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HOW TO PRESENT A PROJECT

PROJECT IDENTIFICATION PART I : IDENTIFICATION

1. What is a project? A project is a proposal prepared for yourself, for someone else, for a whole community or even for a country. It involves making plans for the future and describing them to others or to the community as a whole. At the start there is nothing certain about a project except perhaps the desire or determination to undertake it. Thus it is the attempt to define this which has led us to make the various suggestions in this publication. Identifying a project involves recognizing a need in a certain place and for a given group of people. A proper understanding of the target group is very important. 2. Checking out the context Proper research is the prime necessity for any project. If this is not taken sufficiently seriously, the project proposed is often ill-adapted to the situation it is designed to. The result of this can be failure even though a large amount of money may have been invested. Here we are going to concentrate on the initial steps necessary to identify and properly understand the environment of the project in order to avoid these pitfalls. Thus the study of the context of a project is like laying the foundations of a house : the firmer they are, the more solid and durable the house. 3. Researching the project The aim of this research is better to understand the field of operation of the project and the people for whom the project is designed. The detailed planning of the project then needs to be done in an intelligent way, which means not disrupting local traditions, customs and structures. In instances where the need has been clearly identified by the local population. It is nevertheless necessary to try out the basic idea as a pilot scheme involving only a sample of the population. This will test the relevance of the ideas which need to be developed in the process of putting the project together. The length of time spent on research depends on the amount of time needed getting to know the context of the project plus the time taken to do the necessary detailed planning. Bearing in mind the fact that the context and the needs are constantly changing, time must be allowed to ensure that the proposals are free of misunderstandings and hasty judgments and that the project still corresponds to the real needs of the people and has not been drawn up in a way that causes the people for whom it was conceived not to be interested in it. The work done during this first phase should give precise information on local needs, customs and traditions, and on the political, social, cultural and economic context. This information is essential and needs to be systematically studied throughout the period of identification and planning. NOTE : The initiators of the project should not forget that it may need also to interest a funding organization. It is advisable therefore to try to relate as far as possible the interests of the people with the criteria of the organizations from which funding is sought.

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UNIT 1

PART TWO : PREPARATION AND WORKING OUT OF THE PROJECT DOCUMENT

Main criteria used by United Nations agencies. In Part One, we have seen that to identify a project is not enough simply to have a good idea. It is vital that the idea corresponds realistically to the needs of the local population. Once this is clear, it must be certain that the project fits into the social, economic, cultural and political context and has a good chance of being carried through (in terms of finance, organization, manpower and availability of equipment and materials). When this task has been completed, the project organizer will than try to link the information obtained with the original idea of the project. This may mean reformulating his or her ideas before defining the project strategy. After this comes the process of preparing and working out the project document. The conception and preparation of a project document that will be submitted to a national or international funding organization should follow certain guidelines without which it would have no hope of being considered. The initiator of the project should realize that this document is his first real introduction to the potential founders and forms the basis on which future agreements will be made. Care must be taken with the presentation and content of the document it must respond to whatever questions the funding organization might ask before deciding whether to accept the project or not. It is also particularly important that the document is drawn up in a precise fashion, presenting clearly and concisely in a logical order the details of the project and its proposed development. Composition of the project document A project document can be drawn up in the following sections: 1. General Introduction

a. Context and justification b. Population targeted c. Institutional framework

2. Methods and strategies a. Development objective / overall aim b. Immediate objective/s c. Proposed strategy d. Products e. Activities planned f. Work plan

3. Available resources; Aid requested; Budget a. Available resources b. Aid requested c. Budget

4. Follow up, Report; Evaluation a. Follow up b. Report c. Evaluation

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HOW TO PRESENT A PROJECT

Composition of the Title Page The following should be featured clearly on this page : - the title of the project - the project number (if you have submitted more than one project) - the field of activity - the location (city, region, country) - the tentative starting date and duration - the name(s) of organization(s) carrying out the project - the name(s) of the funding organization(s) - the name(s) of the organizations associated with the project - an estimate of the total budget - the total amount of funding sought (indicate the currency) - the name of the organization submitting the project (or the name and title of the

person authorized to do so) - the date of submission. GENERAL INTRODUCTION 1. Context of the project This sub-section should explain in a few lines the project's context and the environment in which it will be carried out. The information given should explain : - the origin of the project (considering the social, economic, cultural, political,

historical and geographical conditions) - the problem which the project seeks to solve, or the main objective of the

project - the position of the organization proposing the project and of the local authorities

regarding this problem or situation - what previous steps have been taken and what has been their effect. EXAMPLE : A context presented by a CCIVS member organization for a project in Bangladesh. With a population of about one billion, south Asian Countries are mostly economically underdeveloped. About 50% of these people live below the poverty line and the same percentage of them are illiterate. There is a wide gap between overall development needs and available resources. There are many social workers and volunteers in these countries who are interested in local , national and international development. However, appropriate training is not available since there are no adequate training facilities in the region. Due to these circumstances, BWCA believes that such a huge population of illiterate and economically disadvantaged people should be provided with a training centre to promote their education, cultural and socio-economic development. BWCA proposes to begin training program's in the area to fill these needs. With funding from UNESCO, trainers can be provided, volunteers will have the means to participate, and training courses can be developed - high quality work without the needing to make an immediate profit.

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UNIT 1 Example 2: Starting a Pilot Agricultural Centre for youth in Zaire. A. Introduction :

The goal of this project is to help disadvantaged youth to participate in social and economic activities, to fight against the drift from rural areas which strips the land of its vital forces.

In the region of Bas-Zaire where the land is fertile and which could become the granary of Kinshasa, the present output is scarcely enough to feed its inhabitants.

To change this situation, young people need to be encouraged to stay in the rural areas. The Regional Council for Social Protection and Family Planning wants to establish at Nkondo Malembe an experimental agricultural centre for youth.

The activities of this centre would include orientation of young people as well as agricultural production.

B. Description of the context of the project :

Nkondo Malembe is a village which is a part of the Luima community in the Songololo zone, the former training and production centre of JMPR (the youth movement of the ruling party). It is a relatively hot region with clay soil. Rainfall varies from 1200 to 1700 ml per year. It has two seasons: dry and rainy. 1.3 Target community

Most projects are for the benefit of a certain defined population. A project planner should therefore try concisely to determine who would benefit from the project. This means taking into account certain criteria such as the composition of the target community and its origin; the geographical area targeted; their main activity (e.g. farming), age distribution and educational level. This sub-section should also indicate : - to what extent the targeted population supports the idea of the project; to what

extent they are mobilized; and which sections of the population are seen as a priority.

(In the example in Zaire given above, it is evident that the population targeted is the peasants from the southern part of the country and the criteria used to determine this were the geographical region and the main activity of the population).

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HOW TO PRESENT A PROJECT

The potential waste of human resources through early childbirth, drug abuse cases resulting in psychiatric cases and other social vices among the youth makes it imperative that actions are taken by NGO's and communities to curb these unfortunate phenomena. These conditions tend negatively to affect the physical and intellectual development of the adolescents into adulthood; thus a vicious cycle of deprivation is created if this precarious situation is not addressed. Example 2 : A target population in a CCIVS project in Bolivia. Another major benefit of this project is women. In each community the vast majority of teachers are women. With the supply of the double-school desks their job in educating young children will be much easier. Easier by enabling the students more incentive to learn in comfortable but will boost the morale of the students, teachers and communities alike. Previously teachers employed in rural Bolivia were reluctant to finish their term. They cited poor equipment as major factor. With VEA's cooperation, most are willing to stay and finish their terms. The desks built by VEA can also be used by the local mothers' club and their daughters. 1.4. The institutional framework

The sub-section should give a clear outline of how the project is expected to evolve, without going into minor details.

You should include the following : - where the project is taking place - staffing (national or international personnel, volunteers, consultants etc.) - the sources of the funds and materials for the project - the funding organizations - the organizations carrying out the project; other associated organizations - the co-ordination ties between these organizations - the body or person in charge of the project. Example : The proposed seminar to train social workers to work in the X region will take place at X from April 1 May 30, 1993. It will be organized by the training staff of the Association for the Children of Region X with technical help from a consultant from UNICEF. UNICEF and UNESCO will be providing the fares for the 120 social workers. The Association for the Children of Region X will pay for food, lodging and logistical aspects of the training programmed. The Ministry of Youth and Sports will be presiding over this training seminar and has given a grant to the national association.

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UNIT 1 Procedure to follow when submitting a project

(simplified version) : 1. Identification :

- idea for a project or identification of a need or a problem. 2. Checking out the context : - analysis of the economic, social cultural and political environment - survey of the needs and the problems - consultation with the targeted population - collection of information from organizations or people involved in the same area of work - consultation with the local or national authorities - choice of development objectives - immediate objectives. 3. Feasibility Study :

- funding, equipment and materials, human and organizational resources. 4. Project design : - analysis of the information obtained from research - definition of the proposed working methods - choice of the products and activities that need to be developed - study of the means necessary to carry out this project - planning the project - attention paid to the criteria for drawing up a project document. 5. Submission of the project : - presentation of the project to international and regional organizations, development banks, NGO's, other associations, foundations and private companies - project proposals should be sent directly to financing organization or submitted through a coordinating body such as CCIVS.

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PREPARATION OF A PROJECT

VOCABULARY

PROPOUSAL A document that tells vendors and service providers what type of service or products a company is attempting to purchase.

UNDERTAKE To make oneself responsible for; take over as a charge

ATTEMP To make an effort to do, get, have, etc.; try; endeavor

RESEARCH Careful, systematic, patient study and investigation in some field of knowledge, undertaken to discover or establish facts or principles

PRIME first in importance or value; principal; main

ENVIRONMENT all the conditions, circumstances, and influences surrounding, and affecting the development of, an organism or group of organisms

FOUNDATIONS the base on which something rests; specif., the supporting part of a wall, house, etc., usually of masonry, concrete, etc., and at least partially underground

AIM to direct (one's efforts)

DISRUPT to disturb or interrupt the orderly course of (a social affair, meeting, etc.)

SCHEME an outline or diagram showing different parts or elements of an object or system

POPULATION STATISTICS the total set of items, persons, etc. from which a sample is taken

PHASE any of the recurrent stages of variation in the illumination and apparent shape of a moon or a planet

SUBMIT to present or refer to others for decision, consideration, etc.

GUIDELINES a standard or principle by which to make a judgment or determine a policy or course of action

POPULATION

TARGET

the total set of items, persons, etc. from which a sample is taken and to whom the investigation is directed.

FRAMEWORK the basic structure, arrangement, or system

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STRATEGY a plan or action based on this

BUDGET a plan or schedule adjusting expenses during a certain period to the estimated or fixed income for that period

the amount of money needed or allotted for a specific use

FOLLOW UP designating or of anything that follows something else as a review, addition, etc.

REPORT to give a formal statement or official account of; announce formally (the results of an investigation, etc.)

EVALUATION the process of evaluating something or an instance of this

FUNDING

SOUGHT

Initial investments in a start-up, provided by a venture capitalist or private equity investor.

Refinancing debt before maturity, typically referred to as refunding.

SUBMISSION the act of submitting something to another for decision, consideration, etc.

SURVEY a detailed study or inspection, as by gathering information through observations, questionnaires, etc. and analyzing it

FEASIBILITY Possibility to carry on with the project

WORKSHEET

In groups according to your career, fill in the following format. Present a project.

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BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION

BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION

In business, administration consists of the performance or management of business operations and thus the making or implementing of major decisions. Administration can be defined as the universal process of organizing people and resources efficiently so as to direct activities toward common goals and objectives.

Administrative functions

Administrators, broadly speaking, engage in a common set of functions to meet the organization's goals. These "functions" of the administrator were described by Henri Fayol.

Planning is deciding in advance what to do, how to do it, when to do it, and who should do it. It maps the path from where the organization is to where it wants to be. The planning function involves establishing goals and arranging them in logical order. Administrators engage in both short-range and long-range planning.

Organizing involves identifying responsibilities to be performed, grouping responsibilities into departments or divisions, and specifying organizational relationships. The purpose is to achieve coordinated effort among all the elements in the organization. Organizing must take into account delegation of authority and responsibility and span of control within supervisory units.

Staffing means filling job positions with the right people at the right time. It involves determining staffing needs, writing job descriptions, recruiting and screening people to fill the positions.

Directing is leading people in a manner that achieves the goals of the organization. This involves proper allocation of resources and providing an effective support system. Directing requires exceptional interpersonal skills and the ability to motivate people. One of the crucial issues in directing is to find the correct balance between emphasis on staff needs and emphasis on economic production.

Controlling is the function that evaluates quality in all areas and detects potential or actual deviations from the organization's plan. This ensures high-quality performance and satisfactory results while maintaining an orderly and problem-free environment. Controlling includes information management, measurement of performance, and institution of corrective actions.

Budgeting, exempted from the list above, incorporates most of the administrative functions, beginning with the implementation of a budget plan through the application of budget controls.

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UNIT 1

Management in business and human organization activity, in simple terms means the act of getting people together to accomplish desired goals. Management comprises planning, organizing, resourcing, leading or directing, and controlling an organization (a group of one or more people or entities) or effort for the purpose of accomplishing a goal. Resourcing encompasses the deployment and manipulation of human resources, financial resources, technological resources, and natural resources.

To accomplish in a successful way the management function two kind of skills must be fulfilled:

1. Human skills 2. Financial skills

In human skills can be mentioned: the ability to communicate, leadership, conflict management, decision taking etc.

In Financial skills: the management tools, benchmarking, outsourcing, six sigma and more.

EXERCISE

According to the managerial skills for a good administrator, write an ideal manager profile.

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BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION

LEADERSHIP

The word leadership can refer to:

1. Those entities that perform one or more acts of leading. 2. The ability to affect human behavior so as to accomplish a mission. 3. Influencing a group of people to move towards its goal setting or goal

achievement.

Types of leadership styles

The bureaucratic leader (Weber, 1905) is very structured and follows the procedures as they have been established. This type of leadership has no space to explore new ways to solve problems and is usually slow paced to ensure adherence to the ladders stated by the company. Leaders ensure that all the steps have been followed prior to sending it to the next level of authority. Universities, hospitals, banks and government usually require this type of leader in their organizations to ensure quality, increase security and decrease corruption. Leaders that try to speed up the process will experience frustration and anxiety.

The charismatic leader (Weber, 1905) leads by infusing energy and eagerness into their team members. This type of leader has to be committed to the organization for the long run. If the success of the division or project is attributed to the leader and not the team, charismatic leaders may become a risk for the company by deciding to resign for advanced opportunities. It takes the company time and hard work to gain the employees' confidence back with other type of leadership after they have committed themselves to the magnetism of a charismatic leader.

The autocratic leader (Lewin, Lippitt, & White, 1939) is given the power to make decisions alone, having total authority. This leadership style is good for employees that need close supervision to perform certain tasks. Creative employees and team players resent this type of leadership, since they are unable to enhance processes or decision making, resulting in job dissatisfaction.

The democratic leader (Lewin, Lippitt, & White, 1939) listens to the team's ideas and studies them, but will make the final decision. Team players contribute to the final decision thus increasing employee satisfaction and ownership, feeling their input was considered when the final decision was taken. When changes arises, this type of leadership helps the team assimilate the changes better and more rapidly than other styles, knowing they were consulted and contributed to the decision making process, minimizing resistance and intolerance. A shortcoming

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UNIT 1

of this leadership style is that it has difficulty when decisions are needed in a short period of time or at the moment.

The laissez-faire ("let do") leader (Lewin, Lippitt, & White, 1939) gives no continuous feedback or supervision because the employees are highly experienced and need little supervision to obtain the expected outcome. On the other hand, this type of style is also associated with leaders that dont lead at all, failing in supervising team members, resulting in lack of control and higher costs, bad service or failure to meet deadlines.

The people-oriented leader (Fiedler, 1967) is the one that, in order to comply with effectiveness and efficiency, supports, trains and develops his personnel, increasing job satisfaction and genuine interest to do a good job.

The task-oriented leader (Fiedler, 1967) focus on the job, and concentrate on the specific tasks assigned to each employee to reach goal accomplishment. This leadership style suffers the same motivation issues as autocratic leadership, showing no involvement in the teams needs. It requires close supervision and control to achieve expected results.

The servant leader (Greenleaf, 1977) facilitates goal accomplishment by giving its team members what they need in order to be productive. This leader is an instrument employees use to reach the goal rather than an commanding voice that moves to change. This leadership style, in a manner similar to democratic leadership, tends to achieve the results in a slower time frame than other styles, although employee engagement is higher.

The transaction leader (Burns, 1978) is given power to perform certain tasks and reward or punish for the teams performance. It gives the opportunity to the manager to lead the group and the group agrees to follow his lead to accomplish a predetermined goal in exchange for something else. Power is given to the leader to evaluate, correct and train subordinates when productivity is not up to the desired level and reward effectiveness when expected outcome is reached.

The transformation leader (Burns, 1978) motivates its team to be effective and efficient. Communication is the base for goal achievement focusing the group in the final desired outcome or goal attainment. This leader is highly visible and uses chain of command to get the job done. Transformational leaders focus on the big picture, needing to be surrounded by people who take care of the details. The leader is always looking for ideas that move the organization to reach the companys vision.

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BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION

The environment leader ( Carmazzi, 2005) is the one who nurtures group or organizational environment to affect the emotional and psychological perception of an individuals place in that group or organization. An understanding and application of group psychology and dynamics is essential for this style to be effective. The leader uses organizational culture to inspire individuals and develop leaders at all levels. This leadership style relies on creating an education matrix where groups interactively learn the fundamental psychology of group dynamics and culture from each other. The leader uses this psychology, and complementary language, to influence direction through the members of the inspired group to do what is required for the benefit of all.

"Leadership is the energetic process of getting people fully and willingly committed to a new and sustainable course of action, to meet commonly

agreed objectives whilst having commonly held values"

EXERCISE

At the laboratory ask students to access the link to identify the level of leadership they have.

http://www.queendom.com/queendom_tests/transfer

After taking the test, ask them to:

1. Write an analysis of their result 2. Identify their strengths and weaknesses 3. Identify what aspects they should improve 4. Identify what aspects

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UNIT 1

COMMUNICATION

Communication is the process of transferring information from a sender to a receiver with the use of a medium in which the communicated information is understood by both sender and receiver. It is a process that allows organisms to exchange information by several methods. Communication requires that all parties understand a common language that is exchanged; there are auditory means, such as speaking, singing and sometimes tone of voice, and nonverbal, physical means, such as body language, sign language, paralanguage, touch, eye contact, or the use of writing. Communication is defined as a process by which we assign and convey meaning in an attempt to create shared understanding. This process requires a vast repertoire of skills in intrapersonal and interpersonal processing, listening, observing, speaking, questioning, analyzing, and evaluating. Use of these processes is developmental and transfers to all areas of life: home, school, community, work, and beyond. It is through communication that collaboration and cooperation occur. Communication is the articulation of sending a message, through different media whether it be verbal or nonverbal, so long as a being transmits a thought provoking idea, gesture, action, etc.

Communication happens at many levels (even for one single action), in many different ways, and for most beings, as well as certain machines. Several, if not all, fields of study dedicate a portion of attention to communication, so when speaking about communication it is very important to be sure about what aspects of communication one is speaking about. Definitions of communication range widely, some recognizing that animals can communicate with each other as well as human beings, and some are more narrow, only including human beings within the parameters of human symbolic interaction.

Nonetheless, communication is usually described along a few major dimensions: Content (what type of things are communicated), source, emisor, sender or encoder (by whom), form (in which form), channel (through which medium), destination, receiver, target or decoder (to whom), and the purpose or pragmatic aspect. Between parties, communication includes acts that confer knowledge and experiences, give advice and commands, and ask questions. These acts may take many forms, in one of the various manners of communication. The form depends on the abilities of the group communicating. Together, communication content and form make messages that are sent towards a destination. The target can be oneself, another person or being, another entity (such as a corporation or group of beings).

Communication can be seen as processes of information transmission governed by three levels of semiotic rules:

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UNIT 1

1. Syntactic (formal properties of signs and symbols), 2. pragmatic (concerned with the relations between signs/expressions and

their users) and 3. semantic (study of relationships between signs and symbols and what

they represent).

Therefore, communication is social interaction where at least two interacting agents share a common set of signs and a common set of semiotic rules. This commonly held rule in some sense ignores autocommunication, including intrapersonal communication via diaries or self-talk.

In a simple model, information or content (e.g. a message in natural language) is sent in some form (as spoken language) from an emisor/ sender/ encoder to a destination/ receiver/ decoder. In a slightly more complex form a sender and a receiver are linked reciprocally. A particular instance of communication is called a

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BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION

speech act. In the presence of "communication noise" on the transmission channel (air, in this case), reception and decoding of content may be faulty, and thus the speech act may not achieve the desired effect. One problem with this encode-transmit-receive-decode model is that the processes of encoding and decoding imply that the sender and receiver each possess something that functions as a code book, and that these two code books are, at the very least, similar if not identical. Although something like code books is implied by the model, they are nowhere represented in the model, which creates many conceptual difficulties.

Theories of coregulation describe communication as a creative and dynamic continuous process, rather than a discrete exchange of information.

TYPES OF COMMUNICATION

Language

A language is a syntactically organized system of signals, such as voice sounds, intonations or pitch, gestures or written symbols which communicate thoughts or feelings. If a language is about communicating with signals, voice, sounds, gestures, or written symbols, can animal communications be considered as a language? Animals do not have a written form of a language, but use a language to communicate with each another. In that sense, an animal communication can be considered as a separated language.

Dialogue

A dialogue is a reciprocal conversation between two or more entities. The etymological origins of the word (in Greek (di,through) + (logos, word,speech) concepts like flowing-through meaning) do not necessarily convey the way in which people have come to use the word, with some confusion between the prefix -(di-,through) and the prefix - (di-, two) leading to the assumption that a dialogue is necessarily between only two parties.

Nonverbal communication

Nonverbal communication is the process of communicating through sending and receiving wordless messages. Such messages can be communicated through gesture, body language or posture; facial expression and eye contact, object communication such as clothing, hairstyles or even architecture, or symbols and infographics. Speech may also contain nonverbal elements known as paralanguage, including voice quality, emotion and speaking style, as well as prosodic features such as rhythm, intonation and stress. Likewise, written texts have nonverbal elements such as handwriting style, spatial arrangement of

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UNIT 1

words, or the use of emoticons. A portmanteau of the English words emotion (or emote) and icon, an emoticon is a symbol or combination of symbols used to convey emotional content in written or message form.

EXERCISE

At the laboratory ask students to access the link to identify the level of leadership they have.

http://www.queendom.com/queendom_tests/transfer

After taking the test, ask them to:

5. Write an analysis of their result 6. Identify their strengths and weaknesses 7. Identify what aspects they should improve 8. Identify what aspects

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. BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION

CONFLICT MANAGEMENT

Conflict management refers to the long-term management of intractable conflicts. It is the label for the variety of ways by which people handle grievances standing up for what they consider to be right and against what they consider to be wrong. Those ways include such diverse phenomena as gossip, ridicule, lynching, terrorism, warfare, feuding, genocide, law, mediation, and avoidance. Which forms of conflict management will be used in any given situation can be somewhat predicted and explained by the social structure or social geometry of the case.

Conflict management is often considered to be distinct from conflict resolution. The latter refers to resolving the dispute to the approval of one or both parties, whereas the former concerns an ongoing process that may never have a resolution. Neither is it considered the same as conflict transformation, which seeks to reframe the positions of the conflict parties.

Types of Managerial Actions that Cause Workplace Conflicts

1. Poor communications a. Employees experience continuing surprises, they aren't informed of new decisions, programs, etc. b. Employees don't understand reasons for decisions, they aren't involved in decision-making. c. As a result, employees trust the "rumor mill" more than management.

2. The alignment or the amount of resources is insufficient. There is: a. Disagreement about "who does what". b. Stress from working with inadequate resources.

3. "Personal chemistry", including conflicting values or actions among managers and employees, for example: a. Strong personal natures don't match. b. We often don't like in others what we don't like in ourselves.

4. Leadership problems, including inconsistent, missing, too-strong or uninformed leadership (at any level in the organization), evidenced by: a. Avoiding conflict, "passing the buck" with little follow-through on decisions. b. Employees see the same continued issues in the workplace. c. Supervisors don't understand the jobs of their subordinates

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UNIT 1

Ways People Deal With Conflict

There is no one best way to deal with conflict. It depends on the current situation. Here are the major ways that people use to deal with conflict. 1. Avoid it. Pretend it is not there or ignore it. a. Use it when it simply is not worth the effort to argue. Usually this approach tends to worsen the conflict over time.

2. Accommodate it. Give in to others, sometimes to the extent that you compromise yourself. a. Use this approach very sparingly and infrequently, for example, in situations when you know that you will have another more useful approach in the very near future. Usually this approach tends to worsen the conflict over time, and causes conflicts within yourself.

3. Competing. Work to get your way, rather than clarifying and addressing the issue. Competitors love accommodators. a. Use when you have a very strong conviction about your position.

4. Compromising. Mutual give-and-take. a. Use when the goal is to get past the issue and move on.

5. Collaborating. Focus on working together. a. Use when the goal is to meet as many current needs as possible by using mutual resources. This approach sometimes raises new mutual needs. b. Use when the goal is to cultivate ownership and commitment.

EXERCISE Ask students to role play a conflict first following these steps, then not following them. Analyze the result. Step1 Decide whether you want to confront the person who is bothering you. It is usually better to air grievances in the open than to let them fester. Step2 Speak to the other person calmly, politely and rationally. Focus on the situation and facts, avoiding gossip and personal attacks. Step3 Be careful not to express hostility in your posture, facial expression or tone. Be assertive without being aggressive. Step4 Listen to the other person carefully: What is she trying to say? Be sure you understand her position. Step5

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Express interest in what the other person is saying. You can acknowledge her ideas without necessarily agreeing or submitting. Saying, "I understand that you feel this way. Here's how I feel..." acknowledges both positions. Step6 Communicate clearly what you want, offering positive suggestions and recommendations. Be willing to be flexible. Step7 Speak to your supervisor if a problem with a difficult co-worker seriously threatens your work, but avoid whining.

Glossary of Term Business Administration

1. Acquisition The acquiring of supplies or services by the federal government with appropriated funds through purchase or lease.

2. Affiliates Business concerns, organizations, or individuals that control each other or that are controlled by a third party. Control may include shared management or ownership; common use of facilities, equipment, and employees; or family interest.

3. Best and Final Offer For negotiated procurements, a contractor's final offer following the conclusion of discussions.

4. Certificate of Competency

A certificate issued by the Small Business Administration (SBA) stating that the holder is "responsible" (in terms of capability, competency, capacity, credit, integrity, perseverance, and tenacity) for the purpose of receiving and performing a specific government contract.

5. Certified 8(a) Firm

A firm owned and operated by socially and economically disadvantaged individuals and eligible to receive federal contracts under the Small Business Administrations 8(a) Business Development Program.

6. Contract A mutually binding legal relationship obligating the seller to furnish supplies or services (including construction) and the buyer to pay for them.

7. Contracting Purchasing, renting, leasing, or otherwise obtaining supplies or services from nonfederal sources. Contracting includes the description of supplies and services required, the selection and solicitation of sources, the preparation and award of contracts, and all phases of contract administration. It does not include grants or cooperative agreements.

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8. Contractor Team Arrangement

An arrangement in which (a) two or more companies form a partnership or joint venture to act as potential prime contractor; or (b) an agreement by a potential prime contractor with one or more other companies to have them act as its subcontractors under a specified government contract or acquisition program.

9. Electronic Data Interchange standardized electronic versions of common business documents.

10. Emerging Small Business

A small business concern whose size is no greater than 50 percent of the numerical size standard applicable to the Standard Industrial Classification code assigned to a contracting opportunity.

11. Equity An accounting term used to describe the net investment of owners or stockholders in a business. Under the accounting equation, equity also represents the result of assets less liabilities.

12. Fair and Reasonable Price

A price that is fair to both parties, considering the agreed-upon conditions, promised quality, and timeliness of contract performance. "Fair and reasonable" price is subject to statutory and regulatory limitations.

13. Full and Open Competition With respect to a contract action, "full and open" competition means that all responsible sources are permitted to compete.

14. Intermediary Organization

Organizations that play a fundamental role in encouraging, promoting, and facilitating business-to-business linkages and mentor-protg partnerships. These can include both nonprofit and for-profit organizations: chambers of commerce; trade associations; local, civic, and community groups; state and local governments; academic institutions; and private corporations.

15. Joint Venture In the SBA Mentor-Protg Program, an agreement between a certified firm and a mentor firm to perform a specific federal contract.

16. Mentor A business, usually large, or other organization that has created a specialized program to advance strategic relationships with small businesses.

17. Negotiation Contracting through the use of either competitive or other-than

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competitive proposals and discussions. Any contract awarded without using sealed bidding procedures is a negotiated contract.

18. One-Stop Capital Shops

OSCSs are the SBAs contribution to the Empowerment Zones/Enterprise Communities Program, an interagency initiative that provides resources to economically distressed communities. The shops provide a full range of SBA lending and technical assistance programs.

19. Partnering A mutually beneficial business-to-business relationship based on trust and commitment and that enhances the capabilities of both parties.

20. Prime Contract A contract awarded directly by the Federal government.

21. Protg A firm in a developmental stage that aspires to increasing its capabilities through a mutually beneficial business-to-business relationship.

22. Request for Proposal (RFP)

A document outlining a government agencys requirements and the criteria for the evaluation of offers.

23. Small Business A business smaller than a given size as measured by its employment, business receipts, or business assets.

24. Small Business Development Centers (SBDC) SBDCs offer a broad spectrum of business information and guidance as well as assistance in preparing loan applications.

25. Standard Industrial Classification (SIC) Code

A code representing a category within the Standard Industrial Classification System administered by the Statistical Policy Division of the U.S. Office of Management and Budget. The system was established to classify all industries in the US economy. A two-digit code designates each major industry group, which is coupled with a second two-digit code representing subcategories.