PERSONALITY

PERSONALITY

Distinctive and stable pattern of behaviors, thoughts, motives, and emotions that characterize an individual over time.

Trait

A characteristic of an individual, describing a habitual way of behaving, thinking, and feeling.

Overview

Psychodynamic influences

Genetic influences

Environmental influences

Cultural influences

Humanistic influences

Psychodynamic Theories

Theories that explain behavior and personality in terms of unconscious energy dynamics within the individual.

PSYCHODYNAMIC THEORIES OF PERSONALITY

Freud’s psychoanalytic theory was the first psychodynamic theory.

Freud’s theory and the theories of his followers are called psychodynamic theories.

Elements Shared by all Psychodynamic Theories

Based on intra-psychic dynamics.Adult behavior and problems determined

primarily by early childhood experiences.Psychological development occurs in

stages. Unconscious fantasies and symbols are

main influences on personality and behavior.

Freud and Psychoanalysis

Freud believed that unconscious forces have more power to control behavior than conscious thought.

The unconscious reveals itself in: Free association Slips of the tongue Dreams

The Royal Road to the Unconscious

Personality is made up of 3 Systems

3 systems are balanced in a healthy personality Id

Operates according to the pleasure principle. Contains the life (sexual) instinct that is fueled by libido and death

(aggressive) instincts fueled by thanatos. Energy buildup results in tension.

Ego Referee between demands of id and the superego. Obeys the reality principle, represents reason and good sense.

Superego Morality and rules of parents and society. Consists of moral standards and conscience. Judges the activities of the id.

Defense Mechanisms

Used by ego to reduce anxiety when id’s wishes conflict with society.

They are unconscious and deny or distort reality.

Defense Mechanisms

Repression: Blocking a threatening idea, memory, or emotion from consciousness.

Projection: Attributing one’s own unacceptable feelings and impulses to someone else.

Displacement: Directing one’s emotions, especially anger, toward things, animals, or other people that are not the real object of one’s feelings.

Sublimation: Displacement of emotions to serve a higher cultural or socially purpose.

Reaction formation: Transforming anxiety-producing thoughts or feelings into their opposites, like promoting rally against prostitution, but unconsciously wanting to use their services.

Regression: Returning to an early behaviors in defense against anxiety or frustration.

Denial: Refusing to admit that something unpleasant is happening.

The development of personality

Occurs in psychosexual stages. Child may remain fixated if too much

anxiety or conflict is present.Fixation occurs when stages aren’t

resolved successfully.

Psychosexual Development

Oral stage: Focus on the mouth Fixation may result in constantly seeking oral gratification

Anal stage: Issue is control Fixation at this stage become excessively tidy (anal-

retentive) or excessively messy (anal-expulsive). Phallic stage: Sexual sensation in penis or clitoris

Oedipus or Electra complex emerges Identification with the same-sex parent By the end of this stage, personality is formed

Latency stage Sexual feelings subside

Genital stage Beginning of mature adult sexuality

Carl Jung

Collective unconscious contains universal memories. Archetypes are themes and symbolic images that appear

repeatedly in myths: Two major archetypes are those of maleness and femaleness. Masculine and feminine psychological qualities appear in both

sexes: Anima = feminine archetype in men Animus = masculine archetype in women

Perceived humans as more positively motivated than did Freud.

Identified introversion-extraversion as a central personality orientation.

Object-relations School

Emphasizes need for relationships Object

A representation or complex cognitive schema about the mother that the child constructs unconsciously

Object-relations Reflect numerous representations of self and others and

the psychodynamic interplay among them. Central tension is balance between independence and

connection to other. Children of both sexes identify with mother; males must

separate. Males’ identity is less secure than females.

Evaluating Psychodynamic Theories

Problems with psychodynamic theories: Can’t confirm or disprove ideas. Universal principles drawn from the experiences

of selected atypical patients. Based on the retrospective memories of

patients--creates illusion of causality.

Some researchers are trying to study psychodynamic concepts empirically

THE MODERN STUDY OF PERSONALITY

Projective Test Based on the assumption that the test taker will

transfer (“project”) unconscious conflicts and motives onto an ambiguous stimulus.

Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) Rorschach Inkblot Test (RIT)

Objective Personality Inventories/Scales Standardized questionnaires with written responses. Include scales on which individuals rate themselves.

Minnesota Multiphase Personality Inventory (MMPI) MBTI

Thematic Apperception Test

Person is asked to tell a story about the “hero” in the picture.

Based on Murray’s personality theory: People are distinguished by the needs that motivate

their behavior.

Rorschach Inkblot Test

Ambiguous stimuli presented.

Person is asked to report what he/she sees.

No clear image, so the things you see must be “projected” from inside yourself.

Objective Personality Scales

Answer a series of questions about self “I am easily embarrassed” True or False “I like to go to parties” True or False

No right or wrong answers.

From responses a picture is developed (personality profile).

Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory

Most widely used personality instrument Now the MMPI-2 RF

Used in clinical & employment settings.

Measures aspects of personality that, if extreme, suggest a problem E.g., extreme suspiciousness

Long test–567 questions!

MMPI Sample Items

I usually feel that life is worthwhile and interesting. (F) Depression

Evil people are trying to influence my mind. (T) Paranoia

I seem to hear things that other people can’t hear. (T) Schizophrenia

MMPI Clinical Scales

1 Hs Hypochondriasis Concern with bodily symptoms2 D Depression Depressive Symptoms3 Hy Hysteria Awareness of problems and

vulnerabilities4 Pd Psychopathic Deviate Conflict, struggle, anger, respect for

society's rules5 MF Masculinity/Femininity Stereotypical masculine or feminine

interests/behaviors6 Pa Paranoia Level of trust, suspiciousness,

sensitivity7 Pt Psychasthenia Worry, Anxiety, tension, doubts,

obsessiveness8 Sc Schizophrenia Odd thinking and social alienation9 Ma Hypomania Level of excitability0 Si Social Introversion People orientation

Validity Scales

 ?1 "Cannot Say” Questions not answeredL1 Lie Client "faking good“F1 Infrequency Client "faking bad"K1 Defensiveness Denial/EvasivenessFb2 Back F Client "faking bad" VRIN2 Variable Response InconsistencyTRIN2 True Response InconsistencyF-K2 F minus K Honesty of test responsesS2 Superlative Appearing excessively goodFp2 Psychiatric Infrequency Frequency of presentation in

clinical settingFs2 RF Infrequent Somatic Overreporting of somatic symptoms

Response

Content Scales(Some Examples)

Es Ego Strength ScaleOH Over-Controlled Hostility ScaleMAC MacAndrews Alcoholism ScaleMAC-R MacAndrews Alcoholism Scale RevisedDo Dominance ScaleAPS Addictions Potential ScaleAAS Addictions Acknowledgement ScaleSOD Social Discomfort ScaleA Anxiety ScaleR Repression ScaleTPA Type A ScaleMDS Marital Distress Scale

MMPI Interpretation

Code types and interaction of clinical scales can be quite complex and require specialized training to properly interpret.

The MMPI-2 and MMPI-2-RF should only be scored and interpreted by individuals with graduate level training in either clinical, experimental or I/O psychology, and who have received specialized training in MMPI interpretation.

Individuals who are not trained in psychological assessment and scoring should not attempt to score or interpret the MMPI as accurate scoring and interpretation requires knowledge of the test itself, standardized testing theory, the various subscales in combination (test profile) and correspondence of results to diagnosis.

Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)

Measure psychological preferences on how people perceive the world and make decisions.

Presences extrapolated from Carl Jung Theory.

Originated by Katherine Cook Briggs and her daughter Isabel Briggs Myers.

MBTI Dichotomies

Extraversion (E) v. Introversion (I) Attitude

Sensing (S) v. iNtuition (N) Information Gathering

Thinking (T) v. Feeling (F) Decision Making

Judging (J) v. Perceiving (P) Life Style

Allport’s Trait Theory

Trait Characteristic assumed to describe a person

across many situations.

Individual traits make people unique Central traits

Characteristic ways of behaving Secondary traits

The more changeable aspects of personality

The “Big Five” Traits

Supported by research as fundamental traits: Extroversion versus Introversion Neuroticism versus Emotional Stability Agreeableness versus Antagonism Conscientiousness versus Impulsiveness Openness to Experience versus Resistence to

New Experience

GENETIC INFLUENCES ON PERSONALITY

Members of other species show trait-like characteristics.

Temperament Characteristic physiological dispositions that

appear in infancy and have some genetic basis. Temperament is relatively stable.

Kagan’s TheoryReactive & Nonreactive Temperament

Detectable in infancy & tend to remain stable throughout childhood.

Children w/ reactive temperaments tend to be: Shy and timid React negatively to novel situations Show increased sympathetic nervous system activity

during mildly stressful tasks Children w/ nonreactive temperaments tend to

be: Outgoing Curious

Evaluating Genetic Theories

Not all traits are equally heritable or unaffected by shared environment.

Studies may underestimate the impact of environment.

Even traits that are highly heritable are not fixed.

ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCES ON PERSONALITY

Situations and social learningParental influencePower of peers

Situations and Social Learning

People don’t have “traits”--instead, they show patterns of behavior.

Reason for inconsistencies in behavior is that different behaviors are rewarded, punished, or ignored, depending on the situation.

Situations and Social Learning

Perceptions of control Much of human behavior is self-regulated, shaped by

our thoughts, emotions, and goal.

Reciprocal determinism The interaction between aspects of the individual and

aspects of the situation that shape personality.

Nonshared Environment The unique aspects of a person’s environment and

experience that are not shared by family members.

Parental Influence

Belief that personality is determined by how parents treat their children is challenged by three lines of empirical evidence: The shared environment of the home has little, if any,

influence on personality. Few parents have a single child-rearing style that is

consistent over time and that they use with all of their children.

Even when parents try to be consistent in the way they treat their children, there may be little relation between what they do and how the children turn out.

The Power of Peers

Peer environment consists of different peer groups, organized by interests, ethnicity, and/or popularity.

Children and adolescents who are temperamentally fearful and shy are more likely to be bullied.

Peers can have a stronger influence on academic achievement than parents.

CULTURAL INFLUENCES ON PERSONALITY Two kinds of cultures

Individualist individual needs take precedence over group needs

Collectivist group harmony takes precedence over individual wishes

Cultures’ norms and values vary Conversational distance Punctuality

In monochronic cultures, people do one thing at a time; value promptness (e.g., northern Europe, Canada, United States

In polychronic cultures, people do several things at a time; promptness not valued (e.g., southern Europe, Middle East, South America, Africa)

Evaluating Cultural Approaches

Cultural psychologists describe cultural influences on personality, avoiding stereotyping.

Regional variations occur in every society.Many cultures share many human concerns

(e.g., need for love, attachment, family, work, religion).

Humanist Approaches

Developed as a reaction against psychoanalysis and behaviorism. Abraham Maslow’s approach Carl Rogers’s approach Rollo May approach Narrative approaches

Abraham Maslow’s Approach

Emphasized good side of human nature, peak experiences.

Emphasized movement toward state of self-actualization.

Malow's Hierarchy Pyramid

Self-Actualization

Physiological

Safety

Belongingness

Esteem

Carl Rogers’s approach

Interested in the fully functioning personRequires congruence between self-image and true

feelings.

Fully functioning--means a person is trusting, warm, and open to new experiences.

Becoming fully functional requires unconditional positive regard.

Conditional love results in incongruence and unhappiness.

Rollo May Approach

Brought aspects of existentialism to American psychology.

Emphasized the burdensome aspects of free will.

The burden of responsibility can lead to anxiety and despair.

Narrative Approaches

“What’s your story?”

Holds more truth than may appear at first glance.

Evaluating Humanist Approaches

Many assumptions cannot be tested.Concepts are difficult to define

operationally.