Structure, Form, and Fallacies

Argumentation

In its broadest sense, ALL writing is argument.Presentation, defense, support of specific

thesis, assertion, or claim (warrant).THESISStrongly held belief, critical view of an issue,

presentation of an insight, search for truth, description Convince using logical evidence (logos) and

emotional appeals (pathos)

What is an ARGUMENT?

A piece of writing that offers no support for a claim.

Example:Smokey November clouds gyrate menacingly, shooting bullets of ice upon the weak, frail human specter.

What is NOT an argument?

ARGUMENTGoal accept the

writer’s thesis

Example:Walking is necessary

for good health.

Goal ACT

get moving and do something after accepting or rejecting the writer’s position

ALL persuasion is a type of argument

Example:For good health, a

person should walk every day.

What is the difference between argument and persuasion?

PERSUASION

The prompt could be…A brief excerptA quotationA statementAn anecdote

Defend (agree), challenge (disagree), or qualify (agree with some and disagree with other parts of the text) the…Author’s positionStatement’s main ideaNarrative’s main point

How can I write an effective argument on the AP Language exam?

AgreeDo I think about this subject in the same way

as the writer/speaker?Disagree

Do I think the writer/speaker is totally wrong?Qualify

Do I think some of what is said is correct and some incorrect?

What does it mean to agree, disagree, or qualify?

Support should be rational and logical NOT emotional

Objective NOT biased

Do not try to con the reader or pad the essay with irrelevancies

How do I argue a point or position?

1. Present the issue/situation/problem.2. State your (writer’s) assertion/claim/thesis.3. Support your claim.4. Acknowledge and respond to real or

possible opposing views.5. Make your final comment or summary of the

evidence.

How do I structure my argument?

Facts/statisticsDetailsQuotationsDialogNeeded definitionsRecognition of the oppositionExamplesAnecdotesContrast and comparisonCause and effectAppeal to authority

How do I support my argument?

An argument can be Ethical

Appeal to good sense, goodwill, desire to do “the right thing”, credibility

EmotionalAppeal to reader’s fear, patriotism, etc.

LogicalAppeal with inductive or deductive reasoningInductive: form a generalization based on a

specific set of examplesDeductive: reach a probable conclusion based on

given premises

The Argument Itself

Inductive Example:Margo has 17 stuffed teddy bears, 3 stuffed

cows, 11 monkeys, 4 camels, and 6 stuffed elephants. Margo loves to collect stuffed animals.

Deductive Example:All high school seniors at this high school must

write a research paper. Sean is a senior at this high school; therefore, Sean must write a research paper.

Induction and Deduction

Conclusions can be drawn from implicit premises:Universal truthsPossibilities that the reader will readily acceptFamiliar sayingsCommon knowledge: facts that everyone,

including the reader, should know

Deduction: Conclusions

Format of a formal argument consisting of a

Major premise: All A are C. “All lions are cats.” Minor premise: B is A. “Leonard is a lion.”

Conclusion: Therefore, B is C. “Leonard is a cat.”

If a syllogism does not contain a conclusion based on a major and minor premise, then it is possibly a LOGICAL FALLACY.

Deduction is based on the syllogism

Non sequitur argument: does not followDiane graduated from Vassar. She will make a

great lawyer.Begging the question: something remains to

be provedTaking geometry is a waste of time. High School

students should not be required to take this course.

Circular reasoning: restates premise rather than giving a reason for holding the premiseI like to eat out because I enjoy different foods

and restaurants.

LOGICAL FALLACY:Mistakes in Reasoning

Strawman argument: (political campaigns) attributing false or exaggerated characteristics or behaviors to the opponent and attacking based on the falsehoods and exaggerationsYou say support allowing people under

eighteen to drive alone. I will never be able to understand why weak-willed drivers like you are willing to risk your life and the lives of all other drivers with these crazy teenagers on the road.

Logical Fallacies Continued

Ad hominem argument: argue against the man Attacks the person instead of the issueWe all know Sam has several speeding tickets

on his record. How can we trust him to vote for us on the issue of a trade agreement with Europe?

Logical Fallacies Continued

Hasty generalization: drawing a conclusion about an entire group based insufficient evidenceThe veterinarian discovered a viral infection in

five beagles. All beagles must be infected with it.Overgeneralization: (stereotyping, profiling)

drawing a conclusion about a group of people, ideas, or things based on limited or vague evidence; (qualifiers: all, never, always, every)All members of group A are not to be trusted.

Logical Fallacies Continued

Post hoc argument: cites an earlier, unrelated event as the cause of the current situationI saw a black cat run across the street in front of

my car five minutes before I was hit by a foul ball at the ball park. Therefore, the black cat is the cause of my bruised arm.

Either/or argument: writer asserts that there are only two possibilities, when, in reality, there are moreTomorrow is April 15; therefore, I must mail in

my tax return, or I will be arrested.

Logical Fallacies Continued

Clearly developed thesis is evidentFacts are distinguished from opinionsOpinions are supported and qualifiedSpeaker develops a logical argument that avoids

fallacious reasoningSupport for facts is tested, reliable, and authoritativeSpeaker does not confuse appeals to logic and emotionOpposing views are represented fairly and objectivelyArgument reflects a sense of audienceArgument reflects an identifiable voice and point of viewPiece reflects image of a speaker with identifiable

qualities (honesty, sincerity, authority, intelligence, etc.)

Rhetorical Argument Checklist

Practice Prompt In his famous “Vast Wasteland” address to the National Association of Broadcasters in May of 1961, Newton Minow, the Chairman of the Federal Communications Commission, spoke about the power of television to influence the taste, knowledge, and opinions of its viewers around the world. Carefully read the following, paying close attention to how timely it is today, especially in light of the worldwide Internet. Minow ended his speech warning that “The power of instantaneous sight and sound is without precedent in mankind’s history. This is an awesome power. It has limitless capabilities for good—and for evil. And it carries with it awesome responsibilities—responsibilities which you [and the government] cannot escape…” Using your own knowledge and your own experiences or reading, write a carefully constructed essay that defends, challenges, or qualifies Minow’s ideas.

Highlight essential elements of the prompt.

In his famous “Vast Wasteland” address to the National Association of Broadcasters in May of 1961, Newton Minow, the Chairman of the Federal Communications Commission, spoke about the power of television to influence the taste, knowledge, and opinions of its viewers around the world. Carefully read the following, paying close attention to how timely it is today, especially in light of the worldwide Internet. Minow ended his speech warning that “The power of instantaneous sight and sound is without precedent in mankind’s history. This is an awesome power. It has limitless capabilities for good—and for evil. And it carries with it awesome responsibilities—responsibilities which you [and the government] cannot escape…” Using your own knowledge and your own experiences or reading, write a carefully constructed essay that defends, challenges, or qualifies Minow’s ideas.

Highlight essential elements of the prompt.

In his famous “Vast Wasteland” address to the National Association of Broadcasters in May of 1961, Newton Minow, the Chairman of the Federal Communications Commission, spoke about the power of television to influence the taste, knowledge, and opinions of its viewers around the world. Carefully read the following, paying close attention to how timely it is today, especially in light of the worldwide Internet. Minow ended his speech warning that “The power of instantaneous sight and sound is without precedent in mankind’s history. This is an awesome power. It has limitless capabilities for good—and for evil. And it carries with it awesome responsibilities—responsibilities which you and [the government] cannot escape…” Using your own knowledge and your own experiences or reading, write a carefully constructed essay that defends, challenges, or qualifies Minow’s ideas.

Plan the Essay Refer specifically to the prompt Clearly state your position on the given issue Cite speaker and occasion Examine sample opening paragraphs

I agree with Newton Minow’s assertion to the National Association of Broadcasters that “The power of instantaneous sight and sound is…an awesome power…[with] capabilities for good—and for evil.” However, I disagree with his placing the responsibility for this power squarely in the hands of the broadcasters and the government.

Sample A

Does the response defend, challenge, or qualify?Sample A qualifies the assertion presented by Minow. The writer agrees with the potential of the power but disagrees about who should take responsibility.

Imagine—you have limitless capabilities for good and evil—you, not Superman, can control the world with you super powers. And, what are your powers? Do you have x-ray vision, morphability, immortality? NO, you have the most awesome power ever devised—you can instantaneously influence the taste, knowledge, and opinions of mankind around the world. You are Supernet! And you have a super headache because you agree with Newton Minow, who warned the national Association of Broadcasters in 1961 that “You have an awesome responsibility.”

Sample B

Does the response defend, challenge, or qualify?Sample B agrees with Minow’s position but treats the assertion in a lighthearted fashion. The reader can expect a humorous and possibly irreverent tone in the essay.

Nowhere is the awesome power for good and evel of modern technology more clearly seen than in the Internet’s pervasiveness and influence. Newton Minow was right on target in 1961 when he warned the national Association of Broadcasters that the power of TV has “limitless capabilities for good—and for evil.”

Sample C

Does the response defend, challenge, or qualify?Sample C indicates a writer who has obviously

decided to limit the area of the argument to that of the Internet and has chosen to agree with Minow.

Read, analyze, and evaluate sample body paragraphs on provided handouts.

Sample body paragraphs and essays

Murphy, Barabara L., Rankin, Estelle M. Five Steps to a Five: AP Language 2012-2013. McGraw-Hill: New York. 2011.

Reference