Tense and aspect in Sesotho - CORE · 1.2.1 Tense- aspect- godal garkers Ye assume that tense...
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TENSE AND ASPECT IN SESOTHO ' Balillo ncrolocg B. A,, uriversity of Botswana Lesotho and Swaziland A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL PULP ILLXENT OF THE REQUTRERFNTS FOR THE DEGREE OF HASTER OF ARTS in the Departmlnt of Languages, Literatures and Linguistics STHON PRASER UNIVERSITY A l l riqhts reserved. This thesis may not be reproduced in who12 cr in part, by photocopy or other means, without permissionof the author.
Transcript of Tense and aspect in Sesotho - CORE · 1.2.1 Tense- aspect- godal garkers Ye assume that tense...
TENSE A N D ASPECT IN S E S O T H O
' B a l i l l o n c r o l o c g
B. A , , u r i v e r s i t y of Botswana L e s o t h o a n d S w a z i l a n d
A T H E S I S S U B M I T T E D I N PARTIAL PULP ILLXENT O F
THE R E Q U T R E R F N T S FOR THE D E G R E E O F
HASTER O F A R T S
i n the Departmlnt
of
Languages , L i t e r a t u r e s a n d Linguistics
S T H O N PRASER U N I V E R S I T Y
A l l r i q h t s r e s e r v e d . T h i s thesis may n o t be
r e p r o d u c e d i n who12 cr i n p a r t , b y p h o t o c o p y
o r o t h e r means, w i t h o u t p e r m i s s i o n o f t h e a u t h o r .
APPROVAL
Name : Malillo Morolong
Degree : Master of Arts
Ti t le of Thesis: Tense and Aspect in Sesotho
Examining Coounittee:
Chairman: R. C . DeArmond
B. E . Newton Senior Supervisor
4( ]w Knowles
P . S t i s e r External Examiner
Associate Professor Simon Fraser University
Date Approved: Sept. 11, 1978
PARTIAL COPYRIGHT UCENSE
I hereby g r a n t t o Simon F r a s e r U n i v e r s i t y t h e r i g h t t o l end
my t h e s i s o r d i s s e r t a t i o n ( t h e t i t l e of which is shown below) t o u s e r s
of t h e Simon F r a s e r U n i v e r s i t y L i b r a r y , and t o make partial o r s i n g l e
c o p i e s o n l y f o r such u s e r s o r i n r e s p o n s e t o a r e q u e s t from t h e l i b r a r y
o f any o t h e r u n i v e r s i t y , o r o t h e r e d u c a t i o n a l i n s t i t u t i o n , on i ts own
b e h a l f o r f o r one of i t s u s e r s . I f u r t h e r a g r e e t h a t permiss ion f o r
m u l t i p l e copying of t h i s t h e s i s f o r s c h o l a r l y purposes may be g r a n t e d
b y me o r t h e Dean of Graduate S t u d i e s . It is unders tood t h a t copying
o r p u b l i c a t i o n of t h i s t h e s i s f o r f i n a n c i a l g a i n s h a l l n o t be a l lowed
w i t h o u t my w r i t t e n permiss ion.
Author !
( s i g n a t u r e )
(name )
( d a t e )
ABSTRACT
TENSE AND ASPECT IN SESOTHO
I n t h i s thesis ar. analysis of T e n s 2 and A s p e c t ir. S e s o t h o
is u n d e r t a k e n , T h e f r a m e w o r k a d o p t e d is t b e o n e introduced b y
R e i c f i e n b a c h ( 1 9 4 7 ) I n g&gmsnt~ of Svmbo1ic_ Loqic- w i t h
s u b s a q u ~ n t m o d i f i c a t i o n s a n d e l a b o r a t i o n s i n H o r n s t e i n 11 377)
a n d S m i t h ( 1 9 7 8 ) .
c h a p t e s 1 i s i ~ t r o d u c t o r y . I t c o n t a i n s b a c k g r o u n d
i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t S e s o t h c m o r p h o l o g y ; s c o p e of t h e s t u d y a n d
d e f i n i t i o n s .
C h a p t e r 2 presents a n a r a l y s i s of the ~ t g g + i l e . I t is
s u q g e s t e d t h a t t h i s fcrm s h o u l d b e r e q a r d s d a s an i m m e d i a t e p 3 s t
t e n s e i n s t e a d o f ' p e r f e c t ', T h i s r e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n p r o v i d 2 s a
s o l u t i o n t o the p r o b l e m of i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h p r e s e n t and p a s t
time a d v e r b i a l s .
c h a p t e r 3 d e a l s w i t h t h s a n a l y s i s of t h e hletsteg. T h i s
t e n s e is r e g a r d e a a s a retgcte t e n s ? . C o o c c u r r e n c e r e s t r i c t i o n s
i n v o l v i n g this t e n s e a n d the i m m 2 d i a t e t e n s e s a r e o u t l i z n d ,
C h a p t c r 4 c o n t a i n s a n a n a l y s i s o f t h e n e + s t e m t e n s e , T h e
claim made is t h a t t h i s is t h e past t e n s e c o r r e s p o n d i r g t c t h e
p r e s e n t tenss. D i s t i n c t i o a s a r e made b e t w e e n this t e n s e and
iii
o t h e r tenses,
C h a p t e r 5 e x a m i n e s c o G c c u r r e n c e r ~ s t r i c t i o n s b e t w e e n
a s p e c t u a l markers a n d d i f f e r e n t t e n s e s , Tests a re p r o p o s e d i n
o r d e r t o d e t e r m i n e a s p e c t u a l i m p l i c a t i o n s i n h e r a n t i n d i f f e r e n t
t e n s e s .
T h e f i n a l c h a p t e r e x a m i n e s t h e a 2 p f i c a b i l i t y of t h e
R e i c h e n b a c h / H o r n s t e i n a n a l y s i s t o S e s o t h o , T h e c o n c l u s i o n made
is t h a t t h e i m e d i a t e / r e m o t e d i s t i c t i o n p l a y s a n i m p o r t a n t role
i n t h e S e s o t h o tense sys tem a n d that t h i s must b e i n c o r p o r a t e d
i n t o a n y t h e o r y o f t e n s e w h i c h may a d e q u a t e l y a c c o u n t f o r
S e s o t h o t e n s e s ,
T h e t h e s i s c c u l d f o r m t h e b a s i s f o r e n c o d i n g i n t o
a p p r o p r i a t e f o r m a l i s m s t h e s e m a n t i c a n d s y n t a c t i c f a c t s o f
S e s o t h o t e n s e s .
ACKNOHLEDGEMENTS
I wLsh t o e x p r e s s my g r a t i t u d e t o ?he members o f m y
s u p e r v i s o r y Coinmi t t e e , my s e n i o r s u p e r v i s o r , P r o f e s s o r B r i a n
N e u t ~ n for s u q g e s t i n g t h s t o p i c a n d p r o v i d i n g the
b i b l i o q r a p h y , e n d f o r many h o u r s o f d i s c u s s i o r and p a t i e c t
s u p a r v i s i o n . I am t h a n k f u l t o P r o f e s s o r J o h n Kaowles f c r h i s
c o m m e n t s a n d a n c o u r a q e m e n t .
Ply q r a t i t u d e also g o e s t o P r o f e s s o r A l f r e d o Hurtado f o r h i s
i n s i q h t f u l c o m m e n t s a n d s u g q e s t i o n s .
I am t h a n k f u l t o a l l my f r i e n d s f o r t h e i r e n c o u r a g e m e n t . I
atn mostly i n d e b t e d to Ma t se l i so M o l e t s a n e , Victor K e t s o , a n d
T h a b a n g Ramotete f o r t h e i r i n v a l u a b l e a s s i s t a n c e i n c h e c k i n g my
s e n t e n c e s .
1 am g r e a t l y i n d e b t e d to t h ? N a t i o n a l U n i v e r s i t y of L e s o t h o
f o r g r a n t i n g me s t u d y l z a v e f o r the d u r a t i o n o f my s t u d y , a n d
t h a C a n a d i a o I n t e r n a t i o n a l D e d v e l o p m e n t Aqency f o r f i n a n c F a l
s u p p o r t .
F i n a l l y I w o u l d l i k a t o s a y " t h a n k s " t o Matsel iso f o r
typing t h e thesis a n d EC Chondoma f o r h i s b r a i n s b e h i n d FMT.
TABLE OP COYTBNTS
Abstract .................................................. iii ~ c k n o u l e d g e m e n t s .......................................... v L i s t o f T a b l e s ..............................me........m.. ix
CHhPTER 1 ............................................ a . . * o I
INTRODUCTION ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ m ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ * ~ * m * ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ m * ~ ~ e * ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ e ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ 1
................................ 1 .0 Background In format ion 1
1.1 Orthography ........................................... 1
1 .2 .0 8orphology .......................................... 5 1.2.1 Tense- a s p e c t - modal n a r k e r s ........................ 6
............................................... 1 .2 .2 Tense 7
1 .2 .3 a s p e c t .............................................. 8
1 .2 .4 Modal ............................................... 8
1 . 2 . 5 D e r i v a t i o n a l S u f f i x e s ............................... 9
1.2.6 I n f l e x i o n a l S u f f i x .................................. 10
1 . 3 Problem and Purpose ................................... 10
1 .4 Choice of Framework ................................... 10
1 . 5 Scope of t h e Study .................................... 13
......................................... 1 .6 .0 D e f i n i t i o n s 14
1.6.1 N o t a t i o n s used w i t h SRE ............................. 15
1 . 6 . 2 SRE H o d i f i c a t i o n s ................................... 15
1 - 7 Tenporal adverbs ...................................... 17
Tense And Aspect .......................................... 20
CHAPTER 2 ............................................ o . o o o 2 3
2.0 I n t r o d u c t i o n .............*.......................... *.23 ............. 2.1 P r e v i o u s S t u d i e s on p e r f e c t i n s e s o t h o -24
vi
2 . 2 Comparison betweer, - i l a a c d non - i f 9 p r e s s n t .......... 27
................. 2 . 3 The Use O • ’ - i l e w i t h T e z p o r a l A d v e r b s 31
..................... 2 . 3 . 1 - i l ~ a s Grammat ica l i z sd S t a t i v e 33
.................................. 2 . 3 . 2 -i10 As P e r f e c t i v s 35
............................ 2 . 3 . 4 . 1 - i l ~ a s Immediate P a s t 36
2 . 3 . 4 . 2 D i s t i r c t i o n between t s c a a n d -il2 tenses .......... 39
............................................... CHAPTER 3 0 . 4 9
........................... 3 . 1 Semote Past T e n s e : I l e t s t e m 49
3 . 2 . 0 SCme Cooccurrence Rsstric %ions Betweer S t e m + i l e And
........................................ I l e + s t e n T e n s e s 56
........................... 3 . 2 . 1 The P r o q r e s s i v e Sa S t i l l - 5 6
3 . 2 . 2 Immediate And Relnote Tecsss I n Compleloent S e o t e n c e s - 5 8
CHAPTE2 4 ................................................. 6 2
....................................... 4 . 1 . 0 Ne+verb Tense 62
4 . 1 . 1 Is Ne A s p ~ c t u a l O r Tense Warker? ................... -64 4 . 1 . 2 Some Correspondences Between t h e P r e s e n t Tense a n d
.......................................... Ne+stem T e n s e 67
4 . 1 . 3 Differences/similarities B e t v a e n Ne+stem And Other
P a s t T e n s e s ............................................ 71
...................................... 4 . 2 . 0 N s + p a s t Tenses 77
4 . 2 . 1 N e t p a s t I n elation T o Haaning And Cooccurrence
..................... R e s t r i c t i o n s O f S i m p l e Pas t Tensos 7 9 .
CHAPTER 5 ................................................. 86
.............................................. 5 . 1 . 0 Aspect 86
.................. 5 . 1 . 1 P e r f e c t i v e / ' I m p e r f e c t I v e O p p c s i t i c n 87
5 . 1 . 2 D u r a t i v t Vs Nondura t ive O p p o s i t i a n .................. 90
v i i
.................... 5.1.3 Stative Vs N o n s t a t i v e O p p o s i t i o n 95
................................... 5.2.0 A s p e c t u a l n a r k e r s 33
.......................................... 5.2.1 Sa s t i l l I00
....................................... 5.2.2. S a + t s o a + s t e m 100
5.2.3 S a + s t e m + i l e ......................................... 100
......................................... 5.2.4 S a + i l e + s t e m 101
........................................ 5.2.5.1 Ne+sa+s tem 102
................................... 5.2.5.2 Ne+sa+tsoa+s te rn 102
.................................... 5.2.5.3 N e + s a + s t e m + i l e 102
................................... 5.2.5.4 *ne+sa+i le+stem 103
........................................ 5.3.1 Se Already 103
5.3.2 * s e + t s o a + s t e m ....................................... 704
. 5.3.3. Se+stem+ile ........................................ l o 4
CHAPTER 6 .............................. 6.1.0 Gn The Applicability of R e i c h e n b a c h / H c r n s t + i n
.................................... Analysis tc S e s o t h o I 0 8
6.1.2 O n the I n t e r a c t i o n R e t w e e n T e n s e a n d Tempora l Adverbs
6.1.3 On A s p e c t ........................................... 115
6.2 C o n c l u s i o n ............................................ 116
BIBLIOGRAPHY ................................*............. 117 v i i i
L i s t 6f T a b l e s
able I . Sesothc Phcnemes ................................ ..2
able I1 - T e n s e s in re lat ion to a s p e c t u a l f e a tu r e s ......... 106
S e s o t h o is a S o u t h e r n B a n t u l a n g u a g e s p o k s n b y o v e r 3
n i l l i o n p e o p l e i n L e s o t h o a n d p a r t s o f S o u t h A f r i c a . I n
l i t e r a t u r e t h e l a n g u a g e is o f t e n r e f e r r e d t o a s S o u t h e r c Sotho
i n o r d e r t o d i s t i n g u i s h it from Pedi { H o r t h t r n S c t h o ) s ~ o k e n i n
N o r t h e r n ~ r a n s v a a l a n d T s v a n a ( W e s t e r n S o t h o ) s p o k e n i n
Bo t swana ,
T h e p r e s e n t t h e s i s i s a n e x a m i n a t i o n o f Xense and A s p e c t i n
s p o k e n S e s o t h o . Our d a t a d o e s n o t d e p e n d on w r i t t e n m a t e r i a l s
s u c h as s a m p l e s f r o m n e w s p a p e r s , n o v e l s , p l a y s etc., by S e s o t h o
writers, The a n a l y s i s may, however , be a p p l i e d t o t h e w r i t t e n
l a n g u a g e .
1.1 Q s t h o q r a v h y
S i n c e t h e p r e s e n t t h e s i s w i l l b e m o s t i y u s e f u l t o l a n g u a g e
l e a r n e r s rather t h a n l i n g u i s t s , p r a c t i c a l o r t h o g r a p h y , a s
a q a i n s t p h o n e t i c t r a n s c r i p t i o n , w i l l be u s e d . F o l l o w i n g i s ' t h e
t a b l e of S e s o t h o s e g m e n t s i n p h o n e t i c t r a n s c r i p t i o n a c d a s h o r t
l is t o f t h e o r t h o g r a p h i c c o r r e s p o n d e n c e s ,
CONSONANTS :
STOPS
NASALS
FRICATIVES
NON- FRICATIVES
AFRICATES
FRICTION-
CONTINUENTS
TABLE I - Sesotho Phonemes
TABLE I - S e s o t h o Phonemes (cont,)
gw.enta [ d l b e l o n g s t o [l] phoneme. I t o o c u r s when [ I ]
is f o l l o w e d by h i g h v o w e l s [i ] and [ u], and a r e w r i t t e n ny
and ng r e s p e c t i v e l y . It must be n o t e d t h a t n a s a l s become
s y l l a b i c i f no t f o l l o v e d by a vowel. A sequence o f two n a s a l s is
w r i t t e n a s a p o s t r o p h e n a s a l (e,g. Ipp for ppq) . is o r t h o g r a p h i c r e p r e s e n t a t i o n
n
n
n
n
88
n
88
I
of s
Dz
,* t s h 4 C
c h
x t.b
tbh
Q I 8 C
• ÷ h II (3h
e It Y
0 09 Y
T h e r e are s e v e r d l complex c o n s o n a n t a l t e r a t i o n s i n the l a n g u a q s
(see Doka E n o f o k e n g 1957, Gnilia 197 1 etc,)
S e s o t h o is p r e f i x i n g and s u f f i x i n g , A l t h o u q h a cumber ef
w o r d s a r e u s u a l l y u n i n f l e c t e d , a g r e a t e r number a r e d z r i v e d b y
i a o r p h o 1 o q i c a l p r o c e s s e s s u c h a s p r e f i x a t i o n , s u f f i x a t i o n ,
r e d u p l i c a t i o n and cornpounding ( for a d e t a i l t d s t u d y of t h e s e
p r o c e s s e s see Doke a n d n o f o k e n g 1957, Guma 1971 e tc . ) .
Houn c lass p r e f i x e s p l a y a n i m p o r t a n t p a r t i n d e t a r m i n i n q
a g r e e m e n t w i t h t h e v e r b , a d j e c t i v a , p o s s e s s i v e a n d r e l a t i v e
stems. Verbs may i n c o r p o r a t e a number of p r e f i x e s and s u f f i x e s .
n o r p h o p h o n e m i c c h a n g e s c o n n e c t e d w i t h p r e f i x a t i o n and
s u f f i x a t i o n are beyond the s c o p e of t h e p r e s e n t s t u d y a n d t h u s
n o t p r e s e n t e d . T h e r e l e v a n t a f f i x e s o f v e r b a l u n i t may b e
s u m m a r i z e d a s f o l l o w s :
1. A - (a) - (OF) - v e r b stem - (IS) - (DS) - ( I S ) - a
where
A s t a n d s f o r s u b j e c t v e r b a g r e e m e n t
H f o r t e n s e - a s p s c t -modal f o r m s
OP f o r c b j e c t p ronoun
DS fo r d e r i v a t i o n a l s u f f i x ( e s )
I S f o r i n f l e x i o x i a l s u f f i x
-a f o r t h e v e r b f i n a l v o w e l w h i c h may be r e p l a c e d b y
e i t h e r a n e g a t i v e , s u b j u r c t i v e , i m p e r a t i v e v i t h OP etc .
T h e s u b j e c t v e r b a g r e e a e n t i s of n o i m m e d i a t e c o n c e r n since
i t p r e s e n t s n o p r o b l e m f o r o u r a n a l y s i s . Tne t e n s a - a s p s c t n o d a l
forms d e s e r v e an e x p l a n a t i o n s i n c e we will come across t h e m
q u i t e o f t e n .
1.2.1 T e n s e - aspect- g o d a l g a r k e r s
Y e assume t h a t t e n s e aspect a n d m o d a l s are c o n s t i t u e n t s of
t h e v e r b a l u n i t i n v i e w of the s t r o n g degres of c o h e s i o n between
these m a r k e r s a n d t h e v e r b . T h u s w h i l e i t is p o s s i b l e i n
E n g l i s h t o h a v e a n a d v e r b b e t w e e n t h e f i r s t a u x i l i a r y and t h e V P
a s f o l l o w s :
2 n a r y w i l l , p r o b a b l y , h a v e s p o k e n t o J o h n
I t i s n o t p o s s i b l e t o h a v e a n y l e x i c a l item b e t w e e n the t e n s e -
a s p e c t - m o d a l m a r k e r s a n d the v e r b . e .g .
3. *Haria o - i l e , h a n t l e - n t l e , a - b u a 1 s - J c h a n n e
Hary A p a s t i n f a c t s p e a k v i t h J o h n
* & a r y d i d , i n f a c t , speak t o J o h n . '
U h i l e i n o t h e r B a n t u L a n g u a g e s t h e v e r ~ a l u n i t i s w r i t t e n
a s one word, t h e c u r r e n t l y a c c e p t ~ d s y s t e m o f w r i t i n g S e s c t h o i s
d i s j u n c t i v e e . g.
4 (af k e ne k e s a j a
I p a s t I s t i l l e a t
* I was s t i l l eating',
Compare Z u l u :
(b) B e n g i s a d l a
m 1 still eat
'1 was s t i l l e a t i n g , '
H y p h e n s w i l l be u s e d ia t h i s s t u d y t o i n d i c a t t bound forms,
7-2 .2 T e n s e
T h e f o l l o w i n g f o r n s are u s e d to e x p r e s s t e n s e .
5 t i ) --- tsoa ' p a s t ' , T h i s form w h i c h i s a l s o u s e d a s a v e r b
'come f r o m t i s u s e d t o e x p r e s s i r a r n a d i a t e p a s t .
(ii) ile- ( n o t t o be c o n f u s e d w i t h s u f f i x i l e ) is the p a s t
of gp ' g o ' . It expresses r e m o t e p a s t . 1
(iii) is a l s o u s e d t o e x p r e s s p a s t , Compound t e n s e s may be
formed b y u s i n g t h i s f o r m w i t h 2202 a n d j&,
( i v ) _tl_h ' come9 is u s e d t o e x p r e s s f u t u r e ,
Tense c a t e g o r y f i l ls two s l o t s t h e f irst c f w h i c h i s f i l l e d
by ne a n d the s e c o n d b y , fig a n d uq. We d o not i m p l y t h a t
t h e s e are d e f i n i t e l y d e e p s t r u c t u r e p o s i t i o r s . What we h a v e been
m o s t l y c o n c e r n e d w i t h i s d e t e r m i n i n g t h e correct p o s i t i c n cf
tense, a s p e c t and modaf s i n s u r f a c e s t r u c t u r e . T h e f o l l o w i n q i s
s u r f a c e c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n o f t h e verbal u n i t ,
tsoa
il e
tl a
batla
anela
T h e p r e s e n c e o f the f i r s t t e n s e p o s i t i o n i s s u p p o r t e d by
c o n s t r u c t i o n s such a s t h e f o l l o w i n g :
7 , Ba-ne b a - i l e ba-b ua le-eena
t h e y p a s t A past speak with him
' T h e y had spoken t o him.'
i n which ne i s u s e d w i t h i&.
The f o l l o v i n q forms may be u s e d t o express a s p e c t u a l
d i s t i n c t i o n s :
*stills
8 already '
' h a b i t u a l *
k e -- l o c c a s i o n a l *
These w i l l b e d e a l t w i t h i n C h a p t e r 5 .
T h i s c a t e g o r y t o g e t h e r w i t h t e n s e a n d a s p e c t , h a s boec
d e a l t w i t h u n d e r t h e h e a d i n g ' D e f i c i e n t v e r b s g (see D o k e acd
~ o f o k e n q , Guma etc,) . T h e term d e f i c i e n t i s a s y n t a c t i c n o t i o n
v h i c h m e a n s t h a t such v e r b s r e q u i r e a c o m p l e m e n t a r y vert t o
c o m p l e te t h e i r p r e d i c a t i o n , u e h a v e s e p a r a t e d m o d a l s from
t e n s e / a s p e c t m a r k e r s s i n c e modals may be u s e d w i t h t e n s e / a s p e c t
m a r k e r s . T h e r e may, h o w e v e r , be some c o o c c u r r e n c e r e s t r i c t i o n s
b e t w e e n t e n s e a n d c e r t a i n m o d a l s d e p e n d i n g on t h e s e m a n t i c
f e a t u r e s i n h e r e n t i n s u c h m o d a l s , e,g. M a ' a l w a y s ' may o c c u r
w i t h gg b u t n o t fig,
F o l l o u i n g is a list of s o m e m o d a l v e r b s i n S e s o t h o :
9 . &&&a ' w a n t ' h & h ' a l w a y s *
l a l a --- ' a c t t h r o u g h t h e n i g h t '
a t i s a --- * d o f r e q u e n t l y ' a n e l a --- ' m a n a g e s
t & a n e l a --- ' d o of n e c e s s i t y '
exaeple of use :
10, B a r u t u o a ba -ne b a - t h a n e l a ho-bua s a k h o o a
S t u d e n t s A p a s t do of n e c e s s i t y t o s p e a k E n g l i s h
'The s t u d e n t s were s u p p o s e d t o s p e a k E n g l i s h ' ,
T h e r e is a b u n d a n t e v i d e n c e v h i c h s u g g e s t s t h a t m o d a l s form
a s e p a r a t e c o n s t i t u e n t frcm o r d i n a r y v e r b s . T h i s f a l l s beyond
t h e scopa cf p r e s e n t s t u d y , a n d w i l l n o t b e d e a l t w i t h h e r e .
1 ,2*5 D e ~ l ~ 2 i ~ ~ q h Suf fiqes
T h e v e r b stam Bay t a k e o n e o r more d e r i v a t i o n d suffix3s . The32 i n c l u d e :
11. B e n e f a c t i v e -el-
C a u s a t i v e -is-
P a s s i v e -0 -, -uo-
R e c i p r o c a l -an-
T h e s e s u f f i x e s present a n i n t e r e s t i n g a s p e c t of interaction
betwasn d e r i v a t i o n a l morpho logy a n d s y n t a x , yet t o b e studied.
I n so f a r a s tense a n d a s p e c t i s c o n c e r n e d , these s u f f i x e s may
b e a c c o u n t e d f o r by t h e a n a l y s i s used f o r s l i u p l e sentences,
T h e s u f f i x which may follow a stem o r stem 4
d e r i v a t i o n a l s u f f i x , is u s e d t o e x p r e s s i m m e d i a t e p a s t t e n s e .
T h i s s u f f i x may be r e a l i z e d as -*, -3, - ~ e , -=a, --, -its€,
-ere, - and - n t s e d e p e n d i n g o n phonologica! . p r o c e s s e s w h i c h do c o t
c o n c e r n u s he re .
1.3 P r o b l ~ ~ A@ PuruSSg
I n many s t u d i e s on S e s o t h o graremar t e n s e a n d t e m ~ o r a l
a d v e r b s h a v e b e e n t r e a t e d a s s e ~ a r a t e entities. No m e n t i o n h a s
b e e n aade a b o u t p o s s i b l e i n t e r a c t i o n be tween d i f f e r e n t t e n s e s
a n d t e m p o r a l a d v e r b s - 2 t h e main p u r p o s e o f t h e s t u d y is t o
assess a p p l i c a b i l i t y o f H o r n s t e i n / R e i c h e n b a c h a n a l y s i s t o
s e s o t h o w i t h s p e c i a l r e f e r e n c e t o s u c h i n t e r a c t i o n .
The method of a n a l y s i s f o l l o w z d i n the p r e s e n t s t u d y i s t h e
one i n t r o d u c e d b y Reichenbach (1947) in blame^& of a & ~ l j c
~ o q i c with s u b s e q u e n t m o d i f i c a t i o n s a n d a l a b o r a t i o n i n H c r n s t e i r !
(1977) ' T o u a r d s a T h e o r y o f T e n s e * , a n d S m i t h (1978) ' T h e Syntax
a n d I n t e r p r e t a t i o n of Temporal E X F ~ ~ S S ~ O ~ S i n E n g l i s h * .
The e x i s t e n c e o f r e g u l a r c o o c c u r r e n c e between t e n s e - f o r m s
a n d t e ~ p o r a l a d v e r b s h a s l o n g been n o t e d . I n a f o o t n o t e t o
m ~ t s (1965: 216) Chonsky notes the s u y q e s t i o n by B a r b a r a H a l l
w h i c h p r o p o s e s t h a t " .,, E a c b element of the a u x i l i a r y h a s
a s s o c i a t e d w i t h i t c e r t a i n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a d v e r b i a l s that may
(or in t h e c a s e o f p r e s e n t t e n s e , mus t ) c o o c c u r w i t h this
a u x i l i a r y e l e m e n t .." K i p a r s k y (1968) p r o p o s e s t h a t t e n s e a n d a d v e r b b e t r e a t e d
a s a s i n g l e c a t e g o r y i n u n d e r l y i n g s t r u c t u r e (see a l s o HcCawley
, 1971 G a l l a q h e r , l97O), T h i s a n a l y s i s r e g a r d s present
a d v e r b i a l s a s s o u r c e f o r p r e s e n t tense a n d Fast a d v e r b i a l s a s
s o u r c e fo r p a s t t e n s e , T h e probletn ar i ses w i t h f u t u r e s en t enc f s
w h i c h h a v e f u t u r e adverk w i t h present t e n s e . T h e f u t u r e
a d v e r b i a l c a n n o t be regarded a s s o u r c e of present t e n s e i n thess
cases. T h e a n a l y s i s e n c o u n t e r s a s i m i l a r problem i n t h o case o f
s e s o t h o tsoa*stem a n d ile+ster t e n s e s , As will b e n o t e d l a t s r ,
these tenses may cccur w i t h e i t h e r present o r p a s t advarh. I t
11
u i l l be d i f f i c u l t t o decide which a d v e r b is t h e s o u r c e of t e n s e
in s u c h cases,
H u d d l e s t o n * s a n a l y s i s (1969) which a p p e a l s t o d e e p t e r s ~
wou ld e n c o u n t e r m o r e ol: l ess t h e same prob lam. I n c l a s s i f y i n y
the v e r b s a c c o r d i n g t o r e s t r i c t i o n s t h e y i m p o s e o n t h e tense
s e l e c t i o n &f would h a v e t o be c l a s s i f i e d a s t a k i c g both
p r e s a n t a n d p a s t t e n s e s .
An a n a l y s i s w h i c h d i v i d e s t e n s e i n t o p a s t a n d n o n - p a s t
d i s t i n c t i o n s is l i k e l y t o r u n i n t o problam i n d e a l i n g w i t h
s t e a + i l g tense a s it o c c u r s w i t h both p a s t a n d p r e s e n t a d v a r b s
( for t h i s a n a l y s i s see Hirt le (1975) a n d r e f e r e n c e s therein)) . Our study i s e s s e n t i a l l y s eaan t i ca l l y based. A semantic
a p p r o a c h t o t h e s u b j e c t bas b e e n f o u n d n e c z s s a r y i n v i e w of the
f a c t t h a t d i f f e r e n t s y n t a c t i c e x ~ r e s s i o n s may have the same
s e m a n t i c r e a l i z a t i o n . C o n s i d e r t h e c a s e of p r e s e n t u s e d w i t h
f u t u r e a d v e r t i a l , a n d t h e a u x i l i a r y t k g u s e d to e x p r e s s f u t u r e
i n t h e f o l l o u i n g s e n t e n c e s :
Sello o - c h a k e l a l i a s e r n h o s a s a
S e l l o A visit naseru t o a o r r o w
' S e l l o v i s i t s H a s e r u t o m o r r o w a
S e l l o o - t l a - c h a k e l a n a s e r u
S e l l o A M v i s i t n a s e r u
' S a l l o w i l l v i s i t t l a s e r u '
the a b o v e s e n t e n c e s b o t h gla a n d h~sasg i n d i c a t e t h a t
12
t h e e v e n t r e f e r r e d t o t a k e s p l a c e a t a tims l a t e r t h a n th+
aolltent of s p e a k i n g , E u t th is s y x i t a c t i c a l i y an a u x i l i a r y u h i l s
bosasa i s a n a d v e r b . T h i s shows t h a t future is n e t r e a l i z e d on
t h e s u r f a c e w i t h t h e same s y n t a c t i c means. We hope t h a t s e m a n t i c
a p p r o a c h aaay p r o v i d s g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s a b o u t some a s ~ e c t s of
d i f f e r e n t t e m p o r a l c o n s t r u c t i o n s .
As t h e t i t l e of t h e t h e s i s i n d i c a t e s , we a r e c o n c e r n e d w i t h
t h e s e m a n t i c s of T e n s e a n d A s p e c t w i t h p a r t i c u l a r r e f z r e n c e t o
t h e i r i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h t e m p o r a l a d v e r b i a l s . Tf ie study is on
S e s o t h o . R e f e r e n c e w i l l , however , be made t o English a n d o t h e r
l a n g u a g e s w h e r e deemed n e c e s s a r y ,
A l t h o u g h o u r s t u d y i s s e m a n t i c a l l y b a s e d , w e n a y r e s o r + t o
s y n t a c t i c a s p e c t s where these F r o v i d e better u n d z r s t a n d i n q o f
s e m a n t i c b e h a v i o u r .
It vill be n o t i c e d t h a t o u r a n a l y s i s is l i m i t e d t o t h e
i n d i c a t i v e mood t h o u g h r e f e r e n c e h a s b e e 3 made i n l i t e r a t u r e t o
s u t j u n c t i v e mood. S i m i l a r l y , t h e i m p e r a t i v e and the s o c a l l e d
p o t e n t i a l uood w i l l be e x c l u d e d s i n c e t h e y a ra r e s t r i c t e d i n t h e
r a n g e of t e n s e s u s e d ,
v h i l e t h e a n a l y s i s of p a s t t s n s z a l o n e would p r c v l d e
s w f f i c i e n t m a t e r i a l f o r a t h e s i s , i t h a s become n e c e s s a r y t o
e x a m i n e t h e p r e s e n t t e n s e i n view of thz d i s c u s s i o n on
I t w i l l a l s o b e n e c e s s a r y t o e x a m i n e c o o c c u r r e n c e
r e s t r i c t i o n s b e t w e e n t h e d i f f e r e n t t e n s e s .
A s i n d i c a t e d i n 1.2.5, t h e r e is n o d i f t e r e n c e i n t s n g o r a l
f u n c t i o n s b ~ t u e e n t h e s i m p l e f o r m s o n t h e o n e hand a n d t h e
p a s s i v e , b e n e f a c t i v e , r e c i p r o c a l c a u s a t i v e o t c . O c t h e cther
hand. Ve are , t h e r e f o r e , g o i n g t o draw exanrp les f r c m a n y o f
t h e s e c o n s t r u c t i o n s ,
R e i c h e n b a c h ' s t e m p o r a l s p e c i f i c a t i o n i n v o l v e s three
t h e o r e t i c a l e n t i t i e s w h i c h d e f i n e kasic t e n s e s i n terms of
l i n e a r c o m b i n a t i o n s :
(a) S - p o i n t of s p e e c h - i s t h e time a t w h i c h a g i v e n
s e n t e n c e is u t t e r e d , T h i s is t h e k e y s t o n e o f t h e s y s t e m
i n t h a t t h e o t h e r times a r e o r i e r l t d d t o i t , T h e
r e l a t i o n s of s e q u e n c e a n d s i ~ u l t a n e i t y a r e b a s i c t c t h e
s y s t e m . T h i s r e s u l t s i n tenses a n t e r i o r , s i m u l t a n e o u s
and p o s t e r i o r t o S , T h e v a r i o u s ~ o s i t i o n s i n r e l a t i o n
t o S c o r r e s p o n d to t h e t r a d i t i o n a l l a b e l s , p a s t ,
p r e s e n t a n d f u t u r e ,
( b) E - p o i n t of e v e n t - refers t o t h e time a t w h i c h a n e v e n t
o r s t a t e o c c u r s ,
( C ) R - p o i n t o f r e f e r e n c e - is t h e time i n d i c a t e d b y a
s e n t e n c e , s o m e t i m e s s p e c i f i e d b y a n o v e r t a d v e r b i a l
sornetitnes d e r i v a b l e f rom t h e c o n t e x t .
sentences such as:
13. Re-ile r a - f u o a c h e l e t e maobane
we p a s t we g i v e n money y e s t e r d a y
'We were g i v ~ n money y e s t e r d a y 8
t h e p o i n t of e v e n t a n d the p o i n t cf reference a re a n t e r i o r t o
t h e moment of s p e e c h as f o l l o w s : E, %---So T h e s a n t a n c a i s t h u s
p a s t , Y h i l e i n s e n t e n c e 13 t h e p o i n t o f e v e n t a n d t h a p o i n t of
r e f e r e n c e a r e s i m u l t a n e o u s , it i s p o s s i b l e t o h a v z s e n t e n c e s i n
w h i c h t h e y a r e n o t e ,g .
14. Ke-ne ke-se k e - b u i l e l e - e e n a maobaue
I p a s t I a l r e a d y spoke w i t h hie y e s t e r d a y
* I b a d a l r e a d y s p c k e n t o h im y e s t e r d a y '
I n s e n t e n c e 1 4 t h e r e f e r e n c e p o i n t is maobang ' y e s t e r d a y '
and t h e mornrnt a t w h i c h I s p o k e t o him nay have Deen t h e day
b e f o r e y e s t e r d a y , The t e n s e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n i n s u c h cases i s E---
B---S .
1.6,1 l o t a t i o n s used qith
T h e f o l l o w i n g i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s c o n n e c t e d w i t h o u r n o t a t i o n s
~ u s t b e c o t e d . P o i n t s s e p a r a t e d by a comma a r e i n t e r ~ r e t e d as
c o n t e m p o r a n e o u s , t h o s e s e p a r a t e d b y a l i n e are i n t e r p r e t e d a s
f u r t h e r i n t h e f u t u r e o r the p a s t d e p s n d i n q o n whether t h e y a r e
to* t h e r i g h t o r l e f t r e s p e c t i v e l y . A d i a c r i t i c a b o v e E is
i n t e r p r e t e d a s * p r o g r e s s i v e i ,
V a r i o u s v i e w s h a v e been expressed i n c c n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e
u s e of s e n t e n c e s w i t h d i f f s r e n t a d v e r b i a l s , R e i c h e n b a c h c l a i m s
t h a t when a time d e t e r m i n a t i o n s u c h a s 'ncwa o r ' y e s t e r d a y ' i s
u s e d i t is referred to t h e r e f e r e n c e p o i n t and not the e v e n t . An
a d v e r b i a l may, h o w e v e r , refer t o t h e event ir? cases where p o i n t s
of r e f e r e n c e a n d o f e v e n t c o i n c i d e ,
H o r n s t e i n ( 1 9 7 7 ) s u g g e s t s t h a t time a d v e r b i a l s are mapped
onto R o r E a n d t h a t t h i s r a y r e s u l t i n s h i f t i n g of R o r E
t o w a r d s o r a w a y from S. T h e m a i n m o t i v a t i o n f o r H o r n s t e F n y n
r u l e s m a p p i n g a d v e r b i a l s o n t c R o r E i n s t s a d o f B o n l y appears
t o be n e e d f o r a c c o u n t i n g f o r a m k i g u i t y i n E n g l i s h s e n t e n c e s
s u c h a s t h e f o l l o w i n g :
15. The s e c r e t a r y h a d e a t e n a t 3 p , ~ .
Which is t u o - w a y s a a b i g i o u s a s follows:
16(a) t h e time t h a t t h e s e c r e t a r y a c t u a l l y a t e was 3 p.m.
(b) t h e secretary h a d a l r e a d y eaten b y t h e t i a l 3 p,m.
rolled a r o u n d .
H o r s t e i n f u r t h e r p o s t u l a t e s c o n s t r a i n t s o n S B E movement a s
follows:
17. R u l e s s h i f t i n g SRE t o y i e l d d e r i v e d T e n s e s t r u c t u r e
(TS) m u s t m a i n t a i n b a s i c TS,
T h e c o n s t r a i n t i n 17 l a a d s t o t h e f o l l o w i n g s t i p u l a t i o n s :
18 (a) n o n e of S R E are associa ted i n d e r i v e d T S t h a t wers n o t
16
associa ted i n b a s i c TS,
(b) t h e l i ~ e a r order cf SBE io b a s i c TS is i a a i r t a i n e d In
d e r i v e d TS.
(c) x a s s o c i a t e s w i t h y i f f x i s s e p a r a t e d f r o m y by o n l y a
comiaa,
S m i t h (1978) r e g a r d s t h e c o m b i n a t i o n o f t e n s e aud a d v a r b i a i
a s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r e s t a b l i s h i n g t h e ~ o i n t o f r e f e r e n c e . She
p r o c e e d s to d i v i d e adverbs i n t o t h o s e which e s t a b l i s h r e f e r e n c e
time a n d t h o s e w h i c h d o n o t , She m e n t i o n s t h a t c o m b i n a t i o n s of
t e n s e a n d a d v e r b i a l t h a t e s t a b l i s h RT h a v e c o m p a t i b l e r e l a t i c n a l
v a l u e s , w h e r e a s c o m b i n a t i o n s that d o not, have c o n t r a d i c t o r y
r e l a t i o n a l v a l u e s ,
R e f e r e n c e w i l l o f t e n be made t5 t h e s s visws i n o u r
d i s c u s s i o n a b o u t i n t e r a c t i o n between t e n s e a n d a d v 2 r b s i n
S e s o t h o .
The v o r k i n g d e f i n i t i o n of t e m p o r a l a d v e r b / a d v e r b i a l
a c c e p t e d i n t h e p r e s e n t s t u d y i n c l u d e s a l l ncrds a n d p h r a s e s
w h i c h c o u l d b e e l i c i t e d a s p o s s i b l e a n s w e r s t o t h e q u e s t i o n nag
? * w h e n ? * Adverbs v i l l t h e n be d i v i d e d i n t o t h r t e c l a s s e s
a c c o r d i n g t o w h e t h e r t h e y i n d i c a t e s i m u l t a n e i t y , a n t e r i o r i t y o r
p o s t e r i o r i t y w i t h moment o f s p e e c h . L e t u s c a l l thess i n d e x i c a l
a d v e r b s :
19 (a) A n t e r i o r : saobang y e s t e r d a y 1 , Qekegq 2 &tile= 'iast
week*, h h o e l i n a g=$&&sg ' l a s t m o c t h g s*lemmgg sg=
fa-q ' f a s t year', garfi_e= a - fc tL&= l a s t wintsrq
etc. S u c h a d v e r b i a l s w i l l s o m e t i m e s b e r e f e r r e d t c a s
p a s t a d v e r b s i n o u r d i s c u s s i o n .
(b) S i n u L t a n e o u s : h o n a joal-e ' r i g h t now* &ii& lnow' . These
a d v e r b s w i l l b e r e f e r r e d t o a s p r e s e n t a d v e r b s ,
(c) P o s t e r i o r : - h o s a s a 3 ' t o m o r r o w ' k a - a o s o ' d a y a f t e r
t o m o r r o w ' b - b e k e - g-tlgeq 'in t h e c o n i n g weak'
&&gL&ig e - t l a g ' c o n i n g month ' seJesonq s e - t l a n q
' c o a i n g y e a r 8 .
I n a d d i t i c n t o t h e a b o v e t h r e e c l a s s e s , t h e r e are s e v e r a l
n o n - i n d e x i c a l a d v e r b s which may i n d i c a t e a per iod t h a t might
p r e c e d e o r follow the moment of speech, T h e s e i n c l u d e h c ~ p ~ q
' m o r n i n g * ~ g t s e a r e *day time' * a f t e r n o o n s ka=la
b o b e A i ' o n T u e s d a y ' b='sa 'in April* g a r i h a ' i n w i n t ( 3 r 1
& & g ~ g g=&&g- 'the f o l l o w i n g w e e k * k h o e l i g g e - l q t d q g ' t h e
f o l l o w i n g month* etc .
T h e r e are a l so c e r t a i n i n d e x i c a l a d v e r b s s u c h a s kaieno
' t o d a y ' Dekenq ' t h i s week' b 2 & b g eaa ' t h i s a o n t h ' etc.,
w h i c h i n d i c a t e a s F a n o f time which i n c l u d e s t h ? moment cf
speech.
T h e l a s t g r o u p of a d v e r b s may be ussd w i t h p r e s ~ n t , p a s t
o r f u t u r e s e n t e n c e s a s f o l l o w s :
2 0 (1) K e - c h a k e l a B a s e r u k a j e n o
I v i s i t N a s e r u today
' T o d a y 1 v i s i t H a s e r u '
(ii) Ke- i l e k a - c h a k e l a f l a s e r u kajeao
I p a s t v i s i t H a s e r u
' T o d a y I v i s i t e d H a s e r u l
(iii) Ke-tia c h a k e l a i laseru k a j e n o
I P u t v i s i t M a s e r u
' T o d a y I w i l l v i s i t M a s e r u *
It m u s t be n o t e d t h a t w h i l e o n e s e n t z n c e may h a v e tuo
a d v e r b s ( a n i n d e x i c a l o n e b e l o n g i n g to 1 9 (a) a n d the o t h e r
n o n i n d e x i c a l b e l o n g i n g t o those a d v e r b s u h x h may i n d i c a t z a
tine t h a t p r e c e d e s or follows t h e moment cf s p e e c h ) , i t i s n o t
p o s s i b l e t o h a v e two a d v e r b s from t h e d i f f e r e n t s e c t i o n s i n 19,
e. g.
21. L i s e b o o - p h e h - i l e nama maobane h o s e n g
L i s e b o A cock p a s t meat y e s t e r d a y inc rn ing
'Lisebo c o o k e d meat y e s t e r d a y morning ' but n o t
2 2 * L i s e b o o - p h e h - i l e nama h o n a j o a f e maobane
L i s e b o A cock p a s t meat r i g h t now y e s t e r d a y
* L i s e b o c o o k e d a e a t r i g h t now yesterday ' . A l t h o u g h i t is p o s s i b l e t o u s e -ile tense w i t h e i t h e r h ~ a a
qoale o r maobane a l o n e , t h e s e n t e n c e i n 2 2 is u n a c c e p t a b l e . T h i s
u n a c c e p t a b i l i t y c a n b e a c c o u n t e d f o r o n t h e b a s i s of c o n s t r a i n t s
w h i c h a r e d e f i n a b l e i n terms o f s e i n a n t i c c l a s s i f i c a t i c n of
t e m p o r a l a d v e r b i a l s .
1 9
T h e s e n t e n c e i n 21 is a c c e p t a b l e on t h e b a s i s or h i e r a r c h i c
s y s t e m of ' u n i t s of time8 ( s e e Leech 1 9 7 3 : 1 1 4 - 1 1 8 ) . Such
a d v e r b i a l s a r e regarded a s c o n s t i t u t i n q one t 5 m p o r a i a d v e r b i a l ,
1.8.0 Tense
I t h a s b e e n i n d i c a t e d a b o v e ( 1 . 6 . O ) t h a r t e n s e r e l a t e s t h e
t i a e o f t h e event to t h e moaent of speaking, T e n s e s which r e l a t e
the tiare of e v e n t t c t h e p r e s e n t moment a r e o f t e n r s f e r r e d t o a s
a b s o l u t e tenses ( C o m r i e 1976:2). It is a l s o p o s s i b l e t o h a v e t h e
p o i n t o f event r e l a t e d to t h e t i a e o f some o t h e r e v e n t ; i n s u c h
cases we s p e a k o f r e l a t i v e t i a e r e f e r e n c e .
Aspect h a s b e e n d e f i n e d a s " d i f f e r e n t ways of viewing t h e
i n t e r n a l t e m p o r a l c o n s t i t u e n c y of a s i t u a t i c n M (Cornria 1976: 5) . ~ B i s definition nay be i l l u s t r a t e d b y t h e f o l i o w i n g s e n t e ~ c e s
from S e s o t h o :
23(a) K8-ile k a - n g o l a l e n g o l o
I p a s t write l e t t e r
'1 wrote a l e t t e r '
(b) Ke-ne k e - s a - n q o l a l e n g o l o
1 p a s t s t i l l write l e t t e r
'1 was sti l l w r i t i n g a l e t t e r *
20
in u t t e r i n g 23(a ) t h e s p e a k e l : v i e w s t h s a c t of w r i t i n g a l e t r e r
i n its t o t a l i t y . No reference is made t o t h e i z t e r c a l
c o n s t i t u s n c y of t h e e v e n t (e, 5 . V r i t i n q t h e a d d r s s s , d a t e ,
g r a e t i n g s e tc . ) , The s e n t e n c e i n 23 (b) i n d i c a t e s t h a t some
p h a s a a o f w r i t i n g t h e l e t t e r h a d h e a n u n i i s r t a k s n ,
T h e d e f i n i t i o n s o f t e n s e a n d a s p e c t g i v e n a b o v e may g i v e
t h e r e a d e r an i t n p r e s s i o n t h a t there is n o c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e s n
t e n s e a n d a s p e c t , I t a u s t be n o t e d , h o w e v e r , t h a t the t w o
c a t e g o r i e s a r e c o n c e r n e d w i t h t i m ~ , t h o u g h i n d i f f e r e n t nays.
m h i l e t e n s e locates a n e v e n t t o t h e moment of speaking, a s p e c t
re la tes t h e time of t h e e v e n t w i t h t h e i n t e r n a l c o n s t i t u e n t s o f
the e v e n t , These time d i s t i n c t i o n s h a v e b e a n r e f e r r e d t o a s
s i t u a t i o n - e x t e r n a l - time ( t e n s e ) a n d s i t u a t i o n - i n t e r n a l -
time ( a s p e c t ) (see Comrie 1976) . T h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t e n s e a n d a s p e c t may a l s c b e n c t e d
i n cases w h e r e c e r t a i n a s p e c t u a l d i s t i n c t i o n s are r e s t r i c t e d t o
one or m o r e tenses. This i s a o i n d i c a t i o n t h a t there are ways i n
which t e n s e a n d a s p e c t impinge o n o n e a n o t h e r . T h i s w i l l b e
d e a l t w i t h i n c h a p t e r 5.
2 1
Notes Tg C A ~ t e r 1
1. There is a l o c a l i s t v i e w expressed b y Tri iqot t (1875:215)
th a t locative d e i c t i c s s q u i v a f e n t t o 'comeq and 'go8
exprass p a s t and f u t u r e r e s p e c t i v e l y (see a l s o ~ i v o r ,
1973). I t is interesting to note how t e n s e interacts
w i t h some l o c a t i v e d e i c t i c s i n Sesotho. T h u s while zq
*gog may e x p r e s s f u t u r e , tha p a s t tense of t h i s v ~ r b
i l e e x p r e s s e s past tense. -- J a c o t t e t (1968: 19) mentions t h a t ~ e r f e c t ' i n Sesctho
Ray be folloved by an a d j u n c t o f time. He does nct,
however, s a y what makes t h i s possible.
Sometimes ~ Q U or a a s a a f *tomorrow8 .
CHAPTER 2
rm P E B P E C T : S X ~ + L _ L E
The q u e s t i o n of w h e t h e r ' p e r f e c t * (as i t i s c o n v e n t i o n a l l y
u s e d i n a c c o u n t s o f t e n s e systems) shculd ke r e g a r d e d a s a n
a s p e c t or t e n s e h a s been d e a l t w i t h i n g r e a t d e t a i l i n
literature (see C o n r i e 1976: 52 and r e f e r e n c e s t h e r e i n ) . It h a s
keen noted t h a t perfect i s d i f f e r e n t from a s p e c t i n t h a t i t
te l l s u s n o t h i n g a b o u t t h e i n t e r n a l s t r u c t u r e o f t h a e v e n t , b u t
r a t h e r e x p r e s s e s a r e l a t i o n between two t i m a - p o i n t s n a m e l y , t h e
time o f t h e s t a t e r e s u l t i n g from a p r i o r e v e n t and t h e timo o f
the e v e n t itself, T h i s r e l a t i o n c a n e a s l l y be expressed i n terms
of S, R a n d E w i t h i n the f r a n e w o r k adopted here, a n d t h u s
q u a l i f y a s a t e n s e l i k e o t h e r t e n s e s ,
I t is i m p o r t a n t t o n o t e t h a t 'perfect ' i s o f t e n u s e d i n
p u r e l y formal s e n s e f o r s t r u c t u r e s w i t h ' h a v e ' + p a r t i c i p l e s o
t h a t w h a t h a s been referred t o as * p e r f e c t a i n qramnar books may
h a v e d i f f e r e n t m e a n i n g s i n d i f f e r e n t l a n g u a g e s , I n soma
l a n q u a g e s it c o v e r s both p e r f e c t and p a s t t e n s e m e a n i n g , I n
o t h e r s it h a s taken o v e r t h e past tense meaning, Different
languages may thus show d i f f e r e n t b e h a v i o u r as r e g a r d s the use
of time s p e c i f i c a t i c n w i t h the p e r f e c t form.
A l t h o u g h r e f e r e n c e h a s b e e n made t o rparfecta i n S ~ s o t h o
g r a m m a r s n o e x p l a n a t i o n h a s b e e n g i v e n f o r i t s i c l l o s y n c r a t i c
b e h a v i o u r . R e f e r e n c e h a s o f t e n b e e n maue t o i d i o m a t i c us%
w h e n e v e r e x p l a n a t i o n c a n n o t be f o u n d . J a c o t t e t (1965: 18) no tes
that:
n t h e p e r f e c t h a s e x a c t l y t h e same m e a u i ~ q a s English; i t
e x p r e s s e s a n a c t i o n wh ich i s f i n i s h e d a t t h e p r e s e n t time and
h a s been d o n e i n t h e p a s t , o r a s t a t e which h a s been e n t e r e d
i n t o i n t h e p a s t .,. n
T h e a b o v e g r a m m a r i a n f u r t h e r n o t e s t h a t :
. . I n c o n t r a d i s t i n c t i c n to E n g l i s h qrammar , i t may 'De
followed by a n a d j u n c t o f ti@t 8 . g . &S h u u f le-ntate mobane , * I s p o k e w i t h my f a t h e r y e s t e r d a y . *
Doke a n d t l o fokenq (1957: 1 7 6 ) h a v e t h e f o l l o w i n g t o s a y
a b o u t t h e p e r f e c t stem:
n w i t h o r d i n a r y v e r b s i n S o t h o t h e p e r f e c t stem is u s a d i n t h e
f o r m a t i o n of p a s t t e n s e s e.g. He-13-m-ex maobarie (1 saw t h e e
y e s t e r d a y ) ; b u t w i t h s t a t i v e v e r b s 4i.e. v e r b s wh ich i n d i c a t ? a
state a l r eady c o m p l e t e d a n d still p e r s i s t i n g ) = , the perfect s t e a
i s used i n p r e s e n t t e n s e f o r m a t i o n a l s o , e.9. Ke l u t s - e I am
s i t t i n g ) ho - fu&&metse (it is warm) ". T h e two g r a m m a r i a n s l a t e r n o t e t h a t :
' f c e r t a i n n o n - s t a t i v e v e r b s may be u s e d i d i o m a t i c a l l y u i t h
p r e s e n t perfect s i g n i f i c a t i o n e.q.
Be-j--l; g (we h a v e e a t e n ; we h a v e h a d cur meal)
f ;a- t l - i f e ( t h e y h a v e cone a n d a r e here)
te-fihk-ile (I h a v e a r r i v e d a n d ate here )
it is a l s o n o t e d t h a t :
n e a c h o f t h e s e v e r b s nay, h o w e v e r , be u s e d w i t h o r d i n a r y p a s t
significance. Note t h e f c l l o u i n q :
ke-it?&% &g&hg (I a t e b r e a d )
,- I
I C G u ~ a (1971: 173) lists t h e uses of p e r f e c t a s f o l l o w s :
"the p e r f e c t is u s e d a s o n e of the t e n s e s cf t h e i n d i c a t i v e and
c o n d i t i o n a l mood, W i t h i n c h o a t i v e r a d i c a l s i.s. Radica l s wh ich
indicate e n t r y i n t o a s ta te , t h e p e r f e c t t e n s e i n d i c a t e s an
- ? a c t i o n t h a t has b e e n c o a p l e t e d , r e s u l t i n g i n a s t a t 2 t h a t exists './
now, a t t h e t i w cf s p e a k i n q e,q. EpLgt~g=e_ (I am s e a t e d ) c_=
agetso=g ( s h e is m a r r i e d ) W g d L f (I am h u n g r y ) p q o a n a i;=
gobets-g ( t h e c h i l d is a s l e e p ) ,
W i t h m o s t r a d i c a l s t h e p e r f e c t tense indicates an a c t i o n
t h a t t o o k p l a c e i n t h e immediate past - a few h o u r s aqo o r
y e s t e r d a y , e,q. kg= m e - b o w s h o s q ~ (I saw him t h i s m o r n i n g ) p=
&i=g&js-itse m a o Q a ( h e s o l d them y e s t e r d a y ) .
The uses of perfect m e n t i o n e d b y t h 2 a b o v e g r a m m a r i a x i s
reveal t h e a m o u n t of d o u b t t h a t h a s e x i s t e d a b o u t t h e e x a c t u s e
of t h i s form,
J a c o t t e t merely m e n t i o n t h e similarity b e t w e e n E n y l i s h a n 3
s e s o t h o perfect b u t d o a s n c t show ways i n which t h e s e m e a n i n g s
a r e t h e same. T h e e x a c t u s e o f p e r f e c t i n E a g l i s h i s still
d e k a t a b l e . I t is t h u s d i f f i c u l t t o d e d u c e , f r o m a statemect s u c h
a s a b o v e wha t t h e e x a c t m e a n i n g o f p e r f e c t i n S e s o t h o is. T h e
p r e s e n t s t u d y d o e s n o t a - t t e m ~ t t c c o a p a r a t h e us t i o f p e r f a c t i n
s e s o t h o a n d E n g l i s h . B e f e r e n c e w i l l , h o w e v e r , b e made i n t h e
c o u r s e o f o u r d i s c u s s i o n t o d i f f e r e n c e s a n d / c r s i m i l a r i t i e s when
deemed n e c e s s a r y .
J a c o t t e t f u r t h e r m e n t i o n s t h a t it is p o s s i b l e t c uss
p e r f e c t w i t h a d v e r b s s u c h a s * y e s t e r d a y 8 . Ha d o e s n ' t , h o u e v e r ,
s a y w h a t makes t h i s c o m b i n a t i o n p o s s i b l e i n S e s o t h o b u t n o t
E n g l i s h . The u s e o f * p e r f e c t g w i t h t e a p o r a l a d v a r b s w i l l b e
c o n s i d e r e d later i n t h i s c h a p t e r .
Doks and H o f o k e n g h a v e n o t e d t h r e e u s e s o f t h e LLg s u f f i x :
(i) f o r m a t i o n of p r e s e n t tenses ( i i ) f o r m a t i c n c f p a s t tenses
( i i i ) i d i o m a t i c u s e s w i t h res sen t p e r f e c t s i g n i f i c a t i o n . T h e u s e o f t h e saae s u f f i x t o indicate b o t h p r e s e n t a n d
p a s t t e n s e s h a s n e v e r , a s f a r a s I know, b e e n r e c c r d o d i n
l a n q u a g e s a l t h o u g h l a n g u a g e s t h a t h a v e tsnse a p p e a r t o t r e a t t h e
d i s t i n c t i o n of p a s t a n d n o n - p a s t {present a n d f u t u r e ) a s b e i n g
of b a s i c i m p o r t a n c e . A l t h o u g h u s e of i n t h e f o r m a t i o n cf
p r e s e n t and p a s t c o u l d s u g g e s t t h a t t h e r e is a broad c o n c e ~ t o f
p r e s e n t w h i c h s t e p s i n t o t h e p a s t o r v i c e versa , i t is d o u b t f u l
t h a t t h i s c o u l d b e t h e case, s i n c e t h e p r e s e n t c a n n o t i n g e n l r a l
o c c u r w i t h a d v e r b i a l s w h i c h r e f e r t o t h e F a s t , ncr t h e p a s t w i t h
those referring t o t h e p r e s e n t . E.g.
2 4 ( a ) * B a r u t u o a b a - r e k a l i b u k a s e l f m o n g se - fe t i i sng
s t u d e n t s a buy b o o k s y e a r A p a s t
* * s t u d e n t s buy b o o k s l a s t y e a r *
(b) * B a r u t u o a b a - i l s l a - r e k a l i b u k a noaa j o a l e
s t u d e n t s A p a s t b u y b o o k s f i g h t now
* * s t u d e n t s b o u g h t b o o k s r i g h t now.'
An a t t e a p t w i l l be made i n t h e f o l l o w i n g s e c t i o n t o cornpar2
t h e a n d non-ile p r e s e n t forms. S i m i l a r l y c o m ~ a r i s o n will h +
made b e t w e e n p a s t t e n s e a n d o t h e r p a s t t e n s e forms.
Doke a n d Bofokeng make r e f e r e n c e t o i d i o m a t i c u s e o f t h s
p e r f e c t . T h e r e d o e s n ' t a p p e a r t o b e a n y t h i n g i d i c a a t i c a b o u t t h a
u s e o f p e r f e c t i n s e n t e n c e s q u o t e d above . T h i s ccnfusicn d e r i v e s
f r o m the! fact t h a t t h e s e g r a a m a r i a n s r e g a r d - i l e a s the prfser,%
a n d p a s t t e n s e f o r m a t i v e . Any m e a n i n g which f a l l s o u t s i d e t hese
two t e n s e s had t o b e r e g a r d e d a s i d i o m a t i c . T h e choice of t h 3
tera # i d i c m a t i c l i n s t e a d o f ' e x c e p t i o n * i s s i g n i f i c a n t i n t h a t
i t s h o w s t h a t t h e two g r a m m a r i a n s were a w a r e t h a t t h e m e a n i n y
r e f e r r e d t o i s q u i t e r e g u l a r .
T h e S e s o t h o g r a r a a r i a n s r e f e r r e d t o a b o v e have m e n t i c n e d
t h a t with i n c h o a t i v e v e r b s (Guma) o r s t a t i v e v e r b s (Doke and
Bofokeng) =j& mean 'present'. T h i s v i e u a e r i v e s f r o m t h a f a c t
t h a t v e r b s s u c h a s l u t s e 'sit' i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e person referr?d
t o is still seated. It will be f o u n d hcuever , t h a t e v e n v e r b s
s u c h a s p h e h - i l e ' c o o k e d s bes-itse ' g r i l l , make f i r e 8 which d o
2 7
n o t q u a l i f y a s s t a t i v e s a c c o r d i n g t o d e f i n i z i c n s g i v e n b y t h e s e
g r a m m a r i a n s may i n d i c a t e t h a t the a c t i o n i s still c o n t i n u i n g .
F u r t h e r e x a m i n a t i o n of S e s o t h o v e r b s may s u q g z s t t h a t d u r a t i v 2
s i t u a t i o n s ( i n t h e s e n s e d e f i n e d b y L y c n s , 1977:711) may
i n d i c a t e a c o ~ t i n u i n g s t a t e cr p r o c e s s , *
2.2 C o ~ ~ a r i s ~ & b e t w e e n Rnd E c n - i l e P r e s e n t -
I n a s s i g n i n g t h e same t e n s e a n d a s p e c t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n t o = i l e a n d n o n - i l e forms we commi t o u r s e l v e s t c r e g a r d i n g s u c h --- s e n t e n e s a s s e m a n t i c a l l y e q u i v a l e n t . T h e ques t i on t h a t ona a s k s
o n e s e l f is w h e t h e r s u c h s e n t e n c e s c a n ba u s s a i n t + r c h a n g e a b l y ,
T h e f o l l o w i n g p a i r s o f s e n t e n c e s a re v o r t h c o n s i d e r i n g :
2 5 ( a ) atosali o - l u l a setulonq
woman A sit o n c h a i r
I t h e woman sits on t h e c h a i r 1
(b] aaosali a - l u t s - e s e t u l o n q
woaan A si t p a s t o n c h a i r
'the woiaan is s i t t i n g on t h e c h a i r 1
2 6 (a) n q o a n a n a o-ema n o n y a k o
g i r l A s t a n d door
I t h ~ g i r l s t a n d s by t h e d o o r '
(b) Ngoanana o-erne monyako
g i r 1 A s + a n d p e r f e c t d o o r
' t h e g i r l i s s t a n d i n g by t h e d o o r g
t h e (a) a n d ( b ) s e n t e n c e s i n 25 a n d 26 c a n n e v e r b e u s e d
i n t e r c h a n g e a b l y , c o n s i d e r a case o f a h u s b a n d s u s p e c t i n g t h a t
2 8
t h e wifs i n t e n d s t o sit o n h i s chair a n d o r d ~ r i n g h e r n o t t o d o
so. T h e a p p r o p r i a t e answer f r c ~ t h e wife who has no s u c h
i n t e n t i o n w i l l be:
27 (a) h a k e - l u l e s e t u l o n q ke l u l a f a t s e
neg I sit on c h a i r I sit down
I a n n o t s i t t i n g o n t h e chair I am s i t t i n g on t h e
f l o o r *
but not:
(b) h a k t - a s - l u l a s e t u l o n g ke l u l a fatse
neg I s i t o n c h a i r I s i t down
'I am n o t s i t t i n q o n t h e c h a i r I s i t down '
c o n s i d e r a g a i n t h e case of a d o c t o r who may h a v e i n s t r u c t e d h i s
p a t i e n t t o sit on the c h a i r askinq:
28. Na u - n t s e u - l u t s e se t u l o n g ?
Question you s t i l l you s i t pe r fec t o n c h a i r
'are you s t i l l s i t t i n g o n t h e c h a i r ? '
for w h i c h t h e a n s w e r from t h e loyal p a t i e n t w i l l be:
29 (a) E, k e - n t s e k e - l u t s - e setulong
yes I st i l l I sit p a s t o n chair
' y e s , I am s t i l l sitting on t h e chair'
b u t n o t
(b) E, k e - n t s e k e - l u l a s e t u l c n q
y e s f still sit cn c h a i r
'yes 1 still sit on t h e c h a i r '
if t h a p a t i e n t u t t e r e d 2 9 ( b ) t h e doctor m i g h t a s k t h e question
a g a i n s u s p e c t i n g t h a t h i s ~ a t i e n t d i d n o t u n d z r s t a n d t h e first
q u e s t i o n . The d o c t o r c o u l d a l s o s u s p e c t t h a t the p a t i o n t d i d not
f o l l o w t h e i n s t r u c t i o n s a s g i v e n ~ r e v i c u s l y ic which & s aay h a v a
t o i n s t r u c t his p a t i e n t t o s i t dokn.
T h e r e a d e r may w o n d e r i f t h e r e is, i n f a c t , a n y difference
b e t w e e n t h e u s e o f - i l e a n d n o n - i l e p r e s e n t s i n c e t h e two may b e
u s e d a s a n a n s w e r a s k e d i n the p r e s e n t (see s ~ n t e n c e 2 7 ( a ) f c r
non-jJ_e a n s w e r 6 a n d 2 9 ( a ) f o r - i l e a n s w a r ) . F u r t h e r d i s t i n c t i o n --- b e t w e e n &J& a n d a-2 p r e s e n t m u s t be a a d i . Let u s c o n s i d e r
t h e f o l l o w i n g s e n t e n c e s :
Ha k e - a - b u a le-Haria h o b a n e o-bona b a n a hona j c a l e
Neg I s p e a k v i t h H a r y b e c a u s e s n e ses c h i l d r e n r i g h t
now
'1 have n o t spoken t o n a r y b e c a u s e s h e is g o i n g t o see
t h e
c h i l d r e n nome
Ha ke -a -bua le-Haria h c b a n e o-bon-2 b a n a h o n a j c a l a
Neg I speak w i t h Rasp b e c a u s e she see p a s t c h i l d r a n
r i g h t now
8 1 have n o t s p o k e n t o n a r y b e c a u s e she h a s s e e n t h ?
c h i l d r e n 1
T h e s e n t e n c e i n 30(a) d e p i c t s 4 a r y t s s e e i n g t h e c h i l d r e n As
s i m u l t a n e o u s v i t h t h e moment of s p e a k i n g . T h u s her s e e i n g the
c h i l d r e n c a u s e s my f a i l u r e t o s p e a k t o h e r . Tho s e n t e n c e ir
3 0 (b ) , o n t h e o t h e r hand d e p i c t s M a r y ' s s e e l n g t h e c h i l d r e n a s
p r i o r t~ t h e moment of s p e e c h . H y d e c i s i o u n o t t o s p e a k t o h e r
f o l l o w s f r o a t h e f a c t t h a t s h e has s e e n t h e c h i l d r e n . Pha
s e n t e n c e s i n 30 c h a r a c t e r i z e n o n - i l e f o r m a s a 'cause8 a n d t h a = i l e f o r m a s a ' r e s u l t * , --
T h e r e is a n a d d i t i o n a l d i f f e r e n c e of m e a n i n g between r i l e
a n d n o n - i l s f o r m s wh ich m u s t be n o t e d . Tha s a n t ~ u c e s s u c h a s
2 5 ( a ) a n d 26 (a ) may h a v e h a b i t u a l ' a e a n i n g w h i l e 2 5 (b) a n d 26 ( k )
s e n t e n c e s d o n o t , T h e h a b i t u a l r e a d i n g i n (a) s e n t e n c e s makes
the use of a d v e r b i a l e x p r e s s i c n of f r e q u e n c y w i t h these
ser;tecces p o s s i b l e . E, g.
3 1 H o s a l i 0 - l u l a s e t u l o n g k a a e h l a
Uonan A sit o n c h a i r everytime
* A woaan sits on the c h a i r e v e r y t i n e '
A d v e r b i a l e x p r e s s i o n s of f r e q u e n c y c a n n o t b e u s e d w i t h =iJ..
forms a s may be n o t e d i n the f o l l o w i n g e x a m p l e :
3 2. * # o s a l i o - l u t s - e se t u l o n q k a a e h l a
Uonan A sit p a s t on c h a i r e v e r y t i m e
'A womn is s i t t i n g o n the c h a i r everytime'
Summary ---- Host S e s o t h o q r a m m a r i a n s r e g a r d w i t h s t a t i v e v e r b s a s
p r e s e n t . The discussion above i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e r e are a t l e a s t
t h r e e ways i n w h i c h non-11% a n d -ile ' p r ~ s e n t * s e n t e n c e s d i f f ? r .
F i r s t l y , t h e n o n - i l e s e n t e n c e s i m p l y t h a t t h e s t a t e referred + c
by t h e v e r b is c o m i n g i n t o b e i n g , while 2141 sentences i n d i c a t e
t h a t t h e s t a t e h a s a l r e a d y come i n t o b e i n g . ( s a e sentence 2 7 (a)
) . s e c o n d l y , non-jJg f o r m s may be u s e d t o i n d i c a t e a ' cause '
w h i l e rile fcrms i n d i c a t e a r e s u l t (see s e n t e n c e s 30 (a ) a n d
3 1
( b ) ) . T h i r d l y , n o n - i l e s e n t e n c e s nay h a v e h a b i t u a l meaning w h i l e
- i l g s e r , t e a c e s c a n n e v e r (see s e n t e n c e s 31 a n d 3 2 ). --
2.3 Thg use of - i l e with A e m ~ o r a L a d v e r b s
A l t h o u g h S e s o t h o g r a m m a r i a n s h a v e a t t r i b u t e d p r e s e n t
m e a n i n g s p e c i f i c a l l y t o the s t a t i v e v e r b s u s e d v i t h -i12, t h s
use of t e m p o r a l a d v e r b i a l s w i t h forms s u g g e s t t h a t most
v e r b s m a y be used v i t h - i l e t o refer to t h e present time. L s t u s
c o n s i d e r
3 3 (a) i
ii
iii
(b) i
ii
iii
the f o l l o w i n g s e n t e n c e s :
B a n n a ba-f i h l - i l e h o n a j o a l e
n e n A a r r i v e past r i g h t now
The men h a v e a r r i v e d t h i s a o m e n t r
L i s e b o o b o n - e b a n a hona joale
L i s e b o A see past c h i l d r e n r i g h t now
' L i s e b o h a s seen the c h i l d r e n now*
BaEana b a - p h e h - i l e naaa h o n a joale
qirls A c o o k p a s t meat r i g h t now
'The g i r l s h a v e c o o k e d nowr
Banna ba- f i h l - i l e maobane
Ren A arrive p a s t y e s t e r d a y
' T h e men a r r i v e d y e s t e r d a y r
L i s e b o A-bon-e b a n a maobane
L i s e b o A see p a s t c h i l d r e n yesterday
' L i s e b o saw t h e c h i l d r e n y e s t e r d a y '
b a n a n a b a - p h e h - i l e aama maobane
Girls A c o o k p a s t meat y e s t e r d a y
'The g i r l s cooked m e a t y e s t e r d a y *
(c) i *Banca ba-f i h l - i l e O c s a s a
Hen A a r r i v e p a s t t o m o r r c w
* ' T h e men a r r i v e d t o m o r r o w * . . i +Lisebo o-bon-a bana h o s a s a
L i s e b o A see p a s t c h i l d r e n t o ~ o r r o w
* * L i s a b o saw the c h i l d r e n t o m o r r o w *
iii *Banana b a - p h e h - i l e nama h o s a s a
Girls A c o o k p a s t m e a t t c m o r r o w
*'T h e g i r l s c o o k e d meat t o n o r r o w '
the c o o c c u r r e n c e r e s t r i c t i o n s linking = & f c r m s w i t h t p m ~ o r a l
e x p r e s s i o n s r e f e r r i n g t o p a s t , p r e s e n t and f u t u r e p o s e a number
of p r c b l e a s . The a c c e p t a b i l i t y of u ~ t h h o n a joglg ' r i g h t
now1 s u g g e s t s t h a t s g is p r e s e n t , w h i l e t h e a c c e p t a b i l i t y o f
this for@ w i t h nraobau ' y e s t e r d a y * s u g q e s t s t h a t zjlg i s p a s t .
T h e u n a c c e p t a b i l i t y o f -2 with ~ Q ~ S B g t o m o r r o w B rules out t h e
p o s s i b i l i t y o f r e g a r d i n g t h i s f o r m a s p r e s e n t since i t i s
p o s s i b l e t o use p r e s e n t w i t h a d v e r b s r e f e r r i n g tc f u t u r e time a s
follows:
34. B a n d ba-fihla h o s a s a
Hen A arrive t o m o r r o w
t a e n a r r i v e t o m o r r o w *
T h e u n a c c e p t a b i l i t y of =i& s e n t e n c e s u s e d w i t h h o s a s p
@ t o m o r r o w t s u p p o r t s the view e x p r e s s e d e a r l i e r t h a t t h e e v e n t
e x p r e s s e d by =&he is e v o k e d a s p r i c r t o t h e p r e s e n t a n d thus
i m p l i e d t o b e i n t h e p a s t , If = & e x p r e s s e s p a s t , hcw can w+
3 3
a c c o u n t f o r t h e a c c e ~ t a b i l i t y of t h i s forn w i t h presect
adver Dials?
A number o f a n a l y s e s which a c c o u n t f o r t h e c o o c c u r r e n c e
r e s t r i c t i o n s b e t w e e n t e n s e a n d a d v e r b s i n l a n g u a g e s such a s
E n g l i s h a re l i k e l y t o f a l l s h o r t of a d e q u a t ? d e s c r i ~ t i c n cf
S e s o t h o f a c t s . An a n a l y s i s which v i e w s t e n s e f r o m t h e p o i n t o f
view of past v s n o n - p a s t d i s t i n c t i o n u c u l d p r e d i c t t h a t
s e n t e n c e s i n 33 (a) a r e u n a c c e p t a b l e . Even i f t h e S e s o t h o =AJg
f o r m s c o u l d be r e g a r d e d a s c o r r a s ~ o n d i n g t o English p e r f e c t t h e
p r o b l e m r e m a i n s u n s o l v e d s i n c e t h e E n g l i s h p e r f e c t is
i n c o m p a t i b l e with a d v e r b s s u c h a s y e s t e r d a y ,
There are a n u n b e r o f p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r a c c o u n t i n g f o r t h z
s e n t e n c e s i n 33. Ue c o u l d , f o r i n s t a n c e , b y p o t h e s i z e that -ile
is a form of g r a m a a t i c a f i z e d s t a t i v e . I n l a n g u a g e s s u c h a s Z u l u
s t e e s d i s t i n g u i s h t h e m s e l v e s as s t a t i v e s from t h e o n e s t h a t use
the same s u f f i x b u t are n o t s t a t i v e i n t h s i r n e g a t i v e s (see
V e s t p h a l 1950: 126; B e a u c h a t 1966: 75) e . q .
35 ( a ) Ba-lamb-ile
T h e y h u n g e r s t a t e
'They are h u n g r y '
(b) A-ba- lamb-i le
Neg they h u n g e r s t a t e
'They are n o t h u n q r y '
q&* =L They w a l k p a s t
@ 3 .
'They w a l k e d ' . .
(b) A-ba-ha a b a - a n g a
Neg t h e y v a l k neg
they d i d n o t w a l k a
T h e negative test u s e d f o r Z u l u c a n n o t be a p ~ l i e d i n S e s o t h o
since there a r e n o d i s t i n c t f o r m s for s t a t i v e a n d n o n - s t a t i v a
n e g a t i v e f o r m s E.Q*
3 7 ( a ) B a - l a p - i l e
T h e y h u n g e r
'They are hungrya
(b) Ha- ba-a-la pa
Neg they h u n g e r
'They a r e n o t h u n g r y *
38 (a) Ba-tsaaa-ile
T h e y w a l k
'They l e f t *
(b) Ha-ba-a- t samaea
Neg t h e y w a l k
'They d i d n o t l e a v e '
T h e h y p o t h e s i s t h a t -Fk i s g r a m m a t i c a l i z e d s t a t i v e might,
p e r h a p s , be v a l i d i f we c o u l d f i n d a group of n o n s t a t i v 2 v e r b s
which d o ac t occur with i t , Ve m i g h t t h e n assume t h a t w i t h
l e x i c a l l y s t a t i v e v e r b s i t is a r e d u n d a n t s p e c i i i c a t i . c n of
s t a t i v i t y . I t mus t be n o t e d , h o w e v e r , t h a t o c c u r s w i t h b o t h
s t a t i v e and n o n s t a t i v e verbs.
I f a r g u r a e r , t s c o u l d t e f o u n d t o s u p p o r t t h e v i s w t h a t -;1e
is g r a m m a t i c a l i z e d s t a t i v e a number of p r o b i e m s would easily kc
s o l v e d . T h e q u e s t i o n of p e r f e c t s i g n i f l c a n c e which Dcke a n d
n o f o k e n q have n o t e d c o u l d be a c c o u n t e d f o r . F o r a s L y o n s
(1977:415) n o t e s , ".., P e r f e c t is commcnly and p e r h a p s a l w a y s ir,
o r i g i n , a s t a t f v e aspect w i t h the more s p e c i f i c f e a t u r e t h a t i t
i s u s e d t o r e p r e s e n t t h e s t a t e t h a t i t d e n o t e s a s t e i n q
c o n s e q u e n t upon t h e c o m p l e t i c n of t h e p r o c e s s wh ich t h e v e r b
d e n o t e s .
se c o u l d a l so e x p l a i n t h e u s e o f p a s t a d v a r k s a s due t c the
t e n d e n c y of a s p e c t t o d e v e l o p i n t o past tenses or tenses
r e f e r r i n g t o t h e r e c e n t p a s t a s noted hy Anderscn (1973: 42).
2.3.2 - i l e g~ P e r f e c t i v e
A s e c o n d p o s s i b i l i t y w o u l d be r e q a r d i n q wile a s a fcrm of
p r e s e n t p e r f e c t i v e ( i n t h e s e n s e d e f i n e d b y Conrr ie 1976:16)8 .
T h i s a n a l y s i s w o u l d p r o v i d e a b a l a n c e d s y s t e m f o r p r e s e n t a n d
p a s t t e n s e s . We c o u l d v i e w t h e s i m p l e f o r m o f present a s
i m p e r f e c t i v e - - b e i n g a l s o h a b i t u a l , P r o g r e s s i v i t y would be
e x p r e s s e d b y sg 's t i l l8 a n d perfectivity by --- - i l e .
C o r r e s p o n d i n g l y t h e i a p e r f e c t i v e past would a l s o b~ h a b i t u a l ;
p r o g r e s s i v i t y would b e e x p r e s s e d b y a *st i l l s a n d p e r f e c t i v i t y
b y h&+stem ( a n account of t h i s t e n s e w i l i b e g i v e n l a t e r ) . 3 9
is s c h e m a t i c r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of s u c h a n a n a l y s i s :
f t --- 1 -- ---I
I 1 I I 1 1 4 I M P E R F E C T I V E f PROGRESSIYEIPERFECTIVE 1 I 4 I I i
1 1 J 1 1 --t -4 1 1 1 I 1
\ 1 P r e s e a t 1 stem ) sa+stem ]steni+iir 4 1 1 i L 1 )--------------.f- 1 1
1 a -+ 1 1 1 1 1 4 P a s t I n e + s t e a i n e + s a + s t e ~ n tile+stea 1 1 I
1 1 1 I f 1 1 1
w h i l e t h e above a n a l y s i s may be p l a u s i b l a i n t h a t i t establishes
r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n stem+i& on t h e o n e h a n d , a n d i la'steg o n
the o t h e r h a n d , it f a i l s t o a c c o u n t f o r the o c c u r e n c e of li&s
w i t h p a s t a d v e r b i a l s ,
2.3.4.1 -ile ps i m m e d i a t e p a s
The claim made i n t h i s s e c t i o n is t h a t ~ t s a + i l e i s a n
i l s m e d i a t e p a s t tense, T h e d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n r e m o t e a n d
i m ~ e d i a t e tense h a s been n c t e d f o r o t h e r B a n t u l a n g u a g e s , D o k ~
a n d aofokeng (1957:187) g i v e the f o l l o w i n g a x a m p l e f r o m Lanba - a
c e n t r a l Ban tu Language:
'1 d i d (before t o d a y )
(b) Nacita
'1 d i d ( t o d a y )
t h e same immediate/remote d i s t i n c t i o n h a s keen n o t e d f o r Zulu by
Doke (1927:169) W e s t p h a l (1950: 132) a n d B e a u c h a t (1966:76) e.q.
, 41 ( a ) S i t h e n g e i z i n g u b u k u t h a n g i
@We b o u q b t clothes t h e d a y befors y e s t s r d a y *
(b) A b e l u s i b a s e n g e i z i n g o m o i z o l o
' T h e h e r d b o y s m i lked t h e cows y e s t e r d a y '
i i e s t p h a l furthar notes . . A I t h o u y h s i n d m b i l ~ [we walked - r e c e n t l y ) is u s u a l l y i m l n e d i a t e i t c a n a l s o ~e used w i t h a d v e r b s
s u c h a s ' f a s t y e a r 8 while s a a h a m b a (we w a l k e d - l o n g a g o ) i s
r a r e l y u s e d w i t h r e c e n t a d v e r b s . .. IV
T h e e x a c t d e f i n i t i o n cf i m m e d i a t e tense d o e s nct a F p a a r
clear c u t . A s B e a u c h a t n o t e s " w h a t c o n s t i t u t e s a n iaraediate p a s t
v a r i e s t o a g r e a t e x t e n t fro& o n e s p e a k e r to a n o t h e r . fcr macy
p e o p l e an a c t i o n w h i c h t o c k p l a c e more t h a n a week a g o is
e x p r e s s e d i n t h e r e m o t e p a s t , w h e r e a s f o r o t h e r s , the t i a s limit
b e t w e e n t h e s e t e n s e s i s a s lnuch a s s i x m c n t h s ... 11
Doke a n d Bof o k e n g (1957: 187) o b s e r v e t h a t : '*the Southern
S o t h o t e n s e d i v i s i o n a c c o r d i n g t o time i s n o t so c l e a r a n d
b a l a n c e d a s t h a t o f many o t h e r B a n t u Languaqes . "
We claim t h a t S e s o t h o , l i k e o t h e r Bantu L a g u a g e s , h a s
remote and immediate t e n s e s ; a n d t h a t t h e b c u n d a r y k e t u e s c
remote a n d immediate t e n s e s is n o t c l e a r cut s o that t h e e a r l i e r
g r a m m a r i a n s c o n c l u d e d t h a t there i s n o s u c h d i s t i n c t i o n .
One p o s s i b l e s o u r c e o f c o n f u s i o n may De the fact t h a t -iLe
may be u s e d w i t h a d v e r b s w h i c h r a n g e f r o m t c d a y t c remote F a s t .
P o l l o w i n q are e x a a ~ l s s of such u s e s :
they arrive past
t h e y a r r i v e d
h o s e n q
maobana
maoba
b e k e n g e - f e t i i l e n g
s e l e a o n g s e - f e t i l e n q
y e s t e r d a y
day before yesterday
l a s t week, month, year.
wile c a n extend a s f a r b a c k a s a c e n t u r y . Tire f o l l o v i n q --- h i s t o r i c a l f a c t may be e x p r e s s e d by u s i n g - i l e
43. B o r e n a B o s h o e s h o e o - f a l l - e t s e Thaba E o s i u ka-1824
Chief lYoshoeshoe a move t o p a s t T h a b a - B c s i u i n 1824
' C h i e f m o s h o e s h c e moved to T h a b a - B o s i u i n 1824'
T h e r e a r e o t h e r c o n s t r u c t i o n s i n S e s o t h o w h i c h exgress
i m m e d i a c y , It m u s t be n o t e d t h a t such c o n s t r u c t i o n s may be used
w i t h prssent a n d p a s t a d v e r b i a l s a s f o l l o w s :
4 4. J o h a n n e o - t s o a - f i hla hona- j o a l e
J o h n A p a s t a r r i v e r i g h t now
' J o h c h a s j u s t a r r i v e d now'
45. J o h a n n e c- t s o a - f i h l a maobane mona
J o h n A p a s t arrive y e s t e r d a y hare
' J o h n a r r i v e d t h i s mere yesterday8
The &spa+stem c o n s t r u c t i o n a b o v e c a n n o t be used w i t h r emoved
n u n - s p e c i f i c a d v e r b s s u c h a s k h a l e * a l o n g time ago1 e.9.
46. * J o h a n n e o - t s o a - f i h l a k h a l e
J o h n A p a s t a r r i v e long time a g o
* ' J o h n j u s t a r r i v e d a l o n g time agcl
t h e g g p a + s t e ~ c o n s t r u c t i c n may, however, b e used with advtrbs
which refer t o the day b e f o r e yesterday, last week, last m o n t h
etc. A perscc u ~ c corsiders a year too short a time fcr a itoman
to have d i v o r c e d her h u s b a n d could e a s i l y say:
47 , . . . Eapa o - t s o a - n yaloa selemong se-f t t i l a n j sena
b u t s h e p a s t be-married gear ~ a s s e d this
'., , But s h e was n a r r i e d t h i s mere last year i
S i m i l a r l y a n a u n t who h a s n o t been home f o r f i v e years may
express s u r p r i s e a t t h e r a t e at which her nepnew h a s g r c u n :
4 8 , Ha a - t s ' o 9 - h l a h a ka- 1 9 7 3 h a ke-le aoo?
leg h e p a s t a p p e a r i n 1 9 7 3 when I be here
'Wasn't h e b o r n i n 1 9 7 3 when I was hera?
T h e s e n t e n c e s a b o v e i n d i c a t e t h a t i a m e d i a c y i s a subjective t e r m
w h i c h may e x t e n d a s f a r a s t h e speaker wishes. This s u b j e c t i v i t y
h a s l e d t o r e l a x a t i o n on t h e d e g r e e of recentness r e q u i r e d f c r
& so t h a t 1 h a s tended to b e u s e d i n t d r c h a n g e a b l y w i t h
reniote past t e n s e s . 1 0
2 - 3 - 4 . 2 D i s t i n c t i ~ q b e t r e e n n t s o a a n d - i l e tenses
T h e c l a i ~ made i n 2 , 3 , 4 , 1 is that both t s o a and t e n s e s
are i m m e d i a t e p a s t t e n s e s . B e h a v e n o t e d t h a t t h e two t e n s e s may
be u s e d w i t h present and p a s t a d v e r b s , It was f u r t h e r n o t s d t h a t
t h e two t e n s e s may be used w i t h a d v e r b s s u c h a s f a s t y e a r and
f i v e years aqo, depecding on t h e speaker's a t t i t u d s t o v a r d s t h s
40
time m e n t i o n e d . We may a l s c n o t e t h a t the two tenses c a n n o t b2
u s e d w i t h f u t u r e a d v e r b i a l s a s n o t e d i n the f o i l o w f r g s e c t e n c e s :
49(a) *Banana b a - p h e h - i l e naina h o s a s a
g i r l s A c o o k p a s t m e a t t o m o r r o w
**Thz g i r l s c o o k e d meat t o m o r r o # '
(b) B a n a n a b a - t s o a - p h e h a nama h o s a s a
g i r l s A p a s t cook m e a t t o m o r r o w
' T h e g i r l s h a v e j u s t cooked meat t o m o r r o w g
T h e reader map w o n d e r w h e t h e r t h e r e i s a n y d i s t i n c t i o r ,
b e t w e e n t h e t w o forms a a n d t s o q s i n c e t h e y seem to a p p e a r i n
the same e n v i r o n m e n k s . T h e r e is same e v i d e n c e t o s u g q t s t t h a t
t h e t w o t e n s e s may n o t be used i n t e r c h a n g e a b l y ,
I n a n a t t e m p t t o f i n d t h e d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n t h o t u o
tenses a n u e b e r of p a i r s of s e n t e n c e s were q i v e n t c n a t i v z
s p e a k o r s so that t h e y m i g h t c h o o s e that s e n t e n c e o f each p a i r
which t h 3 y f o u n d More n a t u r a l ,
5 0 f a ) K e - t s o a - j a ~ e t s o t s o n g e - m e h l a n o e-r'et i leng"
p a s t eat m i n u t e s f i v e p a s s e d
$1 h a v e j u s t e a t e n five m i n u t e s a g o '
(b) Ke- j-ele aetsotsonq e - m e h l a n o e - f e t i l e n g
I e a t p a s t m i n u t e f i v e p a s s e d
'1 a t e f i v e m i n u t e s a g o g
5 1 (a) o - t s o a - • ’ e t a m e t s o t s o n g e-mashoma a - m a r a r o e - f e t i l ~ n g
He p a s t p a s s m i n u t e s t e n s t h ree p a s s e d
*He h a s just g o n e p a s t t h i r t y n i n u t a s a g o '
4 1
o - f e t - i i e m e t s o t s o n g e-mashame a -maraxo e - f e t i l e n g
He p a s s p a s t m i r u t e r t a n s t h r e e p a s e d
'He went p a s t t h i r t y m i n u t e s a g o *
B a - t s o a - p h e h a nama h o r e n g t s e - p e l i t s e - f e t i l e n q
T h e y p a s t c o o k a e a t h o u r two p a s s e d
' T h e y h a v e j u s t c c o k e d m e a t two hours a g o '
B a - p h e h - i l e nama h o r e n g t s e - p e l i t se-f e t i l e n y
They c o o k past meat h o u r two passed
'They c o o k e d meat two h o u r s agc'
u h i l e a l l t h e s p e a k e r s regarded t h e (a) a n d ( b ) sentences
a c c e p t a b l e , t h e r e uas a s t r o n g i n d i c a t i o n fcr t h e prefertncs of
one a g a i n s t t h e other. P o r instance, when asked which o f t h e
s e n t e n c e s i n 50 t h e y would u s e i f invited to eat b u t t h e y c a n n c t
e a t since they h a v e e a t e n f i v e m i n u t e s a g o , they stronqly
i n d i c a t e d t h a t they w o u l d u s e t h e (a) s e n t e n c e .
S i m i l a r l y , when asked which o f t h e s e n t e n c e s i n 51 t h e y
w o u l d use a s an answer t o the question a b o u t t h e time a t which
s o a e o n e went p a s t , t h e y emphatically s a i d they would u s e t h e
s e n t e n c e i n (a) .
When a s k e d w h i c h o f t h e s e ~ t e n c e s i n 5 2 t h e y wou ld use as
an a n s w e r t o t h e q u e s t i o n a b o u t the t ime a t which some p e o p l e
c o o k e d m e a t , t h e y said they w o u l d use t h e s z n t e n c e i n ( b ) .
T h e c h o i c e o f (a) s e r i t e n c e s i n 50 and 5 1 a s a g a i n s t t h a
c h o i c e o f (b) sentence in 52 s u g g e s t s that t s o a tense is much
more i m m e d i a t e than the zifg tense so that whenever the tims
referred ro i s less tha r? t h i r t y minutes p r e f e r e ~ c e is fcr t h e
t s o a - tense,
The d i s t i n c t i o n betweeo the two immedia t e t enses becomes
evident in cons t ruc t ions involving the c o ~ ~ l e m s r t of coercive
verbs (when not r e d u c e d t o s u b j u n c t i v c o r i n f i n i t i v e fcrms) . I n
such cons t ruc t ions there seem t o be a r e s t r i c t i o n t h a t t h e
immediate t e n s e i n the complement verb must b e the same a s t h e
one i n t h e a a i n sentence, e , g .
but n o t
(b)
Ke-no-laets-e hore a-tsamaee 'ms o-tsama-i l t
I h i m order past t h a t h e go and he go pas t
'1 ordered him t o go and he w a t , *
* K e no-laets-e hore a- t saaaee 'me o-sa- tsoa tsamaeal2
I him order pas t t h a t h e go and h e Fast qo
'I ordered him t o go and he has j u s t gone '
Ke-sa-tsoa-so-laela hore a-tsaaaee me o-sa t sca-
tsamaea
p a s t him order t h a t h e g c and b e p a s t g c
'I have j u s t ordered him t o go and h e h a s just l e f t '
b u t no t
(b) *ke-sa-tsoa-no-laela hore a-tsamaee 'me o-tsama-ile
I pas t him order t h a t he go and h e g o past
'1 have j u s t orderad h im t o gc a n d h e left'
ke-mo-qobeletse ho- ja , 'me o- jele
I h i m force p a s t t o e a t a n d h e l a t p a s t
'1 f s r c e d h i s t o s a t arid h e a t e . '
b u t n o t
(b) * k e n o - q o b e l e t s e ho- ja 'me o-sa tsoa- ja
1 h i m force p a s t t o e a t a n d h e p a s t e a t
'I f o r c e d h i m t o e a t a n d h e h a s just r3a t zn '
56 (a) k e - s a - t s o a - n o - q o b e l l a h o - j a , 'as o - s a - t soa ja
I p a s t him f o r c e t o ea t a n d h e p a s t e a t
'1 h a v e j u s t f o r c e d h i m t o e a t a n d h e h a s jus+ e a t e c '
b u t not:
(b) *ke - sa - t soa -mo q o k e l l a hc- ja 'me o- j e l a
I p a s t h im f o r c e t o e a t a n d h e e a t p a s t
*I h a v e j u s t f o r c e d him t o e a t a n d h e a t e '
T h e ( O ) s e n t e n c e s in 53-56 a k o v e are u n a c c z p t a b l e b e c a u s s
d i f f e r e n t i m m e d i a t e t e n s e s h a v e been u s e d i n ths m a i c sentences
a n d s u b o r d i n a t e s e n t e n c e s . T h i s s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e r e i s need t o
d i s t i n g u i s h t h e t w o immediate t e n s e s ,
2.3.5 aiug a d v a n t a g e s of a n a l v s h q -iIe (1s i m a e d i a t e past tense
The a n a l y s i s of =- as i m m e d i a t e p a s t explains why it
b e h a v e s d i f f e r e n t l y from t h e E n g l i s h perfect t h c u q h I t h a s o f t s n
b e e n c o m p a r e d w i t h it. T h u s t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a s p e c t u a l n a t u r e
o f perfect which is m a n i f e s t e d b y t h e r e s t r i c t i o n t h a t govern
c o a b i n a t i o n of p e r f e c t a n d p a s t time a d v e r k i a l s is n o t f o u c d i n
S e s o t h o e.q.
57. E n g l i s h : *he h a s l e f t y e s t e r d a y
S e s o t h o : o - t s ama- i le i aaokane
B e valk p a s t y e s t e r d a y
*He l e f t y e s t e r d a y *
T h e p r e s e n t a n a l y s i s f u r t h e r explains why p ~ r s i s t e n c ~ o f t h e
r e s u l t i s n o t a rscessary c o n d i t i o n f o r t h e u s e of -ile. T h u s we
may h a v e
58, J o h a n n e o-f i h l - i l e
J o h n A a r r i v e p a s t
'John h a s a r r ived
i n d i c a t i n g t h a t J o h n i s sti l l h e r e , I t i s a l s o p o s s i b l e ,
h o w e v e r , t o s p e c i f y t h a t John is n o l o n g e r bere:
59. J o h a n n e o-f i h l - i l e k a - l a k o b e l i a - t s o h a a- tsamaea
John A a r r i v e p a s t on T u e s d a y h e w a k e s h e valk
ka-3. aboraro
on U e d n e s d a y
* * J o h n h a s a r r i v e d o n T u f s d a y a n d left on i ?ednesday8
Tha u s e of - ire a s i m m e d i a t e p a s t b r i d q e s t h e g a p b e t w e e n
p a s t a n d p r e s e n t and t h u s e x p l a i n s t h e l a c k cf h a b i t u a l mearicg
i n s e n t e n c e s s u c h as 251b) a n d 26(b) ( r e p e a t e d her2 f o r
c o n v e n i e n c e a s 60 a n d 6 1 ) ,
60. f losali o - l u t s e s e t u l o n g
Woaan A sit p a s t cn c h a i r
'The v o a a n is sitting on t h e c h a i r *
61. Ngoanana c-eae monyako
g i r l A s t a n d p a s t d o o r
* T h e g i r l i s s t a n d i n g b y t h e d o o r *
+-
Given t h a t =i&g is i m ~ e d i a t e p a s t , i t A S p o s s i b i e to r e j a r a
i t a s p r e s e n t d e p e n d i n g on how past the event o r state referred
to is. This accounts for th e resent use of t h e perfect w h i c h
Doke and Hofokenq make reference to (see 2.1. Above).
1 . See 1.2,6 f o r d i f f e r e n t r e a l i z a t i o n of -ile
2 . The d e f i n i t i o n of s t a t i v i t y q i v e n here a p p r s a r s
c o n t r a d i c t o r y , It i s d i f f i c u l t t o t h i n k of a s t a t e
l c o ~ p l t A e d ' and ' s t i i i p e r s i s t i n g ghat t h e s e
q r a m m a r i a n s wan t t o E x p r e s s i s t h a t t h a s t a t e h a s b e e n
entered i n t o i n t h e p a s t a n d i s s t i l l pessisting.
Doke a n d H o f e k e n q l s a c c o u n t i s quite o b s c u r e . One m i q h t
t h i n k t h a t perfect s i g n i f i c a n c e i n t h e s e n t e n c e s q ' i v8n
is s imilar t o w h a t Comrie (1976:56) refers t o a s
' p e r f e c t of r e s u l t * i n t h a t 'we h a v e e a t e n ' implies
t h a t we a re s a t i s f i e d a n d do n o t i a a e d i a t e l y need food;
and * t h e y h a v e c o r e * i m p l y t h a t t h e y a re s t i l l here.
T h i s does n o t seem t o be the case s i n c e &g j-e& M o b s
' I a t e b r ead* could i a p l y t h a t I d o n ' t i m m e d i a t e l y need
bread,
P r o f e s s o r Newton suggests t h a t *sit1 and *cook1 m i g h t
b o t h b e t e r m i n a t i v e t b e r u l e being t h a t w i t h
t e r m i n a t i v e s &am+ile i n d i c a t e s c o n t i n u a t i o n of
t e r m i n a l s ta te , The f o l l c v i n q f r a m e f c r t e r m i n a t i v e s
s u g g e s t s t h a t & b e h a * c o o k * b u t n o t sit* i s a
t e r m i n a t i v e e . g .
r e - n k - i l e h o r a t s e - p e l i ho -pheha nama
w e t a k e p a s t h o u r two t o c o o k msat
'ue t o o k two h c u r s t o c o o k meatg
ii) *Re-nk-ile h o r a t s 5 - p e l i h o - l u l a s e t u l o n g
we take p a s t hour two to s i t on chair
'uz took two h o u r s t o s i t on t h e c n a i r *
T h e -a- i n t h i s c c n s t r u c t i o n is often r e f e r r e d t o a s
i n d e f i n i t e . It a p p e a r s #hen no a d j u n c t i n t h e fcrm o f
ob jec t o r a d v e r b i s u s e d w i t h the verD, e.g.
I) a. Ngoanaaa o-ema monyako 1
'The g i r l s t a n d s b y t h e d o o r y
b. Nqoanana 0-a-ema
' T h e g i r l i s s t a n d i n g *
i t i s a l s o used w i t h t h e n e q a t i v e forlss o f - i l e s u f f i x
6. T h e q u e s t i o n / p r o h i b i t i o n may b e s o m e t h i n q like:
u e t s a l n g h a e k a u - l u l a s e t u l o n g s a - k a t j e ?
You do w h a t a s i f y o u sit on c h a i r o f m i n e l i k e this
'why are you sitting on my c h a i r ? '
The term * h a b i t u a l 1 w i l l be u s e d i n a broad sense t o 3
r e l a t e d set of terms s u c h a s customary, f r e q u e n t ,
r e g u l a r , u s u a l , n o r m a l etc.
" p e r f e c t i v i t y i n d i c a t e s t h e view of a s i t u a t i o n a s a
single whcle , w i t h o u t d i s t i n c t i o n of t h e v a r i o u s
s e p a r a t e p h a s e s t h a t make u p t h a t s i t u a t i o n . "
9. T h i s is a c o n t r a c t e d form of t s o e t n o 'Neg coms+to".
10. Scae h i s t o r i c a l f a c t s s u c h a s t h o s e e x p r e s s e s b y
sentence 4 3 a re p r o b a b l y n o t sub j ~ c t t o s u b j e c t i v i t y .
It may b e i n t e r e s t i n g t o make a s u r v e y of
c o n v e r s a t i o n a l style a n d d e t e r m i n e w h i c h of t h e two
p a s t tenses ile+s&sg a n d stemtill. is commonly used. I t
4 8
is p o s s i b l e t h a t a f c r a t h a t i s f r 2 q u e n t l y u s e d may
s a s i l y r e p l a c e t h f o c e t h a t i s n o t .
11, T h e v e r b a l f o r c e of 'come f r o m 9 i s s t r o n g l y f e l t i n
t s o a - t e n s e s , F o r this r e a s c n t h i p r o g r e s s i v e f o r m sg -- is ccmmonly u s e d t o d i s t i n g u i s h the i ~ m t d i a t e t e n s ?
f r o m t h e 'ccme f rcm m e a n i n g * .
12. The c o r r e s p o n d i n g E n g l i s h s e n t e n c e f o r t h i s s e n t o n c 3 i s
a c c e p t a b l e , It seems p o s s i b l e t h a t i n S s s o t h o a n a c t i o n
f o l l c w i n g from t h e o r d e r n u s t b e u n d e r t a k e n w i t h i n t h s
saae time s F a n a s t h e o r d e r . The s e n t e n c a would b=
a c c e p t a b l s i f the c o n n e c t i v e u s e d i n d i c a t e s o m e t h i n q
c o n t r a r y t o e x p e c t a t i o n . T h u s : k e - n o - l d e t g g a-
tsamaee s- qr_sg-tsoa -pea '1 o r d e r e d h im t o g o b u t
h e has j u s t l e f t g i m p l y that t h e s p e a k e r expected t h e
other p e r s c n t o h a v e l e f t earl ier ,
CHAPTER 3
3 - 1 REBOTE PAST TENSE: /LE+JTZi!!
T h e remote tense c o n s i s t s o f the s u b j e c t prtf i x + i l e + s u k j e c t
p r e f i x f o l l o u e d by a v e r b , e,q,
62, Ke - i l e k a - r e k a
I p a s t I buy
'1 b o u g h t r
T h e r e seem t o be s i m i l a r i t y b e t w e e n t h i s f o r m a n d t h e
i m m e d i a t e p a s t s u f f i x 1 which c o u l d s u g g e s t some
t r a n f o r m a t i o n a l d e r i v a t i o n o f o n e f r o m t h e c t h e r . It m u s t b e
n o t e d , h o w e v e r , t h a t t h i s would b e a n i s o l a t e d c a s e i n ths
grammar o f S e s o t h c L a n g u a g e . T h e r e are n o o t h e r p r o c e s s e s w h i c h
i n v o l v e e i t h e r t h e s u f f i x f r o n t i n g o r ve rba i p c s t ~ o s i n q .
T h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n - i l e a n d ug= p a s t t e n s e s h a s n e v s r
b e e n clearly d e f i n e d . Doke and Uofokeng (1957:202 fn ii) r e g a r d
t h e l a t t e r t e n s e a s mcre e m p h a t i c t h a n t h e fcrmer. We c a o n o t
a c c e p t e m p h a s i s a s t h e primary d i s t i n c t i v e f e a t u r e b e t w e z n the
t u o tenses s i n c e t h e r e is n o p r a c t i c a l means of p r o v i n g t h a t one
form i s more e m p h a t i c t h a n t h e o t h e r ,
a h e n a s k e d a b o u t the d i f f e r e n c e between t h e t w o t e c s e s mcst
s p e a k e r s m e n t i o n t h a t o n e n a y use o n e o r ths o t h e r d e p e n d i n g o n
I.
how the q u e s t i o n i s f r a m e d . Y h e r e t h e question is framed on
i&e+stqg the acsuer will be framed ir t h e same way; a n d rihere
t h e q u e s t i o n is f ramed o n s t e e+ i l e t h e a n s w e r w i l l a f s c b c
f r a m e d o n stem+i&. It w i l l b e n o t i c e d , h o w e v e r , that there seem
to be r i o t h i n g a b s u r d i n answer ing one w i t h t h e o t h e r as may b s
noticed in the f o l l o u i n g s e n t e n c e s :
6 3 . Na u - i l e ua - r z k a l i b u k a ?
Q u e s t i o n you p a s t buy b o o k s
'Did you buy b o o k s ? '
f o r w h i c h the answer n a y be:
64(a) E, k e - i l e k a - li r e k a
Yes 1 p a s t them b u y
'Yes I b o u g h t t h e s e *
(b) E, ke - li - r e k i l e
Yes I t h e m buy p a e t
*Yes, I b o u g h t t h e m '
It h a s been s u g g e s t e d i n the p r e c e d i n q c h a p t e r t h a t t h e
d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e and - i l e tenses is c n e of remcteness
a n d p r o x i a i t y t o t h e p r e s e n t , T h i s suggestion derives from she
f a c t that one may be u s e d with a d v e r b s which refer t o present
while t h e o t h e r cannot. E . 9 ,
64 (a) J o h a n n e o-f i h l - i l e h o n a joale
J o h n A a r r i v e p a s t r i g h t now
' J o h n h a s a r r i v e d now'
(b) *Johanna o- i l e a - f i h l a h c n a j o a l e
J o h n A p a s t a r r i v e r i g h t now
'John a r r i v e d now*
B a n a c a b a - p h e h - i l e nama h o n a j o a l e
g i r l s A p a s t cook m e a t ncw
'The g i r i s ccoked a e a t n o v a
*Banana ba - i l e b a - p h e h a naaa h o n a j o a l e
qir l s A p a s t c o o k aeat r i g h t nou
'The g i r l s cooked m e a t nowJ
1 n a n a t t e m p t t c f u r t h e r F u r s u e t h e p r o x i m i t y / r e m o teness
d i s t i n c t i o n t h e f o l l o w i n g s e n t e n c e s were g i v e n t o s e so tho
s p e a k e r s so t h a t they c o u l d c h o o s c t h s one t h e y f cu r id most
n a t u r a l .
6 7 f a ) Ke - 'mon - e h a u t s o a n y a n e taona
I h i a see p a s t s h o r t w h i l e h e r e
'I saw h i m a s h o r t w h i l e a g o a
{b) Ke - ile ka- 'mona h a u t s o a n y a n e mona
I p a s t see s h o r t w h i l e here
'I saw h i m a s h o r t w h i l e a g o 8
68 (a) Re-rok - i l e l i b n k a h a u t s c a n y a n e ntona
We buy p a s t b o o k s s h o r t w h i l e h e r e
'We b o u q h t books a s h o r t w h i l e a g o *
(b) Be- ile ra- reka l i b u k a h a u t s o a n y a n e Dona
we p a s t buy books s h o r t w h i l e here
'We b o u g h t b o o k s a s h o r t w h i l e a g o '
T h e (a) a n d (b) s e n t e n c e s i n 67 a n d 68 r e p r e s e n t i m m e d i a t e a n d
remote t e n s e s r e s p e c t i v e l y . The t w o t e n s e s a r e u s s d w i t h a
p h r a s e w k i c h refers t o a s h o r t r h i l e a g o , All t h e s p e a k e r s
c o n s u l t e d c h ~ s e the ( a ) s e r t e n c e s (i;ilmeCiate p a s t ) a s t h z most
n a t u r a l , T h i s c h o i c e s u p p o r t s o u r v i ew t h a t i l e + ~ t e m i s a r e m o t e
t e n s e .
It h a s bee& n o t e d ir, t h e p r e c e d i n g c h a p t e r (2.3.4.1) t h a t
i t i s p o s s i b l e t o u s e immediate t e n s e w i t h a d v e r b s which r e f s r
t o y e s t e r d a y , day before y e s t e r d a y , l a s t weak month , y a a r etc.
It may b e a e n t i o n e d t h a t i t i s a l s o p o s s i k l e t c u s e t h e remcte
tense w i t h a d v e r b s wh ich r e f e r t o t h i s m o r n i n g a s may be n o t e d
i n t h e following s e n t e n c e s .
69, Re-ile r a 'mona h o s e n g t j e n a
we p a s t h i e see m c r n i n g this
*Re saw h i e t h i s m o r n i n q '
7 0. 0 - i le a -1i- fu~flana h o s e n g t j e n a
h e p a s t t h e n f i n d a o r n i n g t h i s
*He f o u n d them t h i s m o r n i n g '
One n a y v i e w t h e s e s e n t e n c e s a s a c o u n t e r a r g u m s n t t o o u r c l a i m ,
b u t t h i s d o e s not seen t o Le t h e case. It h a s a i r e a d y been n o t e d
t h a t p r c x i e n i t y is a s u b j e c t i v e term, s o t h a t i t Bay b e
i n f l u e n c e d by the s p e a k e r ' s a t t i t u d e , A l t h o u g h d i f f e r e n t
s p e a k e r s may u s e o n e o r t h e o ther t e n s e i n s imilar s i t u a t i o n s
d e p e n d i n q on the s p e a k e r s g a t t i t u d e , t h e r e seam t o b e reascn t o
believe t h a t the d i s t i n c t i c n between i m m e d i a t e a n d r e m o t e tenses
e x i s t s i n S e s c t h o , This i s s u p p o r t e d by t h e f a c t t h a t when
n a t i v e speakers a r e g i v e n s e n t e n c e s w i t h b c t h t e n s s s a n d
different a d v e r b s , cne r e c e n t , t h e o t h e r r e m o t e , mos t s p e a k e r s
p r e f 2 r the s e n t e n c e s i n which a n i m m e d i a t e t e n s e i s u s e d u i t h a
s e c e n t a d v e r b , T h e f o l l o w i n g s e n t e n c e s were q i v e n t o n d t i v e
s p e a k e r s .
71 ( a ) Ka j e n o Haria 0 - s e b e l i t s e h o - • ’ e t a kamoo
today H a r y A work p a s t t o p a s s in t h e r e
a - i l e n g a- s e b e t s a k h o e l i n g e-fetileng
p a s t work month passed
' T o d a y H a r y w o r k e d more much more t h a n she d i d last
m o n t h '
(b) K a j e n o Waria o - i l e a - s e b e t s a ho-fe ta ka-moo
T o d a y H a r y p a s t work t o p a s s i n t h e r e
a - s e b e l i t s e n g k h o e l i n g e - f e t i l e n g .
She work p a s t month p a s s e d
' T o d a y E a r y w o r k e d much more than s h e d i d l a s t month*
72 ( a ) S e l e l a o n g s e - f e t i l e n g re f umane m s k o t l a e-mengata
y e a r p a s t we find p a s t b a g s @any
h o - f e t a eo r e - i l e n g r a - e - f uaana l i l e m o n g t s e - t h a r o tse-
f e t i l e n g
t o p a s s t h a t we p a s t we it f i n d year three p a s s e d
*Last y e a r we g o t more b a q s t h a n we d i d three years
a g o ' (b) S e l e m o n g s e - f e t i l e n g re- i le r a - f u m a n a t u e k o t l a e-manqata
y e a r p a s s e d we p a z t f i n d b a g s Many
h o f e t a eo re- e - fumaneng l i l e m c n g tse-tharo tse-
f e t i l s c g
t o pass t h a t we thee f i n d y e a r s th ree p a s s e d
5 4
' L a s t y e a r we g o t more b a g s t h a n we d i d t h r e e y e a r s
ago ' non g h a l i N t s a n e c - t s o i l e b o t i c n e r e n g u a o b a n e atiie
no f u m a h a l i
fir Ntsane B leave p a s t t e a c h i n g y e s t e r d a y w h i l e wife
o a - h a e o - i l e a - t s o a l i l e n o n g t s e - h l a n o t s e - f e t i l e n q
o f h i s p a s t l e a v e y e a r s f i v a p a s s e d
*Hr N t s a n e r e t i r e d froa t e a c h i n g y e s t e r d a y , w h i l e h i s
wife r e t i r e d f i v e years ago1
n o n g h a l i Ntsane o - i l e atsoa b o t i c h e r s n q macbane , a t h e
a r Ntsane A p a s t leave t e a c h i n q , yesterday while
i a o f u m a h a l i o a - b a e o- tsc i le L i l e a o n q t s e - h l a n o t s e -
f e t i l e n g
wife of h i s l e f t F a s t y e a r s f i v e p a s s e d
' B r N t s a n e retired f r o m t e a c h i n g y e s t 2 r d a y u h i l e h i s
wife retired five years ago'
Raeba p a l o e a - b a t h o k a i l e n g ba- phekoloa s e l e m c n q se-
f e t i l eng
i f number of p e o p l e past cure-passivs y e a r p a s s e d
e-tse joa, h o - b o b e b e hc-f u ~ a n a palo e a - b a t h o Da-
p h e k o t s o e n g
k n o w - p a s s i v e i t e a s y t o f i n d num~er of p e o p l e A c u r e -
p a s s i v e p a s t b e k e n g &- fe t i l eng
week passed
' I f t h e numker o f p e o p l e c u r e d l a s t y e a r i s k n o w n , i t i s
easy to f i n d t h e number of p e o p l e cured l a s t week*
55
(b) Haeba p a 1 0 ea b a t h o h a - p t e k o t s o e n g selamcng se-f .i t i l e n g
if n u g b e r cf p e c ~ l e c u r e - p a s s i v a p a s t year passed
o - t s e joa ho-bobebe hc-f u e a n a p a l o e a - b a t h o b a i l e n g ba-
p h e k o l o a
know p a s s i v e i t i s easy t o find number of people p a s t
c u r e - p a s s i v e
b e k a n g e - f e t i f e n g
week p a s s e d
'If t h e number of p e o p l e c u r e d l a s t y e a r i s known, i t
is e a s y t o f i n d t h e number of p e o p i e c u r e d l a s t v e s k *
F o r a l l t h e s e n t e n c e s g i v e n i n 71-74, the n a t i v e s p e a k e r s
p r e f e r r e d the (a) s e n t e n c e s , As may be n o t e d , t h e (a) sentence
i n 71 is u s e d w i t h a d v e r b s k a - i e n l ' t o d a y s a n d IcbQelinq e - f e t i c q
' l a s t m o n t h ' . T h e f i r s t a d v e r b is used w i t h immdia te tense a n d
t h e l a t t e r w i t h reaote t e n s e , I n t h e (b ) s e n t e n c e t h e a d v e r b
k a d e n o ' t o d a y * is u s e d w i t h remote t e n s e and I c h g d i ~ g e-fetilgrg - --- ' l a s t m o n t h 8 is u s e d w i t h i m m e d i a t e tense. The sentences i n 7 2
a n d 73 f o l l o w t h e s a a e p a t t e r n i.e i m m e d i a t e t e n s e + r e c e n t
a d v e r b , r e r a o t e t e n s e + r e @ a t e a d v e r b f o r (a) : i m m e d i a t e
t e n s e + r e m o t a a d v e r b for (b ) , In 7 4 t h e o r d e r is s i g h t l y c h a n q e d .
Ye t h u s h a v e reaote t e n s e + r e a o t e a d v e r b , i m m e d i a t e tense + r e c e n t
a d v e r b f o r {a) a n d i m m e d i a t e t e n s e + r e m o t e a d v e r b , r e m o t e
t e n s e + r e c e n t a d v e r b fo r ( b ) ,
The r e s p o n s e q i v a n b y t h e native s p e a k z r s f o r t h e s s ~ t e n c o s
i n 71-74 i s c o n s i s t e n t w i t h c u r h y p o t h e s i s t h a t gtem+ile t ense
is a n immediate t e n s e w h i l e i le+stg& i s a remote tense.
We may n o t e . a t t h i s p o i n t , t h a t a number o f s t u a i 9 s
d e a l i n g w i t h Bantu m u l t i p l e $ p a s t systems d i v i d e t e n s e s i c t o
today, yesterday, and before y e s t e r d a y tenses {seo Givcn 1972,
Yald 1 9 7 6 ) . We h a v e a v o i d e d the u s e o f s u c h d i v i s i o n s s i n c e t h e
degree of p a s t n e s s i n a - -ile a n d j&= tenses does nct
c o i n c i d e w i t h t h e n , The terms immediate a n d r e m o t e h a v e been
f o u n d a p p r o s i a t e i n t h a t t h e y d o n o t d e n o t e a f i x e d length of
t h e f r c m t h e acment of s p e e c h . 2
I t has been n o t e d i n 3.1 a b o v e t h a t s t e m + i l e may b e u s e d
w i t h an a d v e r b which refer t o tbe p r e s e n t while ile+stem cannot.
This w i l l n o t be r e p e a t e d i n t h i s s e c t i o n ,
3 . 2 . 1 The ~l;pq+essivg gg *still8
A l t h o u g h t h e a n a l y s i s of a s p e c t w i l l be d e a l t w i t h i n
c h a p t e r 5 , i t is n e c e s s a r y , a t t h i s point, t o consider the
o c c u r r e n c e o f sa w i t h s tem+ile a n d i ts n c n - c c c u r r e n c s w i t h
&Je+ste$. c o n s i d e r t h e f o l l o w i n g s e n t e n c e s :
75(a) Thabo o - s a 3 - q a l - i l e rxlosebetsi ka-5
Thabo A s t i l l b e g i n ~ a s t work a t 5
* Thabo has sti l l begun vork a t 5'
Thabo A st i l l p a s t b e g i n work a t 5
* Thabo s t i l l beqan work a t S 8
76 (a ) BanaIia b a - s a p h e h - i l e nama
girls A s t i l l c o o k meat
* The g i r l s h a v e still ccoked meat*
(b) Banana b a - sa - i l e ba- heh ha nataa
g i r l s A still p a s t c o o k meat
The girls sti l l c o o k e d neat1
77 (a) L e - k h o e l i n g e - f e t i l e n g b a r u t u o a ba - sa - rek i1 .2 l i b u k a
tse- l i o g
w i t h month p a s s e d s t u d e n t s A sti l l buy p a s t b o o k s
o t h e r s
E v e n l a s t month s t u d e n t s b o u g h t a d d i t i o n a l b o o k s v
jb) * L e - k h o e l i n g e- f e t i l e n g b a r u t u o a b a - s a - i i e ba-rek?
l i b u k a tse- l i n g
w i t h month ~ a s s e d s t u d e n t s A s t i l l p a s t buy k o o k s
o t h e r s
* Even l a s t month s t u d e n t s b o u g h t a d d i t i o n a l books*
One may be t e m p t e d t o r e g a r d t h e d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n 4 1 ~ a n d = i l e t s n s e s a s cne o f p e r f e c t i v e v s i m p e r f e c t i v e r e s p s c t i v e l y . -- ~ h e c o o c c u r r e n c e r e s t r i c t i c n a g a i n s t gg a n d j k t e n s e w i l l t h u s
be a t t r i b u t e d t o p e r f e c t i v i t y , w h i l e o c c u r r e n c e w i t h =- t e n s e
will b e a t t r i b u t e d t o i m p e r f e c t i v i t y , T h i s c o u l d b e i n
a c c o r d a n c e w i t h a n o b s e r v a t i o n s a d e by Horissey (1973:65) t h a t
' s t i l l* is r e l a t e d t o p r o g r e s s i v i t y . We w i l l n o t i c e i n 5.1.1
t h a t both t e n s e s a r e p t r f e c t i v e . I
C f T h e c o o c c u r r e n c e r e s t r i c t i o n b e t w e e n sg a n d i l e - t e n s e i i a p p e a r t o s u p p o r t o u r v i e w t h a t t h i s tense i s remcte w h i h -ils I
t e n s e is a x i m r s e d i a t e t e n s e , G i v o n (1969:172-213) h a s f u l l y
d a m o n s t r a t e d i n t h e c a s e o f ChiBemba, a B a n t u L a n g u a g e , t h a t
t h e r e is a n i n c r e a s e of m a r k e d n e s s * w i t h t h e i n c r e a s e o f
r e m o t e n e s s f r o m t h e moment of s p e e c h , G i v c n nc tes t h a t a more
m a r k e d t e n s e / a s p e c t imposes sore r e s t r i c t i c n s o n its e n v i r c m e n t
t h a n a c o r r e s p o n d i r ; q less sarked o n e , R h i l e t h e a n a l y s i s of t h e
m a r k a d n e s s h y p o t h e s i s w i l l not b e p r o v i d e d i n p r e s e n t s t u d y , i t
seems p l a u s i b l e t o c o n c l u d e ( u s i n g f a c t s from a n o t h e r B a n t u
Language) t h a t t h e coocc u r r e n c e r e s t r i c t i o n between a n d i l g z
t e n s e is d u e t o i t s r e a o t e n e s s w h i l e i ts o c c u r r e n c e w i t h - i l e i s
d u e t o i m m e d i a c y of t h i s t e n s e . This v i e w s d y b e suppcrted b y
t h e f a c t t h a t t h e o t h e r i m m e d i a t e p a s t t e n s e ssoa- may b e u s e d
w i t h Sa e.q,
78. B e - s a - t s o a - ' a o n a kekenq e - f ~ t i l e n g
we st i l l p a s t h im see week p a s s e d
* Ws h a v e just seen h i m last u e e k '
3.2.2 gmaediate aqg p o t e t e n s e s iq ccrplern~gt s e n t e r c e s
T h e r e i s a g r o u F of verbs v h i c h f u n c t i o n i n twc d i f f e r e c t
s y n t a c t i c c a p a c i t i e s : a s r e g u l a r v e r b s n o t r e q u i r i n g
c b m p l e i i t e n t a t i o n a n d a s m o d a l v e r b s t a k i n g s e n t z n t i a l
complements, w i t h t h e c o r p l e m e n t v e r b t a k i n g t e n s e d f o r m . A
number o f t h e s f c o n s t r u c t i o n s show r e s t r i c t i o n s c n t h e
P occurrence of t h e reaote tense w i t h t h e c u ~ p l s i n e n t v z r b , %a t h u s E
h a v e the f o l l o w i n g a c c e p t a b l e ( a ) s e n t e n c e s b u t n o t (b) : $
7 9 {a) R e -f i h l - i l e a - r o k e t s - e
we a r r i v e past h e s i e e p p a s t
He f o u n d h im a s l e e p 8
b u t n o t
(b) * Re -fihl- ils a - i l e a - r o h a l a
v e a r r i v e p a s t h e p a s t sleep
we f o u n d h im a s l e e p '
80(a ) R e - f u n a n - e a - p h e h - i l e calsa
we find p a s t h e c o o k p a s t aea t
Ue found him cooking meat'
b u t n o t
(b) * Re funan-e a-ile a - p h e h a
we f i n d p a s t h e p a s t cook meat
We found him h a v i n g c o o k e d a e a t *
Ona may t h i n k t h a t t h e akove r e s t r i c t i o n is d u e tc t h 2
d i f f e r e n c e of form of t h e t e n s e s u s e d w i t h t h e modal v e r b a n d
t h a t w i t h the c o m p l e m e n t ve rb . It w i l l ke n o t i c e d , h o w e v e r , t h a t
t h i s r e s t r i c t i o n does not hold r h e n o t h e r i m m a d i a t e t e n s e s a r s
u s e d a s may b e n o t e d b y t h e a c c e p t a b i l i t y o f t h e f o l f o w i n g $sg&
t e n s e :
81. R e -turnan-e a - s a - t s o a - p h e h a n a n a
we f i n d past h e s t i l l cock a e a t
We f o u n d t h a t h e had just c o o k e d m e a t g
B e - f i h l - i l e a-s a- t s o a r s b a l a
we arr ive p a s t h f s t i l l Fast sleep
* We a r r i v e d j u s t a f t e r h e s l e p t 1
a b o v e examples s u g q e s t t h a t t h e statema
c o n v e n t i o n s which bar c e r t a i n t e n s e s f r c m
T h e n t of bl
cccuring
ockirig
w i t h
c o m p l e m e n t v e r b s will make reference t o remoteness o r i m m e d i a c y
o f t e n s e s .
S u m e a r p --
The distinction s a d ~ between g&em+ile a n d i l e + s t e ~ i s o n e
of p r o x i m i t y a n d r e m c t e n e s s r e s p e c t i v e l y . It h a s been n o t e d t h a t
an immediate tense aay be used w i t h a d v e r b s wh ich refer t o the
p r e s e n t a n d t h e p a s t while t h e r e m o t e t ~ n s e can c n l y b e u s t d
w i t h a d v e r b s referrinq t o the p a s t . We h a v e a l s o r .o t fd t h a t
although i m m e d i a t e p a s t tense n a y b e u s e d w i t h r e n c t e adverbs ,
a n d remote p a s t t e n s e w i t h r e c e n t a d v e r b s , nios? s p e a k e r s p r e f e r
t o u s e reaote t e n s e s v i t h remote a d v e r b s a n d immediate tenses
w i t h r e c e n t a d v e r b s . We have a l s o n o t e d t h a t t h e i ~ m s d i a t e p a s t
t e n s e may occur w i t h progressive a 'still while t h e remote
p a s t c a n n o t , T h i s h a s been a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e m a r k e d n e s s o n ths
part of remote t e n s e s ,
Notes to c>g& 3 ---- 1 , T h e t e r m is b o r r o w e d f r o ~ Maid ( 1 9 7 6 ) . It re fers t o a
tense system e x p r e s s i n g nore t h a n cne degree o f
p a s t n e s s .
2 The meaning of t h e s e terms may b e compared w i t h t h a t cf
i m p l i c i t c c a p a r a t i v e s s u c h a s 'many* w h i c h a s s e r t a
comparison b e t w e e n some observed i n s t a n c e a n d a n
average v a l u e (see John Robert Ross A note o n
i m p l i c i t c o m p a r a t i v e s 1 i n L i n g u i s t i c I n q u i r y 1 , 3,
1970: 363- 3 6 6 ) . 3 This should n o t he confused uith c o n t r a c t e d form cf ~g
*alreadye +a,
4 . The use of t h i s term i n Given's a n a l y s i s d o e s no t soem
t o i m p l y t h a t t h e meaning of rhe unmarked c a t e g o r y
enccmpasses that cf i t s marked c o u n t e r p a r t .
C h a p t e r 4
C o n s t r u c t i o n s with = + v e r b h a v e been referred t o as
*iraperfect tense* by J a c o t t e t (1965:118); a n d a s 'past
c o n t i n u o u s tense4 by Guaa (1971:175), Doke a r d Nofokenq
{1957:252) refer t o _ne a s *a p ~ r f e c t for rs used i n Fast time*,
The d i f f e r e n t tenses formed with pg a r e d e s c r i b e d a s ( a ) p a s t
c o n t i n u o u s f o r a w e s e n t (Ic) F a s t perfect f o r ~ g + ~ e x f e c t and
( c ) pluperfect f o r ne+i le+ stela the three tens+s ir. a-c a r e
i l l u s t r a t e d b y the f o l l o w i n g s e n t e n c e s :
83. S e l l o o-ne a - r e k a l i b u k a
S e l l o A c o n t i n u o u s buy b o o k s
'Sello was b u y i n g b o o k s g
8 4 . S e l l o o-ne a- r e k - i l e l i b u k a
S e l l o A p a s t buy p a s t b o o k s
'Sello h a d bought b o o k s '
85. S e l l o o-ne a - i l e a-reka l i h u k a
Se l l c A p l u p e r f e c t p a s t t u y books
' S e l l o h a d b o u g h t b o o k s *
The ~ e a n i n g of the tersa ' i m p e r f ~ c t ' a s used b y J a c o t t e t
cannot be d e d u c e d f rom h i s a n a l y s i s . I n d e a l i n g w i t h ' p r e s e n t
inperfect' (ae+present) J a c o t t e t s a y it means t h a t t h e a c t i c n cf
i the v e r b was b e i n g dcne a t a c e r t a i n t i n e . A l t h o u g h J a c c t t e t
u s e s t h a tera ' t e n s e y w i t h i m ~ e r f e c t ( x h i c h we a s s u m e refors t o
i m p e r f e c t i v e i n t h e s e n s e d e f i n e d b y Ccmrie (1976: 16) h i s u ~ e of
' b e i n g d o n e 8 s u g q e s t s t h a t h e r e g a r d s g g a s a n a s p e c t u a l marker.
T h e m e a n i n g b e c o m e s e v e n a c r e c o a p l i c a ted i n t h e a r a l y s i s
o f ( i m p e r f e c t o f the perfect' (rie+stem+ile), J a c o t t e t s a y s i t
B e a n s t h a t t h e a c t i o n c f t h e v e r b had a l r e a d y been done a t a
c e r t a i n time. One would e x p e c t t h a t s u c h c o n s t r u c t i o n s would b e
r e q a r d e d a s p e r f e c t i v e , b u t t h e p r e s e n c e o f t h o a s p e c t u a l m a r k e r
n e p e r s u a d e s t h i s q r a a a a r i a n to r e g a r d s u c h c o n s t r u c t i o n s a s -- i n p e r f ect,
Guma u s e s t h e term ' p a s t c o n t i n u o u s * , t h e term whoss
d e f i n i t i o n i s n u t a p p a r e n t i n h i s a n a l y s i s , A s he s t a t e s , this
t e n s s i n d i c a t e s t h a t a n a c t i o n w a s i n p r o c e s s a t some time i n
the p a s t , I t is not clear whether t h e term ' c o c t i n u o u s l h a s t h e
same m e a n i n g a s ' p r o y r e s s i v e ' i n E n g l i s h cr w h e t h e r i t h a s a
d i f f e r e n t m e a n i n g , C o n t i n u c u s n e s s i s def inea b y C o n r i e (1976: 33)
a s i m p e r f e c t i v i t y t h a t i s n o t o c c a s i o n e d by h a b i t u a l i t y . I t w i l l
be n o t e d l a t e r i n o u r d i s c u s s i o n t h a t t h e gje= t e n s e , t h o u g h
unmarked8 f o r h a b i t u a l i t y , may have a h a b i t u a l m e a n i n g , i d h a t e v e r
t h e m e a n i n g of c o n t i n u o u s a s u s e d b y Guma may b e , i t s e s m s
p o s s i b l e t h a t he r e g a r d s ne a s a n a s p e c t u a l marker,
Doke a n d B o f o k e n g ' s a n a l y s i s a p p e a r s t o b e a s confusing a s
t h e a n a l y s e s a b o v e . It i s n o t c l e a r i n t h e f i r s t p l a c e w h a t they
mean b y ' a p e r f e c t f o r a u s e d i n t h e past'. T h e term ' ~ e r t e c t '
6 4
h a s o f t e n b e e n u s e d i n t e r c h a n g e a b l y with * p e r f e c t i v e 8 i n
t r a d i t l c n a l grammars. B s s u m i r g that this term i s u s a d t c maan
* p e r f e c t i v e * b y Doke a n d n o f o k e n g , i t would b e c o n t r a d i c t o r y t o
r e g a r d p e r f e c t i v e form a s u s e d i n t h e f o r m a t i o n of c o n t i n u c u s
t e n s e .
One c o u l d a l s o a s s u m e t h a t is a * p e r f e c t g form f c r t ~ h i c h
there is a c o r r e s p o n d i n g n o n - p e r f e c t pp (i.e. Stsm w i t h c u t - i l e ) . T h i s c o u l d b e p o s s i b l e s i n c e a number of verbs e n d i n g i n
n a t a k e -e a s p e r f e c t ( o u r i n m e d i a t e p a s t ) e . g . b o n a >ton-e -- (see* f a n a > fan-e ' g i v e ' kena > k e n - e * e n t e r 8 . One will n c t i c e ,
however, t h a t there i s n c c o r r e s p o n d i n g t a n s a / a s p e c t i n f o r
w h i c h qs may be r e g a r d e d a s p e r f e c t . We t h u s have :
8 6, Ke-ne k e - r e k a
I p a s t I buy
*I was bu y i n q *
b u t not
87, * ke- n a k e - r e k a
I p r e s e n t I buy
for '1 am b u y i n g '
An i n c o n s i s t e n c y s i m i l a r t o t h a t found i n J a c c t t e t a s
a l so found i n Doke acd l Y o f c k e n g * s a n a l y s i s , T h u s &g
a n a l y s i s i s
is regardad
a s a s p e c t u a l m a r k e r b e f o r e t h e s i m p l e f o r m ( p r e s e c t ) , a n d a s
tense m a r k e r b e f o r e p a s t t e n s e s .
4 , l . l zg gg a g p e c t u a l pg &qsg marker?
T h e q u e s t i o n t h a t t h e reader may a s k h i a s e l f i s w h e t h e r t h e
d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n 2s a n d c t h e r p a s t t e n s e s is one of a s p e c t o r
t e n s e . I t i s c lea r from t h e a b c v e d i s c u s s i o n t h a t t h e p r o b l e m
h a s n o t been r e s o l v e d , It i s d o u b t f u l t h a t t h i s c a n b e e a s i l y
r e s o l v e d s i n c e t h e r e is nc c l e a r - c u t b o u n d a r y between t e n s e a n d
a s p e c t . Aspect i s o f t e n r e g a r d e d a s more b d s i c % b a n t e n s e i n
t h a t c h i l d r e n whose n a t i v e l a u g u a g e h a s b o t h master a s p e c t more
q u i c k l y t h a n t h e y do t e n s e (see L y o n s l977:705). The case o f &g
a p p e a r s t o b e d i f f e r e n t i n t h a t i t may e x p r e s s i ~ p e r f e c t i v i t y
a n d t e n s e . I t is t h u s u n c l e a r t o me w h e t h e r i n cases where one
form has both a s p e c t u a l a n d t e n s e mean ing t h e c h i l d r 3 n w i l l
n a s t s r a s p e c t u a l m e a n i n g f i r s t , sc t h a t we c a n r e g a r d a s p e c t u a l
m e a n i n g a s more b a s i c . T h i s p r o b l e m w i l l n c t a p p l y t c S e s o t h o
o n l y , b u t o t h e r l a n g u a g e s i n w h i c h t h e r e are d i f f e r e n t p a s t
t e n s e f o r m s w h i c h may e x p r e s s c e r t a i n a s p ~ c t u a l d i s t i n c t i o n s .
T h e claim made i n t h e d i s c u s s i o n which f o l l o w s i s that gg
i s a p a s t t e n s e fcrm, I n a s f a r a s tense relates t h e time o f t h e
e v e n t t o t h e moment of s p e a k i n q t h e ne form, l i k e t h e p a s t
t e n s e s e x a m i c e d before, refers t o t h e tiiua p r i o r to t h e moment
of s p e e c h a n d t h u s q u a l i f i e s a s a p a s t t e n s e . T h u s the s e n t e n c e :
88. B a n a ba -ne b a - j a lebese
c h i l d r e n A p a s t e a t m i l k
'The c h i l d r e n were e a t i n g ilk'
r e f s r s t o an e v e n t which took p l a c e b e f o r e t h e moment o f
s p e a k i n q , Compare t h e f o l l o w i n g p a s t t e n s e :
89. Bana b a - i l e ba- ja lebese
c h i l d r e n A p a s t e a t mi lk
'The ch i ldrer i a t e i u i l k i
T h e t r a n s l a t i o n g i v e n for the sentence i n 88 s u g g e s t s t h a t
petstem t e n s e is ~ r c g r e s s i v e , I t m u s t b e n o t e d t h a t t h e m e a n i o g
of p r o g r e s s i v e i n l a n g u a g e s where it h a s b e e n studied is s o
e x t e n d e d that i t i s i m p o s s i b l e t o s p e a k of basic p r o g r e s s i v e
mean ing . S c h e f f e r (117 5: 17-40] h a s n o t e d ( a n d t h o r o u g h l y
criticized) t h e f o l l o w i n g m e a n i n g s a t t r i b u t s d t o p r o g r e s s i v e i n
E n g l i s h : t h e p r o g r e s s i v e expresses d u r a t i o n ; d e n o t e s a c t i c n i n
p r o g r e s s ; forms a time- frane; i t is u s e d d e s c r i p t i v e l y a n d
s u b j e c t i v e l y ; h a s an i a p e r f e c t i v e c h a r a c t e r ; s x p r a s s e s t e m p o r a r y
v a l i d i t y o r h e i g h t e n teaporary r e l e v a n c e etc. Cri t ic isms o n thcl
t r a d i t i o n a l d e f i c i t i o n s cf p r o g r e s s i v e dre a l s o i n C c m r i e
( 1976: 33-40] i i o i s e t s c h l a e g e r f1976:28-35) and Lyons (1977:713-
19); all of w h i c h p o i n t t o t h e n e e d f o r a g e n e r a l m e a n i n g r h i c h
may i n c l u d e p r o g r e s s i v i t y and v a r i o u s other aeanings .
I n r e g a r d i n g t e n s e a s basic to ge forms we Bay l is t t h e
v a r i o u s a e a n i n g s f o u n d i n t h i s t e n s e . T h i s c l a s s i f i c a t i o n i s
c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e a n a l y s i s cf the p a s t tenses examFned
earlier. T h e r e does n o t appear t o be a n y sound r e a s o c f o r g i v i n g
the s e m a n t i c l a b e l ' p r o g r e s s i v e q tc forms b u t n o t
# p e r f e c t i v e q t o i l e - f o r m e x a a i n e d e a r l i e r , Ye w i l l i n d i c a t e ir,
t h e n e x t c h a p t e r t h e t e n s e s which h a v e p e r f e c t i v e a n d
i m p e r f e c t i v e m e a n i n g s .
T h e r e are s o m e s e m a n t i c a n d s y n t a c t i c c o r r e s p o n d e n c e s
b e t w e e n t h e p r e s e n t t e n s e a n d the past t e n s e i n ns w h i c h s u g g e s t
t h a t t h e t e r se i n 4s is t h e F a s t tense c c r r e s p o n d i n g t c the
p r d s a n t tenso. In a d d i t i o n t o t h e c h a r a c t a r i s t i c F r e n e n t / p a s t
tense m e a n i n g , t h e t w o tense forms a r e unmarked f c r h a b i r u a l
mean ing . T h u s a l t h o u g h t h e s e n t e n c e s i n 90 a n d 91 h a v e n o o v e r t
h a b i t u a l m a r k s r , t h e y may h a v e h a t i t n a l meaninq:
90. n a l i m o a-bolaea b a t h o
c a n n i b a l s A kill g e c ~ l e
' C a n n i b a l s k i l l p ~ o p l e '
9 1 Plaliro a - n e a - b o l a e a b a t h o
c a n n i b a l s A p a s t k i l l p e o p l e
' C a n n i b a l s u s e d t o k i l l ~ e o p l e '
The t w o t e n s e s nay be u s e d w i t h h a b i t u a l m a r k e r a s f o l l o w s :
92. Halimo a-ee a - b o l a e e b a t h o
c a c n i b a l s A h a b i t u a l l y k i l l p e c p l e
' C a n a i b a l s u s e d t c k i l l p e o p l e '
93. E a l i n o a - n e a-ee a - b o l a e e b a t h o
c a n n i b a l s A p a s t h a b i t u a l l y k i l l p e o p l e
' C a n n i b a l s u s e d t o k i l l p e o p l e '
idhen the u n m a r k e d s e n t e n c e s i n 90 a n d 91 a r e u s e d w i t h i n d e x i c a l
a d v e r b s s u c h a s Bqna h a l e ' r i g h t now' a n d maobana ' y e s t e r d a y '
r e s p a c t i v e l y , t h e h a b i t u a l m e a n i n g i s n e u t r a l i z e d . This is
u n d e r s t a n d a b l e s i n c e h a b i t u a l h a s n o specific time r e f e r e n c e .
6 8
~ u t t h e u s e d of i n d e x i c a l a d v e r b s w i t h t h e s e n t ~ n c e s m a r k e d for
n a b i t u a l i t y results in u n a c c e p t a b l e sentences a s f o l l o w s :
94. *Balimo a-ee a - b o l a e e b a t h o h o n a j o a l e
c a n n i b a l s h a b i t u a l l y k i l l p e c p l e this ecment
+ * C a n n i b a l s h a b i t u a l l y k i l l people t h i s momsnt '
95. * E a l i a o a - n e a - e e a - k o l a e e b a t h o macbane
c a n n i b a l s past h a k i t u a l l y k i l l p e o p l e y e s t e r d a y
* ' C a n n i b a l s used t o k i l l p e o p l e y e s t e r d a y *
I t is important, a t this point, t o no te t h s m e a n i n g
difference t h e a a r k e d a n d the u n m a r k e d h a b i t u a l s e n t e n c e s a b o v e
( r e p e a t e d here as 96 and 9 7 ) .
96. f laliao a-ne a- b o l a e a b a t h o
c a n n i b a l s p a s t k i l l p e o p l e
' C a n n i b a l s u s e d to k i l l p e o p l e 8
97 . Baliao a - n e a-ee a - b o l a e e batho
c a n n i b a l s p a s t h a b i t u a l l y k i l l p e o p l e
* C a n n i b a l s u s e d t o k i l l p e o p l e 8
T h e s e n t e n c e s i n 96 a n d 97 c a n n o t be used interchangeably.
I m a g i n e s case of a c h i l d vho h a s o f t e n h e a r d about t h e
c a n n i b a l s b u t h a s n e v e r b e e n a b l e t o f i n d t h e exact m e a n i n g o f
t h e word ' c a n n i b a l s 1 s i n c e t h e word is o f t e n u s e d t o
refer t o p e o p l e uho l i k e meat t o s u c h an extent t h a t t h e y may
f i g h t o v e r it. T h e implication is t h a t t h e s e p e o p l e like meat t o
s u c h a n extent t h a t i n the a b s e n c e of meat t h e y may k i l l a n d s a t
other p e o p l e . The c h i l d may a s k the i ao ther w h a t the c a n n i b a l s
are, f o r which the m o t h e r will a n s w e r :
98. nalimo k e - b a t h o b a - o e n g ka-ja nama ea-batho
c a n n i b a l s i t is ~ e o ~ l e past eat meat o f p e o p l e
' c a n n i b a l s a r e p e o p l e who a t e human flash'
b u t n o t :
99. Halimo k e - b a t h o b a - n e n g ka-ee ba-j& nama e a - b a t h e
c a n n i b a l s it is p e o p l e past h a b i t u a i l p e a t m e a t of
p e o p l e
' C a n n i b a l s are pecple who used t o e a t huiuan f lesh8
T h e s e n t e n c e i n 98 is a p p r o p r i a t e i n t h a t i t c h a r a c t e r i z s s
c a n n i b a l s a s 'people ea te r s* whereas sentence i n 9 9 r e f e r t o
f r e q u e n c y of human-flesh e a t i n q . 2
C o n s i d e r a g a i n a case of a c h i l d who h a s n o t i c e d t h a t a
number of een i n his h c m e - v i l l a g e g o t o rork i n t h e m i n e s a n d
asking h i s m o t h e r a b o u t h i s dead f a t h e r :
100. 'Hg, na n t a t e o - n e a-ee a - e e g a u t e n g ?
Mother q u e s t i o n f a t h e r p a s t h a b i t u a l l y go t o t h e g c l d
' r l o t h e r , uas my father u s e d t o g o i n g t o t h e m i n e s ?
For which the n o t h e r ' s a n s w e r w i l l be:
101. C he , n g o a n a k a o - n e a - r u t a s e k o l o n g s e - p hahaman y
n o my c h i l d p a s t t e a c h school h i g h
'No, my c h i l d , h e was t e a c h i n g a t n i g h s c h o o l '
b u t n o t :
102. Che , n g o a n a k a c - n e a-ee a - r u t ? s e k o l o n g s e - p h a h a m e n g
No my child p a s t h a b i t u a l l y t e a c h s c h o o l h i g h
'No ay c h i l d , h e used t o t e a c h a t h i g h s c h o c l *
70
T h e s e n t s n c e i n 1 0 1 s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e childrs f a t h e r was a
professional t e a c h e r wheraas 102 tells us t h a t h e f r e q u e n t l y
t a u g h t a t h i g h s c h o c l t h o u q h be s i g h t h a v s been a q u a l i f i e d
d o c t o r . T h u s t o 1 0 2 b u t n o t 101 o n e may add:
103 . . . . Laho ja a - n e a - s e n a l e n y o l o l a - botichere
a l t h o u g h p a s t Neg h a v e l e t t e r o f t e a c h i n g
. . A l t h o u g h h e h a d nc t e a c h e r s c e r t i f i c a t e '
A s imilar ' c h a r a c t e r i z i n g r f e a t u r e h a s been n c t e d b y
U o i t s h l a e g e r 11976:36) i n t h e case of ~ a g l i s h non- p r o q r e s s i v e
forms. u h i l e t h e m e a n i n q cf ~ r o q r e s s i v e may d i f f e r i n dif f s r en t
l a n g u a g e s , ue could sap t h a t t h e examples s u c h a s above i c d i c a t ~
t h a t ge+stem s e n t e n c e s are n o t k a s i c a l l y p r o g r e s s i v e .
He may note a t t h i s p c i n t t h a t b o t h t h e present a n d th?
ne+stem s e n t e n c e s may be u s e d w i t h progressive forms a s fcl lows: ----- 104. Bana ba-sa- ja l e b e s e
c h i l d r e n A still e a t m i l k
*The c h i l d r e n as s t i l l e a t i n g m i l k *
105. Bana b a - n e ba-sa- j a l ebese
c h i l d r e n A p a s t s t i l l e a t milk
'The c h i l d r e n were still e a t i n g m i l k l
The u s e of p r o g r e s s i v e a 's t i l l* with @-ten= appears to bs
c o u n t a r a r q u a e n t a g a i n s t t h e v i e w that ne is in itself a
p r o g r e s s i v e m a r k e r . It may be a r g u e d , however , t h a t 32 i s
r e d u n d a n t i n gg s e n t e n c e s , It w i l l be n o t i c e d , h o w e v e r , that
there is a d i f f e r e n c e i n m e a n i n g b e t u e e n the s e n t e n c e s with acd
those w i t h o u t p r o g r e s s i v e m. C o n s i d e r t h e f c l l o w i n g sentencss:
D 106. Ha k e - f i h l a b a n a t a - n e ba - ja lebese E
when I a r r i v e c h i l d r e n ~ a s t e a t miik
'when I a r r i v e d t h e children were e a t i n g m i l k 8
107, Ha ke- f i h l a b a n a . k a - n e ba - sa - ja lebese
when 1 arrive c h i l d r e n p a s t st i i l e a t m i l k
'ghen I a r r i v e d , t h e c h i l d r e n were s t i l l e a t i n g milk'
T h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e t u o s e n t e n c e s a b c v s i s t h a t s o n t e n c z
107 p r e s u p p o s e t h a t t h e c h i l d r e n were e a t i n g m i l k b e f o r e I cams
w h e r e a s s e n t e n c e 106 h a s n c s u c h res supposition.
4.1.3 ~ ~ f f e r e n c e s / s i m i l a r i t ies b e t w e e n n e t s t e g 2nd cther p a s t
t en s 2 ~ --
He h a v e a l r e a d y m e n t i o n e d t h a t t h e ne+stem like o t h e r p a s t
t e n s e s , refers t o t h e e v e n t t h a t t o o k p l a c e b e f o r e t h e moment o f
s p e a k i n g , L i k e o t h e r p a s t t e n s e s n e + s t e m may b e f o u n d i n
c o n p l e m e n t s e n t e n c e s a s follows:
Ba- u t l o - i l e h o r e morena o -ne a - k u l a
t h e y h e a r past t h a t c h i e f p a s t be-ill
' They h e a r d t h a t t h e chief was ill9
B a - u t l o - i l e h o r e m o r e n a G-ife a - k u l a
t h e y hear p a s t t h a t c h i e f p a s t b e - i l l
*They h e a r d t h a t t h e c h i e f was illg
Ke k h o l o a hcre o- i l e a - t saaaea
I t h i n k t h a t p a s t qo
'I t h i n k t h a t h e l e f t *
Ke k h o l o a hcre c-ne a - t s a n a e a
I t h i n k t h a t p a s t g o
'1 t h i n k t h a t h e uas l e a v i n g *
T h e iueaning d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e s e n t e c e s with ne+- a b o v e
i s r a t h e r d i f f i c u l t t o c h a r a c t e r i z e , t h o u g h e v e r y s p e a k e r of t h e
l a n g u a g e knows when t o u s e o n e a n d n o t t h e other. T h e d i f f e r e n c e
w i l l f o r the moment b e c h a r a c t e r i z e d i n tarms of Gr ice8s
c o n v e r s a t i o r a l maxims, ( G x i c e 1975: 46) q u a l i t y b e i n g t h s
s p e c i f i c m a x i s i n this c a s e . It is p o s s i b l e t h a t a n a c c o u n t
w h i c h c h a r a c t e r i z e t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n terms cf tense and a s p e c t
w i l l b e f o u n d la ter .
The maxi@ r e q u i r e d t o a c c o u n t f o r t h e m e a n i n g d i f f e r e n c e
b e t w e e n (a) a n d (b) s e n t e n c e s i n 109 r e a d s : "Eo n o t s a y t h a t f o r
w h i c h yon l a c k a d e q u a t e e v i d e n c e " . I n u t t e r i n g 109(a) the
s p e a k e r d o e s n o t c o m m i t h i m s e l f t o h a v i n g w i t n e s s e d t h a a c t u a l
' g o i n g a w a y 8 , w h i l e 109 (b) c o u l d n o t be u t t e r e d unless t h e
s p e a k e r h a s seen x l e a v e . T h i s v i e w i s s u p ~ c r t e d b y the f a c t
t h a t i t is p o s s i b l e t o a d d the p h r a s e a b e f c r e I came* tc 109(a)
b u t n o t
110 (a)
(b)
(b) a s f o l l o w s :
Ke k h o l o a h o r e o - i l e a-tsamaea p e l e k e - f i h l a
I t h i n k t h a t he p a s t go b e f o r e I a r r i v e
'1 t h i n k that h e left b e f o r e I a r r i v e d *
*Ke k h o l o a hore o - n e a-tramaea p e l t k e - f i h l a
1 t h i n k t h a t h e p a s t g o C e f o r e I a r r i v e
*'I t h i n k t h a t h e was l e a v i n g b e f o r e I a r r i v e d '
( H a b i t u a l r e a d i n g p c s s i b l e )
7 3
The t y p e of c o m p l e x i t y which may i n v o l v e the use o f Grice's
maxiins s h o u l d not be u n d e r e s t i r i a t ~ d . T h e s e n t e n c e s i n 109 h a v e
b e e n eas ie r t o h a n d l e s i n c e t h e y i n v o l v e c c n v e r s a t i o n b e t w e e n A
a n d B a b o u t a t h i r d F e r s o n C. S e n t e n c e s s u c h a s 1 0 8 w h i c h
i n v o l v e c o n v e r s a t i o n between A a n d B a b o u t w h a t a third person C
has heard a b o u t a f o u r t h p e r s o n D may n o t b e a s easy t o
c h a r a c t e r i z e .
T h e s e n t e n c e s i n 1 0 8 a n d 1 0 9 h a v e the ~ e s t g g a n d ile+stein
t e n s e s a s c o m p l e u t e n t s . It is a l s c p o s s i b l e t c h a v e t h e s e tenses
i n t h e m a i n s e n t e n c e s a s fcllows:
111. Re-ne ke -bona h o r e o - h a l e f i l e l e h a a-ne
I past I see that h e b e - a n g r y a l t h c u g h h e p a s t
a-leka h o - i p h a p a n y a
h e t r y t o p r e t e n d
**I was s e e i n g t h a t h e i s a n q r y a l t h o u g h h e p r e t e n d e d
n o t t o beq
112. Ke- i l e ka-bona h o r e w h a l e f i l e leha a -ne
I p a s t I see t h a t h e b e - a n g r y a l t h c u g h h e - p a s t
a-leka ho- iphapan y a
h e t r y t o p r e t e n d
'1 n o t i c e d t h a t h e was angry a l t h o u g h h e p r e t e n d e d no$
to be.'
It is d i f f i c u l t t o d e c i d e w h e t h e r u n a c c e p t a b i l i t y of the
E n g l i s h t r a n s l a t i c n f o r s e n t e n c e s s u c h a s 1 1 1 i s d u e t o
i n c o m p a t i b i l i t y of p r o q r e s s i v i t y w i t h t h e v e r b s of i n e r t
c o g n i t i o n (Leech 1971:21) o r d u e t o a r e s t r i c t i o n t h a t s e r i t e n c e s
which arE p m j r e s s i v ~ c a n n o t o c c u r as ~ a i n s e n t e n c e s i n
c o m p l e m e n t s e n t e n c e s , I f t h e l a t t e r is t h e case i t may be an
i n d i c a t i c n t h a t S e s c t h o ne+E&g i~ n o t b a s i c a l l y p r o q r e s s i v e .
It m u s t a l s o b e n o t e d t h a t n e + s t s m l i k e o t h e r p a s t t e n s e s
may ae u s e d w i t h y43g c l a u s e s a s f o l l o w s :
1 l3(a) Hoshoeshoe o-ne a - f a l l e l a ~ h a b a - B o s i u h a n t a t a i e
n o s h o e s h o e A p a s t move tc T h a k a B o s i u when h i s f a t h e r
a-bo laoa ke -ma l imc
b e - k i l l e d by c a n n i b a l s
' B o s h c e s h o e was n tcv ing t c T h a b a - B o s i u when h i s f a t h e r
was k i l l e d by t h e c a n n i b a l s '
(b) H o s h o e s h o e o - i l e a-f a l l e l a T h a b a - B o s i u ha n t a t a g e
R o s h o e s h o e A p a s t move t c T h a b a - B o s i u w h e n his f a t h e r
a - b o l a o a k e - a a l i a o
b e - k i l l e d by c a n n i b a l s
f i o s h c e s h o e s o v e d t o T h a h a - B o s i u when h i s f a t h e r was
k i l l ~ d by t h e c a n n i b a l s g
T h s (a) s e n t e n c e i n 113 s u g g e s t s t h a t m o s h o e s h o e ' s f a t h e r was
killed by t h e c a n n i b a l s d u r i n g h i s movement t o ' I haba -Bos iu . The
s e n t e n c e i n (b) s u g g e s t t h a t t h e m o v e m e ~ , t t o T h a b a - E o s j u
f o l l o w e d t h e d e a t h o f Moshoesho~'~ fat her.
L e e c h (1971: 17) g i v e s a s im i l a r c o n t r a s t f o r t h e English
p r b g r e s s i v e a n d n o n - p r o g r e s s i v e s e n t e n c e s . Hs o b s e r v e s t h a t
p r o g r e s s i v e a s p e c t h a s t h e e f f e c t o f s u r r o u n d i n g a p a r t i c u l a r
e v e n t by a ' t ~ s y o r a l f r a m e * . T h i s a c c o u n t , t h o u g h a c c u r a t z . h a s
been c r i t i c i z e d by W o i s e t s c f i l a s g e r (1976:30) who man t i o r i s t h a t
e x a m p l e s s u c h a s t h o s e m e n t i o n e d d o n o t p r i m a r i l y i l l u s t r a t e a
p o i n t a b o u t n e i q h b o u r i n g t e n s e forms, b u t r a t h e r , s o m e t h i n g
about the semantic p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e t e ~ p o r d l c o n n e c t i v e whes.
U n t i l a s t u d y o f S e s c t h c t e m p o r a l c c n n e c t i v e s h a s b e e n
u n d e r t a k e n , we r e g a r d ~ v e r l a p a n d s u c c e s s i o n a s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c
m e a n i n g o f -+stem a n d ile+stem t e n s e s r e s p e c t i v e l y .
R e f e r e n c e h a s a l r e a d y b e e n made t o o c c u r r e n c e cf qg a n d
p r o q r a s s i v e sg. n e n t i o n h a s a l s c k e e n made o f c c c u r r e n c e cf ~q
with immediate p a s t t e n s e s , a n d i t s n o n - o c c u r r e n c e w i t h i l e + s t 2 m
t e n s e . Bcre d i s c u s s i o n o n this w i l l b e f o u n d i n t h e n e x t
We h a v e a l r e a d y n o t e d t h a t ne_ may a p p s a r w i t h h a b i t u a l 22
w h i l e ths o t h e r p a s t t e n s e s d c n o t . T h i s q u e s t i o n t o o w i l l b e
c o n s i d e r e d i n t h e next c h a p t e r .
T h e u s e o f p r c q r e s s i v e ~a w i t h ge+stem g r o u p s this t e n s e
w i t h t h e i a a e d i a t e t e n s e s i n t sca- a n d r i l e c n the o n e s i d e a n d
i l e + s t e s o n t h e o p p o s i t e s i d e . T h e u s e o f ~ e + s t e g u i t h ' d o
h a b i t u a l l y * s e p a r a t e s ne+stea from t h e rest of p a s t t e n s e s . he
c o o c c u r r e n c e r e s t r i c t i o n with t e m p o r a l a d v e r b i a i s r e fe r r ing t o
t h e present g r o u p s g e + s t e m t e n s e w i t h t h e t e n s e i n ile+stem.
Wo'te t h e f o l l o n i n q e x a m p l e s :
I l 4 ( a ) *i3anana b a - n e ba- heh ha nama h o n a j o a l e
g i r l s A p a s t cook m e a t r i g h t ncu
'The g i r l s were ccoking z e a t t h i s doinent'
1 1 4 ( b ) *Banana b a - i l e h a - p h ~ h a namaa hona j ca l e
g i r l s A p a s t cock m e a t r i g h t now
'The g i r l s c o o k e d m e a t r i g h t now*
T h e use o f & e + s t e m c c n s t r u c t i o n s w i t h t e n p o r a l a d v e r b s r e f e r r i n g
t o f u t u r e time m u s t b e n o t e d , C o n s i d e r t h e following e x a m p l e s :
1 1 5 . J o b a n n e o - n e a - f i h l a h o s a s a h o s e n g empa
J o h n A p a s t a r r i v e tomcrrow morninq b u t
joa le ntata'e o - i t s e a - t l e kamoso
now h i s f a t h e r s a i d h e c o n e d a y after t o m o r r o w
' J o h o h a d p l a n n e d t o come t o a c r r c w m o r n i n g b u t h i s
father h a s ordered him to come day a f t e r t o m o r r o w o
116 , Be-ne re-ea H a s e r u h o s a s a , j o a l e r a k h a l i
we p a s t 90 n a s e r u tcmorrcw n o u a u n t
o-se a - t l a k o a n o
s h e a l r e a d y coare here
'We i n t e n d e d g o i n g t o B a s e r u b u t now o u r a u n t is ccmicg
over *
S e n t a n c e s such a s 115 a n d 116 e x p r e s s ~ l a n s , i n t e n t i o n s , w i s h e s ,
h o p e s e t c . , and s h o u l d not b e c o n f u s e d w i t h the t e m p o r a l u s s cf
ne+&,eg i n which r e f e r e n c e i s ntade t o an even t t h a t t o o k p l a c e . --- T h e occurence of ge+s$s w i t h f u t u r e a d v ~ r b i a l s s h o u l d n o t h e
r e g a r d e d a s a n a r g u ~ e n t a g a i n s t the u s e o f pg+steiu a s p a s t tense
m a r k 3 r .
T h e term ' P a s t P e r f e c t ' which h a s b e e n u s e d b y e a r l i e r
s e s o t h o g r a m m a r i a n s a p p e a r t o be i n a p ~ r o p r i a t s s i n c e i t d e r i v e s
f r o a t h e c h a n g e of t e n s e o f t h e 'perfect f o r m ' f o r l a n g u a g e s
s u c h a s E n g l i s h i . e , h a s > had , T h e r e a d e r r i l l n c t i c e t h a t t h e
t h z e s tsnses & g g p + g t g g , stgul. a n d i l e+s t=g may be u s e d w i t h
t h e 42 morpheme s o t h a t i t iz d i f f i c u l t t o f i n d a term which
c o v s r s t h r e e of t h e e . P a l l c v i n g a r e e x a m p l a s i n w h i c h t h e three
t e n s e s a r e u s e d with g s
1 l7 (a ) Ha l e t s a t s i l e - l i k e l a r e - n e r e - t s o a t l c h a Mase ru
when sur A d i s a p p e r s we p a s t l e a v e B a s e r u
* A t s u n s e t we h a d just l e f t M a s e r u 8
(b) Ha l ~ t s a t s i l e - l i k e l a re-ne r e - t l o h - i l e H a s o r u
when s u n A d i s a p p e a r we F a s t we l e a v e p a s t H a s e r u
* A t s u n s e t we h a d l e f t M a s e r u *
(c) Ha l z t s a t s i l e - l i k e l a r e - n e re-se r e - i l e
when s u n A d i s a p p e a r we p a s t we a l r e a d y we p a s t
r a - t l o h a n a s e r u
we l e a v e M a s e r u
' A t s u n s e t we h a d a l r e a d y l e f t H a s ~ r u ~
1 1 8 (a) Ba-no b a - s a - t s o a - u t l c a here L e r a t a o - t s o e r o s
t h e y p a s t t h e y p a s t h e a r t h a t L e r a t a b e - i m p r i s c n e d
'They h a d j u s t h e a r d t h a t L e r a t a was i m p r i s o n e d a
(b) Ba-ne b a - u t l c - i l e hore Lerata o - t s o e r o e
they p a s t t h e y h e a r p a s t t h a t Lerata b s - i m p r i s c n e d
'They h a d h e a r d t h a t L e r a t a i s i m p r i s o n e d 8
78
For r e a s c w no t y a t c l e a r to me i&+ietfg tefise requires ac
c b l i g a t o r y u s e of ~g * a l r e a d y 8 a s may be n o t e d i n sentence
1 1 7 (c) . one Ptay t h i n k t h a t t h e o p t i o n a l u s e o f Se w i t h &gs+i&g
is d u e t o r e d u n d a n t u s e o f ' a l r e a d y a w i t h ' p e r f e c t J a s n c t e d by
T r a u g o t t a n d H a t e r h o u s e ( 1 9 6 9 t 2 9 8 ) i n t h e c a s e o f E n g l i s h (sea
a l s o H i r t l e 1977) . We c o u l d a s s u a e f o r t h a tims be ir .g t h a t
t h i s is t h e case s i n c e we h a v e n o t e d some s i m i l a r i t i e s betwro,n
t h e i m a e d i a t e tense i n s temfib a c d t h e ~ n g l i s h p r f s c t (2.3.5).
The tegpe i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e event refer red t c t cok
p l a c e b e f o r e a n o t h e r e v e n t i r t h e p a s t . T h u s i n santences s u c h
a s 117 , t h e ' d e p a r t u r e ' t o c k ~ l a c f b e f o r e s u n s e t . T h a t t h e e v e n t
referred t o b y ge+gast p r e c e d e s t h e time of another event i n t h s
p a s t m a y b e i n d i c a t e d b y i t s i n c o m p a t i b ~ l i t y w i t h t e m ~ o r a l
c o n n e c t i v e s w h i c h i n d i c a t e time a f t e r , a n d i t s c o m p a t i b i l i t y
w i t h those t h a t i n d i c a t e time befcre. E.g,
1 1 9 {a) L e t s a t s i l e - n e l e - s a - t s o a - l i k e l a p e l e r e - t l o h a
s u n A p a s t it p a s t d i s a p p e a r b e f o r e we l e a v e
P l a s e r u
H a s e r u
'The sun had j u s t s e t t f f o r e we l e f t maserul
( b ) L e t s a t s i l e - n e l e - l i k e t s e p e l e re- t l o h a M a s e r u
s u n A p a s t it d i s a p p e a r F a s t before v e l e a v e H a s e r u
* T h e s u n h a d set kefore we l e f t M a s e r u *
(c) L e t s a t s i l e - n e l e - i l e l a - l i k e l a p e l e r e - t l o h a Haseru
s u n A p a s t it p a s t i t d i s a p p e a r b e f o r e we l e a v e P l a se ru
'The s u n h a d set tefore we left M a s e r u '
compare
* L e t s a t s i l e - n e l e - s a - t s c a - l i k s l a
k a a o r a re- t l c h a M a s e r u
a f t e r we l e a v e n a s e r u
'The s u n had set a f t z r w e l e f t P l a s e r u *
* L e t s a t s i le-re l e - l i k s t s e ka inora r a - t l o h a Maseru
s u n A p a s t it d i s a ~ p a r p a s t a f t e r we l e a v a H a ~ e r u
* T h e sun h a d se t a f t e r we l e f t M a s e r u *
* L e t s a t s i l e - n e le - i le l a - l i k e l a kamora r e - t l o h a
Mase ru
s u n A p a s t it p a s t i t d i s a p p e a r a f t e r we l e a v e U a s e r u
'The s u n h a d s e t a f t e r we l e f t H a s e r u 4
The sense of immediacy i s stil l ielt e v e n when t h e
immediate t e n s e s a r e u s e d w i t h qg t e n s e . T h u s t h e ne+%+qp
s e n t e n c e s such a s 1 1 7 ( a ) a r e f e l t t o b e n e a r e r t o t h e r e f e r e n c e
p o i n t t h a n i t is t h e case with ~;e+stem+jle s e n t e n c e i n l l 7 ( t ) .. A l t h o u g h i m m e d i a c y Hay not be a s s t r o n g l y f e l t w i t h 222
s t e n + & & e t e n s e a s it is w i t h n e + t s o a t e n s e , mos t s p e a k e r s prefer
th& u s e o f t h e i m m e d i a t e t e n s e c o m p o u n d s w i t h r e c e n t a d v e r t i a l s
a n d r e m o t e t e n s e c o m p o u n d s w i t h r e m o t e a d v e r b i a l s . T h u s given
80
s e n t e n c e 121 i n w h i c h a recent a d v e r b l a l is u s e d w i t h
n e + i m m z d i a t e tense a n d r e m o t e adverbial witn n e + r e m o t e tense;
a n d sentence 1 2 2 i n w h i c h r ecen t a d v e r b i a l i s used u i t h
n e + r e m o t e t e n s e a n d remcte a d v e r b i a l w i t h n e + i m m e d i a t e tense
most speakers pre fe r 121,
1 2 1 . S e l e a o n g s e - f e t i l e n g re-ne r e - fuman-e m e k o t l a e-menqata
y e a r p a s s e d we p a s t we f i n d p a s t b a g s many
ho-feta eo r e - n e n g re- i l e r a - e - f u m a n a
t o pass t h a t p a s t we p a s t t h e m f i n d
l i l e m o n g tse - t h a r c tse-f e t i l e n g
we p a s t them f i n d years three passed
'Last y e a r we had f o u n d aore b a g s t h a n we h a d t h r ~ s
y e a r s a g o 9
122. s e l e m o o g se-fet i leng re-ns re-ile r a - f u m a n a mekotla
year p a s s e d p a s t p a s t we f i n d bags
e-aengata h o feta eo r e - n e n g r e - e - t u m a n e
many t o p a s s t h a t we p a s t them f i n d
l i l e m o n g tse- t h a r c tse-f e t i l e n g
y e a r s t h r e e p a s s e d
'Last year ve h a d f o u n d more b a g s t h a n ue had three
years a g o 8
arasressise Sn I s t U
Ne-compound tenses whoso s i m p l e c c u n t e r p a r t s c a n b e u s e d u i t h sa
m a p t h e m s e l v e s be u s e d w i t h sq toc ; a n d tho o n e s whose s i m ~ l e
t e h s e s c a n n o t be u s e d u i t h gg c a n n o t e . g .
123. Re-nf r e - s a - t s o a feta f l a s e r u
v e p a s t F a s t pass M a s e r u
'Oe h a d j u s t passed ? l a s e r u a
(b) Re-ne re-sa-fet- i le Plaseru
we p a s t p a s s p a s t Mase ru
'He had o n l y p a s s e d a a s e r u s
(c) *Re-ne re-sa-ife ra-feta f l a s e r u
we p a s t p a s t p a s s B a s s e r u
*i?e still g a s s e d n a s e r u *
X ~ g ~ r a l g d v e r bs
A l t h o u g h i m m e d i a t e t e n s e s may, on t h a i r own, be u s e d w i t h
an a d v e r b w h i c h refer t o t h e p r e s e n t , ne+imaediate tecses c a n n o t
be u s e d with s u c h a d v e r b s , e.g.
124 (a ) *0-ne a - t s o a - b u a le - rona h o n a j oa l e
h e pa s t p a s t speak w i t h u s r i g h t now
'He had just s p o k e n t o u s t h i s moment*
(b ) *O-ne a - b u i l e le-rona h o n a joa le
h e p a s t s p e a k p a s t w i t h u s right ccw
'He had s p o k e n w i t h u s t h i s moment '
The use of pi?+-t w i t h t e m p o r a l a d v e r b s deserves further note.
H o r n s t e i n (1977 :530) n o t e s a m k i g u i t y i n t h e f c l l c w i n g t e n s e - c u m -
a d v e r b English sentence:
125. T h e s e c r e t a r y h a d e a t e n a t 3 p.m, which may be
~ a r a p h r a s e d i n t o :
(a) T h e time t h a t t h e secretary a c t u a l l y a t e was 3 p.m.
(b) Tbe s e c r e t a r y h a d a l r e a d y e a t e n by t h e time 3 p.m.
rolled a r o u n d ,
8 2
T h e r e seem t o b e n o a e t i q u i t y w l t h neL~sgg+ile a n d
ce+ile+gteg - t e n s e s i n Sesotho, L e t u s c o n s i d e r t h e f o l l c u i n g
s e n t e n c e s :
126. T h e k o o - n e a - n o - e l e l i k a l a t s e - t h a r o ka-3
Theko A p a s t d r i n k F a s t c a n s t h r e e a t 3
* T h e k o h a d d r u n k t h r e e cans o f b e e r a t t h r e e *
1 2 7 . Thekc o - n e a- i le a-noa l i k a l a t s e - t h a r o ka-3
T h e k o A p a s t p a s t d r i n k c a n s t h r e e a t 3
*Theko h a d d r u n k t h r e e c a n s o f beer a t t h r e e *
The s e n t e n c e s i n 1 2 6 and 127 t e l l u s t h a t t h e time a t w h i c h
T h e k o d r a n k beer was 3 0 8 c l o c k . I n o r d e r t o express the meac inq
t h a t t h e d r i n k i n g t o o k p l a c e b e f o r e three we have tc use zg
* alreadyt as f o l l o w s :
128. Theko o - n e a-se a - n o - e l e l i k a l a t s s - t h a r o ka -3
T h e k o A p a s t a l r e a d y d r i n k p a s t c a n s three a t 3
* T h e k o h a d a l r e a d y d r u n k t h r e e c a n s of b e e r a t 3'
129. T h e k o o-ne a-se a - i l e a -noa l i k a l a tse- t h a r o k a 3
T h e k o p a s t a l r e a d y p a s t d r i n k c a n s t h r e e a t 3
' T h e k o h a d a l r e a d y t h r e e c a n s o f b e e r a t t h r e e '
The s e n t e n c e s such a s 120 a n d 1 2 7 s h o u l d n o t be r e g a r d e d a s
a c o u n t e r a r g u m e n t tc our e a r l i e r v i e w t h a t netnas t i n d i c a t s s
t h a t t h e e v e n t r e f e r r e d t o t o o k p l a c e before a n o t h e r event i n
t h e p a s t . S e n t e r , c o s s u c h a s t h e s e are s e r a a n t i c a l l y d e p e n d e n t on
o t h e r s e n t e n c e s (see S m i t h 1978:51 f o r t h e a n a l y s i s o f
c o r r e s p o n d i n g E n g l i s h s e n t e n c e s ) . L e t u s c o n s i d e r a sentence il?
w h i c h t h e time s p e c i f i e d b y the a d v e r b i a l i s t h e time a t w h i c h
t h e o t h e r p a s t e v e n t t o o k � lace:
730. *tIa r e - f i h l a ka-3, Theko o-ue a - i i e a - n o a
when we a r r i v e at 3 T h e k c p a s t p a s t d r i n k
l i k a l a t s e - t h a r o
c a n s t h r e e
' A t t h r e e vhen we a r r i v e d T h a k o h a a d r u n k t h r e e c a n s of
c o m p a r e
131, Ha r e - f i h l a ka-3, T h e k o c-ne a-ss a - i l e a -noa
when we a r r i v e a t 3 T h e k c p a s t a l r z a d y p a s t drink
l i k a l a tse- t h a r o
c a n s t h r e e
' A t t h r e e when ue a r r i v e d T h e k o h a d a l r e a d y d r u n k t h r ~ e
c a n s of beers
T h e s e n t e n c e i n 130 is u n a c c e p t a b l e b e c a u s e it ider i t i f l o s tho
time o f t h e o t h e r p a s t e v e n t a s t h e saae a s that of
t e n s e , When t h e o v e r t m a r k e r ' a l r e a d y * is used, t h e s e n t e n c e
i s a c c e p t a b l e ,
Summary -----
Ne is regarded a s p a s t tense m a r k e r instead of a s p e c t u p l -- m a r k e r a s ea r l i e r g r a a m a r i a n s suggest, L i k e ile+s&g& t e n s e ,
n e + s t e m cooccurs w i t h adverbs w h i c h r e fe r t o t h e p a s t t i m e but ------- n o t the o n e s r e f e r r i n g t o t h e p r e s e n t time. U n l i k e e t h e r Fas t
tsnses, n e + s t e w B a y h a v e h a b i t u a l mean ing i n i s o l a t i o n , a n d a t
t h e same t i n e c o o c c u r w i t h h a b i t u a l m a r k e r . I n ' w h e n ( s e n t e n c ~ s
84
ne+stem e x p r e s s e s time over lap w h i l e t h e cther tenses e x ~ r e s s ----- s u c c e s s i o n , Ehen &g is used u i t h c ther past tenses it i n d i c a t e s
that t h e e v e n t referred t c b y p w q g t took place before a n c t h e r
e v e n t i n t h e p a s t . As a result, t h i s tense c a n n o t b e u s e d d i t h
t e m p o r a i c o n n e c t i v e s wh ich refer t o time after.
1 . Unmarked h e r e aeans absence of o v e r t marking.
2 . A sentence s u c h a s t h i s may be a p p r o p r i a t e , f o r
i n s t a n c e , where somecne knows that during L i f a q a n e some
p e o p l e (say Zulu) frequently a t e human f l e s h ; and i n
speakers o p i n i . c n they a r e not tc b e character ized as
' people eatingg.
CHAPTER 5
He have qiven a list of s o m e a s p e c t u a l m a r k e r s i n 1.2.3.
B s f o r e e x a m i n i n g some c o o c c u r r e n c e r e s t r i c t i o n s b e t w e e n these
m a r k e r s a n d p a s t t e n s e s w e h a v e t o d s t e r m f n e soms s e c o n d a r y
a s p e c t u a l i ~ p l i c a t i o n s inherent i n d i f f e r e n t t e n s e s . Our
a n a l y s i s w i l l be b a s e d on t h e o p p o s i t i o n s e s t a b l i s h e d b y
P r i e d r i c h (1974: 35) . P r i e d r i c h s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e t h r e e m o s t
b a s i c o p p o s i t i o n s i n terms o f w h i c h a v a r i e t y of a s ~ e c t u a l
s y s t e n s c a n b e a n a l y z e d a re d u r a t i v e vs n o n d u r a t i v e , c o m p l e t i v e
v s n o n c o m p l e t i v e , and s t a t i v e v s n o n s t a t i v e . I n o r d e r t c be
c o n s i s t e n t w i t h o u r t e r a i n o l o g y we w i l l u s 3
perfect ive/ i taperfect ive i n s t e a d o f completiv~/noncompletive
o p p o s i t i o n (we i g n o r e the d i s t i n c t i o n saae b a t w e 9 n c c a p l e t i v e
a n d p e r f e c t i v e a s p e c t (see Y o i s e t s h l a e g e r 1976: 28) . A number of w o r k s on a s p e c t h a v e made i t c l e a r t h a t t h e
e x a m i n a t i o n of a s p e c t m u s t b e c a r r i e d out i n terms cf i n t r a -
s e n t e n t i a l r e l a t i o n s n o t b y l o o k i n g a t t h e v e r b i n i s o l a t i c n
(see V e r k u y l 1972 , F r i e d r i c h 1 9 7 4 ) . A B o r e d e t a i l e d t r e a t m e n t of
a s p e c t v o u l d r e q u i r e u s t o g o i n t c t h e q u e s t i o n of
i n t e r d e p e n d e n c e t h a t h o l d s b e t w e e n a s p e c t o n t h e o n e h a s d a n d
nuaber, c o u n t a b i l i t y , s p e c i f i c i t y of reference a n d n e g a t i c n c n
tfie o t h e r hand . O u r t r e a t m e n t w i l l b e s e l e c t i v e r a t h e r t h a n
c o m p r e h e n s i v e ; we w i l l e x a m i n e a r e l a t i v 5 l y small number of
p o i n t s t h a n i t w o u l d b e case w i t h a n e l a b o r a t e s t u d y on a s p e c t
a s s u c h .
An e x a c t d e f i n i t i o n o f ~ e r f e c t i v e / i m p e z f e c t i v e o p p o s i t i o n
IS d i f f i c u l t t c f i n d . Coetrie (1976: 16) n o t e s that ~ e r f e c t i v i t y
i n d i c a t e s t h e v i e w of a s i t u a t i o n a s a s i n g l e w h o l e w i t h o u t
d i s t i n c t i o n o f t h e v a r i o u s s e p a r a t e p h a s e s t h a t make up t h a t
s i t u a t i o n , w h i l e i a p e r f e c t i v i t y r a y s e s s e n t i a l a t t e n t i o n t o t h e
i n t e r n a l s t r u c t u r e of t h e s i t u a t i o n . As M a c a u l a y (1978: 4 17)
c o r r e c t l y o b s e r v e s , t h e a b o v e d i s t i n c t i o n i s rather c p a q u e .
Comrie 1 a t e r e x p a n d s t h e d e f i n i t i c n o f p e r f e c t i v i t y t o i n c l u d a
' s i t u a t i o n s t h a t a re i n t e r n a l l y c c m p l e x ) s u c h a s t h o s e that l a s t
f o r a considerable p e r i c d of time, or i n c l u d e a nuniber o f
d i s t i n c t i c t e r n a l p h a s e s p r o v i d e d t h a t t h e whole s i t u a t i c n i s
s u b s u m e d as a s i n g l e whole . Ue w i l l r e g a r d c o r a p l e t i o n a s ac
e s s e n t i a l c h d r a c t e r i z a t i . c n of p e r f e c t i v i t y a n d a s s u m e t h a t a
t e n s e w h i c h nay b e u s e d w i t h t h e f o r m q e t p l l a ' e n d b y ' is
p e r f e c t i v e w h i l e t h e o n e t h a t c a n n o t be used w i t h t h i s f o r m i s
i m p e r f e c t i v e , L e t u s c o n s i d e r t h e f o l l o w i n g s e n t e n c e s :
132(a) * Ke q e t e l e t s e k e sa-tsca- p h e h a
f e n d e d I p a s t c o c k
11 h a v e e n d e d u p c c o k i n g '
(b ) * K e - q e t e l e t s e k e s a - t s o a - t s a m a e a
1 e n d e d I p a s t w a l k
* I e n d e d going*
1 3 3 (a)
134 (a)
135 (a)
136 (a)
'1.3 7 (a)
Ke-gete le tse ke- p h e h - i l e
* 1 e n d e d I cook F a s t
I ended c c o k i n q *
k e q e t e l e t s e ke - t sama- i l e
I e n d e d I w a l k p a s t
*I ended q c i n g l
Ke-qeteletse ke-ile ka-pheha
I ended I past c o c k
I ended c o o k i n g i
Ke-qe teletse ke-ile ka- t samaea
1 ended 1 walk
I ended g o i n g *
* Ke qeteletse ke-nts ke-pheha
I ended I p a s t c o c k
* I ended c o o k i n q ,
* Ke-qeteletse ke-ne Ice- tsamaea
I ended I p a s t walk
* I ended going*
* K e - q e t e l e t s e k e - n e ke- s a - tsoa-pheha
I ended I p a s t s t i l l c o o k
1 ended just c o c k i n g '
* Ke- qeteletse ke-ne ke-sa-tsoa-tsamaea
f ended I past I still walk
'1 ended just g c i n g *
*Ke-qeteletse ke-ne ke -pbeh- i l e
I e n d e d I p a s t I cook p a s t
I e n d e d h a v i n g c o o k e d *
* Ke-q~teietse ke-na ke- t saaa i le
I e n d e d I p a s t w a l k p a s t
* I e n d e d h a v i n g g c n e '
* K e - q e t e l e t s e ke-ne k e - i l e ka-phehd
I e n d e d I p a s t I p a s t c o c k
* I e n d e d h a v i n g c o o k e d '
* Ke-qeteletse k e - n e ke-ile k a - t s a m a e a
I eni ied I p a s t p a s t walk
'1 e n d e d h a v i n g g c n e '
T h e s e n t e n c e s i n 132 are e x a m p l e s of tsoa p a s t t e n s e ; 133
stem+ile p a s t t e n s e ; 1 3 4 i l e + s t e n p a s t tense ; a n d sentecces 135 ------- examples of ~ + s t e m past t e n s e . S e n t e n c e s 1 3 6 - 1 3 8 are e x a a p l e s
of agfpgsf, 2-2s . We may c o n c l u d e f r o a the a c c e p t a b i l i t y cf
s e n t e n c e s 133 a n d 134 t h a t stem+i&g a n d i1.2+s_tg tenses a r e
p e r f e c t i v e ; w h i l e u n a c c e p t a b i l i t y o f s e n t e n c e s 132 , 135, 136 ,
137 a n d 138 s u g g e s t t h a t &soa+stgr, =+stem , a n d qg+~&& tef,s=
a r e i m p e r f e c t i v e .
The p e r f e c t i v e / i ~ p e r f e c t i v e d i s t i n c t i c n n o t e d abcve may b e
f u r t h e r d e n o n s t r a t e d by t h e use c f t h e fram* ' h e was , . . hut d i d n o t f i n i s h ' . T e n s e s w h i c h d o n o t f i t i n t c t h i s frame w i l l b e
r e g a r d e d a s p e r f e c t i v e .
1 3 9 ( s ) 0 - t s o a - f i e l a 'ae h a a qeta 1
h e p a s t sweep a n d Neq f i n i s h
* Ha h a s just s w e p t a n d has n o t f i n i s h e d '
( b ) * 0 - f i e t s e 'ne h a a qeta
h e s w e e p p a s t a n d Neg f i c i s h
'He swept ard did r c t finish*
* 0-ile a - f i e l a 'me h a a q e t a
h e p a s t sweep a n d Nsg f i n i s h
* HS swept a n d d i d n o t f i n i s h 1
0- n e a - f i e l a (ae h a a q e t a
h e p a s t s w e e p a n d Neg f i n i s h
* He was s u e e p i n q a n d d i d n o t finis
0 - n e a - t s o a - f i e l a 'me a =a q e t a
h e p a s t p a s t s w e e p a n d Neg f i n i s h
'He h a d j u s t swept aod had not f i n i s h e d a
0 - n e a - f i e t s e 'me a-sa- q e t a
h e p a s t s u e e p pas t and Neg f i n i s h
* H e h a d s w e p t a n d had n c t f i n i s h e d s
0- n e a - i l e a - f i e l a *me a-sa-qera
h e p a s t F a s t s u e e p and Beg f i n i s h
H e h a d s w e p t and had n c t f i n i s h s d '
As may b e n o t e d f r o m t h e sentences i n 139, tsoa+stent , ne+stem
and qe+east are i m p e r f e c t i v e w h i l e ~te in+i le a n d ile+ste& a r e
pzrfective.
5.1.2 p q r a t i v e 12 n c n d u r a t i v g ~ p p g p i t i s
T h e d i s t i n c t i o n between d u r a t i v e a n d nondurativa a s p e c t
e x a m i n e d i n t h i s s e c t i c n p r i m a r i l y c o n c e r n s the p o s s i b i l i t y o f
s e n t e n c e s i n d i f f e r e n t t e n s e s t o contain d u r a t i o n a l adverbials
s u c h a s mkp e-telglg 'f c r a l o n g time1 Jetsggsi l o h l a ' f o r t h e
I w h o l e d a y ' etc. We w i l l i n d i c a t e t h a t there is a - ^ L e l a t i c n c f
c o h e s i o n between c e r t a i n t e n s e s a n d d u r a t i o n a l a d v e r t i a l s
s i m i l a r t o t h a t b e t w e e n t e n s e a n d t e ~ p o r a l a d v e r k i a l s . We d c n c t
d e n y t h a t d u r a t i o n a l f e a t u r e s may b e i n h e r e n t i n l e x i c a i itenis
a s s u c h r a t h e r t h a n t h e i r g r a ~ u i a t i c a l form. N o t e t h ? f o l l c u i ~ q
e x a m p l e s :
140 * J o h a n n e o - f i h l - i l e nakc e- t e l e l e
J o h n a r r i v e p a s t time l o n g
J o h n a r r i v e d f o r a l o n g t ime8
141 * S e l l o o - q a l - i l e m o s e b e t s i h o - f i h l e l a n a n t s i b o a a *
S e l l o b e g i n p a s t work u n t i l a f t e r n o c n
* S e l l o b e g a n w o r k u n t i l a f t e r n o o n '
c o m p a r e
1 4 2 T h a b o o - b u - i l e n a k o e-telels
T h a b o s p e a k p a s t time l o n g
* T h a b o s p o k e f o r a l c n g time*
143 F e k i s i o - l u t s - e moo ho-f i h l e l a m a n t s i b o e a
P e k i s i sit pst t h e r e u n t i l a f t e r n o o n
* P e k i s i s a t t h e r e u n t i l a f t e r n o o n 9
T h e u n a c c e p t a b i l i t y cf s e n t e x e s 140 and 141 c a n n o t be
a t t r i b u t e d t o c o o c c u r r e n c e r e s t r i c t i o n s bztween ~ i e m + i l e tense
and d u r a t i n a l a d v e r b i a l nafo * f o r d l o n g time' a n d $21
f i h l e l q g & o t d b o e a ' u n t i l a f t e r n o o n * s i n c e the a c c e p t a b l e
s e n t e n c e s 142 a n d 143 i n g&ggz&le t e n s e a r e a l s o u s e d w i t h the
same d u r a t i o n a l a d v e r b i a l s . T h e u n a c c e p t a b i l i t y of 140 a n d 1 4 1
92
ref lect l a c k of d u r a t i o n a l f e a t u r 9 s i n v e r b s s u c h a s f i h l a
' a r r i v e * u a l a 'begin' ~ g ~ f h 1 b r e a k 8 a tc .
We are aware t h a t d u r a t i o n a l a d v e r ~ i a l s h a v e a s e l e c t i o n a l
r e l a t i o n s h ~ p t o a c o n f i g u r a t i o n cf c a t e g o r i e s r a t h e r t h a n c n e
l e x i c a l i t e r a s p r o p o s e d b y L a k o f f a n d Ross (see V e r k u y l
1971:18) ,
we are a l s o aware t h a t v e r b s s u c h a s c h c a t l a ' b r e a k ' may b e
d u r a t i o n a l o r n o n d u r a t i o n a l d e p e n d i n g o n w h e t h e r t h e o b j e c t NP
is s i n g u l a r o r p l u r a l . We thus have :
144. H a r i a o - c h o a t l - i l e l i i ~ c n e l e t s a t s i l o h l e
n a r y break p a s t mirrcrs d a y whole
*PIary b r o k e the m i r r o r s for t h e whcle d a y o
b u t n o t
145 , *flaria o - c h o a t l - i l e s e i p o n e l e t s a t s i l o k l e
Mary break p a s t mirrcr d a y w h o l e
'nary b r o k e a mirror f o r a l o n g t ime1
The s e r t e n c e i n 1 4 4 d o e s not n e c e s s a r i l y express f r e q u e n c y . It
may h a v e a s i n g l e event r e a d i n q . l h u s i f n a r y w e n t on a r a m p a g 2
a g a i n s t m i r r o r s s h e e i g h t d e c i d e t o go c n b r e a k i n g u n t i l a l l a r*
brokerr.
T h e r e a re s e v e r a l o t h e r f a c t o r s wh ich may a f f e c t d u r a t i o n .
one of t h e s e is t h e d i f f e r e n c e between t h e c c n s t i t u e n t s
o c c u r r i n q as subject. E1gl
1 4 6 (a) * ~ o e t i o - f i h l - i l e h o f i h l e l a m a n t s i h c z a
v i s i t o r a r r i v e p a s t until a f t e r n o o n
' The v i s i t c r a r r i v e d u n t i l a f t e r n o c n n
It) Baeti ba-f i h l - i i e hof i h i e l a m a n t s i ~ o e a
v i s i t o r s a r r i v e p a s t u n t i l a f t e r n o o n
' V i s i t o r s a r r i v e d u n t i l a • ’ ternoong
A s the r e a d e s a a y n o t i c e , we a r e l e f t w i t h a r a t h e r liaited
c h o i c e of ' n e u t r a l ' l e x i c a l i t e a s . An a t t e n a p t w i l l b e mads t o
f i n d sentences which may n o t be s t r o n g l y a f f e c t e d b y t h z f a c t o r s
m e n t i o n e d above , so t h a t i t s h o u l d be p o s s i b l e to c l a i m that
tense is t h e o n l y c o n t r i b u t i n g f a c t o r t o t h e c o c c c u r r e n c e
r e s t r i c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e v e r b a n d the d u r a t i o n a l a d v e r b .
*Banana b a - s a - t s o a pheha nama nako e- te le le
g i r l s A p a s t c o o k mea t time l o n g
'The g i r l s j u s t c c o k e d itifat f o r a l o n g time'
*Banna b a - s a - t s o a sebetsa n a t c o - t e l e l e
.en A p a s t work t i n e l o n g
'The men just v o r k e d f o r a l o n g t imes
Banana b a - p h e h - i l e nama nako e-telele
g i r l s A c o o k p a s t meat time lcng
'The g i r l s cooked meat f o r a l o n g t i a a 9
Banna b a - s e b e l - i t s e nako e - t e l e l o
men A work p a s t time l o n g
'The men worked f o r a l o n g t i m e '
Banana b a - i l e ba -pheha nama n a b e-telele
g i r l s A p a s t cook meat time l c n q
'The g i r l s cooked meat f o r a l o n g time'
Banna ba-i le b a - s e b e t s a n a k o e - t e l e l e
men A p a s t work time l o n g
'Hen worked f o r a long t i a s '
* n a o b a n e b a n a n a b a - n e b a - p h e h a nama n a k o e - t e l e l e
y e s t e r d a y g i r l s p a s t cook m e a t rims l o n g
8 Y e s t e r d a y t h e q i r l s c o o k e d meat f o r a l o n g time8
*Maobace b a n n a b a - n e L a - s e b e t s a n a k c e- t e l e l e
y e s t e r d a y men p a s t work time l o n g
' Y e s t e r d a y t h e men wcrked f o r a l o n g t ime'
B a n a n a b a - n e ba - sa - t soa heh ha n a a a n a k o e- t e l e l e
g i r l s A p a s t p a s t c o o k m e a t time l c n g
'The g i r l s h a d j u s t c o o k e d meat f o r a l o n g tiae*
Banna b a - n e b a - s a - t s o a - s e b e t s a n a k c e - t f l e l e
men F a s t p a s t w o r k t i n e l o n g
'Hen h a d just w o r k e d f o r a l o n g t i a s 8
B a n a n a b a - n e b a - p h e h - i l e nama n a k o e-Lalzle
g i r l s p a s t cook p a s t seat t ime l c n q
' T h e g i r l s h a d cocked a e a t f o r a l o n g time*
Banna b a - n e ba-sf k e l - i t s e n a k o e- te le le
men p a s t wcrk p a s t t i n e l o n g
'The men h a d w o r k e d f o r a l o n g t i m e '
b a n a n a ba-ne ba-ile b a - p h e h a nama n a k o e telele
g i r l s p a s t p a s t c o o k a e a t time l c n q
'The girls h a d ccoked m e a t f o r a l o n g time8
Banna ba -ne ba- i le b a - p h e h a nama n a k o e- te le le
laen ~ a s t p a s t work time l o n g
'The men h a d w o r k e d f o r a l o n g time'
i
95
T h e s e n t e n c e s i n 1 4 7 are e x a m p l e s of tsoa+stem p a s t t e n s e u s e d
v i t h Z u r a t i v ~ a d v e r b i a l . As may b e noted from unaccaptabiiity o f
t h e s e s e n t e n c e s , t h i s t e n s e i s n o n d u r a t i v e , T h e s_tem+ile and
ile+stere t e c s e s o n t h e o t h e r h a n d a r a d u r a t l v s . Ye h a v e used ar, -------- a d v e r b p a o b a n e ' y e s t e r d a y ' w i t h s e n t e n c e s I n 1 5 0 i n c r d e r tc
e x c l u d e h a b i t u a l r e a d i n g , The ge+lfea l i k e tsoa+stew t ense i s
n o o d u r a t i v e . T h e ge++ tense s e n t e n c e s i n 151-153 s u q g e s t t h a t
t h e s e t e n s e s a re d u r a t i v e ,
It is i n t e r e s t i n g to n o t e t h a t n o s t t ecses r e g a r d e d a s
p s r f e c t i v e (133-136) may a l s o be d u r a t i v e ( 1 4 8 - 1 4 9 ) ; a n d most
t e n s e s w h i c h a r e i m p e r f e c t i v e ( 1 3 4 a n d 137) a r e a l s o f i o n d u r a t i v e
( 1 4 7 a n d 150) , T h i s s u g g e s t s a p o s s i b l e o b j e c t i o n t o t h e ' e i t h e r
o r u o p p o s i t i o n between d u r a t i v e / n o n d u r a t i v s a n d
conpletive/nonconpletive s u g g e s t e d b y F r i e d r i c h (1974: 35) 3rd
a a c a u l a y 1 9 7 1 (see f l a c a u l a y l978:4 1 9 ) .
T h e s e n t e n c e s v i t h gigast t e n s e seze t c f o l l o w a d i f f e r e n t
p a t t e r n f r o m t h e o t h e r past t e n s e s . These t e n s e s a r e bcth
i r a p e r f e c t i v e (138- 140) a n d d u r a t i v e (151-153) .
The d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n s t a t i v e and n o n s t a t i v e v e r k s i n
S p s o t h o is n o t c l e a r , A l t h o u g h c e r t a i n v s r t s h a v e b e e n r e f e r r e d
t o a s s t a t i v e , t h e c r i t e r i c n u s e d f o r s u c h c l a s s i f i c a t i o n h a s
never b e e n s t a t e d (see Doke a n d n o f o k e n g 1 9 5 7 , Guma 1 9 7 1 ) . Some
g r a m m a r i a n s h a v e d o u b t e d t h e need f o r d i s t i n c t i o n betwasc
96
s t a t i v e a n d n o n s t a t i v e v e r b s ( U s s t p h a l 1 9 5 0 ) . Most g r a z m a r i a c s
have, h o w e v e r , n o t e d a n o v e r t stative tsarxer -eh- , ijote i h -
f o l l o w i n q e x a m p l e s ,
154 , Rata ' l i k e ' > r a t f h a ' b r l i k e a b l e '
r u t a ' t ~ a c h ' > r u t e h a ' b e e d u c a t e d '
r o b a 'break' > rob i fha ' b e b r o k e n a
l e b a l a ' f o r g e t ' > l e b a l e h a *be f o r g o t t e n *
T h e s e c o n s t r u c t i o n s a re d i f f e r e n t from passive c o n s t r u c t i o n s i n
that t h e a g e n t i s o n l y i m p l i e d b u t c a n n e v e z b e s p e c i f i e d .
We w i l l r e g a r d i n c o m p a t i b i l i t y o f -eh- w i t h any v e r b s a s a n
i n d i c a t i o n o f s t a t i v i t y , Sciae of t h e v e r b s which d o n o t t a k e - eh- a r e t he f o l l o w i n g :
155. Plaka la
h l o n a m a
t s o a n a
i n a e a
phahama
k h o t h a l a
k h a t h a l a
s h o a
' be s u r p r i s e d '
' s u l k '
'resemble'
' s t c o p '
' r i s e u p '
' b e c h e e r f u l '
' g e t t i r e d *
' d i e *
T h e a b o v e examples may suggest s o w r e l a t i o n s h i p hetween
s t a t i v i t y a n d i n t r a n s i t i v i t y .
97
L e t u s now c o n s i d e r t h e u s e o f b o t h l e x l c a i a n d d e r i v e d s t a t i v e
v e r b s with different t e n s e s :
156 (a) *Tebcho o - s a - t s o a r c t e h a h o - • ’ e t a t n a k a t s a - h a e
T e b o h o A p a s t e d u c a t ~ d t c p a s s a g e - m a t e o f h i s
* T e b o h o h a s b e e n much mote e d u c a t e d than h i s a g e m a t a s 8
( b ) * k e - s a - t s o a m a k a l a h c u t l o a t a b a t s e o
I p a s t b e s u r p r i s e d t o h e a r news t h o s e
'1 have b e e n s u r p r i s e d t c h e a r t h a t news*
157 (a) T e b o h o o - r u t e h - i l e ho-f e t a t h a k a t s a - h a e
T e b o h o A e d u c a t e d p a s t t o p a s s a g e - m a t e s of h i s
* T e b o h o i s much more e d u c a t e d t h a n h i s a g e m a t e s *
(b) K e m a k e t s e h o u t l c a t a k a t seo
I be s u r p r i s e d t o h e a r n e v s t h o s e
*I am s u r p r i s e d t o h e a r t h a t n e v s *
158 (a) T e b o h o o - i l o a - r u t e h a ho-fe t a t h a k a t s a - h a e
T e b o h o p a s t e d u c a t e d t o p a s s a g e - m a t e s cf h i s
* T e b o h o was much more e d u c a t e d t h a n h i s a g e mates*
(b) Ke-ile ka- m a k a l a h c - u t l o a l i t a b a t s e o
I p a s t s u r p r i s e d t o h e a r n e w s t h o s e
* I was s u r p r i s e d t o hear t h a t n e w s *
159 (a) *Teboho 0-ne a - r u t e h a h o f e t a t h a k a t sa- hae
T a b o h o past educated t o pass a g e mates of h i s
'Teboho was much more e d u c a t e d t h a n h i s age m a t e s 8
( b ) *Ke-ne k e - e a k a l a h o - u t l o a l i t a b a t s c o
I p a s t 1 s u r p r i s e d t c h e a r news t h o s e
'I was s u r p r i s e d t o h e a r t h a t n e v s *
T e b o h o
Tebo ho
'Teboh
matesg
o-ne a-sa- t s o a - r u t s h a ho-f e t a t h a k a t s a - h a e
p a s t past e d u c a t e d t o p a s s d q i mates of h i s
o h a d j u s t b ~ e n e d u c a t e d much mere t h a n h i s
Ke-ne k a - s a r s o a m a k a l a ho-utloa t a b a t s e o
I p a s t p a s t s u r p r i s e d t o h e a r news t h o s e
'I h a d b e e n j u s t s u r p r i s e d t o hvar t h a t nawsl
T e b o h o o-ne a - r u t e h - i l a h o - f e ta t h a k a t s a - h a e
T e b o h o p a s t e d u c a t e d p a s t t o p a s s a g e - m a t e s o f h i s
' T e b o h o was e u c h more e d u c a t e d t h a n h i s aqe mates1
Re-ne k e - m a k e t s e h o u t l o a t a b a t s e o
I p a s t I s u r p r i s e d t o h e a r news t h a t
'I u a s s u r p r i s e d t o hear t h a t news*
T e b o h o o - n e a - i l e a - r u t e h a h o - f e t a t h a k a t s a - h a e
T e b o h o p a s t past e d u c a t e d t o Fass aga-mates of his
' T e b o h o h a d been much more educatea t h a n h i s friends*
Ke-ne ke-ile k a - m a k a l a h c - u t l o a t a m t s e o
1 p a s t p a s t s u r p r i s e d t c h e a r n e w s t h o s ~
'1 h a d b e e n s u r p r i s e d t o h e a r t h a t news1
A s may be n o t i c e d f r o m t h e a b o v e s e n t e n c e s , t e n s e s which res i s t
u s e of s t a t i v e v e r b s a r e &=+sten! and n e + s t e a . T h e s e t e n s e s may
t h z r e f o r e , be r e g a r d e d a s n o n s i a t i v e . The g & g a l g i l e + ~ t s a n h
n e + ~ a s t t e n s e s o n t h e o t h e r h a n d are s t a t i v e .
F o r r e a s o n s n o t y e t c lear t h e s t a t i v e v e r b r a t e h p # b e
l i k e a b l e ' s h o w s a d i f f e r e n t behaviour from o t h e r s t a t i v e v e r b s .
Wi th &em+ils and jle+stem t e n s e s t h e s e n t e n c e s w i t h y a t s h a a r e
9 9
unacceptakle while w i t h ug+ggteha t h e sertence is acceptable.
T h e following list of a s p e c t u a l markers was g i v s n i n 1-2:
sa *stil lr
Se ' a l r e a d y *
O f these markers on ly sa *still( and sg ' a l r e a d y * may h e ussd
with a nuaber of p a s t t e n s e s . I i ak i t ua l markers may D e used with
ne+s&eg tense only. We have ncted u s e o f gg with this t e a s a i n - 4.1.2. T h e o t h e r h a b i t u a l markers behave i n t h e same way as ee a n d may ( l i k e ) b e characterized by t h e fact that t hey cannot
s p e c i f y a p a r t i c u l a r moment in time. T h i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c f e a t u r e
i s a l s o found with & 'do o c c a s i o n a l l y ' .
Ana lys i s of Sa 'still * and _se ' a l r e a d y ' is of p a r t i c u l a r
i n t e r e s t s i n c e o b s e r v a t i o n s h a v e been made about the
r e s t r i c t i o n s of lstill* and ' a l r e a d y * t o c e r t a i n tenses and
aspects i n languages such a s Engl ish ( s le
Trungot t and Haterhouse (1 9 6 9 ) , n c r r i s e y 11973) , H i r t l e , 1977) .
T h e l a b e l ' p r o g r e s s i v e ' u s e d i n g r a m m a r s f o r sa+stem w i l l
b e r e t a i n e d . T h e form sa_ a still1 g i v e s to t n e v & r b t h e n o t i o r , o f
c o n t i n u i t y . T h u s a s e n t e n c e s u c h a s K%rsas z&p 'we are still
buying1 p r e s u p p o s e that t h e e v e n t referred t c ' r e k a g h a s b ~ ~ n
g o i n g cn b e f o r e t h e momect of s p e e c h a n d i s b z i n g c o n t i n u e d .
The h e a n i n g of p r o g r e s s i v e g i v e n a b o v e r e q u i r e s t h a t t h e
v e r b u s e d be d u r a t i v e ( e . l a s t f o r a c e r t a i n p e r i o d cf time).
I t i s p o s s i b l e , however, t o use Sa w i t h p u n c t u a l v e r b (not
l a s t i n g i n t i a e ) such a s f h h l 4 * a r r i v e v , t A ~ h q ' l e a v e 8 otc. I n
s u c h cases the m e a n i n g e x p r e s s e d may b e ' j u s t 8 or ' o n l y g . T h e
s e n t e n c e Q - s a - f i h l q mean @he h a s j u s t a r r i v e d * .
The a e a n i n g of ~g is r e d u n d a n t i n t h i s t e n s e . The
p r o g r a s s i v e f o r m i s f r e q u e n t l y u s e d i n o r d e r t o n e u t r a l i z e t h o
v e r b a l force of tsoa 'come froag.
T h e f o f m s g w i t h gtea 2 expresses t h e meaning $ a g a i n g
e. g.
163. 3 a n a n a b a - s a - r e k- i l e l i b u k a
g i r l s A s t i l l buy p a s t b o o k s
* T h e girls h a v e b c u g h t b o o k s a g a i n 8
T h e ' a g a i n ' n s a n i n g w i t h t h e s&gg 2 t e n s e a p p e a r tc derive
f r o m the f a c t t h a t t h i ~ tense i s p e r L e c t i v a so t h a t the
c o n t i n u o u s mean ing cf the p r o g r e s s i v e f o r c e s a r e p e t i t i v e
r e a d i n g o n t o the verb .
A l t h o u g h it i s p o z s i b l e to u s e t h e simple fcrm of stative
verbs s u c h a s &g&p 'know8 w i t h m, t h e past tense of this verb
c a n n o t be u s e d w i t h a, Y h i l e we map say, [ o f a b e y whc l e a r n t
S e s o t h o a n d wen t t o a place where h e c o u l d n o t use the l a n g u a g e
f o r some t i a e ) :
164. Teboho o - s a - t s e b a S e s o t h o
Teboho A s t i l l kncw S e s o t h o
'Teboho s t i l l knows S e s o t h o 8
we c a n n o t s a y :
165. *Teboho o - s a - t s e b - i l e S e s o t h o
T e b o h o A s t i l l knew p a s t S e s o t h o
(Teboho s t i l l knew S e s o t h o l
An e x p l a n a t i o n f o r t h i s a p F e a r s t o b e t h a t it i s no t p o s s i b l e tc
e x p r e s s t h e ' a q a i n t m e a n i n g n c t e d for stemfile. We n o r m a l l y
s p e a k o f someone ' l e a r n i n g a g a i n * b u t n o t 'knowing a g a i n * .
The 54 f o r a c a n n o t be u s e d w i t h i l e + s t ~ q tens?. S e v e r a l
r e a s o n s for t h i s c o o c c u r r e n c e r e s t r i c t i c n come t o mind. One
aight assume t h a t e x p r e s s e s imperfecti v i t y w h i l e i l e+s t?m
e x p r e s s p e r f e c t i i t y , T h i s c a n n o t be a valid r e a s o n f o r this
1 0 2
r l s t r i c t i o n since we h a v e i n d i c a t e d i n 5.1.1 t h a t s z g i + i l g is
a p e r f e c t i v e tecse. I n f a c t t h e naeaninq ' aya i r i * expressed b y Sa+
stem+ile a p p e a r s tc s u p ~ o r t t h e v i e w t h a t this t e n s e is ------ p e r f e c t i v e . T h e r e seem t o b e no r e a s o n v h y o n e p e r f e c t i v e tenss
s h o u l d occur uith sa a n d t h e c t h o r s h o u l 3 nct.
One c o u l d a l s o suggest t h a t s y n t a c t i c a l l y a n d j& fill
the same p o s i t i o n sc t h a t o n c e o n e has b e e n used t h e cther
c a n n o t . T h i s seems p l a u s i b l e s i n c e t h e gg fcrm c a n n c t b e
r e g a r d e d a s f i l l i n g t h e same p s i t i o n a s i& f o r the two n a y
appear i n t h e same c o n z t x u c t i o n . I t i s d o u b t f u l , however, t h a t
t h i s c o u l d bs a v a l i d claim s i n c e t s o a ( u h i c h we assume f i l l t h e
same p o s i t i o n as a) may occur w i t h a. The q u e s t i c n cf
m a r k e d n e s s e x p r e s s e d i n 3.2.1 r e m a i n s t h e v a l i d c l a i m .
The meaninq of sa
m e n t i o n e d i n 5.2.1.
i n t h i s t e n s e is t h e saae as t h a t
The seguence above exFzesses t h e mean ing ' h a d j u s t ' . A s ma.y
b e n o t e d , t h e e a n i n g o f sa i s s t i l l r e d u n d a n t .
5.2.5.3 n e + s a + s t e m + i l e
T h e a e a n i n g e x p r e s s e d by t h i s s s q u e n c e is 'had o n l y ' .
U n l i k e giq s i l l , S e ' a l r e a d y ' d o e s n o t p r e s u p p o s e
e x i s t e n c e o f t h e e v e n t , c o o c c u r r i n g w i t h it-, before t h e moaer,t
o f s p e e c h , out r a t h e r p r e s u p p o s e its nonsxlste~ce b f f o r e t h e
moment of s p e e c h a n d i t s 'corn ing i n t o being',
It must b e n o t e d that w h i l e a s e n t e n c e w i t h ~p im~ l i s s t h a t
a n o t h e r e v e n t f o l l c w s t h a t e x p r e s s e d b y s a + s t e ~ a s e n t e n c e with
se i m p l i e s t h a t a n o t h e r event p r e c e d e d the cne expressed w i t h -- se. Thus the sentence: -
166 ( a ) Re - sa - r eka l i b u k a
we still buy books
'We are still buying books'
may be completed thus:
(b) ... Re t l a r e k a l i p h a h l o h a re-qeta
we Put buy c l c t h e s when we f i n i s h
'. . . We w i l l buy c l o t h e s t h e r e a f t e r '
w h i l e t h e s e n t e n c e :
167 (a) Re-se r e - r e k a l i b u k a
we a l r e a d y k u y b o o k s
'We are a l r e a d y b u y i n q b c o k s *
nay b e p r g c e d e d by:
(b) Re rek-ile l i p h a h l o j o a l e . . . . We buy p a s t c l o t h , - now ....
'We bcught c l o t h e s ncw we a r e b u y i n g books1
The o n l y r e a d i n g we g e t w i t h t h i s t e n s e is ' a l r e a d y cone
f r o m 9 . n i t h verbs t h a t are i a c c m p a t i b l e w i t h ' c o m i n g t e . g , S l o h a
'lsavsr t h e s e n t e n c e i s u n a c c e p t a b l e ,
168 . *Ba-se k a - s a - t s o a - t l o h a
t h e y a l r e a d y p a s t leave
* @ T h e y h a v e a l r e a d y just l e f t *
a h e n u s e d w i t h t e m p o r a l a d v e r b ~ g k s g e m + i l e e x p r e s s change
of p l a n e x p e c t a t i o n etc, Thus the s e n t e n c e :
1 6 9 , Ba - se b a - t s a m a - i l e ~ a o b a n e
t h e y a l r e a d y walk Fast y e s t e r d a y
@They a l r e a d y l e f t y e s t e r d a y '
i m p l y t h a t t h e p e o p l e r e f e r r e d tc were e x p e c t e d t o qo a t a tims
d i f f e r e n t from t h e o n e e x p r e s s e d t y a d v e r b .
T h i s s e q n e n c E c o n v e y s the same m e a n i n g a s t h a t i~
5.3-2 a b o v e .
The meaning i n t h i s sequerce is similar to that mectioned
in 5.3.1,
5 . 3 . 4 . 2 * N & + s e + t s o a + s t e m
This sequence is u n a c c e p t a b l e .
5 . 3 . 4 . 3 n e + s e + s t e m + i l e
The naaning e x ~ r e s s e d is 'had a l r e a d y *
5 . 3 . 4 . 4 ne+sa+i le+stem
T h e meaning i s t h e same a s i n 5 . 3 . 4 . 3 a b o v e .
T h e f o l l o v i n g c h a r t represent t h e va r ious t e n s e s i n
r e l a t i o n to aspectual features a n d cooccurrence r e s t r i c t i o n s
w i t h different a s ~ e c t u a l m a r k e r s .
t 1 1 1 1 1 1 ] P E R F E C T I V E JDURATIVE ISTATIVE j H A B I T U A 1 j s a j sel
T A B L E XI - T e n s e s in Relaticn to Arpectual Features
Notes &p - 2 s 5 --- 1 Scme speakers prefer the u s e of verb qala ' b e g i n ' w i t h
t h i s s e n t e n c e , e.9,
0-tsoa-qala h o f i e l a 'me ha a ge ta
*Be h a s just started sweeping and has n o t finished1
Note t h a t c e q a t i v e ccnstruction w i t h the same adverbial
is p o s s i b l e , e . g , S e l l s q-kg g qqlq ~ o s e b e t s i gq
f i h l e l a r a a n t s i b o e a 'Seflc d i d n o t b e g i n w o r k u a t l l ----- ------- afternoon',
I n t h e p r e c e d i n g c h a p t e r s we h a v e g i v e n the d e s c r i p t i o n o f
T e n s e a n d A s p e c t i n S e s o t b o . Y e have d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t the
s t e n + i l e f o r m w h i c h h a s b e e n r e f e r r e d t o a s ' p e r f z c t * i n t h e
l i t e r a t u r e s h o u l d be r e g a r d e d a s a n i m m e d i a t e p a s t t ense .
C o m p a r i s o n b e t w e e n t h i s t e n s e a n d t h e i m m e d i a t e p a s t t ense i n
t s o a + s teg ----- i s made. We h a ~ ~ a l s o i n d i c a t e d some
s imi l a r i t i e s /d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n i m a e d i a t e a n d remote p a s t
t e n s e s . We h a v e s u q q e s t e d t h a t geistem shculd be r e g a r d e d as
p a s t t e n s e i n s t e a d of a s p e c t u a l d i s t i n c t i o n . F i n a l l y we h a v e
i n d i c a t e d s o m e a s ~ e c t u a l f e a t u r e s i n h e r a n t i n different p a s t
t e n s e s ,
In t h i s c h a p t e r we se t o u t tc i n d i c a t e the e x t e n t t o w h i c h
~ e i c h e n b a c h / H o r n s t e i n a n a l y s i s c a n acccunt f o r t h a f a c t s
m e n t i o n e d a b o v e , Ye cffer n o s o l u t i o n to thz p r o b l e r e s t h a t the
t h e o r y b a s e d o n t h i s a n a l y s i s is l i k e l y t o e n c o u n t e r i n d e a l i n g
with T e n s e a n d A s p e c t i n S e s o t h o . We n e r e l y v i s h t o p c i n t o u t
s o m e of t h e f a c t s t h a t m u s t be c o n s i d e r e d i n the f o r m u l a t i c n o f
a tense t h e o r y w h i c h may a d e q u a t e l y de sc r ibe t h ? f a c t s a n d
p e r h a p s make a ~ p r o p r i a t e p r e d i c t i c n s .
One of t h e main t a s k s w h i c h a n y t h a c r y of t s n s e b a s e d on
~ e i c b e n b a c h ~ s a n a l y s i s w i l l e n c o u n t e r i n d e a l i n g w i t h Sesctho
t e n s e s is t o draw t h e d i s t i n c t i . c n b e t w a e n i m m e d i a t e a n d r e m o t e
t a n s e s , We have a l r e a d y n o t e d t h a t a s f a r a s t h e r e l a i i c n s h i . ~
between t h e p o i n t of e v e n t ( E ) a n d t h a raornznt of speech I S )
i s c o n c e r n e d , E i s a n t e r i o r t o S i n b o t h i m m e d i a t e a n d r e ~ o t e
t e n s e s , T h u s i n t h e s e n t e n c e s :
1 7 0 (a) J o h a n n e c - t s o a - f i h l a
J o h n A p a s t a r r i v e
J o h n baa j u s t a r r i v e d *
(b) J o h a n n e o - f i h l - i l e
J o h n A a r r i v e p a s t
J o h n a r r i v e d 8
(c) Jo f i a l i ne o - i le a - f i h l a
J o h n A p a s t a r r i v e
J o h n a r r i v e d 8
J o h n ' s a r r i v a l i s v i e w e d a s p r i o r t o t h d moment of s p e a k i n q .
w i t h o u t time s p e c i f i c a t i o n one map be i n c l i n e d t o thirk t h a t t h e
p o i n t o f r e f e r e n c e i n i m m e d i a t e t e n s e s s n o u l d b e v i e w s d a s
s i m u l t a n e o u s w i t h the mcment c f s p e e c h w h i l e with t h e remo!e
t e n s e i t s h o u l d be r e g a r d e d a s s i r u l t a n e o u s with t h e p o i n t o f
e v e n t . We wou ld t h e n h a v e t h e f o l l o w i n g 1 7 1 ( a ) a s t e n s e
r e p r e s e n t a t i o n f o r s e n t e n c e s 1 7 0 (a) and (b) a n d 1 7 1 Ib) a s t ense
r e p r e s e n t a t i o n f o r s e n t e n c e 1 7 0 (c)
1 7 1 (a) E ---------- S f R
( b ) E,R ---------- S
T h e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of 170 (a) a n d (b) as 171 (a) w o u l d b e
s u p p o r t e d b y t h e fact t h a t t h e s e tenses may be u s e d w i t h
t e m p o r a l a d v e r b h ~ m jcglg 'right n c u g w h i l e s e n t e n c e 170 (c)
cannot. It n u s t b e noted t h a t t h e t e n s e s t r u c t u r e i n 1 7 1 ( a )
c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e ~ n g l i s h p e r f e c t , whcse d i f f e r e n c e s w i t h
S e s o t h o immediate t e n s e s a r e n o t e d i n 2.3.5, I t s h o u l d a l s o b e
n o t e d t h a t t h e t h r e e s e n t e n c e s i n 170 may bs used w i t h a d v e r b s
r e f e r r i n g t o t h e p a s t as f o l l o w s :
172 (a) J o h a n n e c-tsoa f ihla r a o b a n e
J o h n A p a s t a r r i v e y e s t e r d a y
' J o h n just a r r i v e d y e s t e r d a y
(b ) J o h a n n e o-f i h l - i l e ~ a o b a n e
J o h n A a r r i o e p a s t y e s t e r d a y
' J o h n a r r i v e d y e s t e r d a y g
(c) J o h a n n e o-ile a - f i h l a aaobane
John A p a s t a r r i v e y e s t e r d a y
' J o h n a r r i v e d y e s t e r d a y 8
I n a l l t h e s e s e n t e n c e s t h e point of e v e n t i s s i m u l t a n e o u s w i t h
t h e p o i n t o f r e f e r e n c e , The t e n s e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n f o r t h e t h r e e
t e n s e s t h u s become 172 fb ) . ~ h i l e one c o u l d p r o b a b l y m a n i p u l a t e t h e t h r e e t h e o r e t i c a l
e n t i t i e s S R a n d E a n d f i n a l l y ccme o u t with some s c l u t i c n ,
t h e r e a k p e a r s t o be a n o t h e r p r o b l e m closely bound u p w i t h t h e
q u e s t i o n of i m m e d i a c y a n d r e m o t e n e s s which may be d i f f i c u l t t c
i n c o r p o r a t e w i t h i n SEE. T h i s i s t h e q u e s t i o n of s u b j e c t i v i t y .
11 1
T h u s a l t h o u g h i n a l l t h e s e n t e n c e s i n 172 , yesterday i s
i d e n t i f i e d a s t h e p c i n t c f r e f e r e n c e , t h s s p e a k e r may chccse cne
s e c t e n c e i n s t e a d of t h e o t h e r d e p e n d i n g o n how h e v iews t h e
o c c u r r e n c e o f t h e e v e n t i n r e l a t i o n t o h i s e x ~ e c t a t i o n s . T h u s
s e n t e n c e s 172 (a) a n d ( b ) may be a n a p p r o p r i a t e answer where t h ~
s p e a k e r h a d e x p e c t e d that J o h n s h c u l d h a v e a r r i v s d e a r l i e r .
S e v e r a l o t h e r i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s be tween t h e a c t u a l time cf
o c c u r r e n c e o f e v e n t s w i t h t h e i n v c l v e m e n t o k t h e s p e a k e r , h e a r e r
a n d o t h e r p a s t i c i p a n t s i n t h e e v e n t s h a v e b e e n n o t e d b y L a k c f f
(1970) . It is n e c e s s a r y t h a t s u c h f a c t s be c o n s i d e r e d i n t h e
f o r a u l a t i c n o f t e n s e t h e o r y ,
One of t h e ways i n w h i c h H o r n s t e i n r e l a t e d the q u a s i -
~ e i c h e n b a c h f r a a e w o r k he p r o p o s e d t o l a n g u a q e a c q u i s i t i o n , was
t h a t i t w o u l d p r o v i d e t h e c h i l d with a r a t h e r system w i t h
v h i c h t o work i n d e c i p h e r i n g t h e tense phenomena a n d t h e i r
c o r r e s p o n d i n g t e m p o r a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . Cne may v i e w e x c l u s i c n o f
t h e d i s t i n c t i o n s s u c h a s i a m e d i a t e / r e m o t ~ a s a n a t t emp t a t
p r o v i d i n g s u c h a t i g h t s y s t e m , I t is d o u b t f u l , h o w e v e r , t h a t
e x c l u s i o n o f c e r t a i n f a c t s a b c u t a l a n q u a g e wou ld F r o v i d e a
u n i f i e d a c c o u n t , O n e may n o t e i n t h i s c o n n e c t i o n t h a t t h e claim
made a b o u t d e g r e e o f m a r k e d n e s s i n i m m e d i a t e / r e m o t e t ecses
s u g g e s t s a p o s s i b i l i t y o f a c q u i s i t i o n of scmf tensss be fo re
o t h e r s .
I t n a y be a r q u e d t h a t t h e d i s t i n c t i o n between i m m e d i a t e a n d
r e n i o t e tenses s h o u l d be r e g a r d e d a s a s p c c t u a l , One c o u l d e x p a n d
112
t h e d e f i n i t i o c of a s p e c t g i v e n i n 1 ,8 .1 t o i n c l u d e e x t e r n a l
c o n s t i t u e n c y of e v e n t (e.g. H a n n e r , r e p e t i t i o n e t c . ) . I n
r e g a r d i n g t h e d i s t i n c t i o n e x p r e s s e d by &soa+stem ( i m m e d i a t e )
l l e+s teg ( r e m o t e ) a s a s ~ e c t u a l , ue claim t h a t t s ~ p a n d jlfg forms
f i l l t h e same p o s i t i o n a s a s p e c t u a l m a r k e r s . We h a v e n c t e d i n
t h e p r e v i o u s c h a p t e r t h a t t = + s t e a a n d i J e + s t + q may b e u s e d
w i t h s u c h a s p a c t u a l m a r k e r s a s sp 'stillg a n d ' a l r e a d y * T h i s
i n d i c a t e t h a t &pg a n d j& f i l l a d i f f e r e n t p o s i t i c n f r o m t h a t
f i l l e d by a s p e c t u a l m a r k e r s . Ye c c u l d a l s o m e n t i o n that w h i l e i t
i s p o s s i b l e f o r a s p e c t u a l m a r k e r s t o b e u s e d w i t h s e v e r a l
t e n s e s , a n d forntr c a n n e v e r be used w i t h other tenses.
We t h u s , n e v e r f i n d a n y of t h e f o l l o w i n g s e q u e n c e s :
173 (a) * J o h a n n e o - t s o a t s a m a - i l e
J o h n A p a s t walk F a s t
for 'John j u s t left'
(b) * J o h a n n e o-tsoa ile a - t s a m a e a
J c h n A p a s t p a s t w a l k
f o r ' J o h n j u s t left*
b u t we h a v e t h e f o l l o w i n g s e q u e n c e :
174 . J o h a n n e o-se a - i l e a-tsamaea
J o h n A a l r e a d y past w a l k
' J o h n h a s a l r e a d y l e f t '
R e i c h e n b a c h notes t h a t t h e r e may b e c e r t a i n d e v i a t i o c s frcm
the o r i g i n a l m e a n i n g a s a r e s u l t o f c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h c e r t a i n
11 3
a d v e r b s "... I n t h e s e n t e n c e ' N o u I shall go' t h e simple f u t u r e
h a s t h e m s a ~ i n q 5, B----- E, .. . H o w ~ v e r , i n tne s e n t e n c a ' I s h a l l go t o a o r r o w ' t h e f u t u r e tense h a s t h e meaning S----- H,E.
It i s o u t o f t h i s c b s e r v a t i o n t h a t Horns t2 i .n d e v e l o p e d ru les cf
a d v e r b s wh ich a c c o u n t f o r a c c e p t a b i l i t y a n d u n a c c e p t a b i l i t y of
c e r t a i n a d v e r b / t e n s e c o m b i n a t i o n s . Let u s c o n s i d e r the f o l l c w i n q
s e n t e n c e s :
T h a b o o - t s o a f u m a n a l e n g c l o h o n a j o a l e
T h a b o A p a s t f i n d l e t te r r i g h t now
' T h a b o h a s j u s t g o t a letter now1
T h a b o o - fumane l e n g o l o h c n a j o a l e
T h a b o A f i n d p a s t l e t t e r r i g h t now
' T h a b o g o t a l e t t e r nowc
*Thabo o - i l e a - f u m a n a l e n g o l o hona joale
T h a b o A p a s t ficd letter r i g h t now
**Thai10 g o t a l e t t e r n o w s
ThaCo o - s a tsoa f umana l e n g o l o maobane
T h a b o A p a s t f i n d letter y e s t e r d a y
' T h a b o j u s t g o t a l e t te r y e s t e r d a y '
T h a b o o-f uman-e l e n g o l o maobane
T h a b o A f i n d p a s t letter Yesterday
' T h a b o g o t a l e t t e r y e s t e r d a y t
T h a b o o - i l e a-f umana l e n g o l o maobane
T h a b o A p a s t f i n d l e t t e r , yesterday
' T h a b o g o t a letter y e s t e r d a y Q
*Thabo o - t s o a f u m a n a l e n g o l o h c s a s a
T h a b o A p a s t f i n d let ter t o m o r r o w
* * T h a b o j u s t g o t a l e t t e r t o i n o r r o w '
*Thabo o-f ulaan-e l e n q o l o h o s a s a
T h a b o A f i n d p a s t l e t t e r t o m o r r o w
*Thabo got a letter t o m o r r o w '
*Thabo o - i l e a-f umana l e n g o l o h o s a s d
T h a b o p a s t f i n d l e t t e r tcinorrcw
* * T h a b o q o t a l e t t e r tcmcrrow'
h a v e m e n t i o n e d e a r l i e r t h a t t e n s e r e p r e s e n t a t i c n f o r
p a s t t e n s e s is E, R---- S,, A c c o r d i n g t o H o r n s t a i n ' s a n a l y s i s a l l
t h e s e n t e n c e s i n 175 s h o u l d be u n a c c e p t a b l e s i n c e t h e
c o m b i n a t i o n of t e n s e a n d a d v e r t v i o l a t e s the p r i n c i p l e cn
a s s o c i a t i v i t y vhicb d i s a f l o w s t h e a s s o c i a t i o n of S R and E i n
d e r i v e d s t r u c t u r e s if t h e y were nct a s s o c i a t e d i n b a s i c t e n s e
s t r u c t u r e , T h e u s e o f a d v e r b b o a jqgdg 'now8 w i t h E , R---- S
c h a n g e s this s t r u c t u r e i n t o E---- S,R. B e n o t e h o w e v e r , t h a t
a l t h o u g h t h e p r i n c i p l e on a ~ s o c i a t i v i t y i s v i o l a t e d t h e
sentences i n 1 7 5 ( a ) a n d ( b ) are a c c e p t a b l e . I f s e n t e n c e 1 7 5 (ct
w a s a c c e p t a b l e t o o , i t would p r o b a b l y be n e c e s s a r y t o i g n o r e t h o
a b o v e p r i n c i p l e .
A n o t h e r p o s s i b i l i t y would b e t o a s s u m e t h a t a l l t h e p a s t
t e n s e s h a v e t h e s t r u c t u r e E---- S,R a n d t h a t p a s t a d v e r b s a r e
mapped i n t o E ( a n d R where t h e y a r e s i m u l t a n e o u s ) where E i s
a n t e r i o r t o S ; while p r e s e n t a d v e r b s a r e mapped i n t c R c r E when
t h e y are s i r a u i t a n e o u s w i t h S, T h e a c c e p t a b i l i t y cf (a) a n d ( b )
115
s e n t e n c e s i n 175 w o u l d t h e n b e d u e t o a s s o c i a t i c n of t h e a d v e r b
h o n a jg& with Z ; a n d the a c c e p t a b i l i t y of s e n t e n c e s in 1 7 6 d u e
t o the a s s o c i a t i o n o f w=gg ' y e s t e r d a y ' u i t h E, W h i l e t h i s may
a p p e a r t o be a p l a u s i b l e s c l u t i o n , it d o e s n c t a c c c u n t f o r t h e
u n a c c e p t a b i l i t y of s e n t e n c e 175 (c) ,
He are nct a b l e t o come o u t witn a n y s o l u t i o n to t h e
p r o b l e m o f t h e i n t e r a c t i o n b e t w e e n a d v e r b s a n d T e n s e w i t h i n
R e i c h e n b a c h 8 s a n a l y s i s . I t i s p o s s i b l e t h a t t h e a n a l y s i s c a n n c t
be a d a p t ~ d t o r e l a t i v e t e n s e s , o r d i f f e r e n t c o n s t r a i n t s may be
r e q u i r e d i n o r d e r t o a c c o u n t for t h s a b o v e f a c t s . U n t i l s u c h
time t h a t a s o l u t i o n is f o u n d o n e c a n n o t u n d e r s t a n d wha t is
t a k i n g p l a c e i n compound t e n s e s ,
T h e o n l y a s p e c t u a l f e a t u r e w h i c h h a s b e e n i n c c r ~ o r a t e d i n t o
R e i c h e n b a c h 8 s a n a l y s i s i s p r o g r e s s i v i t g . P r o g r e s s i v i t y is b u t
one o f t h e s e m a n t i c n o t i c n s o f a s p e c t , Others a r e s t a t i v i t y ,
d u r a t i o n , c o m p l e t i o n , h a b i t u a l i t y e tc , Smith (1978: 6 9 ) h a s
i n d i c a t e d a p o s s i b i l i t y of i n c o r p c r a t i n g h a ~ i t u a l s e n t e n c e s i n t o
B e i c h e n b a c h ' s s c h e m e f o r t e e p o r a l s p e c i f i c a t i c n . W h i l e I d c not
i n p r i n c i p l e accept S m i t h ' s a n a l y s i s , i t s u q g e s t s sonte p o s s i b l e
m o d i f i c a t i o n s on R e i c h e n b a c h ' s a n a l y s i s .
It is p o s s i b l e t h a t a number of a s p e c t u a l f e a t u r s s c a n
e a s i l y t e a c c o u n t e d f o r b y r e d u n d a n c y r u l e s , We r o t i c e i n t a b l e
11 f o r i n s t a n c e , t h a t a l l t e n s e s t h a t a r e d u r a t i v e a r e a l s c
116
s t a t i v e . B i n n i c k (1976: 4 4 ) n o t e s an u n p u b l i s h e d a n a l y s i s , b y
P l c G i l v r a y based on a e i c h s n b a c h which s u g g a s t s t h a t t h ->
'adsf i n i - t i o n a l t t f u n c t i o n of a s s e r t i n g t h e ( a s p e c t u a l ) r e l a t c n s h i ~
k e t w e z n E a n d R p e r t a i n t c a l l v e r b s w i t h i n a sentence. This i s
u n d e r s t o o d t o s u g g e s t a p o s s i b i l i t y of eliminating even more
a s p e c t u a l f e a t u r e s by more r e d u n d a n c y r u l e s .
Our a n a l y s i s h a s i n d i c a t e d t h e i r p o r t a n c e of ~ a i n t a i n i n q
t h e d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n imsediate a n d r e m o t e tenses i n S e s o t h o ;
a n d t h e n e e d t o c o n s i d e r n e c e s s a r j c o n s t r a i n t s t o b e i n t e r g r a t e d
i n t o a n e x p l a n a t o r y a n d uell- c o n s t r a i n e d t h e o r y of T e n s e .
O u r p r e s e n t a t i o n is ky nc m e a n s d e f i n i t i v e , Thsre a r e a
number of topics which h a v e n o t been e x a m i n e d b e c a u s * of lac^ cf
time a n d s p a c e , soae of t h e s e are tenporal c o ~ n e c t i v e s and t h e i r
i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h d i f f e r e n t t e n s e s ; s e r i a l v s r b c o n s t r u c t i o c s
etc. Y e hope t h a t t h i s s t u d y w i l l s e r v s a s a s t i m u l u s f o r
research into s y n t a x and s e m a n t i c s o f S e s o t h c sincs n c d e t a i l e d
d e s c r i p t i o n i n any topic h a s been ca r r i ed o u t .
Allen, "n I.. 1966. The vert system o f present d a y A m e r i c a c E n g l i r h . The Hague: Houton,
Anderson , J, 1973 , An e s s a y c o n c e r n i n g a s p e c t , T h e Hagua: Mouton,
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B u l l , P. E. 1960, Time, t e n s e a n d the v e r b , B e r k e l e y : u n i v e r s i t y o f C a l i f o r n i a P r e s s ,
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