Survey of Modern Psychology Personality. Personality generally refers to the “distinctive patterns...
Transcript of Survey of Modern Psychology Personality. Personality generally refers to the “distinctive patterns...
Survey of Modern Psychology
Personality
Personality
Personality generally refers
to the “distinctive patterns
(including thoughts as well
as ‘affects,’ that is, feelings
and emotions and actions)
that characterize each
individual enduringly.”(Mischel, 1999)
Personality Psychology
•Personality psychology examines a person’s traits that are considered to be consistent across situations. •Social Psychology focuses on how the situation causes individuals to behave a certain way•Behavior is seen as primarily a function of the situation rather than individual characteristics
•Personality Psychology emphasizes the importance of individual differences
Approaches to Personality
There are five main approaches to the
study and interpretation of personality:
1.Psychodynamic
2.Trait and Biological
3.Phenomenological
(Emphasizes the individual's
experience and how he or she
perceives it)
4.Behavioral
5.Social Cognitive-Affective
Tables from Mischel, 1999
Causes of Behavior
Psychodynamic Underlying stable motives and their unconscious transformation
Trait and Biological Generalized (consistent, stable) dispositions; biochemical (genetic) causes for some (most) dispositions
Phenomenological Self-concepts, feelings and conflicts, attributions, free choices (not mechanistically determined)
Behavioral Prior learning and cues in a situation (including the behavior of others)
Social Cognitive-Affective Reciprocal interaction between person and situation, mediated by the person variables interacting within the Cognitive-Affective Personality System (CAPS
Behavioral Manifestations of Personality
Psychodynamic Symptoms, “mistakes,” dreams, fantasies
Trait and Biological Direct signs of traits
Phenomenological Private experiences, perceptions, and interpretations
Behavioral Stable behavior equated with personality
Social Cognitive-Affective Stable patterns of person-situation interactions; distinctive configurations of if… then… relationships(i.e., she does X when Y; but she does A when B)
Preferred Data Sources
Psychodynamic Interpretations by expert judges (clinicians)
Trait and Biological Test responses (on questionnaires); trait ratings, behavior genetics research, twin studies
Phenomenological Self-disclosure and personal constructs (about self and others); self-reports
Behavioral Direct observations of behavior in the target situation
Social Cognitive-Affective Measures of person variables in interaction with one another and relevant situations
Research Focus
Psychodynamic Personality dynamics and psychopathology; unconscious processes; defense mechanisms; the fragmented self
Trait and Biological Measurement (test construction), description of individual differences and their patterning; taxonomy of traits; heritability of personality
Phenomenological Self-concepts; self-awareness and expression; human potential and self-actualization; emotion; attribution
Behavioral Behavior change; analysis of conditions controlling behavior
Social Cognitive-Affective Refining theories about underlying processes and discovering practical implications (for health, for risk prevention in vulnerable individuals)
Approach to Personality Change
Psychodynamic By insight into motives and conflicts underlying behavior
Trait and Biological Not much concerned with change; search for consistent, stable characteristics; biochemical treatments for disorders
Phenomenological By increased awareness, personal honesty, internal consistency, and self-acceptance; by modifying constructs; by alternative construals
Behavioral By changing conditions; by experiences that modify behavior
Social Cognitive-Affective By changing underlying person variables (e.g., focusing on alternative possible selves; modifying efficacy and outcome expectations and processing dynamics)
Role of Situation
Psychodynamic Deliberately minimized or ambiguous
Trait and Biological Acknowledged but of secondary interest until recently
Phenomenological As the context for experience and choice; focus on the situation-as-perceived
Behavioral Extremely important; regulates much behavior
Social Cognitive-Affective Provides psychological cues and information that activate Cognitive-Affective Personality System dynamics and dispositions
Contradictions in Personality Theory
Personality is both stable
and capable of change
Contradictions in Personality Theory
Dispositions and
situations are both
important
Contradictions in Personality Theory
Behavior depends on the
social environment;
genetic and biological
factors are also
foundations of social
behavior
Contradictions in Personality Theory
People are both
consistent and
inconsistent
Contradictions in Personality Theory
Humans are cognitive
and emotional beings
Contradictions in Personality Theory
Behavior can be both
rational and irrational
Personality Tests
Discussion: What do you
know about personality
tests?
Personality Tests
Projective Tests:
Present the individual with material
that’s open to interpretation. The
tests are based on the assumption
that the responses reveal
information about the respondent’s
personality
Personality Tests
Objective/standardized/structured
tests:
Materials are standardized and give
a structured set of potential
responses (ex. true/false,
always/sometimes/never, don’t know,
etc.)
Scoring is based on a given set of
specific criteria and is not open to
broad interpretation
Projective Tests - Rorschach
•Consists of 10 cards with
vertically symmetrical inkblots
•The respondent looks at the
inkblots one at a time and is asked
to say everything the inkblot could
resemble or look like
•The examiner usually asks for
details about the interpretation of
the inkblot
Projective Tests - RorschachResponses are scored based on:
• Location (the part of the card that the
respondent refers to)
•Physical aspects of the inkblot (shape,
suggestion of movement)
•Originality
•Content
These responses are generally compared
to those of respondents of a similar age
group
Projective Tests - Rorschach
The examiner interprets the
responses as related to
personality, creative capacity,
contact with reality, and anxiety
Rorschach TestThere is debate as to whether the results
have any true meaning
•Mixed results on inter-rater reliability
•A more intelligent or creative person
may give a higher number of
interpretations, meaning that there’s a
higher chance some will be considered
pathological
•Cross culturally, different people may
focus on different aspects of the same
inkblot
Rorschach Test
Often, more can be inferred from
how the respondent verbalizes
their response rather than the
answer itself
•For example, a more vivid
description of the same image
could indicate a higher IQ
Factors other than pathology may influence how we interpret inkblots
Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
•The test contains a series of picture cards
presented one at a time
•It is described as a story telling test, and
the respondent is asked to make up a
story for each picture telling:
1.What led up to the event shown in the
picture
2.What is happening in the picture at the
moment
3.What the characters are feeling and
thinking
4.What is the outcome?
TAT•The task is timed from before the
respondent begins the story to the end
of the story
•It studies how people interpret an
ambiguous stimuli
•The themes are assumed to reflect the
respondent’s underlying conflicts and
problems
•Results are generally interpreted based
on the clinician’s judgments rather than
a formal scoring method
TAT
•Images include adults, children,
men, women, and ambiguous
figures
•Originally, 10 cards were selected
out of the possible 31 and were
matched to the respondent based
on age and gender
Problems with the TAT
•The story a person tells does not
necessarily reflect a permanent
inner state
•For example, a person who has
recently lost a loved one might
tell a sad story with a
bereavement theme because it
has recently been on their mind,
not because they are a generally
depressed person
Problems with the TAT
•Original images were made in the
1930s and had white people, which
may influence the interpretations
for non-white test takers
•Some of the images are now
considered outdated, which may
bias results
•The interpretation of the story is
generally left up to the examiner
Problems with Projective Tests
•They are open to the
interpretation of the examiner
•Does the same response always
mean the same thing?
•It’s usually easy to “fake good” or
“fake bad”
The Big Five
In research, when people are asked
to describe themselves they tend
to cluster their descriptions around
these five categories (on different
points of a spectrum)
The Big Five
1. Neuroticism
2. Extraversion
3. Openness to Experience
4. Agreeableness
5. Conscientiousness
Neuroticism
•Negative emotions, e.g., anxiety,
depression
•In this spectrum:
•Calm vs. worrying
•Unemotional vs. emotional
•Secure vs. insecure
•Not envious vs. jealous
Extraversion
•Positive emotionality
•In this spectrum:
•Quiet vs. talkative
•Aloof vs. friendly
•Inhibited vs. spontaneous
•Timid vs. bold
Openness to Experience
•Vs. closed-mindedness
•In this spectrum:
•Conventional vs. original
•Unadventurous vs. daring
•Conforming vs. independent
•Unartistic vs. artistic
Agreeableness
•Vs. antagonism
•In this spectrum:
•Irritable vs. good natured
•Uncooperative vs. helpful
•Suspicious vs. trusting
•Critical vs. lenient
Conscientiousness
•Vs. undirectedness
•In this spectrum:
•Careless vs. careful
•Helpless vs. self-reliant
•Lax vs. scrupulous
•Ignorant vs. knowledgeable
The Big Five
•This list was constructed using
Factor Analysis
•Patterns of responses that tend to
go together
•Particular adjectives are strongly
correlated with other adjectives;
those characteristics make up that
particular trait
The Big Five
•Inter rater reliability tends to be
good
•Test-retest reliability is high
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory
(MMPI)
The MMPI is one of the most
extensive, popular, and widely
studied personality questionnaires
MMPI
•Consists of 550 statements
•Gives the answer options of:
•True
•False
•Cannot say (undecided)
MMPI
•The MMPI was originally used to
classify psychiatric patients on
multiple dimensions
•Items ask about attitudes,
emotional reactions, psychiatric
symptoms, the respondent's past,
and more
MMPI Sample Items:
•Sometimes I think I may kill
myself
•My greatest troubles are inside
myself
•I certainly have little self-
assurance
•I wish I were not so awkward
•I am shy
Questions are purposely vague and
do not describe situations
Similar Items to MMPI Anxiety Measures
Item High Anxiety Response
I rarely get really tired False
I am not a worrier False
I cannot keep my mind focused on anything
True
I almost never blush False
Often I cannot keep from crying
True
It’s hard for me to attend to a job
True
Often I think I am no good True
MMPI
•The MMPI is sorted into 10 scales
with 3 control scales
•Results provide comparisons
against norms (averages) and
provide information based on
people who give similar answers
MMPI – 10 Scales1. Hypochondriasis
2. Depression
3. Hysteria
4. Psychopathic Deviate
5. Masculinity – Femininity
6. Paranoia
7. Psychasthenia
8. Schizophrenia
9. Hypomania
10. Social Introversion
MMPI Scales
Hypochondriasis
Neurotic concern over bodily
functioning
MMPI Scales
Depression
•Poor morale, lack of hope in the
future, and a general
dissatisfaction with one's own life
situation
•High scores may suggest clinical
depression
•Lower scores reflect more general
unhappiness with life
MMPI Scales
Hysteria
•Extreme reaction to stressful
situations
•Often with a 'normal' façade but
break down with stress
•People who tend to score higher are
often brighter, better educated and
from higher social classes
•Women tend to score higher*
MMPI Scales
Psychopathic Deviate
•Measures social deviation, lack of
acceptance of authority, dislike of the
status quo, and amorality
•Adolescents tend to score higher
•This is part of a normal questioning of
authority as one gets older
•Black people often score higher than
white people*
MMPI Scales
Masculinity – Femininity
•Was originally intended to differentiate between
heterosexual and homosexual men
•Has not been found to be effective
•Looks at how much a person endorses gender
norms
•Extremely high scores for men or women suggest
rejection of traditional gender roles
•Well educated and higher socio-economic status
men tend to score higher
MMPI Scales
Paranoia
Paranoid symptoms such as
ideas of reference, feelings of
persecution, grandiose self-
concepts, suspiciousness,
excessive sensitivity, and rigid
opinions and attitudes.
MMPI Scales
Psychasthenia
•Originally characterized by
excessive doubts, compulsions,
obsessions, and unreasonable fears
•It is now closest to Obsessive
Compulsive Disorder (OCD)
• Also shows abnormal fears, self-
criticism, difficulties in concentration,
and guilt feelings
MMPI ScalesSchizophrenia
•Originally developed to identify schizophrenics
•Variety of content areas, including bizarre thought processes
and peculiar perceptions, social alienation, poor familial
relationships, difficulties in concentration and impulse control,
lack of deep interests, disturbing questions of self-worth and
self-identity, and sexual difficulties
•Misinterpretations of reality, delusions, and hallucinations
may be present
•Ambivalent or constricted emotional responsiveness is
common
•Behavior may be withdrawn, aggressive, or bizarre
•Age, race, and socio-economic status tend to play a role in
scores
MMPI Scales
Hypomania
Tests for elevated mood,
accelerated speech and motor
activity, irritability, flight of ideas,
and brief periods of depression
MMPI Scales
Social introversion
•Tests for a person's tendency to
withdraw from social contacts and
responsibilities
•Includes a measure of social
participation and one of general
neurotic maladjustment and self-
depreciation
MMPI – 10 Scales
The scale names are based
on the questions’
correlations with other
indices and do not
necessarily indicate that
symptom
MMPI 3 Control
Scales
1. Lie scale
• Tendency to lie by “faking good”
2. K Scale
• Defensiveness and trying to appear more
socially desirable
3. F Scale
• Measure of whether the respondent is
answering items in a careless or confused
fashion
What This Means
Self-reported answers on
personality measures tend to be
stable over time.
However, answers on
questionnaires do not necessarily
predict our behavior.
We may consistently rate ourselves
the same, but behave differently.
What This Means
•Results from the MMPI correlate
well with other appropriate
measures
•i.e., the anxiety measures
correlate well with other anxiety
inventories
What This Means
While it is more difficult to
fake answers on the MMPI,
the questions are still fairly
transparent