Theory into Practice

Methodologies

Introduction Frequent swings of the pendulum Language teachers need to aware of

the historical bases of methodological options

Pre-twentieth-Century Trends Getting learners to use a language vs.

getting learners to analyze a language Greek and Latin as lingua francas Renaissance: formal study of the

grammars of Greek and Latin European vernaculars grew in prestige

and utility J. A. Comenius

Pre-twentieth-Century Trends Beginning of 19th century: Grammar-

Translation (modern language as well)

End of 19th century: the Directive Method

1886: the International Phonetic Alphabet

Reading Approach in the US

Pre-twentieth-Century Trends World War II: Audiolingual Language

Method (US); Situational Approach (Europe)

Twentieth-Century Approaches Grammar-Translation Direct Reading Audiolingual Method (United States) Oral-Situational (Britain) Cognitive Affective-Humanistic Comprehension-based Communicative

Twentieth-Century Approaches Approach: a certain model or

research paradigm Method: a set of procedures Technique: a classroom device or

activity Richards & Rodger’s Model:

Approach, Design & Procedures

Reaction to perceived inadequacies Cognitive Approach: Language is rule-

governed cognitive behavior (not habit formation)

Affective-Humanistic Approach: Learning a foreign language is a process of self-realization and of relating to other people

Comprehension Approach: Language acquisition occurs if and only if the learner comprehends meaningful input

Communicative approach: The purpose of language is communication

Designer Methods Silent Way (Gattegno 1976) Community Language Learning

(Curran 1976) Total Physical Response (Asher

1977) Desuggestopedia (Lozanov 1978)

Grammar-Translation Method (1) Classical Method The learning of Latin or Greek Focus on grammatical rules;

Memorization of vocabulary; Translation of texts; Doing written exercise

Grammar-Translation Method (2) Characteristics (1) Classes are taught in the mother

tongue. (2) Much vocabulary is taught in the form

of lists of isolated words. (3) Long explanation of the intricacies of

grammar are given. (4) Instruction often focuses on the rules

for putting words together.

Grammar-Translation Method (3) (5) Reading of difficult classical texts is

begun early. (6) Little attention is paid to the content

of texts. (7) Often the only drills are exercises in

translating disconnected sentences from the target language into the mother tongue.

(8) Little or no attention is given to pronunciation.

Grammar-Translation Method (4) Procedure Step 1: The teacher translates ‘red’, ‘yellow’, ‘green’, ‘blue’ into Chinese. Students read after the teacher.

Step 2: Students open the book, and the teacher read, ‘The book is red’, ‘The pencil is yellow’, ‘It is green’, ‘The bag is blue’. The students translate the sentences into Chinese.

Grammar-Translation Method (5) Step 3: The teacher explains the

sentence structure of ‘S is Color’ and ‘It is Color’.

Step 4: The teacher says, ‘The box is green. The door is blue. It is red.’ Students need to translate the sentences.

Grammar-Translation Method (6) Influences (1) Accuracy (2) Translations (3) Few specialized skills are

required on the part of teachers.

The Direct Method (1) The second language learning

should be more like first language learning –lots of oral interaction, spontaneous use of the language, no translation between first and second languages, and little or no analysis of grammatical rules.

The Berlitz Method

The Direct Method (2) Characteristics (1) Classroom instruction was conducted

exclusively in the target language. (2) Only everyday vocabulary and

sentence were taught. (3) Oral communication skills were built

up in a carefully traded progression organized around question-and-answer exchanges between teachers and students in small, intensive classes.

The Direct Method (3) (4) Grammar was taught inductively. (5) New teaching points were taught through

modeling and practice. (6) Concrete vocabulary was taught through

demonstration, objects, and pictures; abstract vocabulary was taught by association of ideas.

(7) Both speech and listening comprehension were taught.

(8) Correct pronunciation and grammar were emphasized.

The Direct Method (4) Procedure (1) The teacher holds up cards with

different colors. He points to each card and says, ‘It is white. It is black. It is brown.’

(2) The teacher points to the wall, the hair and the door and keeps saying the sentences.

The Direct Method (5) Influences (1) Use target language only (2) Use various teaching materials. (3) Emphasize on teaching

techniques. (4) The importance on oral

communication.

The Audio-Lingual Method (1) An oral-based approach Emphasizing vocabulary acquisition

through exposure to its use in situations

Army Method / Michigan Method

The Audio-Lingual Method (2) Characteristics (1) New materials is presented in dialogue

form. (2) There is dependence on mimicry,

memorization of set phrases and over-learning.

(3) Structures are sequenced by means of contrastive analysis and taught one at a time.

The Audio-Lingual Method (3) (4) Structural patterns are taught

using repetitive drills. (5) There is little or no grammatical

explanation. (6) Vocabulary is strictly limited and

learned in context. (8) There is much use of tapes,

language labs, and visual aids.

The Audio-Lingual Method (4) (8) Great importance is attached to

pronunciation. (9) Very little use of the mother tongue by

teachers is permitted. (10) Successful responses are

immediately reinforced. (11) There is a great effort to get students

to produce error-free utterances.

The Audio-Lingual Method (5) Procedure (1) A dialogue (2) Drills (3) Role play

The Audio-Lingual Method (6) Influences (1) Habit formation (2) Drills

Total Physical Response (1) Trace theory of learning: memory is

increased if it is stimulated, or “traced,” through association with motor activity.

Associating language with physical activity

Principles of child language acquisition + Right brain learning + Stress-free learning

Total Physical Response (2) Characteristics (1) Comprehension comes before

production. (2) Students do a great deal of

listening and acting. (3) The teacher is very directive in

orchestrating a performance.

Total Physical Response (3) (4) Imperative drills are used to elicit

physical actions. (5) The objective is to teach oral

proficiency to produce learners who can communicate uninhibitedly and intelligibly with native speakers.

Total Physical Response (4) Procedure (1) The teacher says, and the teacher does. “Point to the green (blue, red) card.” (2) The teacher says, and the students do. (3) The students say, and the students do. (4) The teacher says a series of commands. “Hold up the black card.” “Kiss the white

card.”

Total Physical Response (5) (5) Sing and act Red, red, red, touch your head. Blue, blue, blue, tie your shoe. Brown, brown, brown, touch the ground. White, white, white, take a bite. (from 陳淳麗，國小英語師資訓練手

冊 )

Total Physical Response (6) Influences (1) Successful second language

learning should be a parallel process to child first language acquisition.

(2) Appropriate activities can produce stress-free learning.

(3) Learners are encourage to speak when they feel ready to speak.

Syllabus Structural syllabus: a list of

grammatical inflections and constructions (Grammar-Translation / Direct / Audiolingual / Cognitive)

Text-based syllabus: texts and vocabulary items with only minor consideration given to grammar

Syllabus Notional-Functional syllabus:

meanings such as spacial location, time, degree; social transactions and interaction such as asking for information

Communicative syllabus: real-world tasks and authentic materials

Learner-generated syllabus (CLL)

Successful Practice Assess student needs Examine instructional constraints Determine the attitudes and learner

styles Identify the discourse genres,

speech activities, and text types Specify how the students’ language

learning will be assessed