Zarinah- FEM 41011 TOPIC 4 LEARNING THEORIES, MOTIVATION AND HUMAN ACHIEVEMENT.

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TOPIC 4

LEARNING THEORIES, MOTIVATION AND HUMAN

ACHIEVEMENT

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LEARNING THEORIES• Learning theory: belief that behavior could be better

explained by principles of learning than by instinct– John B. Watson (1878-1952) (School of Behaviorism)

• Concluded that there were only three innate emotional reactions: fear, rage, and love.

– Clark Hull (1884-1952) (Drive theory)• Energy for behavior is the result of drives; behavior is caused by the

multiplicative effect of drives times habit (Behavior = Drives x Habits)

– B. F. Skinner (1904-1990) (Reinforcement Theory)• Behavior can be learned even if there is no biological drive

reduction• Behavior modification: altering behavior based on the systematic

applications of rewards– Social Learning Theories: Many behaviors (habits) can be

acquired in the absence of rewards

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• Rewards as:

– Reinforcers for learning new behaviors

– Incentive stimuli that motivate approach behaviors

REWARD

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REWARD

• A reward is something given in exchange for something such as money, trophy, medal or any things wonderful.

• A process that reinforces behavior to increase in intensity.

• The functions of rewards are based directly on the modification of behavior and less directly on the physical.

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INCENTIVE

• Incentive is any factor (financial or non-financial) that provides a motive for a particular course of action, or counts as a reason for preferring one choice to the alternatives

• Incentive occur before an action or behavior.

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PUNISHMENT

• Punishment is the practice of imposing something unpleasant or response to an unwanted behavior

• Punishment is the reduction of a behavior via a stimulus applied ("positive punishment") or removed (“negative punishment")

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Reward as Reinforces

• Skinner defined a reinforcer as any stimulus following a behavior that increases the probability that the behavior will occur again.

• A punisher is any stimulus following a behavior that decreases the probability that the behavior will occur again.

• Reinforcers are desirable outcomes of behavior, and punishers are aversive outcomes of behavior.

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Reward as Reinforces

• Reinforcers are most effective if given immediately after a response and are progressively less effective with longer delays.

• The delay between a response and a reinforcer can be bridged by a secondary reinforcer, a stimulus that gets its reinforcing power by previous association with some reinforcer.

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Maintaining Behavior: Schedules of Reinforcement

• A schedule of reinforcement is some rule for when to deliver reinforcers in relation to responses

• Schedules can be response-based or time-based.

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• Response-based: Delivering a reinforcer after every tenth response (a fixed ratio schedule)

• Time-based: Reinforcing the first response after some minimum amount of time has passed since the last reinforcement (a fixed interval schedule).

Maintaining Behavior: Schedules of Reinforcement


• Response Theories

• Motivational Theories

• Stimulus Theories

THEORIES OF REINFORCERS


• Response Theories: the effective rewarding events are the responses made, not the subsequent stimuli

1. Functional analysis

2. The Premark principle

3. Elicitation theories

4. The Glickman-Schiff biological theory

Response Theories


Response Theories

1. Functional analysis• Reinforces functionally: Any stimulus

following a response that increases the probability of that response’s recurring is a reinforcer (Skinner, 1938)

• It is difficult to say in advance what will be a good reinforcer for a given person in a given situation

• Tried and True stimuli sometimes fail to modify human behavior in the way we expect them to do.


2. The Premark principle• A more systematic functional analysis

(Premark, 1959).• Any Response A will reinforce any other

Response B, if A has a higher response rate than B

• Experiment: Operating a candy machine or pinball machine• getting candy reinforced playing pinball – eaters• playing pinball reinforced getting candy -

manipulators

Response Theories


3. Elicitation Theories (Denny & Adelman)• Requirement for reinforcement: A response be

repeatedly elicited by some stimulus.• Example:

• Animal gets food following lever pressing

Lever Pressing Running to Food Response (Eating Food)

Response Theories


4. The Glickman-Schiff biological theory (Glickman & Schift, 1967)

• A stimulus would be reinforcing if it just activated the neural systems underlying responses even if an overt response did not occur

• Example: Animals will normally eat if the lateral hypothalamus is stimulated and food is available

Response Theories


Motivational Theories

• Motivational Theories: Emphasize increases or decreases of drive or arousal as reinforcing

1. Drive reduction theory

2. Evidence for drive reduction

3. Evidence against drive reduction

4. Arousal theory


1. Drive reduction theory• Directly ties reinforcement to motivation

by saying that drive reduction is a necessary condition for reinforcement (Hull, 1943)

• Miller (1951a,1959) argued that any strong stimulus has drive properties, but not all need states produce strong stimuli. e.g: milk drunk by a hungry rat was a better

reinfocer in a T-maze than milk tubed directly into the stomach



2. Evidence for drive reduction Drive-reduction theory is supported by

research on pain reduction, fear and reward-by-fistula



3. Evidence against drive reduction Suggests that drive reduction may be a

sufficient condition for reinforcement but not that drive reduction is the only or necessary condition.



4. Arousal theory Either increases or decreases in internal

arousal can be reinforcing as long as they lead to a more optimal level of arousal



STIMULUS THEORIES

• Stimulus theories: Stimuli that produce positive emotion or provide information are reinforcing

1. Hedonic reinforcers

2. Sex and brain stimulation

3. Stimulus change and information


1. Hedonic reinforcers Animals that are not under any known

dietary deficiency and that never have been deprived of food or water will press levers or run through mazes for sweet-tasting substances (e.g.,Young, 1959

STIMULUS THEORIES


STIMULUS THEORIES

2. Sex and brain stimulation Sexual arousal appears to be very

reinforcing. Electrical stimulation of the brain produces

excitement in animals and highly reinforcing


3. Stimulus change and information 2 explanations that have been proposed to

account for alternation behavior

i. Response inhibition theory: the animal tends not to repeat the same response

ii. Stimulation satiation theory: the animal tends not to go to the same stimulus.

STIMULUS THEORIES


REWARD AS INCENTIVES

• Concept of incentive: Rewards do not necessarily affect specific responses

• Experiments: Shows that changes in incentive value, increasing or decreasing, quickly produce appropriate changes in performance even though not associated with particular response


• Human incentives are also related to fantasy.

• Klinger: Proposed that we have commitment to goals (incentives) and this commitment is reflected in our current concerns that persist over time

• Current concerns are shown in fantasy, dream and thougths.

REWARD AS INCENTIVES


• Locus of Control is considered to be an important aspect of personality.

• Locus of Control refers to an individual's perception about the underlying main causes of events in his/her life.

LOCUS OF CONTROL


• A locus of control orientation is a belief about whether the outcomes of our actions are contingent on what we do (internal control orientation) or on events outside our personal control (external control orientation)." (Zimbardo, 1985, p. 275)

LOCUS OF CONTROL


LOCUS OF CONTROL

External Locus of Control Individual believes that his/her behaviour is guided by fate, luck, or other external circumstances

Internal Locus of Control

Individual believes that his/her behaviour is guided by

his/her personal decisions and efforts.

Locus of control is conceptualised as referring to a unidimensional continuum, ranging from external to internal:


Self-concept Self-concept as "the perception(s) one has

of oneself in terms of personal attributes and the various roles which are played or fulfilled by the individual." (Beane & Lipka, 1984)

They further noted that self-concept represents the "description an individual attaches to himself or herself... in terms of roles and attributes."


• Self concept – determines the goals we set– how we evaluate progress toward those goals– the impact of success and failure on our

future goal-directed behavior

Self-concept


Functions of Self-concept

2. To provide context1. To provide information

3. To provide integration


Functions of Self-Concept

1. To provide information Provides information that will enable us to

make judgments about we can or cannot do. Individuals whose self-concept

underestimates their skills and talents could find it difficult and even impossible to develop aspirations that might motivate them to set difficult goals



2. To provide context Humans are inclined to view feedback

regarding their behavior in the context of their enduring aspirations and goals

Example: Receiving a grade of B might mean very little for someone whose only wish to graduate but a great deal for someone who wants to be admitted to medical school


3. To provide integration The self-concept is a storehouse of

information about the self and provides the global integration of that information

From the integration of information comes our sense of identity



SELF-EFFICACY

• Self-efficacy is defined as a person’s belief in his or her capability to successfully perform a particular task (Bandura, 1997)

• Together with the goals that people set, self-efficacy is one on the most powerful motivational predictors of how well a person will perform at almost any endeavour.


• A person’s self-efficacy is a strong determinant of their effort, persistence, strategizing, as well as their subsequent training and job performance.

• Self-efficacy is also a much stronger predictor of how effectively people will perform a given task than either their self-confidence or their self-esteem.

SELF-EFFICACY


THE SELF-REGULATION OF BEHAVIOR

• Self-regulation– The ability to make us of knowledge we have

about that lawfulness of human behavior and use that knowledge to achieve goals that we think are in our best interest or simply goals that will make us happy


• Self regulation involves 3 processes

1. Self-observation (self-monitoring)

2. Self-evaluation (self-judgment)

3. Self-reaction (self-incentive)

The Self-regulation of Behavior


Self-observation (self-monitoring)

• Before we can change a behavior, we need to become aware of it

• This involves monitoring our behavior.• The more systematically we monitor our

behavior, the more quickly we will become aware of what we are doing.

• Example: Improving our social skills


Self-evaluation (self-judgment)

• The next step is to decide if what we are doing is congruent with what we want or our personal standards.

• Personal standards are developed from information that we gain from significant others.

• Social cognitive theory: Most of us possess considerable knowledge about the best course of action to achieve a certain outcome but not to have a clear idea of what we are presently doing.


Self-reaction (self-incentive)

• Self-judgments are typically accompanied by affective reactions.

• When we succeed or do well, we experience pleasure or satisfaction,

• If fail or perform poorly a negative mood or dissatisfaction

• These self-reactions lead us to set higher goals or to abandon goal

Zarinah- FEM 41011 TOPIC 4 LEARNING THEORIES, MOTIVATION AND HUMAN ACHIEVEMENT.

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Transcript of Zarinah- FEM 41011 TOPIC 4 LEARNING THEORIES, MOTIVATION AND HUMAN ACHIEVEMENT.