Theories of MotivationAn Overview of Some of the Popular Management Theorists

Alderfers ERG TheoryClayton P Alderfer proposed a hierarchy involving three sets of needs:Existence: needs satisfied by such factors as food, air, water, pay, and working conditions.Relatedness: needs satisfied by meaningful social and interpersonal relationships.Growth: needs satisfied by an individual making creative or productive contributions.Tested by Thematic Apperception TestERG Theory

Frustrationof growth needsFrustration ofrelatedness needsFrustrationof existence needsImportanceof growth needsImportance of relatedness needsImportanceof existence needsSatisfactionof growth needsSatisfaction ofrelatedness needsSatisfaction ofexistence needsERG Theory Relationships Among Frustration, Importance, and Satisfaction of Needs

Chris Argyris (1923 - Influenced by the humanist approach of Abraham Maslow and the socio-technical process of E. Wight Bakke.Indicated his feelings about how organizations neglected human needs.If treated like a child one will behave like a child result is organizational mediocrityMaturity Immaturity ContinuumChris Argyris

Chris Argyris Personality vs. Organization Certain organizational practices, such as the division of labor, interfere with the development of healthy human personalities.These practices promote immature, not mature behavior.In an attempt to self-actualize, individuals run into the obstacles posed by formal organizations.The result is defensive behaviors, with management reacting by becoming more autocratic or by turning to sugar-coated human relations.

Chris Argyris

Albert Bandura Albert Bandura proposed a social cognitive theory (social learning theory; self-efficacy theory) which refers to an individuals belief that they are capable of performing a task.Four ways self efficacy can be increased:Enactive mastery if youve performed task in the past, you can do it againVicarious modeling you become more confident because you see someone else do the taskVerbal persuasion you become more confident because someone convinces you that you have the skills necessary to perform taskArousal if you get psyched up then you perform betterSocial LearningSelf-efficacySocial Cognitive

Abraham MaslowMaslow defined human needs as:

Physiological: the need for food, drink, shelter, and relief from pain.Safety and security: the need for freedom from threat; the security from threatening events or surroundings.Belongingness, social, and love: the need for friendship, affiliation, interaction, and love.Esteem: the need for self-esteem and for respect from others.Self-actualization: the need to fulfill oneself by maximizing the use of abilities, skills, and potentialHierarchy of Needs

Maslows Need Hierarchy Maslows theory assumes that a person attempts to satisfy the more basic needs before directing behavior toward satisfying upper-level needs.Lower-order needs must be satisfied before a higher-order need begins to control a persons behavior.A satisfied need ceases to motivate.

Need Hierarchy

David McClellandProposed Theory of Needs:

Need for Achievement (nAch) drive to excel, to achieve in relation to a set of standardsNeed for Affiliation (nAff) the desire for friendly and close interpersonal relationshipsNeed for Power (nPow) need to make others behave in a way in which they would not have behaved otherwise (to have power over them)

nAchnPownAff

McClellands Learned Needs TheoryAchievement(n Ach)Affiliation(n Aff)Power(n Pow)

Douglas McGregor (1906-1964)Taught psychology at MIT.At Antioch College, McGregor found that his classroom teaching of human relations did not always work in practice.From these experiences, his ideas evolve and lead him to recognize the influence of assumptions we make about people and our managerial style.Douglas McGregor

Theory XManagement is responsible for organizing the elements of productive enterprise money, materials, equipment, people in the interest of economic ends.With respect to people, this is a process of directing their efforts, motivating them, controlling their actions, modifying their behavior to fit the needs of the organization.Without this active intervention by management, people would be passive even resistant to organizational needs. They must, therefore, be persuaded, rewarded, punished, controlled their activities must be directed. This is managements task -- in managing subordinate managers or workers. We often sum it up by saying that management consists of getting things done through other people.

Theory X Behind this conventional theory there are several additional beliefs less explicit, but widespread:The average man is by nature indolent he works as little as possible.He lacks ambition, dislikes responsibility, prefers to be led.He is inherently self-centered, indifferent to organizational needs.He is by nature resistant to change.He is gullible, not very bright the ready dupe of the charlatan and the demagogue.

Theory YManagement is responsible for organizing the elements of productive enterprise money, materials, equipment, people in the interest of economic ends.People are not by nature passive or resistant to organizational needs. They have become so as a result of experience in organizations.The motivation, the potential for development, the capacity for assuming responsibility, the readiness to direct behavior toward organizational goals are all present in people. Management does not put them there. It is a responsibility of management to make it possible for people to recognize and develop these human characteristics for themselves.The essential task of management is to arrange organizational conditions and methods of operation so that people can achieve their own goals best by directing their own efforts toward organizational objectives.

Work is inherently distasteful to most people.Most people are not ambitious, have little desire for responsibility, and prefer to be directed.Most people have little capacity for creativity in solving organizational problems.Motivation occurs only at the physiological and safety levels.Most people must be closely controlled and often coerced to achieve organizational objectives.

Work is as natural as play, if the conditions are favorable.Self-control is often indispensable in achieving organizational goals.The capacity for creativity in solving organizational problems is widely distributed in the population.Motivation occurs at the social, esteem, and self-actualization levels, as well as physiological and security levels.People can be self-directed and creative at work if properly motivated.

Theory XTheory Y

Frederick Herzberg (1923-2000)His research emphasized job enrichment (depth) rather than job enlargementJob context (hygiene factors) needed to be optimal to prevent job dissatisfaction. These factors (according to Herzberg) did not motivate.Job content (motivators) factors that did lead to motivationMoney (according to Herzberg) could motivate if it was seen as a reward for accomplishment; but if money was given without regard for merit, then it was a hygiene factor.Frederick Herzberg

Policies and AdministrationSupervisionWorking ConditionsInterpersonal RelationsMoney, Status, SecurityAchievementRecognition for AccomplishmentChallenging WorkIncreased ResponsibilityGrowth and DevelopmentHYGIENE FACTORSENVIRONMENTMOTIVATORSWHAT THEY DOMotivation and Hygiene Factors

Extrinsic factorsIntrinsic factorsFactors within the job context:Factors within the job content:PayStatusWorking conditionsAchievementIncreased responsibilityRecognitionDissatisfiersHygiene factorsSatisfiersMotivatorsHerzbergs Two-Factor Theory

I. TRADITIONALHigh job dissatisfactionHigh job satisfactionII. HERZBERGS TWO-FACTOR VIEWLow jobsatisfactionHigh jobsatisfactionLow jobdissatisfactionHigh jobdissatisfactionMotivatorsFeeling of achievementMeaningful workOpportunities for advancementIncreased responsibilityRecognitionOpportunities for growthHygienesPayStatusJob securityWorking conditionsFringe benefitsPolicies and proceduresInterpersonal relationsTraditional and Herzberg Views of Satisfaction - Dissatisfaction

Frederick Herzberg

THE JOB ITSELFAND THEMOTIVATORFACTORSRESPONSIBILITYACHIEVEMENTWORK ITSELFRECOGNITIONGROWTHADVANCEMENTTHE JOB SURROUNDINGSAND THEHYGIENE FACTORSSUPERVISIONBENEFITSINTER-PERSONALRELATION-SHIPSSECURITYSALARYSTATUSCOMPANYPOLICY ANDADMINIS-TRATIONWORKINGCONDITIONSMotivation and Hygiene Factors

A Comparison of the Content TheoriesMaslow(need hierarchy)

Self-actualization

Esteem

Belongingness,social, and love

Safety and security

Physiological

Herzberg(two-factor theory)

The work itselfResponsibilityAdvancementGrowth

AchievementRecognition

Quality of inter-personal relationsamong peers, withsupervisors, withsubordinates

Job security

Working conditionsSalaryAlderfer

Growth

Relatedness

Existence

McClelland

Need forachievement

Need forpower

Need foraffiliation

MotivatorsHygieneconditionsHigherorderneedsBasicneeds

Work DesignRichard Hackman, Edward Lawler, and Greg Oldhams work extended Herzbergs notions by adding a situational (it depends) dimensionKey job characteristicsDepending on an individuals growth-need strength, these characteristics could be amplified to make the job more meaningful.

Outcomes(Personal and Work)Knowledge of Results of WorkResponsibility for OutcomesMeaningfulness of WorkCritical Psychological StateCore Job CharacteristicsSkill VarietyTask IdentityTask Significance

AutonomyFeedback About JobHigh Internal Work MotivationHigh Quality Work PerformanceHigh Satisfaction with WorkLow Absenteeism and TurnoverEmployee Growth NeedJob Characteristics Model

Motivation: Expectancy Theory Victor VroomThe expectancy theory of Victor Vroom helps explain the choosing process among individuals in terms of the value (valence) of the reward and the expectancy of receiving the reward.Victor Vroom

Expectancy Theory

Expectancy TheoryLyman Porter and Edward Lawler extended Vrooms work with their model of expectancy.

Expectancy Theory(Lyman W. Porter Edward E. Lawler III)Revised Diagram of the Theoretical ModelSOURCE: Managerial Attitudes and Performance, 1968, Richard D. Irwin Inc.

Principles of Expectancy TheoryV1 = S(V2 x I)The valence associated with various first-level outcomes is a sum of the multiplication of the valences (V2) attached to all second-level outcomes with their respective instrumentalities (I)M = f(V1 x E)Motivation is a multiplicative function of the valence for each first-level outcome (V1) and the perceived expectancy (E) that a given behavior will be followed by a particular first-level outcomeP = f(M x A)Performance is considered to be a multiplicative function of motivation (the force) and ability

Process Theories of Motivation:Expectancy Theory (continued)Management practices:Managers need to focus on employee expectations for success.Managers must actively determine which second-level outcomes are important to employees.Managers should link desired second-level outcomes to the organizations performance goals.

Expectancy Theory ExampleValences of second-level outcomes(in parentheses)Day off (6)Recognition/complimentfrom boss (3)Mention of performancein personnel record (1)Day off (6)Recognition/complimentfrom boss (3)Mention of performancein personnel record (1)Day off (6)Recognition/complimentfrom boss (3)Mention of performancein personnel record (1)0.61.00.30.20.7-0.10.00.2-0.4Finishing budgeton time (6.9)Finishing budgeton required daybut after deadline(3.2)Finishing budgeton day afterdeadline (.20)0.40.71.02.762.24.20MotivationInstrumentalities (howmuch performanceoutcome and second-leveloutcome are associatedPerformanceoutcome(valences xinstrumentalities)Expectancy(probability ofperformance giveneffort)

Equity TheoryEquity theory is not a new one but focuses on how individuals perceive their reward or pay compared to what others are receiving. Issues of social justice and distributive justice are involved in the theories of Stacy Adams and Elliot Jaques. Elliot Jacques

Process Theories of Motivation:Equity TheoryEmployees compare their efforts and rewards with those of others in similar work situations.Individuals, who work in exchange for rewards from the organization, are motivated by a desire to be equitably treated at work.Equity exists when employees perceive that the ratios of their inputs (efforts) to their outcomes (rewards) are equivalent to the ratios of other similar employees.Inequity exists when these ratios are not equivalent.

Compares his/her input/outcome ratio to reference persons (RP) inputs (I) and outcomes (O)and perceivesOPORP IPIRPequity=OPORP IPIRPinequity

ororIP: Inputs of the personOP: Outcomes of the personIRP: Inputs of reference personORP: Outcomes of reference personA person (P) with certain inputs (I) and receiving certain outcomes (O)The Equity Theory of Motivation

Managing Across CulturesGeert Hofstede (1928 - ) describes cultural differences in different countries.Individualism vs. collectivism (group orientation);Power Distance: The level of preference for equality or inequality within groups:Uncertainty avoidance: The preference for risk vs. structure.Masculinity (assertiveness) vs. femininity (tender values).Long term vs. Short term orientation.Geert HofstedeCourtesy of Prof. Hofstede

Last Thoughts from Peter DruckerI would hope that American managersindeed, managers worldwidecontinue to appreciate what I have been saying almost since day one: that management is so much more than exercising rank and privilege; its so much more than making deals. Management affects people and their lives, both in business and in many other aspects as well. The practice of management deservers our utmost attention; it deserves to be studied

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