Terminology Cat

8/6/2019 Terminology Cat

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TerminologyTerminology

Janina, Marius, Mareen, Ina andJanina, Marius, Mareen, Ina and

RominaRomina


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ConceptConcept


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What is a concept?What is a concept?

A concept is represented by a symbolA concept is represented by a symbol

that we use to name any objectthat we use to name any objecte.g.e.g. plantplant

greengreen treetree

woodwood

conceptconcept symbolsymbol


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How do we identifyHow do we identify

concepts?concepts? The process of concept formation isThe process of concept formation is

used to identify conceptsused to identify concepts

1.1. Observation and identifying objects asObservation and identifying objects ashaving certain propertieshaving certain properties

2.2. Abstraction of properties to name theAbstraction of properties to name theconceptconcept

3.3. Building groups of abstract types ofBuilding groups of abstract types ofobjects into broader classesobjects into broader classes


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Why do we needWhy do we need

characteristics?characteristics?

The necessary or essential characteristicsThe necessary or essential characteristics

are important to separate one concept from theare important to separate one concept from theotherother

e.g. Concept of water vs. concept of lemonadee.g. Concept of water vs. concept of lemonade

The identifying or essential characteristic mayThe identifying or essential characteristic may

be the sweetness of lemonade in this casebe the sweetness of lemonade in this case


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Tree structure of conceptTree structure of concept

liquidsliquids

Intension = the sumIntension = the sum

of all characteristicsof all characteristics Extension = theExtension = the

range of objectsrange of objects

Liquids

Milk Coffee Juice

Cow Sheep Mocca Latte Orange Lemon


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Characteristics can be expressed as:Characteristics can be expressed as:

1.1. properties of the specific concept orproperties of the specific concept or

2.2. relations to other conceptsrelations to other concepts

Next to those characteristics we alsoNext to those characteristics we also

need specific classes that conceptsneed specific classes that concepts

belong tobelong to


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Types of conceptsTypes of concepts

Many different types of concepts needMany different types of concepts need

to be structured carefullyto be structured carefully Three main methods to structureThree main methods to structure

concepts:concepts:

1.1. class conceptsclass concepts2.2. property conceptsproperty concepts

3.3. relation conceptsrelation concepts


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1.Class concepts1.Class concepts

Concepts can be attributed to a class toConcepts can be attributed to a class to

identify the type of conceptidentify the type of concept

e.g.e.g. Venus is attributed to the classVenus is attributed to the class

of planetsof planets


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2. Property concepts2. Property concepts

Concepts can be grouped according toConcepts can be grouped according tocommon properties and the distinctivecommon properties and the distinctivefeatures of a classfeatures of a class

e.g.e.g. quadrupeds = animals having fourquadrupeds = animals having fourlegslegs

The common property = quadrupedsThe common property = quadrupeds

It can be divided by the distinctive of beingIt can be divided by the distinctive of beingtamed for human use into domestic and wildtamed for human use into domestic and wildanimalsanimals


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3. Relation concepts3. Relation concepts

Concepts can be differentiated by theConcepts can be differentiated by the

relationships between categoriesrelationships between categories e.g.e.g. tables, chairs, cupboards =tables, chairs, cupboards =

furniturefurniture

It can be further differentiated intoIt can be further differentiated intohousehold furniture and officehousehold furniture and officefurniturefurniture


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RelationshipsRelationships

Important way to structure concepts because any typeImportant way to structure concepts because any typeof conceptual relationship can be relevantof conceptual relationship can be relevant

e.g.e.g. an object can be related to its geographicalan object can be related to its geographical

origin, its material substance, its method oforigin, its material substance, its method ofproduction, etc.production, etc.

To structure relationships and to differentiate betweenTo structure relationships and to differentiate betweenthem, they are divided up intothem, they are divided up into

the following main subgroups:the following main subgroups:1.1. Generic relationshipGeneric relationship

2.2. Partitive relationshipPartitive relationship


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The following example presents aThe following example presents a

horizontal relationship with severalhorizontal relationship with several

layerslayersPublication

Periodicpublication

Non-periodicpublication

NewsMagazine

Journal BookMonographEtc.

Letter

At each lower level the degree of specifity becomes higher,

the intention becomes narrower


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2. Partitive relationship2. Partitive relationship

Also called wholeAlso called whole--partpart--relationshiprelationship

Needed to indicate the connection betweenNeeded to indicate the connection between

concepts consisting of more than one part andconcepts consisting of more than one part andtheir constituent partstheir constituent parts

Can be expressed in the following formula:Can be expressed in the following formula:

X is a constituent part of YX is a constituent part of Y

OrOr X, Y, Z are constituent parts ofAX, Y, Z are constituent parts ofAOrOr A consists of XA consists of X

OrOr A consists of X, Y, Z,A consists of X, Y, Z,


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NaturalScience

Physics Chemistry Biology

Pure AppliedOrganic

Chemistry

Inorganic

ChemistryBotany Zoology


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Subject classificationSubject classification

Needed to classify larger groups ofNeeded to classify larger groups of

concepts next to the relationshipconcepts next to the relationship Groups can be found in traditionalGroups can be found in traditional

dictionaries and glossaries as adictionaries and glossaries as ahierarchical or alphabetical order.hierarchical or alphabetical order.

Limited by the fact that they cannotLimited by the fact that they cannotreflect relationshipsreflect relationships


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The thesaurus is a compromise solution betweenThe thesaurus is a compromise solution betweenclassification and conceptual relationships.classification and conceptual relationships.

It has a deep hierarchical structure with (sometimes)It has a deep hierarchical structure with (sometimes)

seven or more sublevelsseven or more sublevels e.g.e.g. In a RootIn a Root--Thesaurus the mechanicalThesaurus the mechanical

engineering is subdivided intoengineering is subdivided into

1.1. Heat engineeringHeat engineering

2.2. Fluid engineeringFluid engineering

3.3. Vacuum engineeringVacuum engineering4.4. Prime moversPrime movers

5.5. Mechanical systemsMechanical systems


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At the end we are left with categories of topicsAt the end we are left with categories of topics

or subject areas and not with concepts ofor subject areas and not with concepts of

separate entities, activities, properties orseparate entities, activities, properties orrelationsrelations

Subject classification helpful in structuring andSubject classification helpful in structuring and

selection of entities for a specialised dictionaryselection of entities for a specialised dictionary

But beyond this we need a broad structure asBut beyond this we need a broad structure aswell as a complex set of relationshipswell as a complex set of relationships


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DefinitionsDefinitions


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What is aDefinition inWhat is aDefinition in

Terminology?Terminology?

The explanation of the acceptedThe explanation of the accepted

specialised meanings of lexical items thespecialised meanings of lexical items the

occurrence of which can be documentedoccurrence of which can be documentedin a variety of sourcesin a variety of sources


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Methods ofDefinitionMethods ofDefinition

There are various methods of definitionThere are various methods of definition

Choice of method according to:Choice of method according to:

the nature of the concept which has to bethe nature of the concept which has to be

defineddefined

the particular purpose of the definitionthe particular purpose of the definition


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Definition by AnalysisDefinition by Analysis

pneumoniapneumonia = an inflammation of the= an inflammation of the

lung tissuelung tissue

stomatitisstomatitis = an inflammation of the= an inflammation of themouthmouth

dogdog = a domesticated= a domesticated

carnivorous mammalcarnivorous mammal


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Definition by SynonymsDefinition by Synonyms

softwaresoftware = logiciel= logiciel

daisydaisy = bellis perennis= bellis perennis

dogdog = canis lupus forma= canis lupus forma

familiarisfamiliaris


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Definition by ParaphraseDefinition by Paraphrase

whitenesswhiteness = the state of being white= the state of being white

flotationflotation = the act of making= the act of making

something floatsomething float

lengthenlengthen = the process of making= the process of making

something longersomething longer


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Definition by SynthesisDefinition by Synthesis

metatarsalgiametatarsalgia

= a painful neuralgic condition of the foot,= a painful neuralgic condition of the foot,

felt in the ball of the foot and oftenfelt in the ball of the foot and oftenspreading thence up the legspreading thence up the leg

dogdog

= a domesticated carnivorous mammal= a domesticated carnivorous mammalrelated to the foxes and wolves andrelated to the foxes and wolves andraised in a large variety of breedsraised in a large variety of breeds


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Definition by ImplicationDefinition by Implication

dialdial

= a clock or watch has a dial divided into= a clock or watch has a dial divided into

segments for hours and minutes oversegments for hours and minutes overwhich the hands movewhich the hands move

diagnosisdiagnosis

= we make a diagnosis when we identify= we make a diagnosis when we identifycertain symptoms as characteristic ofcertain symptoms as characteristic ofspecific conditionsspecific conditions


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Definition by DenotationDefinition by Denotation

dogdog

= dogs are spaniels, poodles, Pekinese,= dogs are spaniels, poodles, Pekinese,

alsatians and similar animalsalsatians and similar animals

oceanocean

= oceans are the Atlantic, the Pacific and= oceans are the Atlantic, the Pacific and

the Indian Oceanthe Indian Ocean


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Definition byDefinition by

DemonstrationDemonstration

Definition by showing drawings,Definition by showing drawings,

photographs or pointing to an objectphotographs or pointing to an object


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A Theory of TermsA Theory of Terms


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The OnomasiologicalThe Onomasiological

ApproachApproach Lexicographer: collects all words of a language, sortsLexicographer: collects all words of a language, sorts

them in various waysthem in various ways

Terminologist: interest in subsets of the lexicon, whichTerminologist: interest in subsets of the lexicon, which

constitute the vocabulary of special languageconstitute the vocabulary of special language needsneedsto structure knowledgeto structure knowledge orders terms he hasorders terms he hasdiscovered by reference to a conceptual systemdiscovered by reference to a conceptual system

Rarely involved in the process of naming an originalRarely involved in the process of naming an originalconceptconcept

!!! A word can belong to more than one area of!!! A word can belong to more than one area ofknowledgeknowledge terminologist has to distinguish meaningterminologist has to distinguish meaningbefore he distinguishes wordsbefore he distinguishes words


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The TraditionalThe Traditional

Terminological TheoryTerminological Theory A naming approachA naming approach

It starts from concepts and looks for theIt starts from concepts and looks for the

names of these conceptsnames of these concepts

Avoids occurrence of homonymsAvoids occurrence of homonyms

Terminological dictionary: words areTerminological dictionary: words are

ordered in single entries with eachordered in single entries with eachseparate sense of a wordseparate sense of a word


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The LexicographicalThe Lexicographical

ApproachApproach A meaning approachA meaning approach

It starts from words and looks for theirIt starts from words and looks for their

meaningmeaning


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Terms and Their FormsTerms and Their Forms

Terms are the linguistic representation ofTerms are the linguistic representation of

conceptsconcepts

Special language: strive to systematizeSpecial language: strive to systematizeprinciples of designation and nameprinciples of designation and name

concepts according to preconcepts according to pre--specified rulesspecified rules

Process of scientific observation andProcess of scientific observation anddescription includes designation ofdescription includes designation of

conceptsconcepts manipulating lexical formsmanipulating lexical forms


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English TerminologyEnglish Terminology

Synthetic and analytic means of termSynthetic and analytic means of term

formationformation

a)a) Synthetic methods: modify lexical itemsSynthetic methods: modify lexical items

by means of affixesby means of affixes

b)b) Analytic methods: combine independentAnalytic methods: combine independent

and lexical units into larger units (e.g.and lexical units into larger units (e.g.compounding)compounding)


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Modern TerminologicalModern Terminological

TheoryTheory Accepts the occurrence of synonymicAccepts the occurrence of synonymic

expressions and variants of termsexpressions and variants of terms

Terminology adopts a corpusTerminology adopts a corpus--basedbasedapproach to lexical data collectionapproach to lexical data collection

a term is no longer seen as a separatea term is no longer seen as a separate

itemitem


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Terms in DictionariesTerms in Dictionaries

Concepts represented in terminologicalConcepts represented in terminologicaldictionaries are predominantly expressed bydictionaries are predominantly expressed bythe linguistic form of nounsthe linguistic form of nouns

Only selected verbs and adjectivesOnly selected verbs and adjectives Dictionary entries are relatively uniform:Dictionary entries are relatively uniform:

Semantic and pragmatic informationSemantic and pragmatic information

Graphic informationGraphic information

Acronyms / other abbreviated formsAcronyms / other abbreviated forms Contextual variationsContextual variations

Multiple compound nounsMultiple compound nouns


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Homonyms, Synonyms andHomonyms, Synonyms and

VariationsVariations No concept of only one designationNo concept of only one designation

Need to establish criteria for identifyingNeed to establish criteria for identifying

the one regular and proper name for athe one regular and proper name for aconcept to which the other are variantsconcept to which the other are variants


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Status of TermsStatus of Terms

Terms can have a variable pragmaticTerms can have a variable pragmaticstatusstatus

It is associated with their age,It is associated with their age,acceptability, exclusiveness of existenceacceptability, exclusiveness of existenceand spread of useand spread of use

TERMTERM--DEFINITIONDEFINITION--CONCEPTCONCEPT

(e.g. sitt (German))(e.g. sitt (German))

Translation theoryTranslation theory quality labelquality label


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Processes ofProcesses of

TerminologisationTerminologisation Terminologist:Terminologist:

1.1. Recorder of new termsRecorder of new terms

2.2. Advisor on designationAdvisor on designation

3.3. Administrator of gradual evolution ofAdministrator of gradual evolution of

termsterms


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Terminologisation: evolution of conceptsTerminologisation: evolution of concepts

is accompanied by stages of namingis accompanied by stages of naming

In the development of knowledge theIn the development of knowledge theconcepts undergo changesconcepts undergo changes

Innovation in science is dependent uponInnovation in science is dependent upon

our ability to question the validity ofour ability to question the validity ofcertain concepts while keeping otherscertain concepts while keeping others

fixedfixed


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The Question of Terminologisation isThe Question of Terminologisation is

Fundamental to the Description ofFundamental to the Description of

Special LanguageSpecial Language

Special communication: particular grouping ofSpecial communication: particular grouping of

lexical items must be clearly assigned to eitherlexical items must be clearly assigned to either

free collocations or compoundsfree collocations or compounds Idioms used by specialists are terminologisedIdioms used by specialists are terminologised

Problem for lexicographers: must distinguishProblem for lexicographers: must distinguish

between inherent and the collocationalbetween inherent and the collocational

meaning of the lexical itemmeaning of the lexical item


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Difficulties for terminologists: recognition ofDifficulties for terminologists: recognition of

terminological units in running textsterminological units in running texts

lexicalization solves the problem by form oflexicalization solves the problem by form ofexternal characteristic like graphemic signsexternal characteristic like graphemic signs

terminologisation is less dependent on suchterminologisation is less dependent on such

devices, because special language users aredevices, because special language users are

expected to know the appropriate conceptsexpected to know the appropriate concepts


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A Model ofCommunicationA Model ofCommunication


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A Model ofCommunicationA Model ofCommunication

Two specialists in the same disciplineTwo specialists in the same discipline

Sender is motivated to transmit aSender is motivated to transmit a

messagemessage

Sender expects recipient message toSender expects recipient message to

receivereceive


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Message is the totality ofMessage is the totality of

1.1. IntentionIntention

2.2. Assumed expectationsAssumed expectations

3.3. Knowledge contentKnowledge content

4.4. Language selected by senderLanguage selected by sender

Specialist communication is highlySpecialist communication is highly

conventional and stylisedconventional and stylised


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Intention transmitted by nonIntention transmitted by non-- linguisticallinguistical

means throughmeans through

1.1. text forms of instructionstext forms of instructions

2.2. manualsmanuals

3.3. income tax returns,.....income tax returns,.....


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Compositional signals to signify intentionCompositional signals to signify intention

Includes devices asIncludes devices as

1.1. laylay-- outout

2.2. capitalisationcapitalisation3.3. underliningunderlining

4.4. paragraph numberingparagraph numbering

5.5. subtitlingsubtitling

Footnotes and bibliographic references fulfil anFootnotes and bibliographic references fulfil an

additional intentionadditional intention Communication is not successful, if senders intentionCommunication is not successful, if senders intention

is misinterpreted!!!is misinterpreted!!!


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How do you achieve a successfulHow do you achieve a successful

communication?communication?

1.1. Choice of intentionChoice of intention

2.2. The selection of KnowledgeThe selection of Knowledge

3.3. Choice of languageChoice of language


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The Functional Efficacy ofThe Functional Efficacy of

TermsTerms


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Use of special languages restrictedUse of special languages restricted

Special language differs from generalSpecial language differs from general

language in that :language in that :a) Constituted of special text typesa) Constituted of special text types

1.1. laboratory reportslaboratory reports

2.2. test certificationstest certifications

3.3. special syntaxspecial syntax

b) Use of terms in addition to wordsb) Use of terms in addition to words


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Criteria for evaluating effectiveness ofCriteria for evaluating effectiveness of

communication ( 3 objectives) :communication ( 3 objectives) :

Message should be:Message should be:

1.1. economicaleconomical

2.2. preciseprecise

3.3. appropriateappropriate


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StandardizationStandardization


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Conceptual innovation becomes manifested inConceptual innovation becomes manifested inthe creation of new termsthe creation of new terms

New terms are introduced to fill gaps or toNew terms are introduced to fill gaps or to

replace existing onesreplace existing ones A new concept becomes standardized whenA new concept becomes standardized when

users reach public agreementusers reach public agreement

Sets of definitions in textbooks, glossaries orSets of definitions in textbooks, glossaries or

manuals are the outward manifestation of thismanuals are the outward manifestation of thisprocessprocess

Standardization is fixation of meaningStandardization is fixation of meaning


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Motivation forMotivation for

Sta

ndardiz

ation

Sta

ndardiz

ation

In the interest of:In the interest of:

EconomyEconomy

PrecisionPrecision

AppropriatenessAppropriateness


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Principles ofPrinciples of

Standardiz

ation

Sta

ndardiz

ation

Standardization is introduced after newStandardization is introduced after new

concepts, objects and processes areconcepts, objects and processes are

establishedestablished Then names are given to these newThen names are given to these new

conceptsconcepts

Many alternatives existMany alternatives exist Standardization is a retrospective activityStandardization is a retrospective activity


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Instruments ofInstruments of

Sta

ndardiz

ation

Sta

ndardiz

ation

How do terms become standardized?How do terms become standardized?

Nomenclature commissions play a role in theNomenclature commissions play a role in theefforts of standardization in their particularefforts of standardization in their particularsubject fieldssubject fields

In the industrial sector, national standardizationIn the industrial sector, national standardizationbodies are activebodies are active

Very few guidelines for the selection, definitionVery few guidelines for the selection, definitionand publication of terminologyand publication of terminology

lack of uniformitylack of uniformity


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ISO (International Organization forISO (International Organization for

Standardization)Standardization)

Issued basic recommendationsIssued basic recommendations

Works on principles of and guidelines forWorks on principles of and guidelines for

terminologyterminology


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Objectives ofObjectives of

Sta

ndardiz

ation

Sta

ndardiz

ation

ISO established seven principles onISO established seven principles onstandardizationstandardization

1.1. Objects are standardized first and thenObjects are standardized first and thena term becomes standardizeda term becomes standardized

2.2. Standardization is a social andStandardization is a social andeconomic activityeconomic activity

3.3. The publication of a standard has littleThe publication of a standard has littlevalue in itselfvalue in itself


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4. The establishment of a standard firstly4. The establishment of a standard firstlyrequires a choice of a suitable term andrequires a choice of a suitable term andsecondly a fixation of this term and thissecondly a fixation of this term and this

definitiondefinition5. Standardization must be re5. Standardization must be re-- examined atexamined at

regular intervals and revisedregular intervals and revised

6. It is necessary to determine test methods in6. It is necessary to determine test methods inorder to verify whether the object conforms toorder to verify whether the object conforms tothe specificationsthe specifications

7. A standard has to be legally enforced and is a7. A standard has to be legally enforced and is amatter of convenience and economymatter of convenience and economy


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Methods ofMethods of

Sta

ndardiz

ation

Sta

ndardiz

ation

There is a variety of methods andThere is a variety of methods andpossibilities available to standardizationpossibilities available to standardization

1.1. Redefinition of wordsRedefinition of words2.2. Redefinition of existing termsRedefinition of existing terms

3.3. DerivationDerivation

4.4. CompositionComposition5.5. BorrowingBorrowing

6.6. CompressionCompression


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The Efficacy ofStandardThe Efficacy ofStandard

in Terminologyin Terminology Standardization makes communicationStandardization makes communication

more effectivemore effective

Standards are:Standards are:

economicaleconomical

preciseprecise

appropriateappropriate


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When the social, situational andWhen the social, situational and

intellectual role differences betweenintellectual role differences between

participants in communication areparticipants in communication areminimal a higher proportion ofminimal a higher proportion of

standardized terms can be usedstandardized terms can be used

Standardization undermines the creativityStandardization undermines the creativityof a languageof a language


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Standardizing AgenciesStandardizing Agencies

and Gloss

aries

and Gloss

aries

They produce glossaries to facilitateThey produce glossaries to facilitate

communicationcommunication


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The British Standards Guide says about termsThe British Standards Guide says about terms

contained in a standard glossary thatcontained in a standard glossary that

Terminology within a standard should beTerminology within a standard should be

consistent, so that the same object or conceptconsistent, so that the same object or concept

is always described or expressed by the sameis always described or expressed by the same

term and not by the use of synonymsterm and not by the use of synonyms

The members of a standardizing companyThe members of a standardizing companydetermine which terms get includeddetermine which terms get included


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Only very few areas of British standardization areOnly very few areas of British standardization arecovered by glossariescovered by glossaries

Glossaries can be written before standardization ofGlossaries can be written before standardization of

objects, methods or specifications beginsobjects, methods or specifications begins Glossaries can be compiled after standards areGlossaries can be compiled after standards are

established to collect the terminologyestablished to collect the terminology

So glossaries may be needed to prepare effectiveSo glossaries may be needed to prepare effectivestandards and effective standards lead to glossariesstandards and effective standards lead to glossaries

Glossaries fulfil the aim of standardization to provideGlossaries fulfil the aim of standardization to providemeans of communicationmeans of communication


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Thank you for your attention!!!Thank you for your attention!!!

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