuropeaneconomyandsociety.Therailroadloweredthecostandriskofoverlandfreightshipping,whilesimultaneouslyincreasingthecertaintyofsafeandtimelydelivery.Additionally,theuseofrailwayshippingchangedtheverynatureandmakeupofthemarketplace.Previously,themarketforgoodswasextremelylocalbecauseshippinghadbeenprohibitivelyexpensive.Afterthecomingoftherailroad,marketsexpandedeventoanationallevel.Marketexpansioncreatedademandforincreasedproductioninmanyindustries,whichledtotheconstructionoflargerfactoriesthatusednewtechnologyinmachinery.Thesenewfactorieswereabletoproducegoodsmorecheaplythanhadbeenpossiblebefore.Asaresult,cottageworkersandurbanartisansfacedextremecompetitivepressuretoproducebecauseofcheapergoodsfloodingthemarketplace.

Thefactoriesoftheindustrialageproducedlargequantitiesofcheapgoods.Thentherailroadprovidedcheapoverlandtransportationfortheseinexpensive

trunk lines the main route or routes on a railway

3SELf-ChECK

What was the world’s

first notable railway line?

Railroads gave people more freedom of mobility.



10yearsofhardwork,Stephensonfinallybuiltaneffectivelocomotivein1825.Thislocomotivewasquicklyputtoworkrunningabout40milesfromthecoalfieldsofDarlington,innorthernEngland,totheportofStockton.By1830,Stephenson’sRocketcouldtravel16milesanhouronthetrackthatranfromLiverpooltoManchester.TheLiverpool-to-Manchesterrailwaylinewastheworld’sfirstnotablerailwayline,anditwasasmashingsuccessfinanciallyandtechnologically.

Overthenext20years,othermajortrunk lines werebuiltbyprivateinves-torsthroughouttherestofEngland.Thiswasonlythebeginningofagreatboominrailroadconstruction,notonlyinEngland,butacrosstheEuropeancontinentandNorthAmerica.Whereasonlyafewmilesofrailroadswereinoperationin1830,by1870Europeanrailwaymileagetotaledalmost900,000miles.

Theinventionofshippingandtravelbysteam-poweredrailwasanextremelysignificantturningpointforEuropeaneconomyandsociety.Therailroadloweredthecostandriskofoverlandfreightshipping,whilesimultaneouslyincreasingthecertaintyofsafeandtimelydelivery.Additionally,theuseofrailwayshippingchangedtheverynatureandmakeupofthemarketplace.Previously,themarketforgoodswasextremelylocalbecauseshippinghadbeenprohibitivelyexpensive.Afterthecomingoftherailroad,marketsexpandedeventoanationallevel.Marketexpansioncreatedademandforincreasedproductioninmanyindustries,whichledtotheconstructionoflargerfactoriesthatusednewtechnologyinmachinery.Thesenewfactorieswereabletoproducegoodsmorecheaplythanhadbeenpossiblebefore.Asaresult,cottageworkersandurbanartisansfacedextremecompetitivepressuretoproducebecauseofcheapergoodsfloodingthemarketplace.

Thefactoriesoftheindustrialageproducedlargequantitiesofcheapgoods.Thentherailroadprovidedcheapoverlandtransportationfortheseinexpensive

trunk lines the main route or routes on a railway

3SELf-ChECK

What was the world’s

first notable railway line?

products,makingthemaccessibletoconsumersalmosteverywhere.Furthermore,becausetherailroadwasalsoareliableandspeedyformoftravelforpeople,geographicmobilityincreased,aswell.Townsandvillagesbecamelessisolatedfromtherestthecountry.

Theconstructionofrailroadscanalsobecreditedfortheappearanceofanewclassofurbanworkersthatformedduringthenineteenthcentury.Landlessfarmworkersandpoorpeasantswereaccustomedtoleavinghometotaketemporaryjobs.Theseworkerspredictablytookjobsonconstructiongangsthatbuilttherailroadlines.Whentheirjobwascompleted,manydidnotreturntotheirvillages,wherelifeoftenseemedblandandunappealing,butinsteadlookedforworkintownsandcitieswithrailroadcompanies,inconstruction,orinfactories.Whethertheythensentfortheirspousesorsweetheartstojointhemorsimplymetwomenwholivedinthetownsandcities,thesemensoonbecameurbanworkers.

Industrialization on the European ContinentContinentalEuropeannationswishedtocopyBritain’sindustrialsuccess.Somesuc-ceeded,whileotherswereunabletoovercomeinstitutionalbarriersoralackofresources.Formanynations,theBritishleadprovedbeneficial,asBritishengineers,technicians,andinventorswereoftenenticedbycontinentalpowerstosharetheirindustrialsecrets.IncontrasttotheBritishlaissez-faireapproachtoindustry,however,continentalgovernmentsfrequentlyhadtotakeamoreactiveroleinpromotingandoverseeingindustrialdevelopmentsinceindustrialventuresweresometimestooexpensiveandriskyforprivateinvestors.Also,theFrenchRevolutionandtheNapoleonicerameantthatFranceandtherestofEuropewerefurtherbehindBritainin1815thantheywerein1789.RevolutionandwarontheEuropeancontinenthadcutcommunicationsbetweenitandEngland,disruptedtrade,causedrunawayinflation,andfosteredsocialanxiety.

AlthoughGreatBritainmadeseverallawstotrytokeepBritishindustrialtechnol-ogysecret,manymechanics,inventors,andotherswithproprietaryinformationnev-erthelessleftthecountryillegallyandmademoneysharingtheirindustrialknowledgewiththerestofcontinentalEurope.WilliamCockerill(1759–1832)wasonesuchBritishcarpenterwhoprofitedbybuildingcotton-spinningmachinesinBelgiumin1799.

In1817,William’sson,JohnCockerill(1790–1840),purchasedtheoldsummerpalaceofthedeposedbishopsofLiegeinsouthernBelgium.Johnthenconvertedthepalaceintoalargeindustrialfactorywhichmademachinery,steamengines,andrailwaylocomotives.Hefoundedseveralcoalminesandironworks,aswell.Cockerill’sminesandfactoriessoonbecamehubsforindustrialtradesecrets—placeswherenewinformationwasgatheredandthensharedwiththerestofEurope.Cockerillwouldboastthat“tendaysafteranindustrialadvanceoccurredinBritain,heknewallaboutitinBelgium.”BelgiumwasacommonplaceforskilledBritishworkerstocomeillegally,asCockerillwashappytoemploythem.ManyoftheseworkersmovedontofoundtheirowncompaniesthroughoutEurope.

Franceindustrializedinsuchagradualwaythatthewordrevolutionisn’treallyappropriatetodescribeitseffortstowardindustrialization.Onereasonwasthat,becauseoftheFrenchRevolution,Francemaintaineditstraditionofsmall,family-basedfarminginsteadofadoptingthedestabilizingpoliciesofenclosureandagriculturalinnovation.



Furthermore,FrancehadalargeinternalmarketforFrenchgoods,aswellasalargeskilledlaborforcethatcouldproducehigh-endproducts,suchassilksandintricatelypatternedtextiles.High-endgoodsstillhadtobemadebyskilledcraftsmenandcouldnotbemassproducedinafactory.Astheincomeofmiddleclasspeoplegrewinterna-tionally,sodidthedemandforFrenchluxuryitems,includingsilkscarves,embroideredneedlework,perfumes,andfinewines.

UnlikeBritain,Francedidnothaveextensivereservesofcoalandironore.SoFrancedidnotdevelopheavyindustrytothesamedegreethatEnglanddid.Withfewerandsmallerindustrialcities,however,FranceavoidedmanyoftheworsteffectsofindustrializationthatplaguedEngland.After1850,Frenchfinance,railroads,andcommunicationswerefinallyabletoinfluencethemodernizationofattitudesandhabitstowardproductionandconsumption.TheCreditMobilierofParis,foundedbyIsaacandEmilePereire,whowereJewishjournalistsfromBordeaux,wasoneofthebanksthatcreativelyfinancedindustrializationinFrance.Inadditiontoanextensiveadvertisingcampaign,theCreditMobilierusedthesavingsofthousandsofsmallinves-torsandtheresourcesofbiginvestorstosupportindustrialprojectssuchasbuildingrailroadsacrossFrance.In1835,EmilePereiresaid“Itisnotenoughtooutlinegiganticprogramsonpaper.Imustwritemyideasontheearth.”Oftenmakingthemselveswealthyintheprocess,industrialbankerssuchasthefoundersoftheCreditMobilierwereabletodrawtogetherthemassiveamountsofcapitalneededforindustrialization.

Germanydidnotexistasoneunifiedcountryatthebeginningofthenineteenthcentury.InsteadGermanterritoryconsistedofseveraldozenindependentstates,eachwithitsowntariffs,taxsystems,andnationalinterests.SoeventhoughtheGermanregiondidhaveanamplesupplyofironoreandcoal,richfarmland,andasolidcrafttradition,politicaldisunityheldtheregionbackfromachievingitseconomicpotential.Duringthe1830s,thePrussianeconomistFriedrichList(1789–1846)promotedthecreationofaneconomicsystemfortheentireGermanregion.Hewantedtobeginwithacustoms unionthatwouldallowfreetradebetweenalloftheGermanstates.ThisPrussian-ledcustomsunion—Zollverein—bothencouragedeconomiccooperationandlaidthefoundationforthefuturepoliticalunificationofGermany.Furthermore,ListalsosawthatGermanindustrializationwouldnotbesuccessfulifGermanysimplyfollowedtheBritisheconomicmodel.Instead,hefeltthegovernmentshouldbuildrailroads,givefinancialaidtokeyindustries,andestablishprotectivetariffstoprotectGermanindustry.AlthoughGermanywouldnotexperienceitseconomicexpansionuntilafterbecomingpoliticallyunifiedin1871,theGermanregiondidbegintoestablishstrengthinsuchkeyindustriesasiron,coalmining,andchemicalspriortothatdate.

Bymidcentury,Belgium,northernItaly,andtheUnitedStateshadbuiltanindus-trialbasethattheycouldexpand.However,therewerealsomanyEuropeannationsthatlackedtheresourcesandtheprofit-drivenattitudeneededforindustrialization.Somepoorcountriesbuiltarailroadormodelfactorytoappearindustrialized,buttheylackedtheeconomic,legal,andeducationalinfrastructuretoactuallyindustri-alize.Othercountriesstillhadserfsthatusedmedievalagriculturalmethods.Spainfacedseveralobstacles,includingthefactthatalargebarrenplainoccupiedthecenterofthecountryandthatithadlimitednaturalandfinancialresourcesnecessaryfor

customs union an international association organized to eliminate customs restrictions on goods exchanged between member nations and to establish a uniform tariff policy toward nonmember nations

4SELf-ChECK

Even while England

was industrializing at a

furious rate, what French

products continued

to be in high demand

throughout Europe?



Furthermore,FrancehadalargeinternalmarketforFrenchgoods,aswellasalargeskilledlaborforcethatcouldproducehigh-endproducts,suchassilksandintricatelypatternedtextiles.High-endgoodsstillhadtobemadebyskilledcraftsmenandcouldnotbemassproducedinafactory.Astheincomeofmiddleclasspeoplegrewinterna-tionally,sodidthedemandforFrenchluxuryitems,includingsilkscarves,embroideredneedlework,perfumes,andfinewines.

UnlikeBritain,Francedidnothaveextensivereservesofcoalandironore.SoFrancedidnotdevelopheavyindustrytothesamedegreethatEnglanddid.Withfewerandsmallerindustrialcities,however,FranceavoidedmanyoftheworsteffectsofindustrializationthatplaguedEngland.After1850,Frenchfinance,railroads,andcommunicationswerefinallyabletoinfluencethemodernizationofattitudesandhabitstowardproductionandconsumption.TheCreditMobilierofParis,foundedbyIsaacandEmilePereire,whowereJewishjournalistsfromBordeaux,wasoneofthebanksthatcreativelyfinancedindustrializationinFrance.Inadditiontoanextensiveadvertisingcampaign,theCreditMobilierusedthesavingsofthousandsofsmallinves-torsandtheresourcesofbiginvestorstosupportindustrialprojectssuchasbuildingrailroadsacrossFrance.In1835,EmilePereiresaid“Itisnotenoughtooutlinegiganticprogramsonpaper.Imustwritemyideasontheearth.”Oftenmakingthemselveswealthyintheprocess,industrialbankerssuchasthefoundersoftheCreditMobilierwereabletodrawtogetherthemassiveamountsofcapitalneededforindustrialization.

Germanydidnotexistasoneunifiedcountryatthebeginningofthenineteenthcentury.InsteadGermanterritoryconsistedofseveraldozenindependentstates,eachwithitsowntariffs,taxsystems,andnationalinterests.SoeventhoughtheGermanregiondidhaveanamplesupplyofironoreandcoal,richfarmland,andasolidcrafttradition,politicaldisunityheldtheregionbackfromachievingitseconomicpotential.Duringthe1830s,thePrussianeconomistFriedrichList(1789–1846)promotedthecreationofaneconomicsystemfortheentireGermanregion.Hewantedtobeginwithacustoms unionthatwouldallowfreetradebetweenalloftheGermanstates.ThisPrussian-ledcustomsunion—Zollverein—bothencouragedeconomiccooperationandlaidthefoundationforthefuturepoliticalunificationofGermany.Furthermore,ListalsosawthatGermanindustrializationwouldnotbesuccessfulifGermanysimplyfollowedtheBritisheconomicmodel.Instead,hefeltthegovernmentshouldbuildrailroads,givefinancialaidtokeyindustries,andestablishprotectivetariffstoprotectGermanindustry.AlthoughGermanywouldnotexperienceitseconomicexpansionuntilafterbecomingpoliticallyunifiedin1871,theGermanregiondidbegintoestablishstrengthinsuchkeyindustriesasiron,coalmining,andchemicalspriortothatdate.

Bymidcentury,Belgium,northernItaly,andtheUnitedStateshadbuiltanindus-trialbasethattheycouldexpand.However,therewerealsomanyEuropeannationsthatlackedtheresourcesandtheprofit-drivenattitudeneededforindustrialization.Somepoorcountriesbuiltarailroadormodelfactorytoappearindustrialized,buttheylackedtheeconomic,legal,andeducationalinfrastructuretoactuallyindustri-alize.Othercountriesstillhadserfsthatusedmedievalagriculturalmethods.Spainfacedseveralobstacles,includingthefactthatalargebarrenplainoccupiedthecenterofthecountryandthatithadlimitednaturalandfinancialresourcesnecessaryfor

customs union an international association organized to eliminate customs restrictions on goods exchanged between member nations and to establish a uniform tariff policy toward nonmember nations

4SELf-ChECK

Even while England

was industrializing at a

furious rate, what French

products continued

to be in high demand

throughout Europe?

industrialization.Spainalsohadanaristocraticclassanddominantreligiousattitudesthatwereresistanttoprogressandindustrialization.Russiaisanothercountrythatdelayedindustrialization.After1848,RussiawastheonlymajorEuropeanpowerwhoseagriculturalandsocialstructurewasstillbasedonserfdom.Fromtheperspectiveofthoseintheindustrializedmarketplace,serfdomandmedievalfarmingmethodswereawasteofbothlaborandland.SodespiteRussia’sabundanceofnaturalresources,itseconomicdevelopmentlaggedbehindthatofmanyotherEuropeancountries.

Extensions• UsingtheInternet,conductadditionalresearchontheinventorsand

inventionsmentionedinthislesson.Assesstheimpactthatinventionssuchasthespinningjenny,waterframe,puddlingfurnace,andrailroadhadonEuropeansociety.

• StudythewaysinwhichthedevelopmentofthesteamengineaffectedthecultureandpoliticalstructureinEuropeduringtheIndustrialRevolution.

• Locatethefollowingindustrialcentersonamap:theRuhrValley,Liegeregion,Roubaixregion,andManchester-Sheffieldarea.Inwhatcountriesaretheseindustrialcenterslocated?Whatsimilaritiesdotheseareasshare?

SummaryTheIndustrialRevolutioninGreatBritainistermeda“revolution”becauseitwasaperiodwhenmanyaspectsoflifeandsocietychangedbothdrasticallyandrapidly.Beginningwiththetextileindustry,theinventivespiritanddriveforincreasedprofitgaverisetomechanicalinnovationandthedevelopmentofmoreefficientprocessesofproduction.SomeoftheimportantinventionsoftheIndustrialRevolutionincludedtheflyingshuttle,thecotton-spinningjenny,thewaterframe,themule,thepowerloom,thecottongin,theroll-ingpress,thesteamengine,theblastfurnace,andtherailroad.Yetindustrialexpansionwasnotfullypossiblewithoutthedevelopmentofpowersourcesthatweremoreefficient,economical,andreliablethanhumaneffort,animaleffort,orwaterpower.England’sabundanceofcoalandironore,combinedwiththebreakthroughinventionofthesteamengine,servedtosolveanenergyproblemthathadpreviouslyheldfactoryandmineownersbackfromincreasedproduction.Themostimportantandtransformativeuseofthesteamenginewasthesteam-poweredlocomotivetrain.Duringthe1800s,continentalEuropegraduallyrealizedthevalueofBritishtechnologicaladvancements.Thereafter,manycountriesbegantoindustrializeatdifferentratesandinvariousways.

Looking AheadDuringtheIndustrialRevolution,theeconomyexpanded,andmanycheapmanufacturedgoodsbecameavailabletomorepeople.TheIndustrialRevolutionalsocausedsocialchange,asthelivesofpeopleineveryeconomicclasswerechangeddramatically.Thenineteenthcenturysawaslowriseintheoverallstandardoflivingofmostpeople.Thisincreasewasalreadyapparentby1850.



Furthermore,theredevelopedanew,morerigidsexualdivisionoflabor,ashiftinmen’sandwomen’sresponsibilitiesinthefamily,achangeinattitudestowardchildlabor,morepositivefactorylegislation,andtheriseofanewlabormove-ment.Theemergenceofanewurbanworkingclasscreatednewchallenges,primarilyrelatedtolivingandworkingconditions,whichhadtobesortedoutcooperativelybyworkers,employers,andthegovernment.

1. Eli Whitney; It removed seeds from cotton fiber.

2. Thomas Savery, Thomas Newcomen, James Watt

3. The Liverpool and Manchester Railway

4. High-end luxury items such as intricately patterned textiles, silk scarves, embroidered needlework, perfumes, and fine wines

SELf-ChECK AnSwERS


Life in the Age of Industrialization

Unit 12, Lesson 3

Keywordsuniversal male

suffrage

Essential Questions• WhatnewclassesemergedduringtheIndustrialRevolution?

• WhatwasthesexualdivisionoflaborduringtheIndustrialRevolution?

• Whatwerethekeyfeaturesofthefactorysystem?

• WhatlaborlawsandreformsresultedfromtheIndustrialRevolution?

• WhatwastheearlylabormovementlikeinBritain?

• Whatgroupsopposedindustrialization?



Set the StageThe Industrial Revolution and the rise of the new factory system of work affected more than just the European economy. It also caused social change by fostering the emergence of new social classes, the rise of urban living, the alteration of family structure, and a new sexual division of labor. The appearance of a new urban working class created new challenges, many related to living and working conditions, which workers, employers, and the government had to work together to meet. During the Industrial Revolution, people formed new attitudes toward child labor, the British Parliament passed reform legislation for factories and mines, and workers started a new labor movement. Although most Europeans’ overall standard of living rose after 1850, the problems of urban living, long work hours, unhealthy and uncomfortable working conditions, and low pay all contributed to a difficult existence for the urban working class.

factory Owners and workers During the Industrial RevolutionAtthebeginningofthenineteenthcentury,GreatBritaindominatedtheindustrialsceneinbothEuropeandtheworld.Thefirstworld’sfair,heldinLondonin1851,wasorganizedbyBritishleaderstoshowcaseBritishtechnologyandprogresswithitsstructureofironandglass,twoproductsthatwerebothcheapandabundantinEnglandthankstoindustrialadvances.TheexhibitiondemonstratedtheBritishindus-trialachievementsthatmanyotherEuropeancountriesbothenviedandemulated.

factory OwnersFactoryownersandfactoryworkersweretwonewclassesthatemergedoutofindustrializationandthenewfactorysystem.Industrialinvestors,inventors,andfactoryownerscamefrommanydifferentbackgrounds.Intheveryearlystagesofindustrialization,therewasopportunityforapersonfromanyclass(richorpoor)whohadinitiativeandhappenedtobebright,creative,andalittlelucky.Peoplewhobelongedtoethnicorreligiousminoritiesjumpedatthechancetoparticipateinnewindustries,astheyhadtraditionallybeenkeptoutofoccupationsdominatedbythelandedaristocracy.Forexample,QuakersandScotsfoundmanyjobopportunitiesinEngland,whileProtestantsandJewsdominatedbankinginCatholicFrance.Membersofmerchantfamilieshadanadvantagebecausetheyhadmoneytoinvestandcontactsinthebusinessworld.Artisansorskilledworkersalsofoundopportunities,providedtheywereverytalentedintheircraft.SuccessfulIndustrialistsoftheearlyIndustrialRevolutionhadreasonstobeproudoftheiraccomplishments,newlyacquiredwealth,andprominenceinthebusinesscommunity.

However,asindustrializationbecamemorewidespread,investorsandfac-toryownersstruggledtosucceedinanextremelycompetitiveandvolatile



lineofwork.Newbusinessventuresheldtheprospectoflargeprofits,whilesimultaneouslyfacingtheriskoffailureandtotallossofcapital.Theuseofnewlyinvented,andthusuntested,machinesoftenpresentedvariousproduc-tionproblems.Forinstance,machinesoftenbrokedown,didnotfunctionasintended,orrequiredmoreenergyandeffortthanexpected.Manufacturersconstantlyneededtocutcoststomakeaprofitandstayinbusiness.Inaddition,profitsneededtobereinvestedinthebusinesstobuyneworbetterfunctioningmachines,whichwouldinturnincreaseproductionandprofit.Asindustrializedindustriesbecameestablished,opportunitiesfornewcomersdeclined.

Withopportunitiesinestablishedindustriesdecreasing,itbecamemuchlesslikelythatapoormechaniccouldbecomearichfactoryowner.Instead,formaleducationbecameincreasinglymoreimportantifonewantedtorisetohighandwealthystatusinanindustrialfield.Yethighcostslimitedthenumberofpeoplewhopursuedanadvancededucation.Bythe1830s,manysuccessfulEnglishfactoryowners,liketheircounterpartsinGermanyandFrancebythe1860s,hadinheritedtheirbusinesses,ratherthanestablishedthemthemselves.Thesesecond-generationfactoryownerswereoftenluckyenoughtorunfinan-ciallystableandsecurebusinessessimplybecausethefirst-generationownershadalreadyovercomesomanydifficultchallenges.

factory workersBecauseindustrializationfirstoccurredinEngland,theworkersofEnglandwerethefirsttoexperiencetheharsheffectsofpoverty,hazardousworkingconditions,pollution,andurbancrowding.Between1780and1820,thepurchasingpowerofBritishandScottishunskilledworkersdidnotincrease.Livingconditionswereespeciallydesperatefrom1792to1815becauseGreatBritainwasatwarwithFrance.Duringtheseyears,thecostoffoodincreasedfasterthanwages,therebycausinglivingconditionstodeteriorate.

HistoriansgenerallyciteamarkedimprovementintheeconomicconditionofBritishworkersby1850.Bythattime,wageshadincreasedtothepointthatworkersearnedandconsumedabout50percentmorethantheyhadin1770.Yetfewhistoriansequatetheabilitytopurchasemoregoodsandincreasedwageswithgreaterhappinessamongworkersorgreaterworkersatisfactionwiththeirworkingorlivingconditions.Also,becausetheBritishgovernmentdidnottrackunemploymentstatistics,thereisnoaccuratewayofknowinghowmanyworkershadjobsorwereunemployedatanygiventimeduringthenineteenthcentury.Furthermore,itcanbearguedthatwagesincreasedsimplybecauseworkerswererequiredtoworklongerhours.

Historianscanlearnaboutworkers’standardoflivingbystudyingwhatgoodstheyboughtwiththeirwages.Exceptduringwartime,workersweregenerallyabletobuyandeatfoodthathadahighernutritionalcontentasthecenturyprogressed.Withadietthatincludedpotatoes,dairyproducts,andanarrayoffruitsandvegetables,nineteenth-centuryworkersalsoatealsoateamorevarieddietthanpeoplehadintheeighteenthcentury.Inaddition,clothingwaslessexpensive,ofahigherquality,andmorecomfortable.However,housingmostlikelyworsened

1SELf-ChECK

In the early stages

of industrialization,

what kind of person

might achieve success

as an inventor or new

factory owner?



ratherthanimproved.ThestandardoflivingforworkingclassesimprovedinamoderatewayaftertheNapoleonicWars.

The Sexual Division of Labor During the Industrial RevolutionBeforeindustrialization,familiesgenerallyworkedtogetherasaunitratherthanworkingseparatelyasindividuals.Also,workgenerallytookplaceinoraroundahome.Genderoftendictatedone’sworkassignments.Forinstance,menandboyswouldweaveandplowandwomenandgirlswouldmilkthecowsandspin.However,therewerealsomanygender-neutraltasksdonebybothmenandwomen.Thistraditionofworkasafamilyallowedmotherstocarefortheirchildrenandworkatthesametime.Childrenwhoworkedinotherhouseholdstoearnincomefortheirfamilyortosaveforadowryorfuturehouseholdlaboredwiththefamilywheretheylivedasaservantorapprentice.

Earlyfactoriesorminesdidnotimmediatelyputanendtoworkasafamilyunit.Inmanycases,thefatheragreedtowagesforeachfamilymember’slabor.Youngchildrenworkedalongsidetheirmothersdoingsimpletasksaccordingtotheirage.Someobserverssawthelaborofchildreninfactoriesandminesasexploitativeanddangerous.Theyworkedverylonghoursindangerousandunsanitaryconditions,andtheywerenotreceivinganeducation.RobertOwen(1771–1858),aScottishfactoryowner,testifiedtoaparliamentarycommitteeabouttheillsofchildlabor.Heclaimedthatchildrenwhoworked11½hoursadayinthemillswerehavingboththeirphysicalandintellectualgrowthstunted.

Workingasafamilyunitinfactoriesorminescametoanendasnewlawsrestrictedchildlabor.Anewanddifferentsexualdivisionoflaboremergedoverthecourseofthenineteenthcentury.Thenewmodelplacedthefatherastheprimarywageearnerforthefamily.Thesphereofthehomeandthechildrenbecamethedomainofwomen,andtheiropportunitiestoearnwagestocontributetothefamilyincomebecameextremelylimited.Thefactthatwomenlaboredathomewasnotnew.Buttheconceptthatcaringforhomeandchildrenshouldbeawoman’ssoleoccupation,ratherthansomethingshedidinadditiontolaboringforwages,wasnovel.Thebusinessworldcametobeseenastooharshandroughforwomen,who,itwasthought,shouldbeshelteredandprotectedinspacesthatweregenteel,dignified,andrefined.Yetwhilethisnewphiloso-phymayhaveservedtheneedsofmiddleclassandwealthyfamilies,itrobbedtheworkingclassofitsabilitytomakeendsmeetfinancially.Opportunitiesformarriedwomenwithchildrentoearnsufficientwagesdwindled.

Theideaof“separatespheres”creatednewworkpatternsforwomen.Womenwerelesslikelytoworkfulltimeforwagesafterhavingchildrenthantheyhadbeenpriortothenineteenthcentury.Marriedwomenmightinsteadearnsomewagestakinginboardersorputtingouthandicraftsfromhome.Onlyunmarriedwomenandwomenwhosehusbandswerepoorlypaid,sick,unemployed,orabsentcompletelywereexpectedtoworkforwagesoutsidethehome.However,thesewomenhadlimitedjobopportunities.Anyworktheycouldfindwouldbelowpayingandinvolveunskilledlabor,withnoopportunityforadvancement.



Notunlikeemploymentavailabletowomeninpreviouscenturies,availablejobsrarelypaidenoughforwomentosupportthemselvesindependentlyfromtheirfam-ilyorahusband.Thehistoryofwomenandthefamilypivoteddramaticallywiththedeclineoffamilylaborandtheemergenceofthenewsexualdivisionoflabor.

Newdifficultiesoffactoryworkgavewomenstrongincentivestocarefortheirchildrenathomeiftheycouldaffordit.Cottagelaborallowedparentstosettheirownworkscheduleandtodisciplinetheirchildrenastheysawfit.Awomancouldrunaspinningmachineandtakecareofachildthatwassevenoreightyearsoldandworkingbesideheratthesametime(untilthepracticebecameillegal).Factoryworkwasmuchlessflexible.Workershadtoarrive,takebreaks,havemeals,andleaveaccordingtotheclock.Caringforachildwhileworkingatafactorywasmuchmoredifficult.Womeninfactoriesstruggledtoworkduringpregnancy,andamothercouldnotnurseachildonthejob.

Furthermore,runningahouseholdinapoorurbansettingwasdifficultandtime-consumingwork.Homesdidnothaverunningwaterorelectricity,supermarketsanddepartmentstoresdidnotyetexist,andalackoftransportationmeantthatallerrandshadtobedoneonfoot.Shoppingandcookingcouldoccupyaverylargeportionofawoman’sday.Eveniftheyneededmoreincome,manywomensimplycouldnotaddlaborinafactorytoalloftheworktheyhadinthehome.

Somehistorianshaveassertedthatonepossiblereasonforseparatingjobsbygenderwastocurtailunsupervisedminglingbyteenagersandyoungmenandwomen.Itwasfeltthatthisfraternizationcontributedtotheexplodingproblemofunwedpregnancyandillegitimatebirths.Underoldpatternsofwork,boysandgirlsremainedunderthewatchfuleyesoftheirparentsorotheradults.Coedfactoryworkallowedboysandgirlstointeractwitheachotherwithoutsuchclosesupervision.Thisinteractioncouldthenleadtoliaisonsorcourtshipsoutsideofwork.Thisunsupervisedintimacyonlyfedtheillegitimacyexplosionthathadbegunduringtheeighteenthcentury.Separatingjobsbasedongendercouldbeseenasoneanswertothisgrowingproblem.

Industrializationfundamentallychangedthefamilyfromaunitthatworkedtogethertoaunitthatconsumedtogether.Thefamilyseparatedforworkandthenunitedagainformealandleisuretime.Movingworkfromhometothefactoryalsotookcontrolofscheduleandworkingconditionsoutofthework-ers’handsandgaveittofactoryowners,whothensoughtgreaterprofitsbycuttingcornersonfactorysafetyandpayingthelowestwagespossible.Thereformlawsofthe1830sand1840s,passedbytheBritishParliament,essentiallycompletedtheseparationofmalewageworkandfemaledomesticwork.Suchlawsprotectedwomenandchildrenfromexploitationinfactoriesandmines.

Women and children often performed hazardous work.



The factory SystemThefirstfactoryownerstendedtobetheinventor,investor,andfactorymanagerallrolledintoone.TheseindustrialentrepreneursgenerallygottheirbusinessesoffthegroundbyborrowingfromthevastcreditnetworkavailablefromBritishbanksandperhapspersuadingafewpartnerstoinvest.TextilespinningmillswerefirstbuiltinthenorthernBritishtownsofManchesterandLiverpool.JosiahWedgwood(1730–1795),aBritishentrepreneur,appliednewfactoryprinciplestopotteryandporcelain.Althoughhelackedformaltraininginchemistry,heusedtrialanderrortoimprovethestyleandprocessofmanufacturingpotteryandporcelain.Healsobroughtastandardizedmanufacturingprocessunderoneroof,andheunderstoodhowtoprofitablymarkethisgoodstoconsumers.

Earlyfactorieshadharshandunhealthyworkingconditions.Factoryemployeeslaboredforupto14hoursperdaywithpoorlightandventilation.Factoryown-ersenforcedstrictrulesprohibitingtardinessortalkingwithotherworkers.Sincemachinessettheworkpace,tiredworkerscouldbeinjurediftheyhappenedtogetoffpaceorgetcaughtinthemachine’smovingparts.Manyfactoryownerspreferredtohirechildrenaslaborers—becausetheyhadsmallhandsthatcouldreachinsidethemachines—orwomenbecausetheywereseenasgentleandeasiertomanage.Furthermore,ownerscouldpaywomenandchildrenmuchlessthanmen,keepingtheiroperatingcostslow.Addingtotheproblems,workersinminesandfactorieswereoftenexposedtohazardousortoxicsubstances,whichcouldcausediseases.Suchworkingconditionsmadeitnecessarytoreformlaborlaws,tooutlawchildlabor,andtoprotectworkers.Theseconditionsalsoinspiredalabormovementledbyurbanworkers.

Unfortunately,urbanlivingconditionsforunskilledfactoryorminework-erswerenotmuchbetterthantheconditionstheyencounteredatwork.Cityinfrastructurecouldnotsustainthehighvolumeofpeoplemovingin.Pollutedairandwater,insufficientsewagedisposal,andashortageofhousingwereonlysomeoftheproblemsconfrontingindustrialcities.Overcrowdingincitiesledtothespreadofdiseasessuchascholera,dysentery,andtyphoid.Becauseofdisease,poorlivingconditions,andpoorworkconditions,urbandwellerscouldexpecttolivehalfaslong,onaverage,asthoselivinginthecountry.Inadditiontotheproblemsofsanitationandenvironmentalpollution,citiesalsohadtoconfronttheissuesofcrime,prostitution,alcoholism,andfamilybreakdown.

Labor Laws and ReformsTheobviousabusesandharshworkconditionsofthenewEnglishfactorysystemcouldbeeasilyrecognizedbyanycasualobserver.Butmanypeoplefeltthatconfrontingtheproblemsassociatedwithindustrializationandlaissez-fairecapitalismamountedtotamperingwiththefreemarket.Eventually,however,theproblemsandabusesbecametoosignificantandprevalenttoignore.ReformersbelievedthatinactioncouldleadtothemoralbreakdownofsocietyorevenrevolutionliketheyhadseeninFrance.

TheBritishParliamentappointedtheSadlerCommissionin1832toinves-tigatechildlaborinfactoriesandmines.Theextensivetestimonyoffactory

2SELf-ChECK

What changed about the

family economy with the

emergence of factory

work and parliamentary

reforms in factories

and mines?



workerstothiscommissionledtothepassageoftheFactoryActof1833.TheFactoryActstipulatedthatchildrenunder9mustattendelementaryschoolspro-videdbyfactoryowners.Itfurtherstatedthatchildrenfromages9to13couldonlywork8hoursaday,whileteenscouldonlywork12hoursaday.Insomecases,thisnewlaweffectivelyendedchildlaborinfactoriesbecausemanyfactoriesneededtostandardizetheirshiftstomaintainefficiency.Thelawalsostatedthatfactoriescouldbeinspectedforcomplianceandthatworkingchildrenhadtoreceiveatleasttwohoursofeducationeveryday.

Inanefforttodrawattentiontothepoorsanitationincrowdedcities,anotherreformer,EdwinChadwick(1800–1890)wroteabookin1842entitledThe Sanitary Condition of the Laboring Population.Thispublicationarguedfortheimprovementofsewageandsanitarycon-ditionsincrowdedandpollutedurbanareas.Soonafterthisprintedexposéofworkingclasslivingconditions,ParliamentpassedthePublicHealthActof1848.Thisactestablishedpublichealthboardstoinspectlivingconditionsandalsocalledforthedevelopmentofsani-tarysystemsincities.

EnglandavoidedviolentworkerrevolutionbecauseGreatBritain’sparliamentarysystemadaptedtothechallengesofindustrialization.Parliament’spassageoftheReformActof1832gaverepresentationtothenewindustrialbourgeoisieofthenewindustrialcities.Thisactdoubledthenumberofproperty-owningmaleswhocouldvote.Parliamentalsoenactedotherreforms,includingan1833lawthatabolishedslavery.The1834PoorLawprovidedastrongdisincentivetothepoorseekinggovernmentreliefbymakinggovernmentworkhousesconsiderablymoreunpleasantthananyfac-toryjob.ParliamentalsosupportedliberalsandproponentsoffreetradebyrepealingtheprotectiveCornLawsin1846.Liberalswerenottheonlyonesthatachievedwantedchanges,however.AftertheFactoryActof1833,conservativeToriessuccessfullypassedtheMinesAct,whichbannedwomenandchildrenfromworkinginthemines.TorieswerealsoabletolimitworkhoursintextilemillswiththeTenHoursAct.

The Early Labor Movement in Great BritainThankstotheprecedentsetbycraftguilds,someofwhichdatedbacktomedi-evaltimes,Britishworkersunderstoodthatcollectiveactionwouldyieldmoreresultsthanindividualcomplaints.SoevenwithParliamentpassinglaborlawsandreforms,theworkersthemselvesrecognizedthattheyneededavoicetoensurethatreformsactuallyaddressedwhattheyconsideredtobetheirmostpressing

In this political cartoon, a wealthy industrialist is on top of the world, but only because of the hard work of a young girl.



problems.Workersultimatelysoughtmorepoliticalpowerandmorecontroloverworkplaceconditionsandpolicies.Asindustrializationincitiesbroughtabouttheemergenceofaworkingclassidentity,adesireforcollectiveactionledtotheformationoflaborunionsbytheurbanworkingclass.TheBritishgovernmentpassedtheCombinationActsintheearly1800stoattempttostoptheformationofunionsandstrikes,buttheselawswerewidelyignored.

Skilledfactoryworkersorcraftsmenorganizedthefirstlaborunions.Theseunionssoughttobargainwithfactoryownersoverwages,tolimitthenumberofpeoplewhocouldbetrainedintheirprofession,andtosecureapprenticeshipsfortheirownchildren.TheseearlyBritishunionswerenotafraidtostrike.Forexample,in1810,agroupofunionizedcottonspinnersinManchesterwentonstrike.Becausetheycouldnotcontrolthewidespreadunionactivity,ParliamentrepealedtheCombinationActsin1824.In1851,agroupofskilledengineersformedatradeunionthatwaslaternamedtheAmalgamatedSocietyofEngineers.Thisunionsoughthigherwagesandbetterworkingconditions.Becausethisuniondidnotstrike,asdidothersimilarunions,tobargainfortheirdemands,theindustrialbusinesscommunitygradu-allyacceptedthem.

RobertOwen,whobeganhiscareerastheownerofafactorythatmanufacturedcotton,laterfoundhimselfonthesideoflaborreformandunionorganization.Asafac-toryowner,hebelievedinfirmfactorydiscipline,butalsoranhisfactorieswithconcernforthehealth,safety,andhoursoftheworkersheemployed.Heeventriedcreatingcooperativeandsocialistcommunitiesforworkersinhisfactoriesafter1815.HismostradicalunionenterprisewastheestablishmentoftheGrandNationalConsolidatedTradesUnion.ThisunionattemptedtoorganizealloftheindustrialworkersthroughoutGreatBritainintoonenationalunion.Thisunionwasnotsuccessful,anditseventualcollapseledtheBritishlabormove-menttoshiftbacktowardsmallercraftunions.

Inadditiontotheorganizationoftradeunions,someurbanworkerstriedtoeffectchangethroughdirectpoliticalaction.Onesuchgroupofworkers,calledtheChartistsafterthefoundingdocumentthatlistedtheirprinciples,soughtuniversal male suffrageastheirprimarygoal.Inaddition,theyalsocalledforannualelections,secretballots,andequalelectoraldistricts.TheysupportedsalariesformembersofParliamentsothatpeoplefromvarioussocialclassescouldparticipateingovernment.Tothisendtheyusedpetitions,largemeetings,andagitation.EventhoughmanyChartistgoalswereeventuallyachieved,Chartismbecameunpopularafter1848becauseitbecameassociatedwithviolentdisturbances.

3SELf-ChECK

What reforms did

the Factory Act of

1833 enact?

universal male suffrage a system that allows all adult males to vote without regard to property, religious, or race qualifications, or limitations

A trade union poster



Opposition to Industrialization Noteveryone supportedor liked the IndustrialRevolution.SomecriticizedIndustrializationfromtheverybeginning.TheLuddites,whowerehandicraftworkers,believedthatnewmachinesandfactoriesweretakingtheirskilledworkandputtingthemoutofbusiness.Theymettoplotthedestructionofknittingandspinningmachines.In1812,theyattackedfactoriesandsmashedthetextilemachines.Theyfeltthatastrongcultureofskilledcraftsmenwasmorebeneficialthanindustrialspecializationandefficiency.TheBritishgovernmentputanendtotheirviolenceandvandalismbyexilingorexecutingfollowersofLuddism.

From1800to1850,romanticismemergedasanotherschoolofthoughtinoppositiontoindustrialization.Romanticismwasawidespreadmovementandincludedthinkers,writers,artists,andcomposers.WhattheRomanticshadincommonwasareactionagainsttheEnlightenment’sall-encompassingbeliefinhumanreasonandhumanperfectibility.Ratherthanprogressandrationalthought,Romanticspromotedpassion,intenseemotion,intuition,nationalism,spontaneity,andthegrandeurofnature.Individualfreedomwasanotherideathatpermeatedtheircreativityandgeneralbeliefs.Romanticartistsandwritersdetestedtherigidformalismofclassicismandsoughtamorecreative,free,andindividualartisticprocess.Romanticswantedtoescapeindustrialism,whichtheyfeltwasugly,oppres-sive,anddestroyedthebeautyofnature.

Extensions• Read“WomenIndustrialWorkersExplaintheirEconomicSituation”from

The Examiner,February26,1832,asquotedinIvyPinchbeck’sWomen Workers and the Industrial Revolution, 1750–1850(NewYork:AugustusM.Kelley,1969),p.199–200.Considerwhateconomicchallengestheseindustrialwomenhadtofaceandwhattheydidtomeetorovercomethosechallenges.

SummaryTheIndustrialRevolutioninitiatedmanysocialchanges.Becauseofindustrializa-tionandurbanization,twonewclassesofpeopleemerged,factoryownersandfactoryworkers.Investorsandfactoryownersstruggledtosucceedinanextremelycompetitiveandvolatilekindofworkwherenewbusinessventuresheldthepros-pectoflargeprofitsorcompletefailure.BecauseindustrializationfirstoccurredinEngland,theworkersofEnglandwerethefirsttoexperiencetheharsheffectsofpoverty,hazardousworkingconditions,pollution,andurbancrowding.Problemsthatemergedbecauseoftheshifttowardurbanlivingandfactoryworkhadtobesolvedcollectivelybyworkers,employers,criticsofindustrialization,andthegovernment.Duringindustrialization,peopleformednewattitudestowardchildlabor,theBritishParliamentpassedreformlegislationforfactoriesandmines,andworkersstartedanewlabormovement.Beforeindustrialization,familiesgenerallyworkedtogetherasaunitratherthanseparately.Anewsexualdivisionoflaboremergedoverthecourseofthenineteenthcenturyinwhichmenworkedforwages

4SELf-ChECK

Who was Robert Owen,

and what did he do?



1. Anyone (rich or poor) who had initiative and happened to be bright, creative, and a little lucky might achieve success as an inventor or factory owner.

2. The new model of “separate spheres” established the father as the primary wage provider for the family. The sphere of the home and the children became the domain of women, while opportunities to earn wages to contribute to the family income became extremely limited.

3. The Factory Act of 1833 stipulated that children under nine must attend elementary schools provided by factory owners, children from ages 9 to 13 could

only work 8 hours a day, and teens could only work 12 hours a day. The law also stated that factories could be inspected for compliance, and that working children had to receive at least 2 hours of education every day.

4. Robert Owen was a factory owner who later found himself on the side of labor reform and union organization. His most radical union enterprise was the establishment of the Grand National Consolidated Trades Union. This union attempted to organize all of the industrial workers throughout Great Britain into one national union, but it was not successful.

SELf-ChECK AnSwERS

andthesphereofthehomeandthechildrenbecamethedomainofwomen.Inaddition,amarriedwoman’sopportunitiestoearnwagestocontributetothefam-ilyincomebecameextremelylimited.

Looking AheadAlongwithchangeswroughtbymilitaryconflict,nineteenth-centuryEuropeansexperienceddrasticeconomicandsocialchanges,aswell.Inaddition,thenine-teenthcenturyexperiencedanewwarofideas.Onebattlesawthefinaldemiseofbothmedievalsystemsandideasandroyalaristocraticdominance.Anothersawtheideasofindividualfreedomandlaissez-faireeconomicsinconflictwiththeideasofsocialismandcollectiveownershipofthemeansofproduction.Manyphiloso-phers,economists,andevenradicalpoliticiansoftheeighteenthandnineteenthcenturies,suchasAdamSmith,ThomasMalthus,DavidRicardo,JeremyBentham,JohnStuartMill,RobertOwen,KarlMarx,andFriedrichEngels,proposedconceptsandtheoriesthatstillaffectpoliticsandeconomicstothisday.


Nineteenth-Century Economic and Political Theory

Unit 12, Lesson 5

Keywordsantithesis

class consciousness

class struggle

economic determinism

labor theory of value

phalanxes

Essential Questions• Whatnineteenth-centuryeconomistsproposednewtheoriesoneconomic

systems,andwhatwerethosetheories?

• WhatideasdidMarxandtheearlyutopiansocialistshold?



Set the StageNineteenth-century Europeans experienced many economic and social changes. Many also lived through the changes brought by military conflict. In addition, they experienced a new war of ideas. Philosophies of individual freedom and laissez-faire economics conflicted with the ideas of socialism and collective ownership of property and factories. Many of the concepts and theories proposed by philosophers, economists, and radical politicians of this era still affect politics and economics today.

Eighteenth- and nineteenth-Century Economic TheoryAsindustrializationbegantoexpandtheproductionofgoodsinEngland,theoldsystemsandpoliciesofmercantilismgavewaytoanewfreemarketsystemofproductdistribution.Variouseconomictheoristsinitiallydescribedthefreemarket,aswellasargumentsforgovernmentaction.Thefollowingmenbelongtoagroupcalledclassicaleconomists.

AdamSmith(1723–1790)wasaprofessorattheUniversityofGlasgowinScotland.Smith,anEnlightenmentthinker,focusedhiseconomictheoriesonideasofindividualfreedomandfreemarketprinciples.Smithisthemostrenownedclassicaleconomist.Unlikemercantilists,whobelievedtheamountofgoldandsilverbullionthatanationpossesseddetermineditswealth,Smithbelievedthatanation’swealthcamefromtheproductionofgoodsbyitsfarm-ers,artisans,andfactoryworkers.Hecontendedthatanationcouldcreateahigherstandardoflivingbymodernizingfarminganddevelopingcommercialagriculture.Smithisoftenassociatedwiththelaissez-faireeconomictheory.Laissez-fairetranslatedintoEnglishmeans“letitbe”orto“letpeopledoastheychoose.”Smithbelievedthatindividualsshouldbeallowedtofreelypursuetheirowneconomicself-interestwithoutregulationsorsponsorshipfromthestate.

SmithofferedoriginalideasconcerningthenaturallawsofeconomicsinInquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations(1776).Heassertedthatthecombinationofastronglaborforceandanabundanceofrawmateri-als,unitedinthemanufactureofusefulproducts,wasthemostvaluableassetacountrycouldhave.Smithbelievedthatlabor,ratherthanlandorgold,con-stitutedthetruewealthofanation.Smithfeltthatanation’seconomywastoocomplextobecontrolledbygovernment.Insteadthe“invisiblehandofthemar-ketplace”orthelawsofsupplyanddemandshouldguidewhatisproduced,howmuchisproduced,andthepricesofproducts.Smithalsoarguedthatnationsshouldallowfreetradeorthefreeflowofgoodsacrossborderswithoutimpos-ingtariffs.Hefeltthattariffsonlyprotectedinefficientproducersandharmedconsumers.Instead,nationsshouldfocustheireffortsontheproductionofgoodsforwhichtheyheldacomparativeadvantage.TheBritishIsles,forinstance,would



naturallyfocustheireffortsonproducingtextiles.Inoppositiontotheexistingguildsystem,Smithreasonedthatahigherdivisionoflaborwouldproducegreaterquantitiesofgoodsatalowercost.Hecontendedthatiftheproductionprocesswasbrokendownintovarioussimplesteps,andworkersspecializedindoingasinglestepquicklyandwell,theresultwouldbeincreasedefficiency.

Smithbelievedthatindividuals,withthefreedomtoworkfortheirownself-interest,wouldbringinmorewealthandmakeanationmoreaffluentthanifanationtriedtocontroltradewiththesamegoalofnationalwealthinmind.Thispointofviewistermedeconomicliberalism.Becauseofthisbeliefineconomicliberty,SmithurgedleadersofthemercantilesystemtoendthebountiesgovernmentgavetocertainmerchantsandindustriesintheNavigationActs,mosttariffs,trademonopolies,andthedomesticregulationoflaborandmanufacture.Hearguedthatthesepoliciesandregulationsactuallykeptanation’swealthandproductionfromexpanding.Ifindividualshadthefreedomtopursuetheirowneconomicinterests,Smithargued,thewholesystemwouldexpand,andwealthwouldflowintothestate.Furthermore,customerswouldbenefitfromcompetition.

Smith’sbookalsochallengedthemercantilistassumptionthattheearthhadlimitedresources.Hefelttheresourcesoftheworldwereendlessandjustneededtobeexploitedfurther.Therewasenoughforeveryonetobenefit,andnooneneededtobepoor.Smith’sbookservesasatextbookformoderncapital-ism.Smithpromotedalimitedroleforgovernmentintheeconomy.Hefeltthegovernmentshouldfocusprimarilyonprotectingthelife,liberty,andpropertyofitscitizens.Essentially,governmentservedthreebasicfunctionsinSmith’sparadigm:protectsocietyfrominvasionwithanarmy,defendindividualsfrominjusticeandoppressionwithapoliceforce,andkeepupcertainpublicworksthatindividualscannotafford,suchasroadsandcanals.Inaddition,thegov-ernmentshouldleadthewayincommercialventuresthatweretooexpensiveordangerousforprivateinvestorstoundertake,butthatwouldalsobringalotofprofit.Smithpavedthewayfornineteenth-centuryeconomicliberalism.

ThomasMalthus(1766–1834)believedthatagriculturalproductioncouldnotkeepupwithpopulationgrowth.Becausethepopulationgrowsexponen-tially,asimpleincreaseinharvestyieldcouldnotprovideenoughfoodforthegrowingnumberofpeoplethatneededtobefed.Hedidacknowledgethatwar,famine,anddiseasewouldnaturallyslowpopulationgrowth,butMalthusalsobelievedthat“moralrestraint”—ormarryinglateandremainingchasteuntilmarriage—wouldbethebestwaystoslowtheexpansionofthepopulation.MalthuswroteEssay on Human Population(1798),whichstillstandstodayasanimportantargumentforlimitingpopulationgrowth.EventhoughMalthusarguedforchastityandlatemarriage,hewasnotoptimisticthatanyonewouldshowsuchrestraint.Healsofeltitwasnotlikelythatbirthcontrolwouldbedevelopedthatcouldslowdownpopulationgrowthorthattechnologywouldadvancesufficientlytoincreasetheproductionoffoodandgoods.

DavidRicardo(1772–1823)wasastockbrokerandeconomist.ThomasMalthusinfluencedRicardo’seconomictheory.RicardoproposedtheIronLaw

1SELf-ChECK

What is the term for

nineteenth-century

economists who believed

in individual freedom

and a free market

economy?



ofWages,ortheideathatwageswouldalwaysremainaslowaspossible.Wageswouldstayhighenoughtokeepworkersfromstarving,Ricardobelieved,butwouldneverrisetothelevelofprosperity.Ricardoalsoargued,inThe Principles of Political Economy and Taxation(1817),thatanyincreaseinwageswouldsim-plyencourageworkerstohavemorechildren.Thispopulationgrowthwouldfloodthelabormarketwithprospectiveworkers,causingwagestofallagain.Workerswouldthenhavefewerchildren,andwageswouldagainincrease.Inessence,Ricardobelievedthatlaborwasaproductwhosepricewouldriseandfallaccordingtosupplyanddemand.Basedonhisideas,Ricardoconcludedthatitwasimpossibletoimproveworkers’livesthroughincreasingwages,asdoingsowouldonlyincreasethepopulationanddrivedownwagesagain.Ricardobelievedthatthesupply-and-demandcyclemadeitimpossibletoincreasethestandardofliving.

ThepessimisticviewsofMalthusandRicardoledeconomicstobecalled“thedismalscience.”YetMalthusandRicardowerewrongabouttheabilityofagriculturalandtechnologicalinnovationtovastlyincreasetheproduc-tionoffoodandgoods.Theyalsodidnotconceiveofhowtheseadvancesinagricultureandindustrywouldlowerprices.Also,contrarytowhatMalthusandRicardopredicted,Europeansbeganhavingsmallerfamiliesduringthenineteenthcentury.

JeremyBentham(1748–1832)wasaclassicaleconomistwhobelievedinindividualfreedom.However,hefeltitwasthegovernment’sresponsibilitytointervenewhenregulationwouldresultinthegreatesthappinessforthegreatestnumberofpeople.HedevelopedthedoctrineofutilitarianisminhisPrinciples of Morals and Legislation(1789),aswellasinotherwritings.Benthamfeltthatthehappiness,whichhedefinedas“thepresenceofpleasureandtheabsenceofpain,”engenderedbyagivenactiondeterminedtheutilityofthataction.AccordingtoBentham,thegovernmentprovidedhappinesstoitspeoplebygrantingindividualfreedom.However,iftherewasaninstancewherealargenumberofpeoplefeltpainwhileonlyafewexperiencedpleasure,thenthegovernmentshouldrestorethebalanceofhappinessthroughregulationandenforcement.Benthamarguedthatensuringthe“greatestgoodforthegreat-estnumber”wastheprimarypurposeofgovernment.Benthamsupportedtheseparationofchurchandstate,women’srights,andtheendofslavery.ManyofBentham’sideassparkedthedevelopmentofthemodern-daywelfarestate,whicharoseduringthetwentiethcentury.

JohnStuartMill(1806–1873),anineteenth-centuryphilosopher,wrotePrinciples of Political Economy(1848),whichdisagreedwiththeideasofclassicaleconomists.MillwentevenfurtherthanBenthaminhiseconomicandpoliticaltheories.Hebelievedinindividualfreedom,andthusfeltthatthegovernmentshouldtakestepstoprotecttheindividualfreedomsofminoritiesandthedisadvantaged.Millbelievedthatthenewindustrialeconomycreatedmanyeconomicandsocialinjus-tices.Hearguedthattheseinjusticescouldberectifiedifthegovernmentwouldtakecontroloverthedistributionofwealth.Millassertedthatworkershaveavoiceinpromotingtheirowninterestswhentheyareallowedtoformlaborunions.He



alsosupportedthegovernmentrestrictionofchildlaborandtheprotectionoffemaleworkers.Hefurtherpromoteduniversalsuffragesothatworkerscouldhavesomesayintheactionsofgovernment.Finally,MillarguedthatParliamentshouldcreateasystemofstate-supportedelementaryeducation,aswellaspassincomeandinheritancetaxestofurtherlimittheaccumulationofwealthbythefew.Millwroteawell-knownessayOn Libertyin1859.Inhisessay,Milldefendedfreedomofexpressionandwarnedthatitisdangeroustoruleorregulatemerelybymajor-ityopinion.Workingwithhiswife,HarrietTaylor,Millfoughtforwomen’srighttovoteinGreatBritain.MillwroteThe Subjection of Women,defendingwomen’srightsin1869.

The Social Effects of IndustrializationIndustrializationdevelopedalongsidethepopulationexplosionthatbeganduringtheeighteenthcentury.ThepopulationofGreatBritainincreased200percentbetween1750and1850,whenitreached30millionpeople.InEngland,thepopulationconcentratedintheindustrialcitieslocatednorthofLondoninLancashireandtheMidlands.Between1750and1850,Manchesterbecamethesecond-largestcityinBritain,growinginpopulationtoalmostahalfamillionpeople.Thisdramaticincreaseinpopulationbroughtsomeoftheworstproblemsofindustrialization.SomemigrantstothenewindustrialcitiescametoescapethefamineinIreland.Othersmigratedtothecitysimplybecausetheydidn’townlandinthecountry,andtheywereseekingemploymentandaplacetolive.Jobswereavailableinthemanynewcottonmills.

Earlyfactorieshadharshandunhealthyworkingconditions.Factoryemploy-eesworkedlonghoursinpoorlightandventilation.Workersfacedstrictfactoryrulesandhardphysicallabor.Factorymachinerycouldbedangerous.Tiredwork-erscouldbeinjuredeasilyiftheyfailedtopaycloseattentiontothedangerousworktheyweredoing.Beforereformlawsrestrictingtheuseofchildlabor,manyfactoryownersexploitedchildren.Factoryandmineworkcouldalsoendangerworkers’health,asworkerswereoftenexposedtohazardousortoxicsubstances.Suchworkingconditionsmadeitnecessarytoreformlaborlaws,tooutlawchildlabor,andtoprotectworkers.Theseconditionsalsoledtotheinitiationofalabormovementbytheworkersthemselves.

Unfortunately,urbanlivingconditionsforunskilledfactoryormineworkerswerenotmuchbetterthantheconditionstheyencounteredatwork.Overcrowdedcitiesoftenhadpollutedair,pollutedwater,andpoorsanitation.Diseaseslikecholera,dysentery,andtyphoidspreadquicklythroughouturbanpopulations.Thelifeexpectancyofanurbanworkerwashalfaslongasafarmerinthecountry.Citiesalsolackedeffectivelawenforcementandwerepronetosocialillssuchasprostitutionandalcoholism.

Familylifeintheindustrialcitywasfundamentallydifferentfromfamilylifeinthecountry.Inthecountry,familieslaboredtogetherinfarmingandincottageindustries.Intheindustrialcity,theworkofwomenandmenbecameseparatedbylocationandgenderdesignation.Whilemenlaboredforwagesoutsidethehome,theprimaryresponsibilitiesofwomenweredomestictasks

2SELf-ChECK

Which classical

economist believed

that wealth should be

redistributed for the

benefit of society’s

disadvantaged?



thatdidnotbringinwages.Thesefami-liesnowspentlimitedleisureandmealtimestogether.Ifmarriedwomenneededtoworkforwages,theirworkoptionsbecameextremelylimited,andgener-allydidnotpayverymuch.

Thereformlawsofthe1830sand1840s,passedbytheBritishParliament,essentiallycompletedtheseparationofmalewageworkandfemaledomesticwork.Suchlawsprotectedwomenandchildrenfromexploitationinfactoriesandmines.

Two new social classes emergedoutofindustrializationandthenewfactorysystem.Theseclassesweretheindustrialmiddleclassandurbanwork-ers.Industrialinvestors,inventors,andfactoryownersandmanagersbecamewealthyandgainedsocialstatusinthecommunity. This small-but-growinggroup of industrial bourgeoisie washardworkingandfrugal.

Thenewclassofunskilledurbanworkersincreasedincitiesatasimilarratetothemiddleclass.Thesework-ersownednopropertyandhadlittlemoney. They worked for wages at adisadvantagebecauseoftheamplesup-ply of workers availablemeant thattheycouldbehiredorfiredatafactoryowner’sdiscretion.IndustrialworkersremainedasmallpercentageofthepopulationinmostofEuropeuntilafter1850.Thus,theseworkersandtheirlaborunionsdidnotwieldmuchpoliticalpoweruntilmidcentury.

Citiesquicklybecamesegregatedbyclass,income,andoccupation.Riotsandcrimepromptedtheformationofmodernpoliceforces.Citylawenforce-mentbecameaprofessionalinstitutionincitiesaround1850.Thegovernmentalsobuiltmodernprisonstoincarcerateandrehabilitatecriminals.

The Early Utopian SocialistsNineteenth-centurysocialistsareoftendescribedasutopiansocialists.Theuto-piansocialistsincludeRobertOwen,theCountHenrideSaint-Simon,CharlesFourier,LouisBlanc,andAugusteBlanqui.JohnStuartMillleanedtowardsocialisminhisbeliefs,andhedidsupporttheredistributionofwealthtoaidthedisadvantaged,buthisideasdidnotgofarenoughformanytruesocialist

3SELf-ChECK

What were working

conditions like in early

factories?

The London slums



thinkers,soheisnotusuallycategorizedasone.Nineteenth-centurysocialistsgenerallyagreedonafewbasicpoints.First,theycalledforacompletechangeinthedefinitionandnatureofpropertyownership.Inthesocialistview,propertyshouldnotbeheldbyindividuals,butinsteadshouldbeownedbycommuni-tiesorstates,fortheuseandbenefitofall.Second,socialistsespeciallydesiredsocialownershipofthemeansofproductionandthemeansofdistribution.Finally,socialistsbelievedthatpeopleshouldworkcooperativelyratherthancompetitivelytobenefiteveryone.Beyondthesegeneralpoints,socialistphi-losophersofthe1800sofferedmanydifferentwayssocietycouldbeorderedtoreachthesecommongoalsandbeliefs.

RobertOwen(1771–1858)beganhiscareerasaScottishfactoryowner.HeownedacottontextilemillinNewLanark.Owenshowedthatfactoryownersdidnotneedtoabuseandexploitfactoryworkerstomakeaprofit.Heshortenedworkhours,paidhigherwages,madehismillshealthierandsafer,andsup-pliedgoodhousingforfactoryworkers.Afterhisearlyexperienceowningandrunningasuccessfulfactory,Owenwantedtoestablishasocialistcommunity.In1826,hesoldhisshareofthefactoryandboughtsomelandinIndiana,intheUnitedStates.TherehesetupthecommunityofNewHarmony.Residentsownedandfarmedthelandasacommunity.Unfortunately,Owen’ssocialistexperimentfailedinjustafewyears,andhereturnedtoEnglandanddirectedhisattentiontounionorganizing.

CountHenrideSaint-Simon(1760–1825)wasaprominentFrenchsocialist.Hisideascanbefoundinmanywrittenworks,suchasThe New Christianity(1825).

Robert Owen’s textile mill

thatdidnotbringinwages.Thesefami-liesnowspentlimitedleisureandmealtimestogether.Ifmarriedwomenneededtoworkforwages,theirworkoptionsbecameextremelylimited,andgener-allydidnotpayverymuch.

Thereformlawsofthe1830sand1840s,passedbytheBritishParliament,essentiallycompletedtheseparationofmalewageworkandfemaledomesticwork.Suchlawsprotectedwomenandchildrenfromexploitationinfactoriesandmines.

Two new social classes emergedoutofindustrializationandthenewfactorysystem.Theseclassesweretheindustrialmiddleclassandurbanwork-ers.Industrialinvestors,inventors,andfactoryownersandmanagersbecamewealthyandgainedsocialstatusinthecommunity. This small-but-growinggroup of industrial bourgeoisie washardworkingandfrugal.

Thenewclassofunskilledurbanworkersincreasedincitiesatasimilarratetothemiddleclass.Thesework-ersownednopropertyandhadlittlemoney. They worked for wages at adisadvantagebecauseoftheamplesup-ply of workers availablemeant thattheycouldbehiredorfiredatafactoryowner’sdiscretion.IndustrialworkersremainedasmallpercentageofthepopulationinmostofEuropeuntilafter1850.Thus,theseworkersandtheirlaborunionsdidnotwieldmuchpoliticalpoweruntilmidcentury.

Citiesquicklybecamesegregatedbyclass,income,andoccupation.Riotsandcrimepromptedtheformationofmodernpoliceforces.Citylawenforce-mentbecameaprofessionalinstitutionincitiesaround1850.Thegovernmentalsobuiltmodernprisonstoincarcerateandrehabilitatecriminals.

The Early Utopian SocialistsNineteenth-centurysocialistsareoftendescribedasutopiansocialists.Theuto-piansocialistsincludeRobertOwen,theCountHenrideSaint-Simon,CharlesFourier,LouisBlanc,andAugusteBlanqui.JohnStuartMillleanedtowardsocialisminhisbeliefs,andhedidsupporttheredistributionofwealthtoaidthedisadvantaged,buthisideasdidnotgofarenoughformanytruesocialist

3SELf-ChECK

What were working

conditions like in early

factories?



Saint-Simonbelievedthatgovernmentsofmodernindustrialsocietiesshouldfocustheirattentionandeffortsoneconomicsratherthanpolitics.Healsofeltthatsci-entistsandtechnicians,whounderstoodthemodernindustrialeconomy,shouldrunthegovernment.Suchexpertscouldthenmanagetheeconomyinwaysthatwouldbenefitallcitizensandserveeveryone’sinterests.InSaintSimon’sutopiansociety,everyonewouldhavewhattheyneed.Inaddition,everyonewouldworkforthebenefitofall,andberewardedforwhattheyproduced.

CharlesFourier(1772–1837)wasanotherFrenchsocialist.Heproposedthecreationofphalanxes,whichweresocialistcommunities.Eachphalanxwouldhaveabout1,600communitymembers.Phalanxmemberswouldfarmandmanufacturegoodstogether,eachperformingajobthattheylikedtodo.Peoplewouldbeallowedtochangejobsoftentoavoidboredomordissatisfaction.Fourierexpectedinvestorsorphilanthropiststocomeforwardandfundhissocialistcommunities,butnoonedid.AfewphalanxeswereestablishedincountriesoutsideofFrance,butultimatelytheywerenotsuccessful.

LouisBlanc(1811–1882)wasaFrenchjournalistwhowroteThe Organization of Work(1840),inwhichheproposedpracticalwaysthatsocialismcouldtakeoverthegovernment.First,Blancargued,aFrenchrepublicinwhichallmalecitizenscouldvotecouldbeestablished.Anewlycreatedworkers’partywouldgrowinnumbersandpower,ultimatelytakingcontrolofthegovernment.Wheninpower,theworkerswouldnationalizetherailroads.Profitsgainedfromrunningtherailroadsandothertaxrevenuescouldthenbeusedtofoundsocialworkshopsineveryareaofindustry.Workerswouldcooperativelyrunthesocialworkshops,andalltheprofitswouldbepaidtotheseworkers.Thesestate-sponsoredworkshopswouldguaranteefullemploymentforallwork-ers.Becausetheseworkerswouldenjoytheirworksomuch,Blanctheorized,productivitywouldgreatlyincrease,whilethecostoffinishedproductswoulddrop.Competitionfromsocialworkshopswoulddriveprivatelyownedfactoriesoutofbusiness.Thenprivatefactorieswouldbetakenoverbytheworkersandbecomesocialworkshops.Afterawhile,allindustrywouldbecooperativelyownedandmanagedbyworkers.Theprimaryprincipleofthisnewsocialistutopiawouldbe“fromeachaccordingtohisabilities,toeachaccordingtohisneeds.”Blanc’sworkingclassphilosophieshelpedinspirethe1848revolutioninFrance.

AugusteBlanqui(1805–1881)wasanactivistwhoencouragedviolentrevo-lution.HecalledfortheworkingclasstoriseupandtakecontroloftheFrenchgovernment.Aftertakingcontrol,newworkerleaderswouldseizeownershipofallprivatepropertyandtakecontroloverthemeansofproductionanddis-tribution.Thenthenewgovernmentwouldreorganizetheeconomysothatallworkerswouldbenefit.Reeducationwouldhelpworkersovercomeatendencytowardselfishnessandself-interest.Afterthissocialistsystemwasimplemented,thegovernmentwouldbecomeademocratic,socialistsociety.

Karl Marx and MarxismKarlMarx(1818–1883)andFriedrichEngels(1820–1895),twoGermansocialistphilosophers,joinedforcesin1848towriteandpublishThe Communist Manifesto.

phalanxes socialist communities envisioned by Charles Fourier

4SELf-ChECK

Name the five utopian

socialists discussed in

the text.



ItisdifficulttooverstatetheimportanceandinfluenceofthispamphletonmodernEurope.TheManifestooutlinedMarxiansocialism,expoundedamethodofnationalizingproperty,arguedthatallpeopleshouldbeallowedtovote(universalsuffrage),anddescribedaprocessofredistributingproperty.

MarxreceivedhiscollegeeducationattheUniversityofBerlin,studyingphilosophy,journalism,andeconomics.HereadthewritingsoftheFrenchutopiansocialistsanddevel-opedhisownversionofsocialismbythetimehewas25.Engelswasthesonofawealthytextileowner.Herejectedhisinheritancetofightfortheinterestsofindustrialworkers.In1844,hewroteThe Condition of the Working Class in England,exposingtheinequalitieshefeltwerecreatedbycapitalism.MarxandEngelsenjoyedalifelongfriendshipandcollabora-tionintheirsocialistendeavors.

MarxandEngelscombinedGermanphilosophy,Britishindustrialism,andFrenchradicalismintotheircriticismofcapitalism.Marxiansocialismincludesfivepillars:alienationoflabor,labortheoryofvalue,dialecticalmaterialism,classstruggle,andrevolution.Inhisearlywritings,Marxdescribedwhathetermedthe“alienationoflabor.”Becauseindustrialworkerswerespecialized,onlyperformingonetaskofmanytomakeaproduct,theybecameseparatedfromthefinishedproduct.Thisdivisionoflaborinfactoriesalienatedworkersfromtheircreations,fromtheiremployers,andfromeachother.AccordingtoMarx,“alienationoflabor”wasonewaythatemployersexploitedandabusedtheirindustrialworkers.

The labor theory of valueisanideaMarxborrowedfromclassicalecono-mistsandthenrepurposedforMarxiansocialism.Marxarguedthataproduct’svalueequatedwithhowmuchlaborittakestoproducetheproduct.Becausework-ersarepaidlessthanthefactoryownerbringsinforhisproductsatmarket(profit),Marxheldthatthefactoryownerstole“surpluslabor”fromhisemployees.

DialecticalmaterialismisbasicallyMarx’stheoryofhistoricalevolution.MarxappliedideasfromtheGermanphilosopherGeorgHegel(1770–1831)toprovideanoverviewofandstructureforallofhumanhistory.Hegelsaidthat,throughouthistory,theclashofopposingforcescausedchangethatoccurredinthreesteps.Thefirststephasbeentermedthesis,whichisthestatementofanintellectualidea.Thesecondstepiscalledantithesis:adenialofnegativereactiontotheinitialproposition.Thethirdisknownassynthesis,anditisareconciliationofthethesisandantithesis.Forinstance,“Theideaofbeinghadbeendominantinitially...andithadproduceditsantithesis,theideaofnonbeing.Thisideainturnhadresultedinthesynthesisofbecoming.Thushistoryhaspatternandpurpose.”MarxusedHegel’sideaofopposingforces,buthearguedthatthemotivationforconflictbetweenclassesthroughouthistoryhadalwaysbeeneconomic.Marx’sviewofhistorycanbecalledeconomic determinism.

labor theory of value the idea that a product’s value is equated with how much labor it takes to produce the product

economic determinism the idea proposed by Marx and Engels that economic factors underlie all of society’s decisions

Karl Marx

Saint-Simonbelievedthatgovernmentsofmodernindustrialsocietiesshouldfocustheirattentionandeffortsoneconomicsratherthanpolitics.Healsofeltthatsci-entistsandtechnicians,whounderstoodthemodernindustrialeconomy,shouldrunthegovernment.Suchexpertscouldthenmanagetheeconomyinwaysthatwouldbenefitallcitizensandserveeveryone’sinterests.InSaintSimon’sutopiansociety,everyonewouldhavewhattheyneed.Inaddition,everyonewouldworkforthebenefitofall,andberewardedforwhattheyproduced.

CharlesFourier(1772–1837)wasanotherFrenchsocialist.Heproposedthecreationofphalanxes,whichweresocialistcommunities.Eachphalanxwouldhaveabout1,600communitymembers.Phalanxmemberswouldfarmandmanufacturegoodstogether,eachperformingajobthattheylikedtodo.Peoplewouldbeallowedtochangejobsoftentoavoidboredomordissatisfaction.Fourierexpectedinvestorsorphilanthropiststocomeforwardandfundhissocialistcommunities,butnoonedid.AfewphalanxeswereestablishedincountriesoutsideofFrance,butultimatelytheywerenotsuccessful.

LouisBlanc(1811–1882)wasaFrenchjournalistwhowroteThe Organization of Work(1840),inwhichheproposedpracticalwaysthatsocialismcouldtakeoverthegovernment.First,Blancargued,aFrenchrepublicinwhichallmalecitizenscouldvotecouldbeestablished.Anewlycreatedworkers’partywouldgrowinnumbersandpower,ultimatelytakingcontrolofthegovernment.Wheninpower,theworkerswouldnationalizetherailroads.Profitsgainedfromrunningtherailroadsandothertaxrevenuescouldthenbeusedtofoundsocialworkshopsineveryareaofindustry.Workerswouldcooperativelyrunthesocialworkshops,andalltheprofitswouldbepaidtotheseworkers.Thesestate-sponsoredworkshopswouldguaranteefullemploymentforallwork-ers.Becausetheseworkerswouldenjoytheirworksomuch,Blanctheorized,productivitywouldgreatlyincrease,whilethecostoffinishedproductswoulddrop.Competitionfromsocialworkshopswoulddriveprivatelyownedfactoriesoutofbusiness.Thenprivatefactorieswouldbetakenoverbytheworkersandbecomesocialworkshops.Afterawhile,allindustrywouldbecooperativelyownedandmanagedbyworkers.Theprimaryprincipleofthisnewsocialistutopiawouldbe“fromeachaccordingtohisabilities,toeachaccordingtohisneeds.”Blanc’sworkingclassphilosophieshelpedinspirethe1848revolutioninFrance.

AugusteBlanqui(1805–1881)wasanactivistwhoencouragedviolentrevo-lution.HecalledfortheworkingclasstoriseupandtakecontroloftheFrenchgovernment.Aftertakingcontrol,newworkerleaderswouldseizeownershipofallprivatepropertyandtakecontroloverthemeansofproductionanddis-tribution.Thenthenewgovernmentwouldreorganizetheeconomysothatallworkerswouldbenefit.Reeducationwouldhelpworkersovercomeatendencytowardselfishnessandself-interest.Afterthissocialistsystemwasimplemented,thegovernmentwouldbecomeademocratic,socialistsociety.

Karl Marx and MarxismKarlMarx(1818–1883)andFriedrichEngels(1820–1895),twoGermansocialistphilosophers,joinedforcesin1848towriteandpublishThe Communist Manifesto.

phalanxes socialist communities envisioned by Charles Fourier

4SELf-ChECK

Name the five utopian

socialists discussed in

the text.



AccordingtoMarx,everystageofhistoryhashadadominantclassthatownsthemeansofproduction.DuringtheMiddleAges,thearistocracyownedthelandandwieldedpowerovertheserfsbecauselandwasthemostimportanteconomicresourceofthetime.Conflictbetweenthedominantclassandtheoppressedclassesresultedinclass struggle.Duringtheindustrialage,thebourgeoisie wasthedominantclassbecauseitownedallformsofcapital,suchasfactoriesandbanks.Exploitationandoppressionoftheunskilledworkers,calledtheproletariat,wouldinevitablyresultintheemergenceofasystemopposedtocapitalism.Thussocial-ismistheantithesistocapitalism.Theproletariatwouldthendevelopaclass consciousnessandriseupagainsttheiroppressors.

WhenMarxandEngelcalledfor“theworkersoftheworld[to]unite,”theywerecallingforasocialistrevolution.MarxsawthemanydifferentschemesoftheFrenchutopiansocialistsasridiculousandunrealistic.Theoppressedproletariatoftheworldwouldnotbefreed,hebelieved,bydevelopingindi-vidualcommunes.Hebelievedthemostsuccessfulcourseofactiontobeanorganizedandplannedrevolutionimplementedbythecoordinatedviolentactionoftheworkingclassallovertheworld.AccordingtoMarx’sviewofhis-tory,sucharevolutionwastheinevitableresultofcapitalists’exploitationofworkers.Marxbelievedworkerswouldeventuallybeunabletoaffordthecostofmanufacturedproducts.Atthispoint,industrialworkerswouldjointogetherandriseupagainstthebourgeoisieandthegovernment.Aftertherevolution,theworkerswouldcreateadictatorshipoftheproletariatthatwouldwipeoutcapitalismandinstitutesocialisminitsplace.

Fromthemiddleofthenineteenthcenturythroughthepresentday,Marxistphilosophyhasinfluencedeconomicsandpoliticsatvariousperiods,invariouscountries,andtovariousdegreesallovertheworld.AlthoughKarlMarxwasanatheistwhorejectedreligion,somehistorianshavearguedthatMarxismislikeareligioninitsbeliefsystemandstructure.Tothesehistorians,Marxismhasaprophet,KarlMarx,andholybooksintheformofMarx’swritings.Theyalsoarguethattheproletariatservesasthereligion’schosenraceandthatthereligion’sexplanationfortheendoftheworldisthefinalculminationofcom-munism,wherethestatebecomesnonexistentandthepeopleworkandlivetogethercooperatively.Duringthetwentiethcentury,therehavebeenseveralcountriesthathaveruntheirgovernmentsbasedonMarxistprinciples.YettheyhaveallimplementedvariationsofMarx’splan,ratherthanadhereddirectlyandwhollytohisManifesto.

Extensions• ReadThe Communist ManifestobyKarlMarxandFriedrichEngels.Who

weretheenemiesofthebourgeoisie?Howwastheproletariatcreated?Whywilltheproletariateventuallyprevail?

SummaryAsindustrializationvastlyexpandedtheproductionofgoodsinEngland,mer-cantilismgavewaytoanewfreemarketsystemofproductdistribution.Classical

class struggle the active expression of class conflict looked at from any kind of socialist perspective

antithesis the exact opposite (for instance: socialism is the antithesis of capitalism)

class consciousness the idea that people understand their social and economic status and collectively consider themselves part of a class of people

5SELf-ChECK

What are the five pillars

of Marxian socialism?



1. Classical economists

2. John Stuart Mill

3. Long working hours, poor light and ventilation, strict rules prohibiting tardiness or talking with other workers, injuries from factory machinery, exposure

to and diseases from hazardous or toxic substances, child labor, low pay

4. Robert Owen, the Count of Saint-Simon, Charles Fourier, Louis Blanc, Auguste Blanqui

5. Alienation of labor, labor theory of value, dialectical materialism, class struggle, revolution

SELf-ChECK AnSwERS

economictheoristsdiscussedthefreemarketandprovidedargumentsforgovernmentaction.TheseclassicaleconomistsincludedAdamSmith,ThomasMalthus,DavidRicardo,JeremyBentham,andJohnStuartMill.Smithbelievedthatindividualsshouldbeallowedtofreelypursuetheirowneconomicself-interestwithoutregulationsorsponsorshipfromthestate.Smith’sbook,Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations,isbasicallyatextbookformoderncapitalism.Whilethemembersofthenewindustrialmiddleclassenjoyedtheirnewsocialandfinancialmobility,urbanworkersenduredharshandunhealthyworkingandlivingconditions.Citiesquicklybecamesegregatedbyclass,income,andoccupation.Toaddresstheplightofurbanworkers,nineteenth-centuryutopiansocialistsexpoundeduponradicalchangestosociety,suchastheeliminationofprivatepropertyownership,socialowner-shipofthemeansofproductionandthemeansofdistribution,andtheideathatpeopleshouldworkcooperativelyratherthancompetitively.In1848,KarlMarxandFriedrichEngelspublishedThe Communist Manifesto,theimportanceandinfluenceofwhichcannotbeoverstated.

Looking AheadTheIndustrialRevolutionhadmanysocialeffectsthatforeverchangedtheEuropeanlandscapeandthelivesofEuropeanpeople.Factoriesdottedthelandscape,andthegrowthofindustrialcitiescausedpollutionandnewsanita-tionissueswithwhichcitieshadtocontend.Theseparationofdomesticandmanuallaborfromfactorylaborresultedinanewsexualdivisionoflabor.Industrializationalsocausednewclassdivisionsbetweentheindustrialmiddleclassandthelaboringpoor.Restrictionsonchildlaborandlawsmandatingelementaryeducationforyoungchildrenonlyservedtoincreaseliteracyandstrengthennewconceptsofchildhoodandthemoregentletreatmentofchil-dren.Industrializationgavehopethatcreative,hard-workingpeoplecouldgreatlyimprovetheirfinancialstatus,butatthesametimeitcreatedaharsh,unsanitarylifeforthemajorityoftheurbanclass.


Unit 12, Lesson 1 The Industrial Revolution...

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