TOC NL Norman Lowe. Table of contents
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Transcript of TOC NL Norman Lowe. Table of contents
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ยฉ Norman Lowe 1982, 1988, 1997, 2005, 2013
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First edition published 1982Second edition published 1988Third edition published 1997Fourth edition published 2005Fifth edition published 2013
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Contents
List of figures xivList of maps xvList of tables xviiList of illustrations xviiiAcknowledgements xixPreface to the fifth edition xx
PART I WAR AND INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS
1 The world in 1914: outbreak of the First World War 31.1 Prologue 31.2 The world in 1914 31.3 Events leading up to the outbreak of war 71.4 What caused the war, and who was to blame? 11Further reading 17Questions 17
2 The First World War and its aftermath 18Summary of events 182.1 1914 192.2 1915 212.3 1916 232.4 The war at sea 252.5 1917 272.6 The Central Powers defeated 282.7 The problems of making a peace settlement 322.8 The Treaty of Versailles with Germany 342.9 The peace treaties with Austria-Hungary 382.10 The settlement with Turkey and Bulgaria 392.11 Verdict on the peace settlement 41Further reading 41Questions 42
3 The League of Nations 43Summary of events 433.1 What were the origins of the League? 433.2 How was the League organised? 443.3 The successes of the League 453.4 Why did the League fail to preserve peace? 46Further reading 50Questions 50
4 International relations, 1919โ33 51Summary of events 514.1 What attempts were made to improve international relations, and how
successful were they? 52
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4.2 How did France try to deal with the problem of Germany between 1919 and 1933? 55
4.3 How did relations between the USSR and Britain, Germany and France develop between 1919 and 1933? 57
4.4 The โsuccessorโ states 604.5 United States foreign policy, 1919โ33 66Further reading 68Questions 68
5 International relations, 1933โ39 69Summary of events 695.1 Relations between Japan and China 705.2 Mussoliniโs foreign policy 725.3 What were Hitlerโs aims in foreign policyand how successful had he
been by the end of 1938? 755.4 What is meant by the term โappeasementโ? How could such a policy
be justified, and what part did it play in international affairs between 1935 and 1939? 78
5.5 Munich to the outbreak of war: September1938 to September 1939 815.6 Why did war break out? Were Hitler or the appeasers to blame? 83Further reading 87Questions 88
6 The Second World War, 1939โ45 89Summary of events 896.1 Opening moves: September 1939 to December 1940 906.2 The Axis offensive widens: 1941 to the summer of 1942 946.3 The offensives held in check: summer 1942 to summer 1943 996.4 What part was played in the war by Allied naval forces? 1016.5 What contribution did air power make to the defeat of the Axis? 1026.6 The Axis powers defeated: July 1943 to August 1945 1046.7 Why did the Axis powers lose the war? 1096.8 The Holocaust 1106.9 What were the effects of the war? 117Further reading 120Questions 121
7 The Cold War: problems of international relations after the Second World War 122Summary of events 1227.1 What caused the Cold War? 1237.2 How did the Cold War develop between 1945 and 1953? 1257.3 To what extent was there a thaw after 1953 1337.4 The nuclear arms race and the Cuban missiles crisis (1962) 136Further reading 140Questions 140
8 The spread of communism outside Europe and its effects on international relations 142Summary of events 1428.1 The war in Korea and its effects on international relations 1438.2 Cuba: why did Castro come to power and how were Cubaโs foreign
relations affected? 147
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8.3 The wars in Vietnam, 1946โ54 and 1961โ75 1498.4 Chile under Salvador Allende 1970โ3 1558.5 More United States interventions 1578.6 Detente: international relations from the1970s to the 1990s 1608.7 The collapse of communism in eastern Europe and the end of the
Cold War: international relations transformed 163Further reading 165Questions 166
9 The United Nations Organization 167Summary of events 1679.1 The structure of the United Nations Organization 1679.2 How different is the United Nations from the League of Nations? 1709.3 How successful has the UN been as a peacekeeping organization? 1719.4 UN peacekeeping since the end of the Cold War 1759.5 What other work is the UN responsible for? 1779.6 Verdict on the United Nations Organization 1819.7 What about the future of the UN? 184Further reading 185Questions 185
10 The Two Europes, East and West since 1945 186Summary of events 18610.1 The states of western Europe 18710.2 The growth of unity in western Europe 19110.3 The early days of the European Community 19210.4 The European Community from 1972 to Maastricht (1991) 19710.5 Communist unity in eastern Europe 20210.6 Why and how did communism collapse in eastern Europe? 20710.7 Civil war in Yugoslavia 21210.8 Europe since Maastricht 21710.9 The European Union in Crisis 221Further reading 223Questions 223
11 Conflict in the Middle East 225Summary of events 22511.1 Arab unity and interference from the outside world 22711.2 The creation of Israel and the Arab-Israeli war 1948โ9 23011.3 The Suez War of 1956 23211.4 The Six Day War of 1967 23411.5 The Yom Kippur War of 1973 23611.6 Camp David and the Egyptian-Israeli peace, 1978โ9 23711.7 Peace between Israel and the PLO 23811.8 Conflict in the Lebanon 24011.9 The Iran-Iraq War, 1980โ8 24411.10 The Gulf War, 1990โ1 24611.11 Israelis and Palestinians fight again 247Further reading 255Questions 256
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12 The new world order and the war against global terrorism 257Summary of events 25712.1 The new world order 25912.2 The rise of global terrorism 26112.3 11 September 2001 and the โwar on terrorismโ 26512.4 The downfall of Saddam Hussein 27012.5 The continuing war in Afghanistan 27712.6 The problem of Iran 27912.7 The Arab Spring 282Further reading 292Questions 292
PART II THE RISE OF FASCISM AND GOVERNMENTS OF THE RIGHT
13 Italy 1918โ45: the first appearance of fascism 295Summary of events 29513.1 Why was Mussolini able to come to power? 29513.2 What did the term โfascismโ stand for? 29913.3 Mussolini tries to introduce the fascist state 29913.4 What benefits did fascism bring for the Italian people? 30313.5 Opposition and downfall 306Further reading 308Questions 308
14 Germany 1918โ45: the Weimar Republic and Hitler 309Summary of events 30914.1 Why did the Weimar Republic collapse? 31014.2 What did National Socialism stand for? 31714.3 Hitler consolidates his power 31914.4 How was Hitler able to stay in power? 32014.5 Nazism and Fascism 32914.6 How successful was Hitler in domestic affairs? 330Further reading 333Questions 334
15 Japan and Spain 335Summary of events 33515.1 Japan before the Second World War 33615.2 Japan recovers 33815.3 Spain 342Further reading 347Questions 348
PART III COMMUNISM โ RISE AND DECLINE
16 Russia and the revolutions, 1900โ24 351Summary of events 35116.1 After 1905: were the 1917 revolutions inevitable? 35116.2 The two revolutions: March and November 1917 35516.3 How successfully did Lenin and the Bolsheviks deal with their
problems (1917โ24)? 360
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16.4 Lenin โ evil genius? 368Further reading 370Questions 370
17 The USSR and Stalin, 1924โ53 372Summary of events 37217.1 How did Stalin get to supreme power? 37217.2 How successful was Stalin in solving the USSRโs economic
problems? 37517.3 Politics and the Purges 37917.4 Everyday life and culture under Stalin 38417.5 Stalinโs final years, 1945โ53 389Further reading 394Questions 395
18 Continuing communism, collapse and aftermath, 1953 to the present 396Summary of events 39618.1 The Khrushchev era, 1953โ64 39718.2 The USSR stagnates, 1964โ86 40018.3 Gorbachev and the end of communist rule 40318.4 The aftermath of communism: Yeltsin, Putin and Medvedev 409Further reading 418Questions 419
19 China 1900โ49 420Summary of events 42019.1 Revolution and the warlord era 42019.2 The Kuomintang, Dr Sun Yat-sen and Chiang Kai-shek 42319.3 Mao Zedong and the Chinese Communist Party 42519.4 The communist victory, 1949 428Further reading 429Questions 430
20 China since 1949: the communists in control 431Summary of events 43120.1 How successful was Mao in dealing with Chinaโs problems? 43120.2 Life after Mao 43620.3 Tiananmen Square, 1989 and the crisis of communism 43920.4 The changing face of communism in China 441Further reading 446Questions 447
21 Communism in Korea and South East Asia 448Summary of events 44821.1 North Korea 44921.2 Vietnam 45421.3 Cambodia/Kampuchea 45721.4 Laos 462Further reading 464Questions 465
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PART IV THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
22 The USA before the Second World War 469Summary of events 46922.1 The American system of government 47022.2 Into the melting pot: the era of immigration 47422.3 The USA becomes economic leader of the world 47722.4 Socialists, trade unions and the impact of war and the Russian
revolutions 48122.5 Racial discrimination and the Civil Rights Movement 48622.6 The Great Depression arrives: October 1929 48922.7 Roosevelt and the New Deal 493Further reading 499Questions 499
23 The USA since 1945 501Summary of events 50123.1 Poverty and social policies 50223.2 Racial problems and the Civil Rights Movement 50523.3 Anti-communism and Senator McCarthy 51123.4 Nixon and Watergate 51423.5 The CarterโReaganโBush era, 1977โ93 51523.6 Bill Clinton, George W. Bush and Barack Obama 519Further reading 525Questions 526
PART V DECOLONIZATION AND AFTER
24 The end of the European Empires 529Summary of events 52924.1 Why did the European powers giveup their Empires? 53124.2 Indian independence and partition 53424.3 The West Indies, Malaya and Cyprus 53724.4 The British leave Africa 54124.5 The end of the French Empire 54924.6 Holland, Belgium, Spain, Portugal and Italy 55424.7 Verdict on decolonization 559Further reading 562Questions 562
25 Problems in Africa 563Summary of events 56325.1 Problems common to the African states 56325.2 Democracy, dictatorship and military government in Ghana 56525.3 Civil wars and corruption in Nigeria 56725.4 Poverty in Tanzania 57125.5 The Congo/Zaire 57425.6 Angola: a Cold War tragedy 57725.7 Genocide in Burundi and Rwanda 58025.8 Apartheid and black majority rule in South Africa 58325.9 Socialism and civil war in Ethiopia 59125.10 Liberia โ a unique experiment 593
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25.11 Stability and chaos in Sierra Leone 59525.12 Zimbabwe under Robert Mugabe 59725.13 Confusion and civil war in Somalia 60225.14 The Sudan 60425.15 Africa and its problems in the twenty-first century 605Further reading 606Questions 607
26 Latin America 608Summary of events 60826.1 The era of US domination 61026.2 South America: Brazil and Venezuela 61226.3 Mexico, Guatemala and Nicaragua 61526.4 The challenge to US domination 622Further reading 631Questions 632
PART VI GLOBAL PROBLEMS
27 The changing world economy since 1900 635Summary of events 63527.1 Changes in the world economy in the twentieth century 63527.2 The Third World and the NorthโSouth divide 63827.3 The split in the Third World economy 64327.4 The world economy and its effects on the environment 64427.5 Global warming 64927.6 The world economy at the turn of the millennium 65227.7 Capitalism in crisis 65427.8 The world economies in 2012 661Further reading 665Questions 666
28 The worldโs population 667Summary of events 66728.1 The increasing world population since 1900 66728.2 Consequences of the population explosion 67028.3 Attempts at population control 67128.4 The population increase and Islamism 67528.5 The HIV/Aids epidemic 679Further reading 682Questions 682
Index 683
CONTENTS xiii
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War andInternationalRelations
Part
I
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1.1 PROLOGUE
Under cover of darkness late on the night of 5 August 1914, five columns of Germanassault troops, which had entered Belgium two days earlier, were converging on the townof Liรจge, expecting little resistance. To their surprise they were halted by determined firefrom the townโs outlying forts. This was a setback for the Germans: control of Liรจge wasessential before they could proceed with their main operation against France. They wereforced to resort to siege tactics, using heavy howitzers. These fired shells up into the airand they plunged from a height of 12 000 feet to shatter the armour-plating of the forts.Strong though they were, these Belgian forts were not equipped to withstand such a batter-ing for long; on 13 August the first one surrendered and three days later Liรจge was underGerman control. This was the first major engagement of the First World War, that horri-fying conflict of monumental proportions which was to mark the beginning of a new erain European and world history.
1.2 THE WORLD IN 1914
(a) Europe still dominated the rest of the world in 1914
Most of the decisions which shaped the fate of the world were taken in the capitals ofEurope. Germany was the leading power in Europe both militarily and economically. Shehad overtaken Britain in the production of pig-iron and steel, though not quite in coal,while France, Belgium, Italy and AustriaโHungary (known as the Habsburg Empire) werewell behind. Russian industry was expanding rapidly but had been so backward to beginwith that she could not seriously challenge Germany and Britain. But it was outsideEurope that the most spectacular industrial progress had been made during the previous 40years. In 1914 the USA produced more coal, pig-iron and steel than either Germany orBritain and now ranked as a world power. Japan too had modernized rapidly and was apower to be reckoned with after her defeat of Russia in the Russo-Japanese War of1904โ5.
(b) The political systems of these world powers varied widely
The USA, Britain and France had democratic forms of government. This means that theyeach had a parliament consisting of representatives elected by the people; these parlia-ments had an important say in running the country. Some systems were not as democraticas they seemed: Germany had an elected lower house of parliament (Reichstag), but realpower lay with the Chancellor (a sort of prime minister) and the Kaiser (emperor). Italy
THE WORLD IN 1914 3
Chapter
1 The world in 1914: outbreakof the First World War
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was a monarchy with an elected parliament, but the franchise (right to vote) was limitedto wealthy people. Japan had an elected lower house, but here too the franchise wasrestricted, and the emperor and the privy council held most of the power. The governmentsin Russia and AustriaโHungary were very different from the democracy of the West. TheTsar (emperor) of Russia and the Emperor of Austria (who was also King of Hungary)were autocratic or absolute rulers. This means that although parliaments existed, theycould only advise the rulers; if they felt like it, the rulers could ignore the parliaments anddo exactly as they wished.
(c) Imperial expansion after 1880
The European powers had taken part in a great burst of imperialist expansion in the yearsafter 1880. Imperialism is the building up of an empire by seizing territory overseas. Mostof Africa was taken over by the European states in what became known as the โtheScramble for Africaโ; the idea behind it was mainly to get control of new markets and newsources of raw materials. There was also intervention in the crumbling Chinese Empire;the European powers, the USA and Japan all, at different times, forced the helplessChinese to grant trading concessions. Exasperation with the incompetence of their govern-ment caused the Chinese to overthrow the ancient Manchu dynasty and set up a republic(1911).
(d) Europe had divided itself into two alliance systems
The Triple Alliance: GermanyAustriaโHungaryItaly
The Triple Entente: BritainFranceRussia
In addition, Japan and Britain had signed an alliance in 1902. Friction between the twomain groups (sometimes called โthe armed campsโ) had brought Europe to the verge of warseveral times since 1900 (Map 1.1).
(e) Causes of friction
There were many causes of friction which threatened to upset the peace of Europe:
โข There was naval rivalry between Britain and Germany.โข The French resented the loss of AlsaceโLorraine to Germany at the end of the
Franco-Prussian War (1871).โข The Germans accused Britain, Russia and France of trying to โencircleโ them; the
Germans were also disappointed with the results of their expansionist policies(known as Weltpolitik โ literally โworld policyโ). Although they had taken posses-sion of some islands in the Pacific and some territory in Africa, their empire wassmall in comparison with those of the other European powers, and not very reward-ing economically.
4 PART I WAR AND INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS
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THE WORLD IN 1914 5
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6 PART I WAR AND INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS
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โข The Russians were suspicious of Austrian ambitions in the Balkans and worriedabout the growing military and economic strength of Germany.
โข Serbian nationalism (the desire to free your nation from control by people ofanother nationality) was probably the most dangerous cause of friction. Since 1882the Serbian government of King Milan had been pro-Austrian, and his sonAlexander, who came of age in 1893, followed the same policy. However, theSerbian nationalists bitterly resented the fact that by the Treaty of Berlin signed in1878, the Austrians had been allowed to occupy Bosnia, an area which the Serbsthought should be part of a Greater Serbia. The nationalists saw Alexander as a trai-tor; in 1903 he was murdered by a group of army officers, who put PeterKarageorgevic on the throne. The change of regime caused a dramatic switch inSerbian policy: the Serbs now became pro-Russian and made no secret of theirambition to unite all Serbs and Croats into a large South Slav kingdom(Yugoslavia). Many of these Serbs and Croats lived inside the borders of theHabsburg Empire; if they were to break away from AustriaโHungary to becomepart of a Greater Serbia, it would threaten to break up the entire ramshackleHabsburg Empire, which contained people of many different nationalities (Map1.2). There were Germans, Hungarians, Magyars, Czechs, Slovaks, Italians, Poles,Romanians, Ruthenians and Slovenes, as well as Serbs and Croats. If the Serbs andCroats left the fold, many of the others would demand their independence as well,and the Hapsburg Empire would break up. Consequently some Austrians were keenfor what they called a โpreventive warโ to destroy Serbia before she became strongenough to provoke the break-up of their empire. The Austrians also resentedRussian support for Serbia.
Arising from all these resentments and tensions came a series of events which culminatedin the outbreak of war in late July 1914.
1.3 EVENTS LEADING UP TO THE OUTBREAK OF WAR
Time chart of main events
Europe divides into two armed camps:
1882 Triple Alliance of Germany, AustriaโHungary and Italy1894 France and Russia sign alliance1904 Britain and France sign โEntente Cordialeโ (friendly โgetting-togetherโ)1907 Britain and Russia sign agreement.
Other important events:
1897 Admiral Tirpitzโs Navy Law โ Germany intends to build up fleet1902 Britain and Japan sign alliance1904โ5 Russo-Japanese War, won by Japan1905โ6 Moroccan Crisis1906 Britain builds first โDreadnoughtโ battleship1908 Bosnia Crisis1911 Agadir Crisis1912 First Balkan War
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1913 Second Balkan War1914 28 June Archduke Franz Ferdinand assassinated in Sarajevo
28 July AustriaโHungary declares war on Serbia29 July Russia orders general mobilization of troops1 August Germany declares war on Russia3 August Germany declares war on France4 August Britain enters war6 August AustriaโHungary declares war on Russia.
(a) The Moroccan Crisis (1905โ6)
This was an attempt by the Germans to expand their empire and to test the recently signedAnglo-French โEntente Cordialeโ (1904), with its understanding that France would recog-nize Britainโs position in Egypt in return for British approval of a possible Frenchtakeover of Morocco; this was one of the few remaining areas of Africa not controlled bya European power. The Germans announced that they would assist the Sultan of Moroccoto maintain his countryโs independence, and demanded an international conference todiscuss its future. A conference was duly held at Algeciras in southern Spain (January1906). The British believed that if the Germans had their way, it would lead to virtualGerman control of Morocco. This would be an important step on the road to Germandiplomatic domination and it would encourage them to press ahead with their Weltpolitik.The British, who had just signed the โEntente Cordialeโ with France, were determined tolead the opposition to Germany at the conference. The Germans did not take the โEntenteโseriously because there was a long history of hostility between Britain and France. But tothe amazement of the Germans, Britain, Russia, Italy and Spain supported the Frenchdemand to control the Moroccan bank and police. It was a serious diplomatic defeat forthe Germans, who realized that the new line-up of Britain and France was a force to bereckoned with, especially as the crisis was soon followed by Anglo-French โmilitaryconversationsโ.
(b) The British agreement with Russia (1907)
This was regarded by the Germans as another hostile move. In fact it was a logical step,given that in 1894 Russia had signed an alliance with France, Britainโs new partner in theโEntente Cordialeโ. For many years the British had viewed Russia as a disgraceful exam-ple of corrupt, anti-democratic aristocratic government. Worse still, the Russians wereseen as a major threat to British interests in the Far East and India. However, the situationhad recently changed. Russiaโs defeat by Japan in the war of 1904โ5 seemed to suggestthat the Russians were no longer much of a military threat. The outbreak of revolution inRussia in January 1905 had weakened the country internally. The Russians were keen toend the long-standing rivalry and anxious to attract British investment for their industrialmodernization programme. In October 1905, when the tsar granted the Russian peoplefreedom of speech and the right to have an elected parliament, the British began to feelmore kindly disposed towards the tsarist system. It made agreement possible and the twogovernments were able therefore to settle their remaining differences in Persia,Afghanistan and Tibet. It was not a military alliance and not necessarily an anti-Germanmove, but the Germans saw it as confirmation of their fears that Britain, France and Russiawere planning to โencircleโ them.
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(c) The Bosnia Crisis (1908)
The crisis over Bosnia, a province of Turkey, brought the tension betweenAustriaโHungary and Serbia to fever pitch. In 1878 the Congress of Berlin had reached therather confusing decision that Bosnia should remain officially part of Turkey, but thatAustriaโHungary should be allowed to administer it. In 1908 there was a new governmentin Turkey, dominated by a group of army officers (known as Young Turks), who resentedthe Austrian presence in Bosnia and were determined to assert Turkish control over theprovince. This gave the Austrians the chance to get in first: they announced the formalannexation (takeover) of Bosnia. This was a deliberate blow at the neighbouring state ofSerbia, which had also been hoping to take Bosnia since it contained about three millionSerbs among its mixed population of Serbs, Croats and Muslims. The Serbs appealed forhelp to their fellow Slavs, the Russians, who called for a European conference, expectingFrench and British support. When it became clear that Germany would support Austria inthe event of war, the French drew back, unwilling to become involved in a war in theBalkans. The British, anxious to avoid a breach with Germany, did no more than protestto AustriaโHungary. The Russians, still smarting from their defeat by Japan, dared not riskanother war without the support of their allies. There was to be no help for Serbia; noconference took place, and Austria kept Bosnia. It was a triumph for the Austro-Germanalliance, but it had unfortunate results:
โข Serbia remained bitterly hostile to Austria, and it was this quarrel which sparked offthe outbreak of war.
โข The Russians were determined to avoid any further humiliation and embarked on amassive military build-up and modernization of the army, together with animprovement in their railway system to allow faster mobilization. They intended tobe prepared if Serbia should ever appeal for help again.
(d) The Agadir Crisis (1911)
This crisis was caused by further developments in the situation in Morocco. French troopsoccupied Fez, the Moroccan capital, to put down a rebellion against the Sultan. It lookedas if the French were about to annex Morocco. The Germans sent a gunboat, the Panther,to the Moroccan port of Agadir, hoping to pressurize the French into giving Germanycompensation, perhaps the French Congo. The British were worried in case the Germansacquired Agadir, which could be used as a naval base from which to threaten Britainโstrade routes. In order to strengthen French resistance, Lloyd George (Britainโs Chancellorof the Exchequer) used a speech which he was due to make at the Lord Mayor ofLondonโs banquet at the Mansion House, to warn the Germans off. He said that Britainwould not stand by and be taken advantage of โwhere her interests were vitally affectedโ.The French stood firm, making no major concessions, and eventually the Germangunboat was removed. The Germans agreed to recognize the French protectorate (theright to โprotectโ the country from foreign intervention) over Morocco in return for twostrips of territory in the French Congo. This was seen as a triumph for the Entente powers,but in Germany public opinion became intensely anti-British, especially as the Britishwere drawing slowly ahead in the โnaval raceโ. At the end of 1911 they had built eight ofthe new and more powerful โDreadnoughtโ-type battleships, compared with Germanyโsfour.
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(e) The First Balkan War (1912)
The war began when Serbia, Greece, Montenegro and Bulgaria (calling themselves theBalkan League) launched a series of attacks on Turkey. These countries had all, at onetime, been part of the Turkish (Ottoman) Empire. Now that Turkey was weak (regardedby the other powers as โthe Sick Man of Europeโ), they seized their chance to acquire moreland at Turkeyโs expense. They soon captured most of the remaining Turkish territory inEurope. Together with the German government, Sir Edward Grey, the British ForeignSecretary, arranged a peace conference in London. He was anxious to avoid the conflictspreading, and also to demonstrate that Britain and Germany could still work together. Theresulting settlement divided up the former Turkish lands among the Balkan states.However, the Serbs were not happy with their gains: they wanted Albania, which would
10 PART I WAR AND INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS
Map 1.3 The Balkans in 1913 showing changes from the Balkan Wars (1912โ13)
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Abacha, Sani 569Abbas, Mahmoud 239, 250, 252, 253โ4Abdelazia, Mohamed 556Abdullah, King of Saudi Arabia 282, 291Abiola, Mashood 569Abubakar, General Abdulsalam 568, 569Abu Nidal Organization (ANO) 262Abyssinia see EthiopiaAcerbo Law (1923) 300acid rain 646Acheampong, Ignatius 566Adenauer, Konrad 188โ9Afghanistan 161โ2, 208, 258โ9, 264,
267โ9, 277โ9Africa 4, 8, 9, 35, 37, 73โ5, 118
decolonization 529โ30, 541โ4, 555โ7, 559โ61
pan-Africanism 533problems in 563โ606Second World War in 89, 94โ5, 100underdevelopment of 564
African National Congress (ANC) 263,585โ6, 588โ91
Agadir Crisis 7, 9Agricultural Adjustment Administration
(USA) 494โ5Ahmadinejad, Mahmoud 280โ2AIDS/HIV 174, 654, 667, 671, 679โ82
in South Africa 590โ1in southern Africa 573, 598, 680
Ai Weiwei 455Akufo, General Fred 566Albania 75, 94
since 1945 204, 211Albright, Madeleine 519Alexander, King of Yugoslavia 61Algeciras Conference (1906) 8Algeria 282
struggle for independence 550โ3Alia, Ramiz 211Allende, Salvador 155โ7, 672Alliance for Progress 611allied air offensive 102โ4, 109alphabet agencies 498al-Qaeda 262, 266โ70Alsace-Lorraine 4
America see Latin America, SouthAmerica, United States of America
American Federation of Labor (AFL)481โ2
American International Group (AIG)655โ8
American Railway Union (ARU) 482โ3Amin, Idi 573Andropov, Yuri 402Anglo-German Naval Agreement (1935)
69, 73, 77Anglo-Japanese Alliance (1902) 4Angola 557, 577โ9Annan, Kofi 184, 605Anschluss 70anti-ballistic missiles (ABMs) 521Anti-Comintern Pact (1936) 69, 75anti-communism (USA) 511โ13Anzacs 22apartheid 584โ90
end of 587โ90introduced 584โ5opposition to 585โ7
appeasement 78โ80April Theses (Lenin) 357Arab League 227โArab Springโ 259, 282โ91, 675
causes of 283Arabs 172, 225โ56Arafat, Yasser 234, 238โ40, 247, 262Arbenz, Jacobo 619Arรฉvalo, Juan Josรฉ 618โ19Argentina 608, 610, 622, 626โ7Aristide, Jean-Bertrand 611Armenia 164, 382, 406Arusha Declaration (1967) 572โ3Ashmun, Jehudi 593Assad, Bashar 283Assad, Hafez 243Assange, Julian 630Association of South-East Asian Nations
(ASEAN) 456Atlantic Charter (1941) 532Attlee, C.R. 126, 534โ5Australia 22, 650
INDEX 683
Index
Copyright material โ 9781137276940
Austria (since 1918)between the wars 64โ5since Second World War 134, 194,
198union with Germany (1938) 77
Austria-Hungary (before 1918) 3, 4, 7โ11break-up of 31, 38โ9during First World War 18, 20โ1, 23,
25, 29, 30peace settlement 38โ9responsibility for First World War
12โ16autocracy, meaning 4Axis, RomeโBerlin (1936) see
RomeโBerlin Axisโaxis of evilโ 266Azerbaijan 164, 382, 400Azikiwe, Nnamdi 543, 567
Babangida, Major-General Ibrahim 569Bachelet, Michele 622, 627Baghdad Pact (1955) 229Bahrain 282Balewa, A.T. 567โ8Balfour Declaration (1917) 230Balkan Wars 7, 9โ11Banda, Dr Hastings 546Bangladesh 670, 673Ban Ki-moon 651Bantu Self-Government Act (1959) 585Barak, Ehud 248Barthou, Louis 80battles
Adowa (1896) 73Arnhem (1944) 107Atlantic (1942โ3) 102Britain (1940) 93โ4โBulgeโ, the (1944) 107Cambrai (1917) 27Caporetto (1917) 27Dien Bien Phu (1954) 150, 455, 550El Alamein (1942) 100Falkland Islands (1914) 25Jutland (1916) 26Marne (1914) 19โ20Masurian Lakes (1914) 20Midway Island (1942) 99โ100Monte Cassino (1944) 104Passchendaele (1917) 27Somme (1916) 24Stalingrad (1942) 101Tannenberg (1914) 20
Verdun (1916) 23โ4Vittorio Veneto (1918) 30Ypres (1914) 19
(1915) 20(1917) 27
Bay of Pigs 137, 148Bear Stearns Bank 655Begin, Menachem 237โ8Beijing (formerly Peking) 70, 162Belgium 3, 11, 89, 91, 192โ3, 197
and decolonization 555โ6Belize 537โ9Belorussia 407Ben Bella 551โ2Benes, Edvard 62, 81, 131Bengal 536, 560Berlin 107
blockade and airlift 131โ2divided after Second World War 126wall 135โ6, 210
Berlusconi, Silvio 190Bernanke, Ben S. 654โ5Betancourt, Romulo 614Bethmann-Hollweg, Theobald von 14โ16Beveridge Report (1942) 119Bevin, Ernest 191, 534Biafra 543, 568Biko, Steve 587bin Laden, Osama 258, 262, 266โ70, 278Bizimungu, Pasteur 582Black Muslims 509โ10Black Panthers 489, 510Black Power 510Blair, Tony 271โ2, 596Blitzkrieg 90, 96, 109Blum, William 260, 265Boers 583Boko Haram 571Bolivarian Alternative for the Americas
(ALBA) 630โ1Bolรญvar Plan (Venezuela, 2000) 623Bolivia 608, 610, 622, 627โ9Bolsheviks 51โ8, 354, 360, 361โ8
seize power 60, 357โ9bombing 89โ91, 93โ4, 96, 99โ100, 102โ4,
153, 345Bosnia 7, 8โ9, 176, 212, 214โ15Botha, P.W. 587โ88Botswana 680Boutros-Ghali, Boutros 582Boxer Rebellion (1899) 421Bo Xilai 445โ6
684 INDEX
Copyright material โ 9781137276940
Bo Zhiyue 446Bracher, Karl Dietrich 111, 318Brandt, Willi 189Brandt Report (1980) 638โ43Brazil 608, 612โ14, 622, 624โ5, 643,
662โ3Brezhnev, Leonid 396Brezhnev Doctrine 206Briand, Aristide 54BRIC nations, meaning 661Britain, Great 132, 145, 169
and China 4and decolonization 529โ32, 534โ48economy 3and the European Community 192โ6,
197โ9, 218and First World War 18โ32foreign policy between the wars 50โ5,
57โ9, 74, 77โ83and Germany before 1914 4, 8โ9, 12โ13and India 534โ7and the League of Nations 47โ8and the Middle East 172, 227โ34and the peace settlement 32โ3and Russia 7โ8, 58โ9, 365and Second World War 89โ91, 93โ4,
100โ10and South Africa 583โ91and Suez 172, 232โ4and the war against terrorism 268โ9,
271โ9British Expeditionary Force (BEF) 19โ20British Honduras see BelizeBroszat, Martin 76, 332Brown, Gordon 656Brusilov, General 25, 355Brussels Defence Treaty (1948) 132Bukhari, Major-General 569Bukharin, Nikolai 373โ5, 380, 394Bulgakov, Mikhael 399Bulgaria 9โ10
and the Peace Settlement 39โ40since 1945 204, 211
Bullock, Alan 116Burma 89Burundi 580โ1Bush, George 246โ7, 518, 624Bush, George W. 170, 260โ1, 453, 520โ3,
650, 652, 656and Afghanistan 266โ9, 271โ5and Iraq 270โ7
Busia, Kofi 566
Cambodia (Kampuchea) 158, 175,457โ62
Cameron, David 255, 278Camp David 237โ8, 515Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament (CND)
139โ40Canada 19, 132, 145capitalism, meaning and nature of 123Capone, Al 450Cรกrdenas, Lรกzaro 616Cardoso, Francesco 613โ19CARICOM (Caribbean Community and
Common Market) 539Carmichael, Stokeley 510Carnegie, Andrew 477Carter, Jimmy 237, 515, 621Castro, Fidel 137, 147โ9Ceausescu, Nicolae 211Central African Federation 546Chamberlain, Austen 54Chamberlain, Neville 70, 82Chamorro, Violeta Barrios de 662Charter 77 207Chรกvez, Hugo 608โ9, 615, 622โ4, 630Chechnya 411โ12, 414โ18Chernenko, K.U. 402Chernobyl 403, 646โ7Chiang Kai-shek 420, 423โ9Chile 155โ7, 608, 610, 622, 627China 420โ46
before 1949 4, 420โ9becomes communist 425โ9communist rule in 431โ46economic advance 662and Japan 69, 70โ2, 118, 336โ8,
421โ2and Korea 142โ6and Latin America 609, 623, 624and population control 674and USA 142โ6, 162โ3, 514and Vietnam 152โ5
Chirac, Jacques 187โ8, 219chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) 646Chomsky, Noam 261, 265, 628, 631Chongqing 445Churchill, Sir Winston 13, 22, 82, 126,
129, 191, 233Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) 495โcivilization struggleโ 269โ70Civil Rights Movement (USA) 486โ9,
505โ11Civil Rights Acts (USA) 506, 509
INDEX 685
Copyright material โ 9781137276940
civil warsAngola 557, 577โ9Congo 574โ5, 576โ7Ethiopia 592โ3Liberia 594Nigeria 567โ8Rwanda 581โ2Sierra Leone 595โ7Somalia 602โ3Sudan 604โ5USA 469, 486โ7
Clemenceau, Georges 27, 29, 56Clinton, Bill 269, 519โ20, 582, 603, 649Cold War, meaning 122
causes 123โ5end of 163โ5events during 125โ40, 160โ3, 608
collectivizationin China 433in Korea 455in Russia 378โ9, 398โ9
collective security 44, 70Comecon 131, 202Cominform 202Comintern (Communist International) 69Common Agricultural Policy (CAP)
199โ200Common Market see European Economic
CommunityCommonwealth, British 195Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS)
407communes
in China 434in Yugoslavia 203
communismmeaning and nature of 123in Cambodia 158, 448, 457โ60in China 431โ46in Eastern Europe 127โ9, 202โ7in Laos 158, 449, 462โ3in North Korea 142, 449โ53in Russia 348โ409in Vietnam 140โ3, 455โ7collapse of 163โ5, 207โ11, 403โ9
Congo (Zaire) 159, 173, 574โ7Conquest, Robert 380, 381, 383contraception 610, 669, 673โ4
and AIDS 680โ1Contras (Nicaragua) 621convoys 28, 101โ2Coolidge, Calvin 473
Corfu Incident (1923) 47Correa, Rafael 629โ30Council of Europe 192Craxi, Bettino 190credit-rating agencies 659Croatia 212โ14Cruise missiles 139, 141โ2Cuba 142, 147โ9, 608, 610
missiles crisis (1962) 137โ9Cultural Revolution (Chinese) 431,
435โ6Cyprus 173, 540โ1Czechoslovak Legion 364โ5Czechoslovakia 646
between the wars 61โ2creation of 38โ9division of (1992) 212end of communism in 207, 210and Germany 70, 81โ2under communist rule 131, 2041968 rising 174, 205โ6
Czech Republic 212, 217
D-Day (1944) 104โ7, 100da Silva, Ignacio (Lula) 614, 622,
624โ5Daladier, Edouard 81dโAnnunzio, Gabriele 296Danqua, J.B. 565Danzig 70, 83Dardanelles 13, 24Darfur 604Dawes Plan (1924) 53, 312โ13Debs, Eugene 481โ3, 485decolonization 529โ61
see also individual countriesDe Gaulle, Charles 187, 192, 196
and Algeria 550โ3and Fifth Republic 187
De Klerk, F.W. 589โ90democracy, meaning 3democracy wall (China) 437โ8Democratic Republic of the Congo see
Congo (Zaire) 576โ7Deng Xiaoping 431, 436โ41Denmark 196Depression, the Great see world economic
crisisdรฉtente, meaning 122, 160โ3
events 160โ3Diaz, Porfirio 615Dikotter, Frank 433
686 INDEX
Copyright material โ 9781137276940
disarmament 45, 49German 33โ46, 49, 55โ6, 76โ7
Doe, Samuel 594Dollfuss, Engelbert 64โ5, 76Dominican Republic 608, 611domino theory 151Dos Santos, Jose Eduardo 578โ9Dreadnoughts 7, 9, 13, 25โ7drought in Africa 692drug trafficking 277โ8, 625, 628Dubcek, Alexander 206Du Bois, W.E.B. 488Dumbarton Oaks Conference (1944)
167Dunkirk 91โdustbowlโ (USA) 471
Earth Summit (1992) 649East Timor 558โ9Ebert, Friedrich 309, 311ecosystem, the 644Ecuador 622, 629โ30Eden, Sir Anthony 194, 233โ4Egypt 225โ9, 282, 284โ6
Arab Spring in 284โ6Eire 196, 219Eisenhower, Dwight D. 151, 192, 513
Doctrine 159social policies 502โ3
Elizabeth II, Queen 565Enabling Law (Germany) (1933) 320Enosis 540โ1Enron 522Entente Cordiale (1904) 7, 8Eoka 541environmental pollution 646โ7Eritrea 592โ3, 605Estonia 34, 90, 118, 220, 406โ7, 660Ethiopia 43, 49, 73โ5, 118, 591โ3
civil war 592euro, the 217eurozone 217
in crisis 661Europe, Council of 192European Coal and Steel Community
(ECSC) 193European Commission 193, 194European Economic Community (EEC)
192โ201economic model 653formation of 192โ3becomes EC 194
becomes European Union 201and Britain 194โ6, 198โ9problems 199โ200
European Free Trade Association (EFTA)194โ5
European Parliament 193โ4, 197European Union (from 1992) 201
in crisis 221โ3new constitution 218โ21problems in 219โ212008 financial crisis 660โ1, 665
Exchange Rate Mechanism (ERM) 197
Falkland Islands see also Malvinas626โ7
Falun Gong 444Farmersโ Relief Act (USA, 1933) 494fascism 299โ307
principles of 299Fatah 234Federal Emergency Relief Administration
(USA, 1933) 495Fenby, Jonathan 436, 446Fergusson, James 279Finland 46, 118, 217, 360Fischer, Fritz 13โ16First World War
causes of 12โ16events during see also battles 3,
18โ32events leading up to 7โ11peace settlement 32โ41reasons for German defeat 29โ30
Fitzpatrick, Sheila 381, 383, 392Five-Year Plans
China 433โ41USSR 375โ7, 390, 398
FLN (National Liberation Front โ Algeria)551โ3
FLNA (Angola) 577Foch, Marshal F. 28food production and population growth
647โ9, 667โ71Ford, Gerald 514โ15Ford, Henry 514Formosa see Taiwanfossil fuels, exhaustion of 644โ6Fourteen Points (Woodrow Wilsonโs) 32Fox, Vicente 618, 622, 625France
before First World War 3โ4, 7โ9, 11during First World War 18โ25, 27โ31
INDEX 687
Copyright material โ 9781137276940
France cont.and the peace settlement 32โ4, 37, 41foreign affairs between the wars 48โ9,
51โ2, 53โ7, 60, 78โ81in the Second World War 89โ90. 91,
105reasons for defeat 91โ3since 1945 187โ8and decolonization 549โ54and the EEC 191โ3, 196โ8, 199โ201,
217โ23and Cambodia 457โ8and Laos 462โ3and Suez 232โ4and Vietnam 454โ5
Franco, General 344โ7Franz Ferdinand, Archduke 11Frei, Eduardo 155, 627FRELIMO (Mozambique) 557French Community 553โ4FRETILIN (East Timor) 558Friedman, Milton 516Fukuyama, Francis 257, 445Fulton Speech (Churchill) 129
Gaddafi, Colonel Muammar 286โ7overthrow of 282โ3, 288โ90
Gaidar, Yegor 409โ10Gallipoli Campaign (1915) 22โ3Gandhi, M.K. 535โ6Gandhi, Rajiv 589Gang of Four (China) 436โ7Garvey, Marcus 489GATT (General Agreement on Tariffs and
Trade) 191Gaza 262
Israeli attacks on 254โ5GDP (Gross Domestic Product), meaning
198Geneva Protocol (1924) 47โ8Genoa Conference (1922) 53Germany
and Britain before 1914 3โ11and responsibility for First World War
12โ16during First World War 3, 18โ22reasons for defeat 29โ30and the peace settlement 32โ8, 41Weimar Republic 309โ14, 316โ17under Hitler 316โ33and League of Nations 45, 53โ5and Austria 57, 77
and Britain 57, 78, 80, 82and Czechoslovakia 75, 81โ2and France 51โ7and Poland 57, 82โ3and Russia 59during Second World War 89โ120reasons for defeat 109โ11divided after 1945 132โ3East 164, 209โ10, 646West 188โ9reunited 165, 189. 210since reunification 189, 212, 665
Ghana 159, 563, 565โ7Gilbert, Martin 85Giolitti, Giovanni 296glasnost 403Gleichschaltung 320โ6global terrorism 258โ9, 265โ82, 521global warming 635, 644, 649โ52GM crops 647โ9GNP (Gross National Product), meaning
640โ1USA 499world 641
Goebbels, Dr Joseph 322, 331Gold Coast see also Ghana 533, 542โ3Goldman Sachs 656Gompers, Samuel 481Gomulโka, Wlโadyslโaw 204, 207Gorbachev, Mikhail 161โ2, 163, 208, 267,
396, 403โ8assessments of 408
Gore, Al 520Goulart, Julio 612โ13Gowon, General Yakubu 568Great Depression, the see world economic
crisisGreat Leap Forward (China) 431, 434โ5Greece 94, 661โgreen revolutionโ, the 670Greenspan, Alan 657Grey, Sir Edward 9, 11Grivas, General George 541Guantรกnamo detention centre 276Guatemala 608, 610โ12, 618โ20Guernica 77, 345Guevara, Che 148, 628Guinea 605Guinea-Bissau 557Gulf War (1991) 175, 246โ7Gusmao, Xanana 558Guyatt, Nicholas 259โ60
688 INDEX
Copyright material โ 9781137276940
Habsburg Empire see Austria-HungaryHaig, Sir Douglas 24, 29โ31Haile Selassie, Emperor 591โ2Haiti 608Halifax Bank of Scotland (HBOS) 656Hamas 240, 249, 262Hammarskjold, Dag 575Havel, Vรกclav 210Hayek, Frederick 516Haywood, Big Bill 483, 485Heath, Sir Edward 196Henig, Ruth 49โ50Helsinki Agreement (1975) 207Herriot, Edouard 57, 60Hezbollah (Islamic Jihad) 240, 243โ4, 262Hindenburg, General Paul von 24, 315โ17Hirohito, Emperor of Japan 338Hiroshima 338Hitler, Adolf
Beer Hall Putsch in Munich 311rise to power 314โ16foreign policies 75โ7, 81โ3internal policies 319โ28, 330โ2and the Holocaust 111โ17, 325โ6and the Second World War 89โ117and the โweak dictatorโ theoryโ 332โ3
Hoare, Sir Samuel 74, 79Ho Chi Minh 150โ1, 455Holland 89โ90, 91, 132, 171, 192โ3, 197,
200and decolonization 554โ5
Holocaust, the 111โ17, 325โ6Honecker, Erich 209โ10Hong Kong 338, 643Hoover, Herbert 489, 492โ3Horta, Josรฉ 558Horthy, Admiral Nikolaus 66Hossbach Memorandum 86Hoxha, Enver 211Hu Jintao 442, 444, 446Hua Guofeng 436โ7Huddleston, Trevor 586Human Rights Commission (UN) 177โ8Hundred Flowers Campaign (China)
433โ4Hungary
between the wars 65โ6and the peace settlement 38โ9since 1945 122, 126โ8, 204, 2201956 rising 173, 205end of communism in 164, 209
Hun Sen 461โ2
Husak, Gustav 206Hussein, King 229, 235Hutton, Will 261, 652, 654Hu Yaobang 437, 438, 439
Idris, King of Libya 559Iliescu, Ion 211immigration (USA) 469, 474โ7imperialism, meaning 4India 534โ7
Independence 534โ5partitioned 535โ7in the 21st century 663, 670
Indo-China 149โ50, 549โ50Indonesia 554โ5, 560โ1, 644Industrial Workers of the World (IWW)
483Intercontinental Ballistic Missiles (ICBMs)
136, 139, 161Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
650Intermediate Nuclear Forces (INF) Treaty
(1987) 161โ2International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA)
270, 281, 287International Court of Justice 169, 621International Criminal Court 170International Labour Organization (ILO)
178, 644International Monetary Fund (IMF) 180,
612โ16, 622, 626, 661Iran (Persia) 159โ60, 229
after the Shahโs overthrow (1979) 263, 279โ82
its nuclear programme 281โ2Irangate 517โ18IranโIraq War (1980โ8) 175, 244โ6Iraq 160, 229
2003 invasion of 176โ7, 270โ3Iron Curtain 129Islamism 603
beliefs and principles 677โ8โclash of civilizationsโ 675โ7situation in 2012 678โ9
Israelcreation of 125, 230โ1wars with Arabs 225โ6, 231โ7, 243โ4,
247โ50Italy
before 1914 3, 4, 7, 12during the First World War 18, 23, 27,
30โ1
INDEX 689
Copyright material โ 9781137276940
Italy cont.and the peace settlement 41problems after 1918 31, 295Mussolini comes to power in 295โ8under Mussolini 299โ306foreign policy between the wars 72โ5during Second World War 89, 94, 100,
101, 104โ5since 1945 189โ90, 661and decolonization 559
Ivory Coast 553
Jackel, Eberhard 87Jamaica 537โ9, 605Japan 3, 4, 7
before the First World War 336during First World War 336between the wars 336โ8and China 69, 70โ2, 118, 336โ8,
421โ2and League of Nations 43, 48invasion of Manchuria 43, 48, 69, 70,
337โ8and USA 52โ3, 338โ40during Second World War 31, 89โ90,
96โ100, 108โ10, 117โ19, 338since 1945 338โ42, 650
Jaruzelski, General Woyciech 208โ9, 647
Java 554Jerusalem 248โ9Jews 172, 225โ40, 247โ55
under Hitler 111โ17, 325โ6Jiang Quing 436Jiang Zemin 440โ2Jim Crow Laws 487โ8Jinnah, M.A. 535Johnson, Lyndon B. 612
social policies 504โ5and Vietnam 151, 153
Johnson, Paul 674Johnson-Shirleaf, Ellen 594โ5Jonathan, Goodluck 571Jordan 229Jospin, Lionel 187โ8Jung Chang 425
Kabbah, Tejan 596Kabila, Joseph 576โ7Kabila, Laurent 576Kรกdรกr, Jรกnos 204, 205, 209KADU 546
Kagame, Paul 577, 582Kamenev, Lev 367, 373โ5, 380Kampuchea see CambodiaKANU 545โ6Kapp Putsch (1920) 311Karadzic, Radovan 217Karzai, Hamid 259, 268โ9, 277โ8Kasavubu, Joseph 574Kashmir 173โ4Katanga (Shaba) 574โ5Kaunda, Kenneth 546, 602KelloggโBriand Pact (1928) 54Kennan, George 129Kennedy, John F. 137, 152โ3, 611
assassination of 501, 504social policies 503
Kennedy, Robert 139, 505Kenya 264, 544โ6Kenyatta, Jomo 544โ6Kerensky, Alexander 356โ8Kershaw, Ian 82, 87, 112, 317, 318โ19,
325, 332โ3Keynes, J.M. 41, 54Khatami, Muhammad 279โ80Khmer Rouge 175, 456, 458โ60, 462Khomeini, Ayatollah 244โ5, 262, 279Khrushchev, Nikita 137โ9, 203, 381,
396โ400criticism of Stalin 204, 397
Kikwete, Jakaya 574Kim Dae Jung 451Kim Il Sung 143โ5, 449Kim Jong Il 451โ3Kim Jong-un 455King, Dr Martin Luther 505, 506โ9Kirchner, Cristina Fernรกndez de 626โ7Kirchner, Nestor 622, 626Kirov, Sergei 380Kissinger, Henry 459Kohl, Helmut 189Kolchak, Admiral Alexander 364โ5kolkhozy 378Korea
North 448โ53South 449โ53, 643war in (1950โ3) 143โ6, 172, 450
Kornilov, General Vladimir 357Koroma, Ernest Bai 597Koroma, Johnny Paul 596Kosovo 215โ16Kosygin, Alexander 400โ1Krenz, Egon 210
690 INDEX
Copyright material โ 9781137276940
Kubitschek, Jusselino 612Kufuor, John 567Ku Klux Klan 487, 489, 510kulaks 378โ9Kun, Bรฉla 38, 66Kuomintang 420, 423โ9Kutchuk, Dr Fazil 541Kuwait 246โ7Kyoto Protocol (1997) 261, 521, 649โ50
labour unions (USA) 481โ6Lancaster House Conference (1979)
548โ9Laos 143, 149, 151, 158, 462โ4, 549โ50Latin America 137โ9, 142, 147โ9, 155โ8,
608โ31Latvia 34, 90, 118, 220, 361โ2, 406โ7,
660Laval, Pierre 74, 80, 93Lawrence, T.E. (of Arabia) 39League of Nations 34, 41, 43โ50, 55, 70,
72, 74, 170โ1, 593failures 46โ50successes 45โ6, 49โ50
Lebanon 174, 240โ4and July War 2006 243โ4
Lebensraum 75Lehman Brothers 655, 658Lend-Lease Act (USA, 1941) 97Lenin, Vladimir Ilich 354โ70
assessment of 368โ9domestic policies 359โ68foreign policies 360โ1and the Russian revolutions 354โ9
Leningrad 95โ6, 101Lesotho 605Liberia 593โ5Libya 94, 100, 265, 282โ3, 286โ91, 643Liebknecht, Karl 311Ligachev, Yegor 405Li Keqiang 446Limann, Hilla 566Lin Biao 436Li Peng 439Lisbon Peace Accords (1991) 578Lister, Joseph 669Lithuania 34, 90, 118, 220, 361โ2, 406โ7,
660Litvinenko, Alexander 415โ16Liu Shao-qui 435Lloyd George, David 9, 24โ5, 26, 29, 32,
33
Lloyds TSB 656Lockerbie disaster (1988) 263โ4Lomรฉ Convention (1975) 197Long March (Mao Zedong) 420, 425โ6Lon Nol 459Ludendorff, General Erich von 28, 310,
317Lumumba, Patrice 574Lusitania 26Luthuli, Chief Albert 585โ6Luxemburg, Rosa 311Luxembourg 219Lvov, Prince George 356
Maastricht Agreement (1991) 200โ1Macedonia 10, 164MacArthur, General Douglas 145โ6MacDonald, J. Ramsay 47โ8, 53, 58, 79Machel, Samora 548Macmillan, Harold 195, 233
โwind of changeโ speech 543, 587Madrid bombings (2004) 275Mafia, the 190Maginot Line 93Maiziรจre, Lothar de 210Makarios, Archbishop 540โ1Malan, Daniel F. 584Malawi 546, 605, 681Malaya 89, 98, 539โ40Malaysia, Federation of 540, 693โ4Malcolm X 489, 509โ10Malenkov, Georgi 381, 397Malta 192, 220Malvinas Islands see also Falklands 626โ7Manchuria
Japanese invasion of (1931) 48mandates 34, 35, 45, 169, 228Mandela, Nelson 263, 586, 589, 590Mandelstam, Osip 387, 399, 403Mao Zedong 420, 425โ9, 431โ6, 514
problems facing 431โ2March on Rome (1923) 298Margai, Sir Milton 595Marshall Plan (1947) 124, 130, 191Marx, Karl 123, 353โ4, 362, 370, 374, 386Masaryk, Jan 131Mason, Paul 656, 657, 659, 661Matteotti, Giacomo 300Mau Mau 545Max of Baden, Prince 309May the Fourth Movement (China) 422โ3Mbeki, Thabo 590โ1, 654
INDEX 691
Copyright material โ 9781137276940
Mboya, Tom 545โ6McCarthyism 145โ6, 511โ3Medvedev, Dmitri 396, 417Medvedev, Roy 367, 393, 401โ2, 404Mein Kampf 315Memel 82Mengistu, Major Haile 592Mensheviks 354, 360, 362Merkel, Angela 189, 223, 665Messali Hadj 551Mexico 608, 612, 615โ18, 622, 625โ6, 693Middle East 159โ60, 225โ56, 263, 643military-industrial complex 513Milosevic, Slobodan 170, 213, 215โ17Mitter, Rana 427Mitterand, Franรงois 187Mkapa, Benjamin 573โ4Mobutu, General 575โ6, 577โ8Molina, Carlos 625Molotov, Vyacheslav 381, 397Molotov Plan (1947) 130โ1, 202Moltke, General von 14โ16Mommsen, Hans 112, 332Momoh, Joseph 595Mondlane, Eduardo 557monetarism 516, 637Monnet, Jean 193Monroe, James 593Montagnards 457Montgomery, General Bernard 100, 107Morales, Juan Evo 628โ9Morocco 8, 549, 550Morsi, Mohamed 255, 286Mountbatten, Lord Louis 535โ7Mozambique 176, 548, 605MPLA (Peopleโs Movement for Angolan
Liberation) 577Mubarak, Hosni 255, 282, 284โ6Mugabe, Robert 548โ9, 598โ601Muhamad V, King of Morocco 550Mujahideen 267multiple independently-targeted re-entry
vehicles (MIRVs) 136, 139, 161Munich Conference (1938) 70, 81โ2Museveni, Yoweri 680Muslim Brotherhood 256, 284โ6Muslim League 535Muslims see also Islamism 180, 221โ3,
233, 235, 248โ50, 255, 262โ4, 265โ70,276โ82, 406
Mussolini, Benitorise to power 295โ8
assessment of 307โ8domestic policies 299โ306downfall 104during Second World War 89, 94, 100,
101foreign policies 72โ5
Mwinyi, Ali Hassan 573
Nagasaki 90, 108, 335Nagorno-Karabakh 406Namibia see also South West Africa 35,
169, 578Nasser, Colonel G.A. 225โ7, 232โ6National Aeronautics and Space
Administration (NASA) 513National Association for the Advancement of
Colored People (NAACP) 488โ9National Industrial Recovery Act (USA)
(1933) 495Nationalism 7, 299, 406, 531โ3
African 531National Labor Union (USA) 481NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization)
216, 266โ9, 278, 288โ9formation of 132, 192
National Socialist German Workersโ Party(Nazis) 309โ10, 314โ33
compared with fascism 329Germany under 316โ33programme and principles 315โ16,
317โ19naval warfare 19, 22, 25โ7, 29, 89,
99โ100, 101โ2Nazi-Soviet Pact (1939) 83โ5Ndayizeye, Domitien 580Nehru, Jawaharlal 535neo-colonialism 542, 560, 561, 641neo-liberalism 656Netanyahu, Binyamin 240, 247โ8Netherlands see HollandNeto, Agostinho 577New Deal (Roosevelt) 493โ8
achievements 498โ9aims of 494measures 494โ6opposition to 496โ8
New Economic Policy (NEP) (Lenin)366โ7, 374โ5
New Zealand 22, 94, 146Ngo Dinh Diem 455Nicaragua 260, 608, 612, 620โ2, 630Nicholas II, Tsar 351โ6, 363
692 INDEX
Copyright material โ 9781137276940
Niemoller, Pastor Martin 324Nigeria 543, 567โ71
civil war in 567โ8Nixon, Richard M. 153โ5, 157, 162, 514
social policies 505and Watergate 514โ15
Nkomo, Joshua 546, 548, 598Nkrumah, Kwame 542, 565โ6Normandy Landings (1944) 104North American Free Trade Association
(NAFTA) 617, 625North Borneo see SabahNorthern Rhodesia see also Zambia
546Northern Rock 655NorthโSouth Divide 638โ44Norway 89, 90โ1, 132, 192, 194, 201Nove, Alec 400nuclear disarmament 139โ40, 161โ2nuclear power 281โ2, 644, 646โ7nuclear weapons 136โ40, 161, 165, 270,
281โ2, 453Nujoma, Sam 578Nuremberg Laws (1935) 325Nyasaland see also Malawi 546Nyerere, Dr Julius 543, 571โ3
OAS (Organisation de lโArmรฉe Secrรจte)552โ3
OAU (Organization of African Unity) 573,582, 587, 594
Obama, Barack 276โ8, 523โ5, 656, 660Obasanjo, Olusegun 570โ1Obote, Dr Milton 543October Manifesto (1905) 351โ2OderโNeisse Line 126โ7Odinga, Oginga 545โ6oil 624, 645
in Third World 614โ17, 629, 643OPEC (Organization of Petroleum Exporting
Countries) 237, 643โ5Operation Overlord (1944) 104โ5Ortega, Daniel 621โ2, 630Oslo Peace Accords (1993) 238โ40,
247โ8Ostpolitik 161Overy, Richard 381
Pact of Steel (1939) 75Pakistan 670
creation of 535โ7
Palestine 230โ2, 237โ40, 247โ55self-rule in (1995) 240
Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO)234โ6
pan-Africanism 533Panama 260, 608Papen, Franz von 316โ17, 328Paris 91, 105, 106Pass Laws 583โ4, 585Pasteur, Louis 669Pathet Lao 462โ3Paulson, Henry 655peaceful coexistence 133, 399, 402Pearl Harbor 89, 96โ8, 338perestroika 208, 403Persia see IranPeking see BeijingPerรณn, Juan 335Pรฉtain, Marshal Henri 24, 27, 91, 93Petrograd see also Leningrad 356โ9, 361Pilโsudski, Jรณzef 63Pinochet, General Augusto 157, 627Pipes, Richard 357, 358, 359, 363Pius XI, Pope 301โ2Poincarรฉ, Raymond 56Poland 62โ3
during Second World War 89, 90, 111end of communism in 164, 207, 208โ9,
212and Hitler 70, 82โ3since 1945 204
Polisario Front 556โ7Polish Corridor 75, 77, 83pollution 644, 646โ7Pol Pot 175, 456, 458โ60, 462Pompidou, Georges 187Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine
(PFLP) 236, 239, 249population, growth and problems 669โ71
and AIDS/HIV 679โ82control of 671โ5and Islamism 675โ9statistics 667โ8
Portugal 132, 143, 194, 198, 220, 335, 661and decolonization 557โ9, 612and Zimbabwe 547โ8
Potsdam Conference (1945) 126Powell, Colin 511Primakov, Evgeny 413Princip, Gavrilo 11Prodi, Romano 219Prohibition (USA) 480
INDEX 693
Copyright material โ 9781137276940
protection see tariffsPunjab, the 536Putin, Vladimir 396, 413โ18Pu Yi 421
quantitative easing (QE) 660
Rabin, Yitzak 238โ40racial problems
in Germany 110โ17, 317โ18, 325โ6in USA 469, 479, 486โ9, 501, 505โ11
Rafsanjani, Ali Akbar 279Rahman, Tunku Abdul 539โ40Rajk, Laszlo 204Rรกkosi, Mรกtyรกs 205Ranariddh, Prince 461โ2Rasputin, Grigori 354Rawlings, Jerry 566โ7Rawls, John 652Read, Christopher 366, 394Reagan, Ronald 125, 260, 515โ18, 621Red Guards (China) 435โ6โRed Terrorโ (Russia) 363reparations 34โ8, 51, 52, 56, 312โ13revisionism, meaning 163Rhineland 34Rhodesia
Northern see also Zambia 546Southern see also Zimbabwe 547โ8
โroad mapโ (for peace in the Middle East)250โ5
Rohm, Ernst 327โ8Roman Catholic Church, the
and birth control 610, 669โ70, 673, 681
and Hitler 324and liberation theology 611, 614, 620and Mussolini 297, 301โ2
Romania 10, 19, 25, 38, 116, 118โ19overthrow of Ceausescu regime 211since 1945 123, 126, 186, 202, 205,
211โ12RomeโBerlin Axis (1936) 69, 75Rommel, Field-Marshal Erwin 94, 100,
103Roosevelt, Franklin D. 473
and the New Deal 493โ8during Second World War 96โ9, 123โ6,
499Roosevelt, Theodore 484Rousseff, Dilma 624, 651
Royal Bank of Scotland (RBS) 656Ruhr, the 103โ4
French occupation of 51, 53, 56, 312Rumsfeld, Donald 220Russia (USSR 1918โ91)
responsibility for First World War12โ16
during First World War 18, 20โ1, 22โ3, 25, 27, 355, 360โ1
and the peace settlement 33, 360โ1under Nicholas II 351โ61905 revolution in 3511917 revolutions in 351โ9civil war in 364โ6under Lenin 359โ70under Stalin 372โ94foreign policies 123โ9and League of Nations 47during Second World War 89, 95โ6,
101, 110, 389โ90under Khrushchev 397โ400under Brezhnev 400โ2under Gorbachev 403โ9foreign policies since 1945 39, 122, 149,
160โ2, 173, 399โ400, 402and China 163and Eastern Europe 120โ35, 173, 186,
202โ10, 401, 406and Africa 159and the Middle East 159โ60, 231โ2end of the communist regime in 164,
403โ9end of the USSR 164, 407since 1991 409โ18, 663โ4
Russo-Japanese War (1904โ5) 3, 7, 336Rwanda 581โ3
SA (Sturmabteilung) 315, 320Saar, the 34, 36, 45, 56, 76Sabah (North Borneo) 540Sacco and Vanzetti Case, the 485โ6Sadat, Anwar 227, 236โ8Saddam Hussein 176โ7, 244โ7, 270โ3St Kitts and Nevis 537โ9St Lucia 537โ9St Vincent 547โ9Sakharov, Andrei 402, 404Salazar, Antonio 557Saleh, A.A. 282SALT (Strategic Arms Limitation Treaties)
515Sandinista, Augusto 621
694 INDEX
Copyright material โ 9781137276940
Sankoh, Foday 596Sarajevo 11Sarkozy, Nicolas 188, 444Sarney, Josรฉ 613Saudi Arabia 262
Arab Spring in 282, 291Savimbi, Jonas 577, 578โ9Schleicher, Kurt von 316โ17Schlieffen Plan 14โ16, 19, 29Schmidt, Helmut 189Schnellnhuber, John 650โ1Schroder, Gerhard 189Schuman, Robert 193SEATO (South East Asia Treaty
Organization) 146Second World War
events leading up to 69โ83causes of 83โ7events during see also battles 89โ109,
111โ17reasons for defeat of Axis powers
109โ11effects of 117โ20and nationalist movements 531โ3
self-determination 33โ4Senegal 553September 11 attacks (9/11) 257, 265โ6Serbia 7โ16
becomes Yugoslavia 212under Milosevic 213โ17
Service, Robert 357, 359, 369, 383, 437โsettler factorโ 542, 544โ9Shaba 575Shagari, Shehu 568Sharia law 270, 274, 570Sharon, Ariel 249โ53Sharpeville massacre (1960) 586short-selling 658short-termism 658โ9Shostakovich, Dmitri 388โ9Siad Barre 602Sibanda, Gibson 600Siegfried Line 90, 107Sierra Leone 543, 595โ7Sihanouk, Prince Norodom 158, 175,
457โ9, 461Simpson, John 440Singapore 89, 98, 540, 643Six-Day War (1967) 234โ6slavery (USA) 486โ7Slovakia 212, 217Slovenia 212โ13
Smith, Ian 547Snow, Edgar 425Social Revolutionaries (SRs) (Russia) 354,
360โ2Social Security Act (USA) (1935) 495,
498โsocialism in one countryโ 375Socialist Labor Party (USA) 481Solidarity 307Solzhenitsyn, Alexander 399Somalia 176, 602โ3Somoza, Anastasio 621Sonn San 461South Africa 583โ91
apartheid in 583โ90and Namibia 169end of white minority rule in 587โ90
South America 608โ31South-West Africa see NamibiaSouthern Rhodesia see also Zimbabwe
547โ9Souvanna Phouma, Prince 463soviets 357โ8, 360, 364Soweto massacre (1976) 586โ7Spaak, Paul-Henri 192space exploration 514, 517Spain 342
civil war in 69, 75, 77, 342โ6since 1945 346โ7, 661decolonization 556โ7
Spanish Sahara 556โ7Spartacist Rising (1919) 310โ11sputnik 136, 513Sri Lanka 262โ3SS (Schutzstaffeln) 319Stakhanovites 377, 384Stalin, Joseph 123, 126, 369โ70
rise to power 372โ5and collectivization 378โ9and the Five Year Plans 375โ7, 390and the purges 379โ81and the Soviet Empire 382foreign policies 123โ9after 1945 203โ4, 389โ91life and culture under 384โ9religion 386โ7assessments of 392โ4
Star Wars 161โ2Stevens, Siaka 595Stolypin, Peter 352โ4Stone, Norman 355Strasser, Valentine 595โ6
INDEX 695
Copyright material โ 9781137276940
Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (1979)515
Stresa Front 69, 77Stresemann, Gustav 54, 309, 313โ14submarine-launched ballistic missiles
(SLBMs) 136, 139โsuccessor statesโ, the 60โ6Sudan 282, 604โ5
civil war in 604โ5Sudetenland 70Suez Canal 232Suez War (1956) 172, 232โ4Suharto, T.N.J. 560Sukarno, Achmad 554โ5Sumatra 554Suny, Robert 370Sun Yat-sen, Dr 420, 423โ4supply-side economics (USA) 516SWAPO 578Swaziland 605, 680Sweden 217, 246Switzerland 194, 201Syngman Rhee 143, 449โ50Syria 225โ8, 234โ8, 245
Arab Spring in 283
Taiping Rebellion 421Taiwan (Formosa) 164โ5Taliban, the 259, 277โ9Tamil Tigers 262โ3Tanganyika 543Tanganyika African National Union (TANU)
543Tanzania 264, 543, 571โ4
poverty in 571โ2tariffs 39Taylor, A.J.P. 76, 85โ6, 368Taylor, Charles 594โ5Tea Party Movement 524, 660Tekere, Edgar 598Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) 471,
496Terreblanche, Eugene 590terrorism, definition of 261โ2
global 257โ70Thailand 158, 643Thatcher, Margaret 125, 162, 199โthawโ, the 133โ5Third World, the 120, 146, 178โ9, 182,
197, 261, 638โ44, 667โ71economic split in 643โ4non-alignment of 638
population growth in 667โ70poverty of 638โ43
Three Mile Island 646Tiananmen Square 439โ41โtigerโ economies 643Tirpitz, Admiral von 13, 17Tito, Marshal Josip Broz 203Togo 553Tolbert, William 594Tooze, Adam 86, 331Toure, Sรฉkou 553Transjordan see Jordantreaties
Amsterdam (1997) 217Austrian State (1955) 134Berlin (1926) 59Brest-Litovsk (1918) 33, 360โ1Brussels (1948) 193Bucharest (1913) 10Geneva Agreement (1954) 151, 455INF (1987) 161โ2Lateran (1929) 301โ2Lausanne (1923) 39Locarno (1925) 48, 53โ4London (1913) 9
(1915) 23Maastricht (1991) 200โ1Neuilly (1919) 39Nice (2001) 218โ19Rapallo (1920) 72
(1922) 53, 59Riga (1921) 365Rome (1957) 193Saint-Germain (1919) 38San Francisco (1951) 339Sรจvres (1920) 39Trianon (1920) 38Versailles (1919) 34โ8Washington (1922) 52โ3
trench warfare 21โ2Trevor-Roper, Hugh 85tribalism 563
in Burundi and Rwanda 580โ2in Nigeria 568
Trinidad and Tobago 537โ9Triple Alliance 4Triple Entente 4Trotsky, Leon 357โ8, 365, 367, 372โ4,
380Trotter, W.M. 488Truman, Harry S. 126, 145
social policies 502
696 INDEX
Copyright material โ 9781137276940
Truman Doctrine 129Trusteeship Council 169Truth and Reconciliation Commission
590Tshombe, Moise 575tsunami, the 181Tsvangirai, Morgan 599โ601Tubman, William 594Tucker, Robert C. 366, 369Tudjman, Franjo 212โ13Tukhachevsky, Marshal Mikhail 380Tunisia 282, 283โ4Turkey 8โ10, 19, 20, 22โ3, 27โ8, 30, 313,
39, 46, 173, 192, 225, 540โ1Tutu, Archbishop Desmond 590
U-2 spy plane 135, 513Uganda 543, 680Ukraine 95โ6, 112, 360โ1, 382, 405UNESCO 179UNICEF 179โ80Union of South American Nations
(UNASUR) 631Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR)
see RussiaUNITA (Angola) 577โ9United Arab Republic 227United Nations Conference on Trade and
Development (UNCTAD) 180United Nations Organization (UNO) 126,
167โ85, 611compared with League of Nations
170โ1and Iraq 270โ3nationalist movements and 534peacekeeping 171โ7, 214โ15, 603and South Africa 169weaknesses of 171, 181โ4
United Nations Population Commission673โ4
United States of America (USA)and Africa 159and China 142โ6, 162โ3, 514civil rights campaigns 486โ9, 505โ11Civil War 469constitution and political parties 470โ4becomes economic leader of the world
469, 477โ9, 501, 636economic model 652โ4and First World War 18, 26, 27, 29โ31,
469immigration 469, 474โ7
foreign policies between the wars 51, 66โ7
and Germany 32โ8internal affairs between the wars
478โ98internal affairs since 1945 501โ26, 637and Korea 143โ6, 449โ53and Japan 52โ3, 338โ40and Laos 158, 463and Latin America 147โ9, 155โ7, 260โ1,
515, 608โ31and League of Nations 41, 46, 56,
66โ7McCarthyism 145โ6, 511โ13and the peace settlement 32โ3, 38, 41poverty and social policies 469, 479โ80,
501, 502โ5, 521and Russia 122โ41, 161โ2, 365and the UN 170, 260โ1and Second World War 89, 96โ100,
102โ11, 119socialism in 481โ6and Vietnam 151โ5, 456โ7and war on terror 258โ9, 265โ82, 521and world economic crisis (1929โ33)
469โ70, 489โ93world policies of since 1945 260โ82,
514, 517, 524, 608โ31, 650and the 2008 financial crash 654โ60,
664โ5Uniting for Peace resolution (UN) 171,
172Upper Volta 553USSR see RussiaU Thant 171, 575
Vanderbilt, Cornelius 477Vargas, Getulio 612Venezuela 608, 612, 614โ15, 622โ4Versailles Settlement 32โ41Verwoerd, Dr Henrik 584, 587Victor Emmanuel III, King of Italy 298Vietcong 152โ4Vietminh 150, 151Vietnam 455โ7
divided 151, 455independence, struggle for 149โ51,
454โ5war 1961โ75 149โ55
Virgin Lands Scheme (Khrushchev)398โ9
Vorster, B.J. 587
INDEX 697
Copyright material โ 9781137276940
Wagner Act (USA, 1935) 495Walโesa, Lech 209Wallace, Henry 494โ5Wall Street Crash 55, 314, 489โ91Wang Hui, Professor 445war deaths
First World War 30โ1Second World War 113โ16
war debts (to USA) 67Warlord era (China) 420, 422โ3Warsaw Pact 203Washington, Booker T. 488Washington Conferences (1921โ2) 52โ3Washington, George 473Watergate 514weapons of mass destruction (WMD)
271โ3Weimar Republic see GermanyWen Jiabao 442, 444West Africa, independence in 542โ3West Indies 537โ9West Irian 171, 554Whitewater Scandal 520WikiLeaks 630Wilhelm II, Kaiser 13โ16Wilson, Harold 547Wilson, Woodrow 26, 28, 31, 33, 43, 484
his Fourteen Points 32Works Progress Administration (USA, 1935)
495World Bank 612, 622World Disarmament Conference (1932โ3)
49, 55world economic crisis (1929โ33) 48, 55,
489โ93causes 490โ2effects 491โ2
world economychanges since 1900 635โ8capitalism v. communism 636โ7NorthโSouth divide 638โ43effects on environment 644โ52
at the millennium 652โ4in crisis from 2008 654โ61causes of the crisis 656โ9in 2012 661โ5
World Health Organization (WHO) 178โ9,681
World Trade Centre 257, 265โ6World Trade Organization 648, 653
Xi Jinping 446Xoxe, Kose 204
Yakovlev, Alexander 394Yalta Conference (1945) 125โ6Yeltsin, Boris 396, 404โ7Yemen 282Yom Kippur War (1973) 236โ7Young Plan (1929) 54, 313Yuan Shih-kai 421โ2Yugoslavia 7
formation of 61, 212between the wars 61under Marshal Tito 129, 203โ4break-up and civil war in 164โ5, 213โ17
Zaire see CongoZambia 546, 602ZANU 548, 597ZANU-PF 548, 597โ601Zapatista uprising (Mexico, 1994) 617โ18ZAPU 548, 597Zelaya, Josรฉ Santos 620โ1Zenawi, Meles 592โ3Zhao Ziyang 438, 439Zhivkov, Todor 211Zhou Enlai 427โ9Zimbabwe see also Southern Rhodesia
549, 587, 597โ601, 680Zinoviev, Grigori 367, 373โ4, 380Zionism 230Zuma, Jacob 591Zyuganov, Gennady 412โ13, 415, 417โ18
698 INDEX