The First Triumvirate and Julius CaesarThe First Triumvirate and Julius Caesar

The End of the Republic The End of the Republic

Rome struggled through a reign of terror when large Rome struggled through a reign of terror when large numbers of important people were killed and their property numbers of important people were killed and their property confiscated under the dictatorship of confiscated under the dictatorship of SullaSulla: :

““SullaSulla now busied himself with slaughter, and murders now busied himself with slaughter, and murders without number or limit filled the city. Many, too, were without number or limit filled the city. Many, too, were killed to gratify private hatreds, although they had no killed to gratify private hatreds, although they had no relations with relations with SullaSulla, but he gave his consent in order to , but he gave his consent in order to gratify his adherents. At last one of the younger men, gratify his adherents. At last one of the younger men, Caius Caius MetellusMetellus, made bold to ask , made bold to ask SullaSulla in the senate what end in the senate what end there was to be of these evils, and how far he would there was to be of these evils, and how far he would proceed before they might expect such doings to cease. proceed before they might expect such doings to cease. "We do not ask thee," he said, "to free from punishment "We do not ask thee," he said, "to free from punishment those whom thou hast determined to slay, but to free from those whom thou hast determined to slay, but to free from suspense those whom thou hast determined to save."suspense those whom thou hast determined to save."

Taken from Taken from Plutarch - Life of SullaPlutarch - Life of Sulla

After unexpectedly resigning from the position of Roman dictator After unexpectedly resigning from the position of Roman dictator in 79 B.C., in 79 B.C., Sulla Sulla died a year later. His reign had drained the died a year later. His reign had drained the Senate of power, which allowed for the rise of a new political Senate of power, which allowed for the rise of a new political

alliance.alliance.

Beginning of the Beginning of the Triumvirate Triumvirate

Between the death of Sulla and the beginning of the first Between the death of Sulla and the beginning of the first Triumvirate in 59 B.C., two of the wealthiest and most Triumvirate in 59 B.C., two of the wealthiest and most powerful remaining Romans, powerful remaining Romans, Gnaius Pompeius MagnusGnaius Pompeius Magnus (106- (106-48 B.C.) and 48 B.C.) and Marcus Licinius CrassusMarcus Licinius Crassus (112-53 B.C.), grew (112-53 B.C.), grew increasingly hostile to each other. This wasn't simply a increasingly hostile to each other. This wasn't simply a private concern, since each man was backed by factions and private concern, since each man was backed by factions and soldiers. To avert civil war, soldiers. To avert civil war, Julius CaesarJulius Caesar, whose reputation , whose reputation was growing because of his military successes, suggested was growing because of his military successes, suggested a a three-way partnershipthree-way partnership. .

This unofficial alliance is known today as the first triumvirate, This unofficial alliance is known today as the first triumvirate, but at the time was referred to as an but at the time was referred to as an amicitiaamicitia 'friendship' or 'friendship' or factiofactio '. They divided up the Roman provinces to suit '. They divided up the Roman provinces to suit themselves. themselves. CrassusCrassus, the capable financier, would receive , the capable financier, would receive Syria; Syria; PompeyPompey, the renowned general, Spain; Caesar, who , the renowned general, Spain; Caesar, who would soon show himself to be a skilled politician as well as a would soon show himself to be a skilled politician as well as a military leader, Cisalpine and Transalpine Gaul and Illyricum. military leader, Cisalpine and Transalpine Gaul and Illyricum. CaesarCaesar and and PompeyPompey helped cement their relationship by helped cement their relationship by PompeyPompey's marriage to 's marriage to CaesarCaesar's daughter Julia.'s daughter Julia.

End of the Triumvirate End of the Triumvirate JuliaJulia, wife of , wife of PompeyPompey and daughter of and daughter of Julius CaesarJulius Caesar, died in , died in

54, thus breaking the personal alliance between 54, thus breaking the personal alliance between CaesarCaesar and and PompeyPompey. The triumvirate further degenerated in 53 B.C., . The triumvirate further degenerated in 53 B.C., when a Parthian army attacked the Roman army at the when a Parthian army attacked the Roman army at the Battle of CarrhaeBattle of Carrhae, and killed , and killed CrassusCrassus. Meanwhile, . Meanwhile, CaesarCaesar's 's power was growing while he was in Gaul. Laws were altered power was growing while he was in Gaul. Laws were altered to suit his needs. Some senators, notably to suit his needs. Some senators, notably CatoCato and and CiceroCicero, , were alarmed by the weakening legal fabric. were alarmed by the weakening legal fabric.

Rome had created the office of Rome had created the office of tribunetribune at an earlier time to at an earlier time to give the plebeians power against the patricians. Among give the plebeians power against the patricians. Among other powers, the tribune's person was sacrosanct (they other powers, the tribune's person was sacrosanct (they couldn't be harmed physically) and he could impose a veto couldn't be harmed physically) and he could impose a veto on anyone, including his fellow tribune. on anyone, including his fellow tribune. CaesarCaesar had both had both tribunes on his side when some members of the senate tribunes on his side when some members of the senate accused him of treason. The tribunes imposed their vetoes. accused him of treason. The tribunes imposed their vetoes. The senate majority ignored the vetoes and even physically The senate majority ignored the vetoes and even physically attacked the tribunes. They ordered attacked the tribunes. They ordered CaesarCaesar, now charged , now charged with treason, to return to Rome, but without his army.with treason, to return to Rome, but without his army.

Julius CaesarJulius Caesar returned to Rome, but with his returned to Rome, but with his army. Regardless of the legitimacy of the original army. Regardless of the legitimacy of the original treason charge that had been vetoed, the treason charge that had been vetoed, the moment he stepped across the moment he stepped across the RubiconRubicon (a river), (a river), CaesarCaesar had, in legal fact, committed treason. had, in legal fact, committed treason. CaesarCaesar could either be convicted of treason, or could either be convicted of treason, or fight the Roman forces sent to meet him, which fight the Roman forces sent to meet him, which were led by were led by CaesarCaesar's former co-leader, 's former co-leader, PompeyPompey. .

PompeyPompey had the initial advantage, but even so, had the initial advantage, but even so, Julius CaesarJulius Caesar won at Pharsalus in 48 B.C. After his won at Pharsalus in 48 B.C. After his defeat, defeat, PompeyPompey fled, first to Mytilene and then to fled, first to Mytilene and then to Egypt where he expected safety, but instead met Egypt where he expected safety, but instead met his own death. his own death.

Julius Caesar Rules Alone Julius Caesar Rules Alone CaesarCaesar next spent a few years in Egypt and Asia next spent a few years in Egypt and Asia

before returning to Rome, where he began a before returning to Rome, where he began a platform of reform. platform of reform.

Julius CaesarJulius Caesar granted citizenship to many colonials, granted citizenship to many colonials, thus widening his base of support. thus widening his base of support.

CaesarCaesar granted pay to Proconsuls to remove granted pay to Proconsuls to remove corruption and gain allegiance from them. corruption and gain allegiance from them.

CaesarCaesar established a network of spies. established a network of spies. CaesarCaesar instituted a policy of land reform designed instituted a policy of land reform designed

to take power away from the wealthy. to take power away from the wealthy. CaesarCaesar reduced the powers of the Senate so as to reduced the powers of the Senate so as to

make it an advisory council only. make it an advisory council only.

At the same time, At the same time, Julius CaesarJulius Caesar was appointed was appointed dictator for life and assumed the title of dictator for life and assumed the title of imperatorimperator, , general (a title given a victorious general by his general (a title given a victorious general by his soldiers), and soldiers), and pater patriaepater patriae 'father of his country'. 'father of his country'. Although Rome had long abhorred a monarchy, the Although Rome had long abhorred a monarchy, the title of title of rexrex 'king' was offered him. When the 'king' was offered him. When the autocratic autocratic CaesarCaesar rejected it at the Lupercalia, rejected it at the Lupercalia, there were grave doubts about his sincerity. People there were grave doubts about his sincerity. People feared he would soon become king. feared he would soon become king. CaesarCaesar even even dared to put his likeness on coins. In an effort to dared to put his likeness on coins. In an effort to save the Republic -- although some think there save the Republic -- although some think there were more personal reasons -- 60 of the senators were more personal reasons -- 60 of the senators conspired to murder him. On the Ides of March, in conspired to murder him. On the Ides of March, in 44 B.C., the senators stabbed 44 B.C., the senators stabbed Gaius Julius CaesarGaius Julius Caesar sixty times, beside a statue of his former co-leader sixty times, beside a statue of his former co-leader PompeyPompey. .