St. Gregory of Nyssa, Anabaptism, and the Creeds...St. Gregory of Nyssa, Anabaptism, and the Creeds...

St. Gregory of Nyssa, Anabaptism, and the Creeds

Andrew P. Klager

Introduction Theongoingdebate1aboutthevalueoftheecumenicalcreedsofChristendomfromanAnabaptisthistoricalperspectivehasgeneratedpolarizingjudgmentson their efficacy and function for early Anabaptist leaders and communities. However, few participants have sufficiently taken into account the patristic understanding of these proclamations of Orthodoxy, and of the Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed in particular. Even when this historical frameof reference is addressed, it typically elicits imprecise conclusionson itsnegativeorpositiveimpactonChristianresponsibilityorunity.ByapprisingtheAnabaptistcommunityoftheEastern,patristic,andthereforetheoriginalmindset, expectations, andconditionsengendering the formulationof thecreeds during the church’s first five hundred years, using St. Gregory of Nyssaasaparadigm,IhopetocreateaframeworkwithinwhichAnabaptisthistoriansandtheologiansreluctanttoabandonthechurch’slivingtraditioncan be informed by the opposing view’s equally warranted concern forethicsandnonviolence.

IwilltrytomeetthisobjectivebyevaluatingthefusionofspiritualityandtheologyinthepatristiceraandintheEast,itsprocessofdeteriorationintheWest,andtheemergenceofAnabaptistprioritiesamidtheepistemictheological environment of the sixteenth century. Although seriousconsiderationofthissubjectcanbetracedbacktoclassictreatmentssuchasthatofRolandBainton,whocontendedthatAnabaptistsare“commonlyontheleftalsowithregardto . . . [the]creeds”2andRobertFriedmann’sendorsement of this designation,3 I will limit my involvement withcontemporary Anabaptist concerns to viewpoints expressed during thecurrentdecadeonly,andonlyminimallyafterIhavedealtwiththeEastern,patristic,and16th-centuryAnabaptistcontextsandissues.4

After I describe the historical background, the chronologicalprogression–from(1)thelifeofJesusto(2)theobservationofthisdivinelife and its confluence with the divine operations of the Father as revealed

St. Gregory of Nyssa, Anabaptism, and the Creeds

Andrew P. Klager

Introduction Theongoingdebate1aboutthevalueoftheecumenicalcreedsofChristendomfromanAnabaptisthistoricalperspectivehasgeneratedpolarizingjudgmentson their efficacy and function for early Anabaptist leaders and communities. However, few participants have sufficiently taken into account the patristic understanding of these proclamations of Orthodoxy, and of the Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed in particular. Even when this historical frameof reference is addressed, it typically elicits imprecise conclusionson itsnegativeorpositiveimpactonChristianresponsibilityorunity.ByapprisingtheAnabaptistcommunityoftheEastern,patristic,andthereforetheoriginalmindset, expectations, andconditionsengendering the formulationof thecreeds during the church’s first five hundred years, using St. Gregory of Nyssaasaparadigm,IhopetocreateaframeworkwithinwhichAnabaptisthistoriansandtheologiansreluctanttoabandonthechurch’slivingtraditioncan be informed by the opposing view’s equally warranted concern forethicsandnonviolence.

IwilltrytomeetthisobjectivebyevaluatingthefusionofspiritualityandtheologyinthepatristiceraandintheEast,itsprocessofdeteriorationintheWest,andtheemergenceofAnabaptistprioritiesamidtheepistemictheological environment of the sixteenth century. Although seriousconsiderationofthissubjectcanbetracedbacktoclassictreatmentssuchasthatofRolandBainton,whocontendedthatAnabaptistsare“commonlyontheleftalsowithregardto . . . [the]creeds”2andRobertFriedmann’sendorsement of this designation,3 I will limit my involvement withcontemporary Anabaptist concerns to viewpoints expressed during thecurrentdecadeonly,andonlyminimallyafterIhavedealtwiththeEastern,patristic,and16th-centuryAnabaptistcontextsandissues.4

After I describe the historical background, the chronologicalprogression–from(1)thelifeofJesusto(2)theobservationofthisdivinelife and its confluence with the divine operations of the Father as revealed

St. Gregory of Nyssa, Anabaptism, and the Creeds 43

intheHebrewTanak,then to (3) the imitation of and ontological affiliation with this life, and finally to (4) the creedal description of his person5–willbegin to gain credibility.All of this transpired concurrent with Christ’searthly ministry or almost immediately upon his ascension, with creedalexpressions evolving concomitantly with the emergence of innovativehereticalteachingsthathadtobeaddressed.

Many portions of the circumscribed and intentionally formulatedRules of Faith were created not for Jesus’ followers but for calibratingheterodoxmisinterpretationsinordertopreserveapre-existingsoteriologythat stressed a behavioral and ontological affiliation and union with Christ who is bothdivine andhuman.6Theydid sobyusing christological andtriadologicalphraseologypurposelytailoredforheterodoxconvictionsthateitherfailedtotaketheincarnationseriouslyenoughorcategoricallyrejectedit.Forthatreason,suchdistantdescendantsofLatinChristianityasthe16th-centuryAnabaptistleadersfeltcompelledtopropelethicsandtheimitationofChrist to the forefront of theological activity, by explicitly addressingethical behavior7 and avowing the necessity of one’s transformational orontological affiliation with the incarnate Christ.

This article contends that the gradual separation of theology andspiritualityintheWest,not(orlessthan)thecreeds’ostensiblesilenceontheethico-soteriologicalimplicationsofthenarrativeofJesus,8contributedto16th-centuryAnabaptism’semphasisonNachfolgeandtheilluminationof the creeds’ soteriological and ethical intimations. I will enlist EasternOrthodox voices that can guide us to a more thorough and accurateunderstanding of the purpose and essence of theology as prayer9 and asbecoming,10andsoteriologyastheosis or deification.

Indeed, theEasternviewofsalvationas theosiswasnot foreign toearlyAnabaptism.NocomponentordimensionofEasternChristianity isleftuntouchedbytheinexorableassimilationofspiritualityandtheology,themutual suffusion between things of heaven and things of earth.Thisis trueof liturgical theology;ecclesiology; thenatureofworshipand thesacraments; understanding of the scriptures; humanity’s mediatory rolebetweenheavenandearth,betweentheuncreatedandcreatedrealms;thefunctionoficons;theroleoftears;thelifeofasaint;andtheapprehensionofthepersonofChrist.11


intheHebrewTanak,then to (3) the imitation of and ontological affiliation with this life, and finally to (4) the creedal description of his person5–willbegin to gain credibility.All of this transpired concurrent with Christ’searthly ministry or almost immediately upon his ascension, with creedalexpressions evolving concomitantly with the emergence of innovativehereticalteachingsthathadtobeaddressed.

Many portions of the circumscribed and intentionally formulatedRules of Faith were created not for Jesus’ followers but for calibratingheterodoxmisinterpretationsinordertopreserveapre-existingsoteriologythat stressed a behavioral and ontological affiliation and union with Christ who is bothdivine andhuman.6Theydid sobyusing christological andtriadologicalphraseologypurposelytailoredforheterodoxconvictionsthateitherfailedtotaketheincarnationseriouslyenoughorcategoricallyrejectedit.Forthatreason,suchdistantdescendantsofLatinChristianityasthe16th-centuryAnabaptistleadersfeltcompelledtopropelethicsandtheimitationofChrist to the forefront of theological activity, by explicitly addressingethical behavior7 and avowing the necessity of one’s transformational orontological affiliation with the incarnate Christ.

This article contends that the gradual separation of theology andspiritualityintheWest,not(orlessthan)thecreeds’ostensiblesilenceontheethico-soteriologicalimplicationsofthenarrativeofJesus,8contributedto16th-centuryAnabaptism’semphasisonNachfolgeandtheilluminationof the creeds’ soteriological and ethical intimations. I will enlist EasternOrthodox voices that can guide us to a more thorough and accurateunderstanding of the purpose and essence of theology as prayer9 and asbecoming,10andsoteriologyastheosis or deification.

Indeed, theEasternviewofsalvationas theosiswasnot foreign toearlyAnabaptism.NocomponentordimensionofEasternChristianity isleftuntouchedbytheinexorableassimilationofspiritualityandtheology,themutual suffusion between things of heaven and things of earth.Thisis trueof liturgical theology;ecclesiology; thenatureofworshipand thesacraments; understanding of the scriptures; humanity’s mediatory rolebetweenheavenandearth,betweentheuncreatedandcreatedrealms;thefunctionoficons;theroleoftears;thelifeofasaint;andtheapprehensionofthepersonofChrist.11

The Conrad Grebel Review44

IwillappealtoSt.GregoryofNyssa’s12theologicalmethodologyinlight of the creedal formulations to which he significantly contributed.13Iwilldiscuss two specific contributions: (1) his “apophasis,” which regulates and permitsinsightintotheprecisefunctionoftheologicalconceptsorimages(epinoia)and theresultingemphasisonGod’soperations(energeia); and(2)hisconcernforpreservinganOrthodoxsoteriologyasamanifestationof the fusion of spirituality and theology aswell as the capacitation andauthorizationforhis theological involvement.Gregory’sinsightsresonatewith contemporary Anabaptist scholarship. He will at times agree withcurrentperspectivesbutwillalsosuggestnewwaysofparticipatinginwhatAnabaptistsalreadystress,e.g.,discipleshipandasoteriologymanifestingitself ethically and acknowledging the salience of Jesus’ political, socio-economic,andnonviolentmeasures.

The Historical Sequence and Function of the CreedsFr.JohnBehrseekstomaintaintheappropriatesequenceofeventsleadingfromthelifeandteachingsofthechurchascanontotheimmortalizationofthisstandardinthechurch’sdoctrinesandcreeds.“ThetendencyistobeginwithNicaea,”hesays,“andthenlookforanticipationsofNicenetheologyin theearlierperiods.But, it ismethodologicallyfaulty tobeginwith theresultsofthecontroversies....”14CentraltoBehr’sthesisistheprimitivecreedformulatedin1Cor.15:3-5:

What is most important here is the phrase that the apostlePaul repeats twice:Christ died and rose “in accordancewiththescriptures.”Thisphraseissoimportantthatitispreservedin the Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed which is still saidat every Orthodox Christian baptism and celebration of theDivine Liturgy: Christ died and rose in accordance with the(same)scriptures.Itisimportanttorecognizethatthescripturesin question are not the gospels – Matthew, Mark, Luke, andJohn – they had not even beenwrittenwhenPaulmade thisstatement,butratherwhatwecalltheOldTestament–theLaw,thePsalms,andtheProphets.15

The circumstance whereby such creedal affirmations existed very earlywaslargelyduetotherevelationofChristfromtheHebrewTanakas


IwillappealtoSt.GregoryofNyssa’s12theologicalmethodologyinlight of the creedal formulations to which he significantly contributed.13Iwilldiscuss two specific contributions: (1) his “apophasis,” which regulates and permitsinsightintotheprecisefunctionoftheologicalconceptsorimages(epinoia)and theresultingemphasisonGod’soperations(energeia); and(2)hisconcernforpreservinganOrthodoxsoteriologyasamanifestationof the fusion of spirituality and theology aswell as the capacitation andauthorizationforhis theological involvement.Gregory’sinsightsresonatewith contemporary Anabaptist scholarship. He will at times agree withcurrentperspectivesbutwillalsosuggestnewwaysofparticipatinginwhatAnabaptistsalreadystress,e.g.,discipleshipandasoteriologymanifestingitself ethically and acknowledging the salience of Jesus’ political, socio-economic,andnonviolentmeasures.

The Historical Sequence and Function of the CreedsFr.JohnBehrseekstomaintaintheappropriatesequenceofeventsleadingfromthelifeandteachingsofthechurchascanontotheimmortalizationofthisstandardinthechurch’sdoctrinesandcreeds.“ThetendencyistobeginwithNicaea,”hesays,“andthenlookforanticipationsofNicenetheologyin theearlierperiods.But, it ismethodologicallyfaulty tobeginwith theresultsofthecontroversies....”14CentraltoBehr’sthesisistheprimitivecreedformulatedin1Cor.15:3-5:

What is most important here is the phrase that the apostlePaul repeats twice:Christ died and rose “in accordancewiththescriptures.”Thisphraseissoimportantthatitispreservedin the Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed which is still saidat every Orthodox Christian baptism and celebration of theDivine Liturgy: Christ died and rose in accordance with the(same)scriptures.Itisimportanttorecognizethatthescripturesin question are not the gospels – Matthew, Mark, Luke, andJohn – they had not even beenwrittenwhenPaulmade thisstatement,butratherwhatwecalltheOldTestament–theLaw,thePsalms,andtheProphets.15

The circumstance whereby such creedal affirmations existed very earlywaslargelyduetotherevelationofChristfromtheHebrewTanakas

St. Gregory of Nyssa, Anabaptism, and the Creeds 4�

exegetedbyChristhimselfandsustainedthroughthekerygmaoftheapostlesandlaterbytheChurchFathers.16TheauthorityofChristwasintuitedfromhispersonandnarrativeratherthanfromaphilosophicalabstractionofthesame.

In isolation from the precise creedal expressions existing duringhis time, Aristides could affirm Jesus’ salvific authority by observing his miracles as described in the biblical narrative.17Tertullian deduced fromScripture that an association between God and Jesus is evident from itsimplicitdisclosureintheSermonontheMount:

[T]hathebeginswithbeatitudes,ischaracteristicoftheCreator,who used no other voice than that of blessing either in the first fiat or the final dedication of the universe: for “my heart,” says he, “has indictedaverygoodword.”Thiswill be that “verygoodword”ofblessingwhichisadmittedtobetheinitiatingprincipleoftheNewTestament,aftertheexampleoftheOld.Whatisthere,then,towonderat,ifheenteredon his ministrywith theveryattributesof theCreator,whoever in languageof the samesort loved, consoled,protected,and avenged thebeggar,andthepoor,andthehumble,andthewidow,andtheorphan?18

ElsewhereTertullianarrivesatthesameconclusionbyobservingJesus’sinlessness,19miracles,20 and transfiguration.21However,despiteconcedingthecapacityforfollowingJesusthroughobservinginhimcertaintheisticcharacteristics,allofwhichChrist’sownfollowerscoulddetect,patristicauthors such as Ignatius ofAntioch,22Aristides,23 Irenaeus,24Tertullian,25ClementofAlexandria,26Hippolytus,27Origen,28GregoryThaumaturgus,29andCyprian30neverthelessdiddevelopRulesofFaith,eitherforindividualorregionaluse.Yetthesecreedswereintimatelydependentonthe“ethico-soteriological” ramifications of Christ’s fulfillment of OT precepts and of his earthly existence and humanity’s vocation in view of these ramifications. TheRulessoughttodefendandpreservetheethicalobligationsofChristians,thelifeinChrist,andthesynergisticrequirementsofGodandhumanityforsalvation.31

However, the particular components of the Rules seemed intenton combating heresies whose syncretistic belief systems threatened this


exegetedbyChristhimselfandsustainedthroughthekerygmaoftheapostlesandlaterbytheChurchFathers.16TheauthorityofChristwasintuitedfromhispersonandnarrativeratherthanfromaphilosophicalabstractionofthesame.

In isolation from the precise creedal expressions existing duringhis time, Aristides could affirm Jesus’ salvific authority by observing his miracles as described in the biblical narrative.17Tertullian deduced fromScripture that an association between God and Jesus is evident from itsimplicitdisclosureintheSermonontheMount:

[T]hathebeginswithbeatitudes,ischaracteristicoftheCreator,who used no other voice than that of blessing either in the first fiat or the final dedication of the universe: for “my heart,” says he, “has indictedaverygoodword.”Thiswill be that “verygoodword”ofblessingwhichisadmittedtobetheinitiatingprincipleoftheNewTestament,aftertheexampleoftheOld.Whatisthere,then,towonderat,ifheenteredon his ministrywith theveryattributesof theCreator,whoever in languageof the samesort loved, consoled,protected,and avenged thebeggar,andthepoor,andthehumble,andthewidow,andtheorphan?18

ElsewhereTertullianarrivesatthesameconclusionbyobservingJesus’sinlessness,19miracles,20 and transfiguration.21However,despiteconcedingthecapacityforfollowingJesusthroughobservinginhimcertaintheisticcharacteristics,allofwhichChrist’sownfollowerscoulddetect,patristicauthors such as Ignatius ofAntioch,22Aristides,23 Irenaeus,24Tertullian,25ClementofAlexandria,26Hippolytus,27Origen,28GregoryThaumaturgus,29andCyprian30neverthelessdiddevelopRulesofFaith,eitherforindividualorregionaluse.Yetthesecreedswereintimatelydependentonthe“ethico-soteriological” ramifications of Christ’s fulfillment of OT precepts and of his earthly existence and humanity’s vocation in view of these ramifications. TheRulessoughttodefendandpreservetheethicalobligationsofChristians,thelifeinChrist,andthesynergisticrequirementsofGodandhumanityforsalvation.31

However, the particular components of the Rules seemed intenton combating heresies whose syncretistic belief systems threatened this

The Conrad Grebel Review4�

ethico-soteriologicalnucleusofChristianity, this life inChrist.32 In fact,because these heresies were syncretistic their exponents could generateethicalstandardsbasedontheirbeliefs–ineluctablysubsequenttoideology –ratherthanformulatebeliefsoracreedoftheirownthatwouldpreservetheirethicsandperpetuateapre-establishedsoteriology,aswasnaturaltothecontinuationofalivingTradition.33

UnliketheOrthodoxsituation,heresiescouldnotbasetheirbehavioron the historical Jesus, because heretical sects were religious alloys, theproducts of a union between Christianity and a pagan religious systemor philosophy. Patristic authors acknowledged this syncretism:Tertullianrecognized the “lateness of datewhichmarks all heresies”34 and insistedthey “are themselves instigated by philosophy”35; Hippolytus claimedNoetianismwasaproductofthephilosophyofHeraclitus36whileallegingthat“fromphilosopherstheheresiarchs[derived]startingpoints,[and]likecobblerspatchingtogether,accordingtotheirownparticularinterpretation,theblundersoftheancients,haveadvancedthemasnoveltiestothosethatarecapableofbeingdeceived.”37KennethScottLatouretteobservesthatthevariousformsofGnosticismcanbetracedto“OrphicandPlatonicdualism,other schools of Greek thought, Syrian conceptions, Persian dualism,the mystery cults, Mesopotamian astrology, and Egyptian religion.”38Manichaeism,whosefounderwasofPersianbackground,wasamixtureofZoroastrianism,Judaism,andChristianity.39LatourettealludestotheoriginofelementsinMarcion’sheresybyspecifyinghisbirthplaceatSinople,“thecountryofthefamouscynic,Diogenes.”40PreservingChristianity’sethico-soteriologicalcoreagainsttheimmoralityensuingfromhereticalsystemsofbeliefwastheprimarygoaloftheChurchFathers’patronageofappropriatecreedal phraseology. Their formulations modified elements of heterodox conceptionsseekingtofacilitatedebauchedbehavior41whileabatingaccesstothedivineandthreateningtheprocessoftheosis.42

The Eastern Indissolubility of Spirituality and TheologyThe original outlook, retaining the fusion of theology and spirituality, isupheldtothisdaywithintheEasterntradition,whiletheWesthaslargelyabandoneditinfavorofamoreanalyticalapproach.AsJohnBinnsclaims,“The word ‘theology’ […] is a case in point. In the East the theologian


ethico-soteriologicalnucleusofChristianity, this life inChrist.32 In fact,because these heresies were syncretistic their exponents could generateethicalstandardsbasedontheirbeliefs–ineluctablysubsequenttoideology –ratherthanformulatebeliefsoracreedoftheirownthatwouldpreservetheirethicsandperpetuateapre-establishedsoteriology,aswasnaturaltothecontinuationofalivingTradition.33

UnliketheOrthodoxsituation,heresiescouldnotbasetheirbehavioron the historical Jesus, because heretical sects were religious alloys, theproducts of a union between Christianity and a pagan religious systemor philosophy. Patristic authors acknowledged this syncretism:Tertullianrecognized the “lateness of datewhichmarks all heresies”34 and insistedthey “are themselves instigated by philosophy”35; Hippolytus claimedNoetianismwasaproductofthephilosophyofHeraclitus36whileallegingthat“fromphilosopherstheheresiarchs[derived]startingpoints,[and]likecobblerspatchingtogether,accordingtotheirownparticularinterpretation,theblundersoftheancients,haveadvancedthemasnoveltiestothosethatarecapableofbeingdeceived.”37KennethScottLatouretteobservesthatthevariousformsofGnosticismcanbetracedto“OrphicandPlatonicdualism,other schools of Greek thought, Syrian conceptions, Persian dualism,the mystery cults, Mesopotamian astrology, and Egyptian religion.”38Manichaeism,whosefounderwasofPersianbackground,wasamixtureofZoroastrianism,Judaism,andChristianity.39LatourettealludestotheoriginofelementsinMarcion’sheresybyspecifyinghisbirthplaceatSinople,“thecountryofthefamouscynic,Diogenes.”40PreservingChristianity’sethico-soteriologicalcoreagainsttheimmoralityensuingfromhereticalsystemsofbeliefwastheprimarygoaloftheChurchFathers’patronageofappropriatecreedal phraseology. Their formulations modified elements of heterodox conceptionsseekingtofacilitatedebauchedbehavior41whileabatingaccesstothedivineandthreateningtheprocessoftheosis.42

The Eastern Indissolubility of Spirituality and TheologyThe original outlook, retaining the fusion of theology and spirituality, isupheldtothisdaywithintheEasterntradition,whiletheWesthaslargelyabandoneditinfavorofamoreanalyticalapproach.AsJohnBinnsclaims,“The word ‘theology’ […] is a case in point. In the East the theologian


is committed to the experience of God, not to the discussion of God,”43anobservationechoedbyJohnChryssavgis.44Nodoubtwith free-churchsentimentsinmind,PeterBouteneffobservesthat“SomeinsistthatdogmasgetinthewayoftheirrelationshipwithJesus.”45However,suchconcerns,usuallyassociatedwithJ.DennyWeaver,46overapparentomissionsinthecreedsisnotforeigntotheOrthodoxdisposition:JaroslavPelikanassertsthat“MaximusConfessorhadobservedthateven[…]thedoctrinethatsalvationconferred deification had not been included in the creed or formulated by thecouncils.”47

Orthodoxy does not pay mere lip service to retaining the fusionof spirituality and theology, soteriology and doctrine; it is an authenticexpressionwithadeepimprintontheOrthodoxconscience.MetropolitanPhilaretofMoscowdeclared,“TheCreeddoesnotbelongtoyouunlessyouhave lived it.”48 Metropolitan Kallistos Ware affirms that “True theology […] is always living, a form of ‘hierurgy’ or holy action, somethingthat changes our life and ‘assumes’ us into itself.… [T]heology is not amatterforspecialistsbutauniversalvocation;eachiscalledtobecomeof‘theologiansoul.’”49BouteneffobservesthatChristianity“doesnotconsistin a series of verifiable and interlocking hypotheses. Nor is it a philosophical systemconsistinginsatisfactory,mutuallyconsistentpresuppositions.Ourapproach has to be different,”50 eventually concluding that dogmas must“orientour lives.”51This“existentialcharacter”of theology is familiar toboththeOrthodoxandAnabaptistexperience.52

WhatisuniquetoOrthodoxtheologicalinquiry–andwhatAnabaptistsmightlearnfrom,adoptastheirown,andevenbringtoitslogicalconclusionwhile being mindful of matters of social justice and nonviolence thatOrthodoxyhasoccasionallyoverlooked–istheindissolubilityoftheologyand spirituality. Vladimir Lossky insists that “spirituality and dogma,mysticismandtheology,areinseparablylinkedinthelifeoftheChurch.”53Chryssavgis adds that “Truth is profoundly mystical, never merelyintellectual.Itisarealitythatultimatelycannotbetold.Itisaknowledgethatistranslatedintoloveandlife,”54anddeclaresthattheologyuses“thelanguageofsilencetranslatedaspoetry,asliturgy,asdoxologyandaslife.”55Thissilencehasepistemologicalimplicationsthatrequirean“enteringinto”truth.SergeVerhovskoymaintainsthat“Whenwespeakaboutknowledge,


is committed to the experience of God, not to the discussion of God,”43anobservationechoedbyJohnChryssavgis.44Nodoubtwith free-churchsentimentsinmind,PeterBouteneffobservesthat“SomeinsistthatdogmasgetinthewayoftheirrelationshipwithJesus.”45However,suchconcerns,usuallyassociatedwithJ.DennyWeaver,46overapparentomissionsinthecreedsisnotforeigntotheOrthodoxdisposition:JaroslavPelikanassertsthat“MaximusConfessorhadobservedthateven[…]thedoctrinethatsalvationconferred deification had not been included in the creed or formulated by thecouncils.”47

Orthodoxy does not pay mere lip service to retaining the fusionof spirituality and theology, soteriology and doctrine; it is an authenticexpressionwithadeepimprintontheOrthodoxconscience.MetropolitanPhilaretofMoscowdeclared,“TheCreeddoesnotbelongtoyouunlessyouhave lived it.”48 Metropolitan Kallistos Ware affirms that “True theology […] is always living, a form of ‘hierurgy’ or holy action, somethingthat changes our life and ‘assumes’ us into itself.… [T]heology is not amatterforspecialistsbutauniversalvocation;eachiscalledtobecomeof‘theologiansoul.’”49BouteneffobservesthatChristianity“doesnotconsistin a series of verifiable and interlocking hypotheses. Nor is it a philosophical systemconsistinginsatisfactory,mutuallyconsistentpresuppositions.Ourapproach has to be different,”50 eventually concluding that dogmas must“orientour lives.”51This“existentialcharacter”of theology is familiar toboththeOrthodoxandAnabaptistexperience.52

WhatisuniquetoOrthodoxtheologicalinquiry–andwhatAnabaptistsmightlearnfrom,adoptastheirown,andevenbringtoitslogicalconclusionwhile being mindful of matters of social justice and nonviolence thatOrthodoxyhasoccasionallyoverlooked–istheindissolubilityoftheologyand spirituality. Vladimir Lossky insists that “spirituality and dogma,mysticismandtheology,areinseparablylinkedinthelifeoftheChurch.”53Chryssavgis adds that “Truth is profoundly mystical, never merelyintellectual.Itisarealitythatultimatelycannotbetold.Itisaknowledgethatistranslatedintoloveandlife,”54anddeclaresthattheologyuses“thelanguageofsilencetranslatedaspoetry,asliturgy,asdoxologyandaslife.”55Thissilencehasepistemologicalimplicationsthatrequirean“enteringinto”truth.SergeVerhovskoymaintainsthat“Whenwespeakaboutknowledge,


wedonotspeakaboutabstracttheories.Trueknowledgeisaparticipationinitsobject.ToknowGodistobeincommunionwithHim.”56CommentingonJohn1:18,Chryssavgisremarks,“Thisisthefoundationofalanguagethatthroughapophasis(ornegation)opensuptothesilenceoftheosis(ordeification).”57

“UnlikeGnosticism,inwhichknowledgeforitsownsakeconstitutestheaimoftheGnostic,Christiantheologyisalwaysinthelastresortameans:aunityofknowledgesubservinganendwhichtranscendsallknowledge,”says Lossky. “This ultimate end is union with God or deification, the [theosis] oftheGreekFathers.”58ThisendisalsoaconcernfortheontologyofGodintowhichhumanityentersandforwhichGregoryofNyssa,alongwithAthanasius,BasiltheGreat,andGregorytheTheologian(Nazianzen),toiledamidthedoctrinaluncertaintyandtumultofhisday.59

ThebondbetweentheologyandspiritualitybegantoevaporateintheWest throughnumerous religiousandcultural inducements.Although theshift in theologicalpriorities ishighlycomplicated,somehistorians,suchasFr.JohnMeyendorff, locate theseparationofspiritualityand theologyduringtheerawhen“Christiantheologyacquired,inthemedievalWesternuniversities,thestatusofa‘science,’tobetaughtandlearnedwiththeuseof appropriate scientific methodology.”60 Lossky contends the separationoccurredearlier, immediatelyafter the11th-century schismbetweenEastandWest;thefusionwasespousedbybothEastandWestupuntilroughly1054C.E.61 Latourette identifies hints of the division during the mid- to laterpatristicera:

Certainly[theWestern]partoftheChurchwasnotsotornbythe theological controversies of the fourth and fifth centuries as weretheEasternportionsoftheChurch.ThismayhavebeenbecausetheLatinmindwaslessspeculativeandmorepracticalandethicalthanwastheHellenisticmindoftheEast.Itmaybesignificant that the greatest schisms over questions of morals anddiscipline,theNovatianandDonatist,hadtheirriseintheWest,whilethemaindivisionsoverspeculativetheology[…]hadtheirbirthintheEast.62

However,thisdoesnotmeantheWestwasmorecognizantofethicalissuesthantheEast,butthattheWestcouldanddidsolveethicaldisputes


wedonotspeakaboutabstracttheories.Trueknowledgeisaparticipationinitsobject.ToknowGodistobeincommunionwithHim.”56CommentingonJohn1:18,Chryssavgisremarks,“Thisisthefoundationofalanguagethatthroughapophasis(ornegation)opensuptothesilenceoftheosis(ordeification).”57

“UnlikeGnosticism,inwhichknowledgeforitsownsakeconstitutestheaimoftheGnostic,Christiantheologyisalwaysinthelastresortameans:aunityofknowledgesubservinganendwhichtranscendsallknowledge,”says Lossky. “This ultimate end is union with God or deification, the [theosis] oftheGreekFathers.”58ThisendisalsoaconcernfortheontologyofGodintowhichhumanityentersandforwhichGregoryofNyssa,alongwithAthanasius,BasiltheGreat,andGregorytheTheologian(Nazianzen),toiledamidthedoctrinaluncertaintyandtumultofhisday.59

ThebondbetweentheologyandspiritualitybegantoevaporateintheWest throughnumerous religiousandcultural inducements.Although theshift in theologicalpriorities ishighlycomplicated,somehistorians,suchasFr.JohnMeyendorff, locate theseparationofspiritualityand theologyduringtheerawhen“Christiantheologyacquired,inthemedievalWesternuniversities,thestatusofa‘science,’tobetaughtandlearnedwiththeuseof appropriate scientific methodology.”60 Lossky contends the separationoccurredearlier, immediatelyafter the11th-century schismbetweenEastandWest;thefusionwasespousedbybothEastandWestupuntilroughly1054C.E.61 Latourette identifies hints of the division during the mid- to laterpatristicera:

Certainly[theWestern]partoftheChurchwasnotsotornbythe theological controversies of the fourth and fifth centuries as weretheEasternportionsoftheChurch.ThismayhavebeenbecausetheLatinmindwaslessspeculativeandmorepracticalandethicalthanwastheHellenisticmindoftheEast.Itmaybesignificant that the greatest schisms over questions of morals anddiscipline,theNovatianandDonatist,hadtheirriseintheWest,whilethemaindivisionsoverspeculativetheology[…]hadtheirbirthintheEast.62

However,thisdoesnotmeantheWestwasmorecognizantofethicalissuesthantheEast,butthattheWestcouldanddidsolveethicaldisputes


directlyandinisolationfromconceptualdescriptionsofChristandtheTrinity.Theimplicationsareimportant.WhenChristiansintheWestassimilatedtheNicene-ConstantinopolitanCreedastheirown,theyunavoidablyacquireditsethicalandsoteriologicalimplications.TheWestneverthelessaddressedethically-stimulated schisms without summoning or acknowledging thesalvific components inherent in the creeds, thus allowing the Christendom ofRomanpartisanshiptoadoptamorelenientethicalstance–asitdidinthe face of concerns raised byNovatian andDonatus, however hereticalthesewere.63

Onto-behavioral Priorities in Gregory of Nyssa and Anabaptism InDe Professione Christiana,GregoryofNyssadeclares,“Ifwewhoareunitedtohimbyfaithinhim,aresynonymouswithhimwhoseincorruptiblenature is beyond verbal interpretation, it is entirely necessary for us tobecomewhat iscontemplated inconnectionwith the incorruptiblenatureandtoachieveanidentitywiththesecondaryelementswhichfollowalongwithit,”64 which he identifies as the divine virtues emanating from God. For Gregory,thenucleusofChristianityisontologicalorexistentialratherthanepistemic:65“TheLorddoesnotsayit isblessedtoknow[…]somethingaboutGod,buttohaveGodpresentwithinoneself.”66

Such emphasis on “onto-behavioral” Christianity resemblesearly Anabaptist emphases. Hans Schlaffer, after describing behavioralcharacteristicssuchasforgivingthesinsofothers,declaresthat“FromallofthisitiseasytoconcludewhoarethetruebelieversandproperChristiansandwhonot.SincenoteveryonewhosaysLord,Lord,willenterthekingdomofheaven,butwhoeverdoesthewilloftheheavenlyFather.”67MichaelSattleridentifies the defining element of being a Christian as love, “without which it isnotpossiblethatyoubeaChristiancongregation.”68PeterRiedemanidentifies the core of Christianity as ontological affiliation with Christ: “We confessalso thatGodhas, throughChrist,chosen,acceptedandsoughtapeopleforhimself,nothavingspot,blemish,wrinkle,oranysuchthing,butpureandholy,ashe,himself,isholy.”69

Drawing on Alvin Beachy’s equation of the Anabaptist view ofsalvationwithdivinization,70ThomasFingerclaimsthat“Vergöttung71wasacommonthemeamongearlySouthGerman/AustrianAnabaptists,while


directlyandinisolationfromconceptualdescriptionsofChristandtheTrinity.Theimplicationsareimportant.WhenChristiansintheWestassimilatedtheNicene-ConstantinopolitanCreedastheirown,theyunavoidablyacquireditsethicalandsoteriologicalimplications.TheWestneverthelessaddressedethically-stimulated schisms without summoning or acknowledging thesalvific components inherent in the creeds, thus allowing the Christendom ofRomanpartisanshiptoadoptamorelenientethicalstance–asitdidinthe face of concerns raised byNovatian andDonatus, however hereticalthesewere.63

Onto-behavioral Priorities in Gregory of Nyssa and Anabaptism InDe Professione Christiana,GregoryofNyssadeclares,“Ifwewhoareunitedtohimbyfaithinhim,aresynonymouswithhimwhoseincorruptiblenature is beyond verbal interpretation, it is entirely necessary for us tobecomewhat iscontemplated inconnectionwith the incorruptiblenatureandtoachieveanidentitywiththesecondaryelementswhichfollowalongwithit,”64 which he identifies as the divine virtues emanating from God. For Gregory,thenucleusofChristianityisontologicalorexistentialratherthanepistemic:65“TheLorddoesnotsayit isblessedtoknow[…]somethingaboutGod,buttohaveGodpresentwithinoneself.”66

Such emphasis on “onto-behavioral” Christianity resemblesearly Anabaptist emphases. Hans Schlaffer, after describing behavioralcharacteristicssuchasforgivingthesinsofothers,declaresthat“FromallofthisitiseasytoconcludewhoarethetruebelieversandproperChristiansandwhonot.SincenoteveryonewhosaysLord,Lord,willenterthekingdomofheaven,butwhoeverdoesthewilloftheheavenlyFather.”67MichaelSattleridentifies the defining element of being a Christian as love, “without which it isnotpossiblethatyoubeaChristiancongregation.”68PeterRiedemanidentifies the core of Christianity as ontological affiliation with Christ: “We confessalso thatGodhas, throughChrist,chosen,acceptedandsoughtapeopleforhimself,nothavingspot,blemish,wrinkle,oranysuchthing,butpureandholy,ashe,himself,isholy.”69

Drawing on Alvin Beachy’s equation of the Anabaptist view ofsalvationwithdivinization,70ThomasFingerclaimsthat“Vergöttung71wasacommonthemeamongearlySouthGerman/AustrianAnabaptists,while

The Conrad Grebel Review�0

expressionslike‘partakersofthedivinenature,’withobviousallusionto2Peter1:4,frequentlyappearedin laterSouthGerman/AustrianandDutchAnabaptist circles.”72 Dirk Philips affirms that Christ’s followers become “participantsinthedivinenature,yes,andarecalledgodsandchildrenoftheMostHigh”73and that“whoeverhasbecomeapartakerof thedivinecharacter,thebeingofJesusChristandthepowerandcharacteroftheHolySpirit, conforms himself to the image of Jesus Christ in all submission,obedience,andrighteousnessservesGod,insummaryisaright-believingChristian.”74 In order to incorporate all major strands of 16th-centuryAnabaptism–Swiss,Dutch,andSouthGerman-Austrian–Fingeremploysmore inclusive language: “However, since divinization language wasuncommon amongSwissAnabaptists, I proposed the broader concept ofontological transformation,ofwhichdivinizationisavariety,todesignatethepersonaldimensionofthecomingofthenewcreation.”75

Inaddition to thisontologicalurgencyofAnabaptism, thepatristicera,andGregoryofNyssa,theineffabilityofthechristologicalcompositionandtrinitarianeconomythatthecreedsseektodisclosealsoleadsustore-examinetheapparentcreedalrigidityandnoeticismofthepatristicera.Inthisregard,Gregoryservesasacapableexample.

Beyond Abstraction: The Narrative of Jesus and God’s EnergeiaRegulating Conceptual Efficacy: Gregory of Nyssa’s ApophasisWesoon recognize the centralityof an “apophatic”76 outlook inGregoryofNyssa’swritings.Theincomprehensibilityandineffabilityofthedivineessenceisarguablythemostprominentelementinhisphilosophy.Further,he acknowledges the epistemological limits imposed on humans. RobertBrightman claims that “apophaticism is central” inGregory’s approach77whileinsisting“thatmancannotknowtheessenceofGod”is“attheheart”of Gregory’s theology.78 Brightman contends that any study that “doesnotgiveadequatetreatmenttohisapophaticismisipso factodefective.”79Gregoryhimselfdeclares:

Thedivinenature,whateveritmaybeinitself,surpasseseverymental concept (epinoias). For it is altogether inaccessibleto reasoning and conjecture, nor has there been found anyhuman faculty capable of perceiving the incomprehensible;


expressionslike‘partakersofthedivinenature,’withobviousallusionto2Peter1:4,frequentlyappearedin laterSouthGerman/AustrianandDutchAnabaptist circles.”72 Dirk Philips affirms that Christ’s followers become “participantsinthedivinenature,yes,andarecalledgodsandchildrenoftheMostHigh”73and that“whoeverhasbecomeapartakerof thedivinecharacter,thebeingofJesusChristandthepowerandcharacteroftheHolySpirit, conforms himself to the image of Jesus Christ in all submission,obedience,andrighteousnessservesGod,insummaryisaright-believingChristian.”74 In order to incorporate all major strands of 16th-centuryAnabaptism–Swiss,Dutch,andSouthGerman-Austrian–Fingeremploysmore inclusive language: “However, since divinization language wasuncommon amongSwissAnabaptists, I proposed the broader concept ofontological transformation,ofwhichdivinizationisavariety,todesignatethepersonaldimensionofthecomingofthenewcreation.”75

Inaddition to thisontologicalurgencyofAnabaptism, thepatristicera,andGregoryofNyssa,theineffabilityofthechristologicalcompositionandtrinitarianeconomythatthecreedsseektodisclosealsoleadsustore-examinetheapparentcreedalrigidityandnoeticismofthepatristicera.Inthisregard,Gregoryservesasacapableexample.

Beyond Abstraction: The Narrative of Jesus and God’s EnergeiaRegulating Conceptual Efficacy: Gregory of Nyssa’s ApophasisWesoon recognize the centralityof an “apophatic”76 outlook inGregoryofNyssa’swritings.Theincomprehensibilityandineffabilityofthedivineessenceisarguablythemostprominentelementinhisphilosophy.Further,he acknowledges the epistemological limits imposed on humans. RobertBrightman claims that “apophaticism is central” inGregory’s approach77whileinsisting“thatmancannotknowtheessenceofGod”is“attheheart”of Gregory’s theology.78 Brightman contends that any study that “doesnotgiveadequatetreatmenttohisapophaticismisipso factodefective.”79Gregoryhimselfdeclares:

Thedivinenature,whateveritmaybeinitself,surpasseseverymental concept (epinoias). For it is altogether inaccessibleto reasoning and conjecture, nor has there been found anyhuman faculty capable of perceiving the incomprehensible;

St. Gregory of Nyssa, Anabaptism, and the Creeds �1

forwecannotdeviseameansofunderstandinginconceivablethings.80

AsDeirdreCarabine recognizes,81Gregory is acutely awareof thelimitedfunctionoftrinitarianmetaphysicalcategories,asheexplainsinhisGreat Catechism:

And so one who severely studies the depths of the mystery,receives secretly in his spirit, indeed, a moderate amount ofapprehensionofthedoctrineofGod’snature,yetheisunabletoexplainclearlyinwordstheineffabledepthofthismystery.As, for instance, how the same thing is capable of beingnumberedandyetrejectsnumeration;howitisobservedwithdistinctionsyetisapprehendedasamonad,howitisseparateastopersonalityyetisnotdividedastosubjectmatter.82

Gregory concedes the insufficiency of metaphysical categories to summarize the trinitarian economy. However, he applies his apophaticoutlooknotonly to thedivineessenceandthe trinitarianeconomybut toeachhypostasisseparately,sincetheyeachshareinGod’sousia:83

Whateveryourthoughtsuggeststoyouastothemodeoftheexistenceof theFather,youwill thinkalso in thecaseof theSon, and in like manner too of the Holy Ghost.[…] For theaccount of the uncreated and of the incomprehensible is oneandthesamein thecaseof theFatherandof theSonandofthe Holy Ghost. For one is not more incomprehensible anduncreatedthananother.84

This is not surprising, given Gregory’s common reference to thedivineandhumanrelationshipinChristasa“mysteryoftheincarnation”85anda“mysteryofgodliness.”86GregoryinsiststhattheunionofdivineandhumaninthepersonofChristis“beyondallcircumscription.”87

Despite his cynicism about the limited function of theologicalconcepts, Gregorydoesofferhope.Heinsists that they correspondtotheoperations (Greek,energeia)oftheGodhead,asopposedtoitsessence.88Aftermentioningtermscommonlyusedtocharacterizethedivineessence,heasks,“Dotheyindicatehisoperations,orhisNature?Noonewillsaythat they indicate aught but his operations.”89 Theological concepts are


forwecannotdeviseameansofunderstandinginconceivablethings.80

AsDeirdreCarabine recognizes,81Gregory is acutely awareof thelimitedfunctionoftrinitarianmetaphysicalcategories,asheexplainsinhisGreat Catechism:

And so one who severely studies the depths of the mystery,receives secretly in his spirit, indeed, a moderate amount ofapprehensionofthedoctrineofGod’snature,yetheisunabletoexplainclearlyinwordstheineffabledepthofthismystery.As, for instance, how the same thing is capable of beingnumberedandyetrejectsnumeration;howitisobservedwithdistinctionsyetisapprehendedasamonad,howitisseparateastopersonalityyetisnotdividedastosubjectmatter.82

Gregory concedes the insufficiency of metaphysical categories to summarize the trinitarian economy. However, he applies his apophaticoutlooknotonly to thedivineessenceandthe trinitarianeconomybut toeachhypostasisseparately,sincetheyeachshareinGod’sousia:83

Whateveryourthoughtsuggeststoyouastothemodeoftheexistenceof theFather,youwill thinkalso in thecaseof theSon, and in like manner too of the Holy Ghost.[…] For theaccount of the uncreated and of the incomprehensible is oneandthesamein thecaseof theFatherandof theSonandofthe Holy Ghost. For one is not more incomprehensible anduncreatedthananother.84

This is not surprising, given Gregory’s common reference to thedivineandhumanrelationshipinChristasa“mysteryoftheincarnation”85anda“mysteryofgodliness.”86GregoryinsiststhattheunionofdivineandhumaninthepersonofChristis“beyondallcircumscription.”87

Despite his cynicism about the limited function of theologicalconcepts, Gregorydoesofferhope.Heinsists that they correspondtotheoperations (Greek,energeia)oftheGodhead,asopposedtoitsessence.88Aftermentioningtermscommonlyusedtocharacterizethedivineessence,heasks,“Dotheyindicatehisoperations,orhisNature?Noonewillsaythat they indicate aught but his operations.”89 Theological concepts are


reflections of divine actions as apprehended in the created realm, not of the divine essence: “Whenwe look at the order of creation,we form inourmindanimagenotoftheessence,butofthewisdomofhimwhohasmadeallthingswisely.”90Godis“invisiblebynature,butbecomesvisibleinhisenergies,forhemaybecontemplatedinthethingsthatarereferredtohim.”91ThisispreciselyhowGodis“knownbyanalogy.”92

An Anabaptist ResponseGregory’sapophaticismisnotrepresentedinearlyAnabaptisttheologytotheextentaccentuatedby theChurchFathers,especially in theEast.ButAnabaptist emphases do demonstrate the limited function of objectivetheistic descriptions, and their language is at times compellingly similarto thatofpatristic sources.TheAnabaptists’ stressoncommunalbiblicalhermeneutics reveals their acknowledging subjective dissonance whencomparing one interpretation to another, thus requiring a certain amountof cooperation when illuminating scripture. Menno Simons insisted thatchurch members could not use “human investigation” to conceptuallyexplainandaddtoscripture’s“incomprehensibledepths”butshould“walkall their lives before their God with calm, glad hearts.”93 His analogy,comparingtheinabilitytoconceptualizeGodtopouring“theRiverRhineorMeuseintoaquartbottle,”94isremarkablysimilartoGregory’sstatementthatasthe“hollowofone’shandistothewholedeep,soisallthepowerof language in comparison with that nature which is unspeakable andincomprehensible.”95

Menno additionally declares that “This one and only eternal,omnipotent, incomprehensible (unerforschliche), invisible, ineffable, andindescribable God, we believe and confess with the Scriptures to be theeternal, incomprehensibleFatherwith his eternal, incomprehensibleSon,andwithhiseternal,incomprehensibleHolySpirit,”96whileclaimingthatChrist isnota“literalword”but is instead the“incomprehensibleWord”(emphasisadded).97WithintheAnabaptists’Westernsetting,suchapophaticlanguage is quite striking and significant, particularly when tethered to theirattitudetowardthecreedsaspowerlesstopreserveanonto-behavioralfocus.

Adherents of nascentAnabaptism sought instead to imitate Jesus’observableteachingsandexample,andtodeterminehowfarJesus’actions


reflections of divine actions as apprehended in the created realm, not of the divine essence: “Whenwe look at the order of creation,we form inourmindanimagenotoftheessence,butofthewisdomofhimwhohasmadeallthingswisely.”90Godis“invisiblebynature,butbecomesvisibleinhisenergies,forhemaybecontemplatedinthethingsthatarereferredtohim.”91ThisispreciselyhowGodis“knownbyanalogy.”92

An Anabaptist ResponseGregory’sapophaticismisnotrepresentedinearlyAnabaptisttheologytotheextentaccentuatedby theChurchFathers,especially in theEast.ButAnabaptist emphases do demonstrate the limited function of objectivetheistic descriptions, and their language is at times compellingly similarto thatofpatristic sources.TheAnabaptists’ stressoncommunalbiblicalhermeneutics reveals their acknowledging subjective dissonance whencomparing one interpretation to another, thus requiring a certain amountof cooperation when illuminating scripture. Menno Simons insisted thatchurch members could not use “human investigation” to conceptuallyexplainandaddtoscripture’s“incomprehensibledepths”butshould“walkall their lives before their God with calm, glad hearts.”93 His analogy,comparingtheinabilitytoconceptualizeGodtopouring“theRiverRhineorMeuseintoaquartbottle,”94isremarkablysimilartoGregory’sstatementthatasthe“hollowofone’shandistothewholedeep,soisallthepowerof language in comparison with that nature which is unspeakable andincomprehensible.”95

Menno additionally declares that “This one and only eternal,omnipotent, incomprehensible (unerforschliche), invisible, ineffable, andindescribable God, we believe and confess with the Scriptures to be theeternal, incomprehensibleFatherwith his eternal, incomprehensibleSon,andwithhiseternal,incomprehensibleHolySpirit,”96whileclaimingthatChrist isnota“literalword”but is instead the“incomprehensibleWord”(emphasisadded).97WithintheAnabaptists’Westernsetting,suchapophaticlanguage is quite striking and significant, particularly when tethered to theirattitudetowardthecreedsaspowerlesstopreserveanonto-behavioralfocus.

Adherents of nascentAnabaptism sought instead to imitate Jesus’observableteachingsandexample,andtodeterminehowfarJesus’actions


correspondtotheoperationsofGod,somethingofwhichhumanscancertainlyobtainknowledge,asGregoryarguedabove.AlainEppWeaverrelateshowJohnHowardYoderconcludedthatforearlyAnabaptists,“theproperwaytodiscussJesus’unitywithGodwasintermsofhismotivationandhisactions.[…]Suchunity,whichmakesvisibleJesus’perfectobedience to thewill oftheFather,hasethicalandpoliticalimplications.”98Christ’sobservableactionsthusdirectlycorrespondtoGod’senergeia oroperations.SinceJesusmanifestedhisauthoritybymeansofobservablebehavior,whatitmeanstobeaChristianrevolvesaroundtheextenttowhichahumanreplicatessuchbehavior;thenucleusofChristianityfor16th-centuryAnabaptismwasthusbehavioralandtransformational,ratherthanknowledge-based.

MennoagainleadshisaudiencetoChrist’sverywordsandactionsto be observed and imitated, in addition to complying with the creeds’conceptualstructures:

Itrustalsothatwewhoaregrainsoftheoneloafagreenotonlyas to the twelvearticles [of theApostle’sCreed] (as [GelliusFaber]countsthem),butalsotoallthearticlesoftheScriptures,such as regeneration, repentance, baptism, Holy Supper, expulsion,etc.whichChristJesus[whomtogetherwithIsaiah,PeterandPaulconfesstobethe only (einzige)foundation of the churches – and not the twelve articles as he has it (und nicht jene zwölf Artikel, wie er thut)]haspreachedbyhisownblessedmouth, and left and taught us in clear and plain words (und mit deutlichen Worten gelehrt und hinterlassen hat) [emphasisadded].99

Jesus’ words are clear and plain for the purpose of Nachfolge ordiscipleship. Elsewhere, Menno affirms Jesus’ salvific role, not because of hismetaphysicalcompositionbutbecauseofthe“actsandattributeswhicharefoundinabundancewithHim,asmaybeclearlydeducedandunderstoodfrom[…]Scriptures.”100TheseactsareJesus’authoritytoforgivesins,judgehumanity,anddiscussthenatureofthekingdomofGod;becauseofthis,Jesus“bestowseternallife”101orhasthecapacityandauthoritytodoso.

Pilgrim Marpeck identifies the foundation for Christian practice and responsibilityastheobservationofJesus’wordsandexamplederivedfromthebiblicalnarrative,notfromintellectualexploration:


correspondtotheoperationsofGod,somethingofwhichhumanscancertainlyobtainknowledge,asGregoryarguedabove.AlainEppWeaverrelateshowJohnHowardYoderconcludedthatforearlyAnabaptists,“theproperwaytodiscussJesus’unitywithGodwasintermsofhismotivationandhisactions.[…]Suchunity,whichmakesvisibleJesus’perfectobedience to thewill oftheFather,hasethicalandpoliticalimplications.”98Christ’sobservableactionsthusdirectlycorrespondtoGod’senergeia oroperations.SinceJesusmanifestedhisauthoritybymeansofobservablebehavior,whatitmeanstobeaChristianrevolvesaroundtheextenttowhichahumanreplicatessuchbehavior;thenucleusofChristianityfor16th-centuryAnabaptismwasthusbehavioralandtransformational,ratherthanknowledge-based.

MennoagainleadshisaudiencetoChrist’sverywordsandactionsto be observed and imitated, in addition to complying with the creeds’conceptualstructures:

Itrustalsothatwewhoaregrainsoftheoneloafagreenotonlyas to the twelvearticles [of theApostle’sCreed] (as [GelliusFaber]countsthem),butalsotoallthearticlesoftheScriptures,such as regeneration, repentance, baptism, Holy Supper, expulsion,etc.whichChristJesus[whomtogetherwithIsaiah,PeterandPaulconfesstobethe only (einzige)foundation of the churches – and not the twelve articles as he has it (und nicht jene zwölf Artikel, wie er thut)]haspreachedbyhisownblessedmouth, and left and taught us in clear and plain words (und mit deutlichen Worten gelehrt und hinterlassen hat) [emphasisadded].99

Jesus’ words are clear and plain for the purpose of Nachfolge ordiscipleship. Elsewhere, Menno affirms Jesus’ salvific role, not because of hismetaphysicalcompositionbutbecauseofthe“actsandattributeswhicharefoundinabundancewithHim,asmaybeclearlydeducedandunderstoodfrom[…]Scriptures.”100TheseactsareJesus’authoritytoforgivesins,judgehumanity,anddiscussthenatureofthekingdomofGod;becauseofthis,Jesus“bestowseternallife”101orhasthecapacityandauthoritytodoso.

Pilgrim Marpeck identifies the foundation for Christian practice and responsibilityastheobservationofJesus’wordsandexamplederivedfromthebiblicalnarrative,notfromintellectualexploration:


Nor can an inward testimony be recognized, except when itisprecededbysuchoutward teaching,deeds,commandsandceremoniesofChristwhichbelongtotherevelationoftheSonof God in the flesh and which are like a new creation in Christ. Thesethingsmustbereceivedinaphysicalmannerbeforetheinner testimony can be felt and recognized.Although reasonandthoughtandalmostallconceitedspiritsstronglyresistthisact,nevertheless,theymustallcomeunderthephysicalfeetofChrist.102

Marpeckisattemptingtosubordinate“reason”and“innertestimony”underthephysicalityofChrist’steachingsanddeeds,thelatterinforminghumanity of its salvific status and how far it has become a new creation in Christ.DirkPhilipsalsostatesthathumanobedienceisrootedinthebiblicalwitnessofChristratherthanincreedalproclamations,since“humansdonotlivebyotherhumanwordsbroughtforthoutofhumanwill,butalonebythewordsofGodproclaimedtousthroughChristJesusandhisapostles.”103

Anabaptistleaderswerethuscontenttoacknowledgetheintersectionbetween themotives of both Jesus andGod apart from the assistanceofhuman words. This affirms Gregory’s insistence that God’s energeiacanbeknown, while Jesus’ salvific authority can be determined based on how far hisactionsandteachingsreplicatetheFather’sactionsandteachings.

Christian Responsibility Preserved by Subsequently Developed CreedsThe Fusion of Spirituality and Theology: Gregory of Nyssa’s Theological Chronology and PrioritiesInordertoverifyhowGregoryisinsolidaritywiththepatristicconcernforinner transformationandbehavior,andhowdoctrinedevelopedafterandinsupportofthisethicalconcern,wemustdeterminehowhischristologyand trinitarian convictions sustain his pre-existing soteriology. We maythusascertainhistheologicalmotive,thesamestimulusasthatoftheearlyChurch Fathers who sought to systematize a theology to abate decadentbehaviorarisingfromanaccommodatinghereticalideology.

Accordingly, we must show that Gregory’s soteriology appearedfirst, after which his christological and triadological formulations emerged consequentially.Infact,sinceoneispermittedtoapprehendGod’senergeia


Nor can an inward testimony be recognized, except when itisprecededbysuchoutward teaching,deeds,commandsandceremoniesofChristwhichbelongtotherevelationoftheSonof God in the flesh and which are like a new creation in Christ. Thesethingsmustbereceivedinaphysicalmannerbeforetheinner testimony can be felt and recognized.Although reasonandthoughtandalmostallconceitedspiritsstronglyresistthisact,nevertheless,theymustallcomeunderthephysicalfeetofChrist.102

Marpeckisattemptingtosubordinate“reason”and“innertestimony”underthephysicalityofChrist’steachingsanddeeds,thelatterinforminghumanity of its salvific status and how far it has become a new creation in Christ.DirkPhilipsalsostatesthathumanobedienceisrootedinthebiblicalwitnessofChristratherthanincreedalproclamations,since“humansdonotlivebyotherhumanwordsbroughtforthoutofhumanwill,butalonebythewordsofGodproclaimedtousthroughChristJesusandhisapostles.”103

Anabaptistleaderswerethuscontenttoacknowledgetheintersectionbetween themotives of both Jesus andGod apart from the assistanceofhuman words. This affirms Gregory’s insistence that God’s energeiacanbeknown, while Jesus’ salvific authority can be determined based on how far hisactionsandteachingsreplicatetheFather’sactionsandteachings.

Christian Responsibility Preserved by Subsequently Developed CreedsThe Fusion of Spirituality and Theology: Gregory of Nyssa’s Theological Chronology and PrioritiesInordertoverifyhowGregoryisinsolidaritywiththepatristicconcernforinner transformationandbehavior,andhowdoctrinedevelopedafterandinsupportofthisethicalconcern,wemustdeterminehowhischristologyand trinitarian convictions sustain his pre-existing soteriology. We maythusascertainhistheologicalmotive,thesamestimulusasthatoftheearlyChurch Fathers who sought to systematize a theology to abate decadentbehaviorarisingfromanaccommodatinghereticalideology.

Accordingly, we must show that Gregory’s soteriology appearedfirst, after which his christological and triadological formulations emerged consequentially.Infact,sinceoneispermittedtoapprehendGod’senergeia

St. Gregory of Nyssa, Anabaptism, and the Creeds ��

alone, God’s salvific operations must be recognized initially, afterwhichChrist’s divine/human composition can be approached delicately andcautiouslywithinapre-establishedsoteriologicalframework.BrianDaleyexpresseshowGregoryisuniqueinthisregard:

[Gregory]isconcernedaboveallwithJesusChristasthemaninwhom and through whom the infinite and saving reality of God touchesus all:withpreserving the transcendenceof theGodwhoispresentinhim,andwithemphasizingthetransformationofthathumanrealitywhichGod,inthemanJesus,hasmadehisown.104

One method for determining if his soteriology was envisaged first is toconsiderwhetherGregorymayhaveformulatedanad hocchristologydependentonthesituationinwhichhefoundhimself.

Gregory’s customization of christological language to substantiatespecific features of his soteriology is quite evident. His emphasis on Christ’s humanityisconspicuouslyexpressedinAd Simplicium de Fide:“Hewhowasformedinthevirgin’swomb[…]istheservant,andnottheLord.[…]HewhowascreatedasthebeginningofhiswaysisnotGod,butthemaninwhomGodwasmanifestedtousfortherenewingagainoftheruinedwayofman’ssalvation”(emphasisadded).105ChrististhusseenashumanbecausehumansneedsalvationandtherestorationofthelikenessofGod.

However, when the context is reversed, Gregory modifies his accent. JohannesZachhuberclaimsthatGregory“underthepressureofmaintaining,against Eunomius, the salvific necessity of Christ’s full divinity, shifted the emphasisofhis soteriologyaway from thehumanistic approach […]towards an approach stressing the salvific activity of the Logos.”106NoticetheausterecontrastbetweenthesentimentexpressedinAd Simplicium de Fide and that conveyed in Contra Eunomium: “Then he took dust fromtheearthandformedman,againhetookdustfromthevirginand not only formedman, but formed him around himself; thenhecreated,afterwardshe was created; then the word made flesh, afterwards the word became fleshinordertotransform our flesh into spirit by partaking of our flesh and blood” (emphasis added).107 Evidently,Gregory ismore concernedwithmaintainingabalanced soteriological approachbyconveniently stressingChrist’s humanity or divinity and his equal status within the trinitarian


alone, God’s salvific operations must be recognized initially, afterwhichChrist’s divine/human composition can be approached delicately andcautiouslywithinapre-establishedsoteriologicalframework.BrianDaleyexpresseshowGregoryisuniqueinthisregard:

[Gregory]isconcernedaboveallwithJesusChristasthemaninwhom and through whom the infinite and saving reality of God touchesus all:withpreserving the transcendenceof theGodwhoispresentinhim,andwithemphasizingthetransformationofthathumanrealitywhichGod,inthemanJesus,hasmadehisown.104

One method for determining if his soteriology was envisaged first is toconsiderwhetherGregorymayhaveformulatedanad hocchristologydependentonthesituationinwhichhefoundhimself.

Gregory’s customization of christological language to substantiatespecific features of his soteriology is quite evident. His emphasis on Christ’s humanityisconspicuouslyexpressedinAd Simplicium de Fide:“Hewhowasformedinthevirgin’swomb[…]istheservant,andnottheLord.[…]HewhowascreatedasthebeginningofhiswaysisnotGod,butthemaninwhomGodwasmanifestedtousfortherenewingagainoftheruinedwayofman’ssalvation”(emphasisadded).105ChrististhusseenashumanbecausehumansneedsalvationandtherestorationofthelikenessofGod.

However, when the context is reversed, Gregory modifies his accent. JohannesZachhuberclaimsthatGregory“underthepressureofmaintaining,against Eunomius, the salvific necessity of Christ’s full divinity, shifted the emphasisofhis soteriologyaway from thehumanistic approach […]towards an approach stressing the salvific activity of the Logos.”106NoticetheausterecontrastbetweenthesentimentexpressedinAd Simplicium de Fide and that conveyed in Contra Eunomium: “Then he took dust fromtheearthandformedman,againhetookdustfromthevirginand not only formedman, but formed him around himself; thenhecreated,afterwardshe was created; then the word made flesh, afterwards the word became fleshinordertotransform our flesh into spirit by partaking of our flesh and blood” (emphasis added).107 Evidently,Gregory ismore concernedwithmaintainingabalanced soteriological approachbyconveniently stressingChrist’s humanity or divinity and his equal status within the trinitarian

The Conrad Grebel Review��

economywhenrequired.108Itisthisbalancethathadtobeimmortalizedinthe final Nicene-Constantinopolitan formula.

Gregory is thus a fitting example of the fusion of spirituality and theology. In addition to his concern for substantiating a pre-existingsoteriologicaloutlook,hisinsistencethatwemustattendtoourspiritualneedsbeforeparticipatingintheologicalspeculationisevenmorepronounced.109Indeed,ourprogressivetransformationinto,andunionwith,theIncarnateChristisitselfthewayweknowandseeGodwiththeeyeofthesoul.

Hewhowouldapproachtheknowledgeofthingssublimemustfirst purify his manner of life from all sensual and irrational emotion.Hemustwashfromhisunderstandingeveryopinionderivedfromsomepreconceptionandwithdrawhimselffromhis customary intercoursewithhis owncompanion, [that] is,withhissenseperceptions,whichare[…]weddedtoournatureas its companion. When he is so purified, then he assaults the mountain.110

AgainGregorymaintainsitisGodwhois“promisedtothevisionofthose whose heart has been purified.”111Onerecognizestheidentityofthearchetype, namely the Incarnate Christ, by beholding one’s own purified soul:“Ifamanwhoispureofheartseeshimself,heseesinhimselfwhathedesires;andthushebecomesblessed,becausewhenhelooksathisownpurity,heseesthearchetypeintheimage.”112

For Gregory, doing theology, in the sense of ascertaining themetaphysical composition of Christ and the Trinity that the creeds seektoexpound, involves inferring fromone’sownpurityand the synergisticprocessinvolved,whattheIncarnateChristis.AsLosskyobserves,“Thismysteryoffaithaspersonalencounterandontologicalparticipationistheuniquefoundationoftheologicallanguage,alanguagethatapophasisopensto the silence of deification.”113 Participation in the purification process is doingtheology.

An Anabaptist ResponseIneffect,earlyAnabaptist leadersre-initiated thehistoricalconcatenationof events surrounding the creeds to resemble what unfolded in first-century Palestine before the composition of any detailed Rule of Faith. History


economywhenrequired.108Itisthisbalancethathadtobeimmortalizedinthe final Nicene-Constantinopolitan formula.

Gregory is thus a fitting example of the fusion of spirituality and theology. In addition to his concern for substantiating a pre-existingsoteriologicaloutlook,hisinsistencethatwemustattendtoourspiritualneedsbeforeparticipatingintheologicalspeculationisevenmorepronounced.109Indeed,ourprogressivetransformationinto,andunionwith,theIncarnateChristisitselfthewayweknowandseeGodwiththeeyeofthesoul.

Hewhowouldapproachtheknowledgeofthingssublimemustfirst purify his manner of life from all sensual and irrational emotion.Hemustwashfromhisunderstandingeveryopinionderivedfromsomepreconceptionandwithdrawhimselffromhis customary intercoursewithhis owncompanion, [that] is,withhissenseperceptions,whichare[…]weddedtoournatureas its companion. When he is so purified, then he assaults the mountain.110

AgainGregorymaintainsitisGodwhois“promisedtothevisionofthose whose heart has been purified.”111Onerecognizestheidentityofthearchetype, namely the Incarnate Christ, by beholding one’s own purified soul:“Ifamanwhoispureofheartseeshimself,heseesinhimselfwhathedesires;andthushebecomesblessed,becausewhenhelooksathisownpurity,heseesthearchetypeintheimage.”112

For Gregory, doing theology, in the sense of ascertaining themetaphysical composition of Christ and the Trinity that the creeds seektoexpound, involves inferring fromone’sownpurityand the synergisticprocessinvolved,whattheIncarnateChristis.AsLosskyobserves,“Thismysteryoffaithaspersonalencounterandontologicalparticipationistheuniquefoundationoftheologicallanguage,alanguagethatapophasisopensto the silence of deification.”113 Participation in the purification process is doingtheology.

An Anabaptist ResponseIneffect,earlyAnabaptist leadersre-initiated thehistoricalconcatenationof events surrounding the creeds to resemble what unfolded in first-century Palestine before the composition of any detailed Rule of Faith. History


teaches that an understanding of Christ’s metaphysical composition wasformulatedafter acknowledging the exceptionality and significance of Jesus’ behavior,ministry, andmessage, andafter resolving to obey and imitatethis same Jesus. Menno affirms that it is Jesus “whom we should serve and worship;thatheisthetruth,theOnewhoforgivessinsandbestowseternallife,inwhomwemustbelieveandwhoatthelastdaywillraiseusfromthedeadandjudgeusasithasbeensaid,andso it followsofnecessity(so ist es gewiss unwiderlegbar)thatJesusChristmustbetrueGodwiththeFather”(emphasisadded).114ObediencetoChristemergesasaresultofobservingthoseactionsofJesusthatcorrespondtotheoperations115(energeia)ofGod(forgiving sins and bestowing eternal life); after identifying the salvific authorityofChrist,Menno isprepared to followhim(inwhomwemustbelieve)andthereforeestablishesarudimentarysoteriologicaldirective.

HereMennocanvalidate thecreedalclaimsconcerningChristandhis relationship to the Father within the trinitarian economy. Significantly, MennoequatesGod’soperationsthatJesusembodiesas“glories,honors,works,andattributeswhichbelongtonooneinheavennorupontheearth,excepttotheonlyeternalandtrueGod.”116ThisagainshowshowChrist’sexceptionality and salvific authority and license could be acknowledged apart from philosophical disclosure and instead through Christ’s fulfillment ofOTpatternsandprecepts.

The priority in Anabaptism of purity of life and ontologicalsoteriology,bothchronologicallyandecclesiastically,nuancesthefunctionofcreedaldescriptions.EarlyAnabaptistsdidnotengagethecreedsunlesstheywereinitiatedintothediscussionexternally.117Finger’scontentionthat“whileCreedsprovideasomewhatunnaturalstarting-pointforMennonitesin ecumenical discussion, they do provide a possible one,”118 thoughtheoretically true, can lead to difficulties and internal contradictions that may bewhyearlyAnabaptistsrarelyinvokedthecreedsasastartingpointunlessthey felt itwas necessary to drawattention to their limitations.119 In thisway,sincethecreedswereahistoricalrealityfor16th-centuryAnabaptistleaders,theycommandeeredtheirhighchristologicalclaimsinanattemptto convince the wider church of the normativity of Jesus’ teachings andexampleforChristianethics.

BenOllenburger’ssomewhatdubiouscitationofMennoinarecentissueofMennonite Life120 exemplifies the agenda of those who seem less


teaches that an understanding of Christ’s metaphysical composition wasformulatedafter acknowledging the exceptionality and significance of Jesus’ behavior,ministry, andmessage, andafter resolving to obey and imitatethis same Jesus. Menno affirms that it is Jesus “whom we should serve and worship;thatheisthetruth,theOnewhoforgivessinsandbestowseternallife,inwhomwemustbelieveandwhoatthelastdaywillraiseusfromthedeadandjudgeusasithasbeensaid,andso it followsofnecessity(so ist es gewiss unwiderlegbar)thatJesusChristmustbetrueGodwiththeFather”(emphasisadded).114ObediencetoChristemergesasaresultofobservingthoseactionsofJesusthatcorrespondtotheoperations115(energeia)ofGod(forgiving sins and bestowing eternal life); after identifying the salvific authorityofChrist,Menno isprepared to followhim(inwhomwemustbelieve)andthereforeestablishesarudimentarysoteriologicaldirective.

HereMennocanvalidate thecreedalclaimsconcerningChristandhis relationship to the Father within the trinitarian economy. Significantly, MennoequatesGod’soperationsthatJesusembodiesas“glories,honors,works,andattributeswhichbelongtonooneinheavennorupontheearth,excepttotheonlyeternalandtrueGod.”116ThisagainshowshowChrist’sexceptionality and salvific authority and license could be acknowledged apart from philosophical disclosure and instead through Christ’s fulfillment ofOTpatternsandprecepts.

The priority in Anabaptism of purity of life and ontologicalsoteriology,bothchronologicallyandecclesiastically,nuancesthefunctionofcreedaldescriptions.EarlyAnabaptistsdidnotengagethecreedsunlesstheywereinitiatedintothediscussionexternally.117Finger’scontentionthat“whileCreedsprovideasomewhatunnaturalstarting-pointforMennonitesin ecumenical discussion, they do provide a possible one,”118 thoughtheoretically true, can lead to difficulties and internal contradictions that may bewhyearlyAnabaptistsrarelyinvokedthecreedsasastartingpointunlessthey felt itwas necessary to drawattention to their limitations.119 In thisway,sincethecreedswereahistoricalrealityfor16th-centuryAnabaptistleaders,theycommandeeredtheirhighchristologicalclaimsinanattemptto convince the wider church of the normativity of Jesus’ teachings andexampleforChristianethics.

BenOllenburger’ssomewhatdubiouscitationofMennoinarecentissueofMennonite Life120 exemplifies the agenda of those who seem less


willingtoaccountforthenuancesinherentinearlyAnabaptistengagementwiththecreeds.Ollenburgerprovidesathree-sentencequotationthatspansfive pages in the original, using it to affirm Menno’s endorsement of the creedalformula.Whatitomitsaretheethicalandthussoteriologicaladditionsthat motivated Menno to write about the creeds in the first place. The missing elementsincludehisinsistencethat,inadditiontothecreedalwords,Christis the “eternal, wise, Almighty, holy, true, living and incomprehensibleWord”121 who thus “purified our hearts”122 sowecan“serve the trueandlivingGod.”123Overtlyconnectingsoteriologicalconcernswithtrinitarianexpressionscontainedinthecreeds,MennoalsostatesthatChristiansshould“givenoone thepraise foroursalvation,neither inheavennoronearth,buttheonlyandeternalFatherthroughChristJesus,andthatthroughtheilluminationoftheHolySpirit.”124Elsewhere,withreferencetoOrthodoxproclamationsaboutChrist,Mennoassertsthatallwhobelievethesethings“obeyhisWord,walk inhiscommandments [folgen darum seinem Wort, wandeln in seinem Geboten],bowtohisscepter,andquiettheirconsciencewith grace, atonement, merit, sacrifice, promise, death and blood.”125

Similarly, in affirming the creedal formula and the Orthodox understanding of Jesus therein, Peter Riedeman averred, “This Wordproceeded from theFather that theharmbroughtby the transgressionofAdammightbehealed,andthefallrestored.”126However,“apowerotherthanhumanstrength[Christ’sdivinity]wasnecessary,”127whichhas“nowtakenuscaptiveintohisobedienceandleadsusinhisway,teachesushischaracter,waysandgoodness.”128InoppositiontothemoreepistemicsoteriologyofWesternChristendom,HansDenck, in his so-calledRecantation, affirms bothMenno’sandRiedeman’sadditionstothecreedsbydeclaring,“Glaube ist der gehorsam Gottes (faithisobediencetoGod).”129

If the early Anabaptists merely stated the creeds and indicatedconsent and unqualified endorsement, that would show they were satisfied withthecreeds’structurefortheirowncontextandconcerns.However,inorder to criticize something, that something must be introduced into theconversation.So,althoughthecreedswereintroducedexternallybyvirtueoftheirhistoricalsurvival,earlyAnabaptistswillinglyaddressedthemnotonly to affirm their statements but to scrutinize them and illuminate what theyomit.130


willingtoaccountforthenuancesinherentinearlyAnabaptistengagementwiththecreeds.Ollenburgerprovidesathree-sentencequotationthatspansfive pages in the original, using it to affirm Menno’s endorsement of the creedalformula.Whatitomitsaretheethicalandthussoteriologicaladditionsthat motivated Menno to write about the creeds in the first place. The missing elementsincludehisinsistencethat,inadditiontothecreedalwords,Christis the “eternal, wise, Almighty, holy, true, living and incomprehensibleWord”121 who thus “purified our hearts”122 sowecan“serve the trueandlivingGod.”123Overtlyconnectingsoteriologicalconcernswithtrinitarianexpressionscontainedinthecreeds,MennoalsostatesthatChristiansshould“givenoone thepraise foroursalvation,neither inheavennoronearth,buttheonlyandeternalFatherthroughChristJesus,andthatthroughtheilluminationoftheHolySpirit.”124Elsewhere,withreferencetoOrthodoxproclamationsaboutChrist,Mennoassertsthatallwhobelievethesethings“obeyhisWord,walk inhiscommandments [folgen darum seinem Wort, wandeln in seinem Geboten],bowtohisscepter,andquiettheirconsciencewith grace, atonement, merit, sacrifice, promise, death and blood.”125

Similarly, in affirming the creedal formula and the Orthodox understanding of Jesus therein, Peter Riedeman averred, “This Wordproceeded from theFather that theharmbroughtby the transgressionofAdammightbehealed,andthefallrestored.”126However,“apowerotherthanhumanstrength[Christ’sdivinity]wasnecessary,”127whichhas“nowtakenuscaptiveintohisobedienceandleadsusinhisway,teachesushischaracter,waysandgoodness.”128InoppositiontothemoreepistemicsoteriologyofWesternChristendom,HansDenck, in his so-calledRecantation, affirms bothMenno’sandRiedeman’sadditionstothecreedsbydeclaring,“Glaube ist der gehorsam Gottes (faithisobediencetoGod).”129

If the early Anabaptists merely stated the creeds and indicatedconsent and unqualified endorsement, that would show they were satisfied withthecreeds’structurefortheirowncontextandconcerns.However,inorder to criticize something, that something must be introduced into theconversation.So,althoughthecreedswereintroducedexternallybyvirtueoftheirhistoricalsurvival,earlyAnabaptistswillinglyaddressedthemnotonly to affirm their statements but to scrutinize them and illuminate what theyomit.130


B. Royale Dewey’s remark that “rather than write off Nicea,Mennonites should be grateful for it”131 is contestable when within theirown 16th-century setting the creeds failed to nurture what is central toAnabaptism,namelydiscipleship,nonviolence,andsocio-economicequityandjustice.WhilepatristicinitiativesandintentionsatNiceawerearguablylaudableandvalid,ananalysisof theprocess, subsequentoutcomes,andpoliticalmanipulationofcreedalprioritieswarrants,forearlyAnabaptism,regulationofthecreedsandamendmenttotheprioritiesofChristianityingeneral.TheissueisthusnotthelegitimacyoftheChurchFathersthemselves,but the ramifications of the Constantinian and Nicene politico-ecclesial union, specifically in the West where access to the creedal mechanisms for preservingalifeinChristinherentintheEasternconsciencewaslimited.

The16th-centuryWesterncontextwithinwhichAnabaptismemergedrequiredare-focusingonethicalmatters.Ideally,creedalformulationscouldresolvebehavioralandsoteriologicalscruples.However,withAnabaptism’semergence in a setting where the creeds were impotent to reinvigoratethe affluent, fraudulent, and unscrupulous state of the magisterial Roman Catholic Church because of the separation of spirituality and theology,Anabaptist leadershadtoaddressethicalconcernsdirectlyandexplicitly.Thisisexactlywhattheydidwhentheymadesoteriologicaladditionstothecreeds.132

Inthissense,Anabaptistattemptsatpersuadingthehistoricalchurchof the importance of priorities such as nonviolence mimic Gregory’sinsistencethatcreedalformulationsemergedsubsequentto,andinsupportof,apre-existingsoteriology.LikeGregory,theAnabaptistswereprimarilyinterested in defending their unique soteriology,which developed on thebasisofobservingJesus’teachingsandexampleasdescribedinthebiblicalnarrative. If the metaphysical Greek categories used to describe Christand the Trinity can be employed to support a pre-existing soteriology,Anabaptistscouldappealtothemforthatreasonalone,muchlikeGregoryandotherpatristicbishopsanddecision-makersdid.

Indeed, as Alain Epp Weaver contends, “Nothing preventscontemporary theologians from appealing to the Creedal identification of Jesus as trueman and trueGod in order to persuade otherChristians ofhisnormativityforethics.”133 And specifically for Anabaptist values, only


B. Royale Dewey’s remark that “rather than write off Nicea,Mennonites should be grateful for it”131 is contestable when within theirown 16th-century setting the creeds failed to nurture what is central toAnabaptism,namelydiscipleship,nonviolence,andsocio-economicequityandjustice.WhilepatristicinitiativesandintentionsatNiceawerearguablylaudableandvalid,ananalysisof theprocess, subsequentoutcomes,andpoliticalmanipulationofcreedalprioritieswarrants,forearlyAnabaptism,regulationofthecreedsandamendmenttotheprioritiesofChristianityingeneral.TheissueisthusnotthelegitimacyoftheChurchFathersthemselves,but the ramifications of the Constantinian and Nicene politico-ecclesial union, specifically in the West where access to the creedal mechanisms for preservingalifeinChristinherentintheEasternconsciencewaslimited.

The16th-centuryWesterncontextwithinwhichAnabaptismemergedrequiredare-focusingonethicalmatters.Ideally,creedalformulationscouldresolvebehavioralandsoteriologicalscruples.However,withAnabaptism’semergence in a setting where the creeds were impotent to reinvigoratethe affluent, fraudulent, and unscrupulous state of the magisterial Roman Catholic Church because of the separation of spirituality and theology,Anabaptist leadershadtoaddressethicalconcernsdirectlyandexplicitly.Thisisexactlywhattheydidwhentheymadesoteriologicaladditionstothecreeds.132

Inthissense,Anabaptistattemptsatpersuadingthehistoricalchurchof the importance of priorities such as nonviolence mimic Gregory’sinsistencethatcreedalformulationsemergedsubsequentto,andinsupportof,apre-existingsoteriology.LikeGregory,theAnabaptistswereprimarilyinterested in defending their unique soteriology,which developed on thebasisofobservingJesus’teachingsandexampleasdescribedinthebiblicalnarrative. If the metaphysical Greek categories used to describe Christand the Trinity can be employed to support a pre-existing soteriology,Anabaptistscouldappealtothemforthatreasonalone,muchlikeGregoryandotherpatristicbishopsanddecision-makersdid.

Indeed, as Alain Epp Weaver contends, “Nothing preventscontemporary theologians from appealing to the Creedal identification of Jesus as trueman and trueGod in order to persuade otherChristians ofhisnormativityforethics.”133 And specifically for Anabaptist values, only


ahighchristologycan“providethebasisfordiscipleshiptoanon-resistantJesusandanecclesiologywhichrenouncestheviolentwaysoftheworld.”134Gregoryisafourth-centuryexampleofsomeonewhocontributedgreatlyto thediscussionofappropriatechristologicalandtriadological language,butwhoperiodicallytailoredthislanguageforhisown,andOrthodoxy’s,pre-established soteriological purposes.135 However, he was interactingwith an Eastern audience who recognized the soteriological significance of such creedal language; this is precisely howAnabaptism’s emergencepresenteditselfwiththeopportunitytobeapropheticvoicetotheWesternchurch,whoseseparationofspiritualityandtheologyresultedindistortedpriorities.

Althoughhiseffort toreclaimtraditionalChristianexpressionsandprioritiesislaudable,A.JamesReimerseemstounderminethechronologyinherent in thedevelopmentof the creeds, as is evident from the titleofhisbookMennonites and Classical Theology: Dogmatic Foundations for Christian Ethics.IfReimerweremoreawareoftheoriginalcircumstancesandmindsetoutofwhichthecreedsarose,thetitleshouldhavebeenThe Ethical-Soteriological Foundation for Christian Dogmatics.136Inreferenceto the ecumenical creeds of the fourth and fifth centuries specifically, Reimer would like to see “a theological imagination that is disciplinedby the doctrinal categories.”137 Elsewhere he argues that the content ofthecreedshas“profoundimplicationsforhowweliveandact.”138Forallhis oversights, J. Denny Weaver is nevertheless more responsible in hismanagementof history in this regard: “If JesusChrist is our foundation,thenitisJesus’storyandthe‘politicsofJesus’–nottheshapeofanationalethos or fourth- and fifth-century Creedal formulas – that should determine thecontourofour theologicalagenda,”139aclaimcongruentat leastwithFinger’smethodologythoughnothisconclusions.140Thisassessmentinnoway conflicts with the priorities and typical avowal of the Church Fathers, and, surprising as this may be to someone of Weaver’s persuasion, is asentimentsharedbynearlyallOrthodoxtheologians.

ReimershouldbepraisedfortryingtoresurrectclassicalexpressionsofChristianity.However,byacknowledgingthechronologythatanticipatedthecreeds(whilerejectingthenotionthattheyfunction(ed)asafoundationfor ethics) and by affirming, indeed living, the fusion of spirituality and


ahighchristologycan“providethebasisfordiscipleshiptoanon-resistantJesusandanecclesiologywhichrenouncestheviolentwaysoftheworld.”134Gregoryisafourth-centuryexampleofsomeonewhocontributedgreatlyto thediscussionofappropriatechristologicalandtriadological language,butwhoperiodicallytailoredthislanguageforhisown,andOrthodoxy’s,pre-established soteriological purposes.135 However, he was interactingwith an Eastern audience who recognized the soteriological significance of such creedal language; this is precisely howAnabaptism’s emergencepresenteditselfwiththeopportunitytobeapropheticvoicetotheWesternchurch,whoseseparationofspiritualityandtheologyresultedindistortedpriorities.

Althoughhiseffort toreclaimtraditionalChristianexpressionsandprioritiesislaudable,A.JamesReimerseemstounderminethechronologyinherent in thedevelopmentof the creeds, as is evident from the titleofhisbookMennonites and Classical Theology: Dogmatic Foundations for Christian Ethics.IfReimerweremoreawareoftheoriginalcircumstancesandmindsetoutofwhichthecreedsarose,thetitleshouldhavebeenThe Ethical-Soteriological Foundation for Christian Dogmatics.136Inreferenceto the ecumenical creeds of the fourth and fifth centuries specifically, Reimer would like to see “a theological imagination that is disciplinedby the doctrinal categories.”137 Elsewhere he argues that the content ofthecreedshas“profoundimplicationsforhowweliveandact.”138Forallhis oversights, J. Denny Weaver is nevertheless more responsible in hismanagementof history in this regard: “If JesusChrist is our foundation,thenitisJesus’storyandthe‘politicsofJesus’–nottheshapeofanationalethos or fourth- and fifth-century Creedal formulas – that should determine thecontourofour theologicalagenda,”139aclaimcongruentat leastwithFinger’smethodologythoughnothisconclusions.140Thisassessmentinnoway conflicts with the priorities and typical avowal of the Church Fathers, and, surprising as this may be to someone of Weaver’s persuasion, is asentimentsharedbynearlyallOrthodoxtheologians.

ReimershouldbepraisedfortryingtoresurrectclassicalexpressionsofChristianity.However,byacknowledgingthechronologythatanticipatedthecreeds(whilerejectingthenotionthattheyfunction(ed)asafoundationfor ethics) and by affirming, indeed living, the fusion of spirituality and


theology inherent in any dogmatic investigation by the Church Fathers,we could follow through with Reimer’s vision while allowing ourselvestobebetter informedby thepatristicconscience.Suchanapproachwill,I hope, also appease those holding to Weaver’s view, since behavior,ethics, and soteriological concerns are not only enhanced by what thecreeds communicate about the fusion of theology and spirituality, but,more significantly, because the church’s ethico-soteriological concerns couldbe–andindeedwere–acknowledgedbeforeandapart fromcreedalprescriptions.

ConclusionByevaluatingthe16th-centuryAnabaptistattitudetowardthecreedsthroughexaminingtheappropriatetextualattestationaswellaspatristicsources,andparticularlythoseofSt.GregoryofNyssa,whatitmeanstobeaChristianfromahistoricalperspectivebegins to surface. If creedsweredevelopedtopreserveapre-establishedemphasisonobedienceand the imitationofJesus, andcouldnot evenbe formulatedveraciouslyuntil thisobedienceand imitation or purification took place first, undoubtedly the nucleus ofChristianitywas, inbothpatristicandAnabaptist thought, theontologicalaffiliation of its adherents to the example and person of Christ.

EasternChristianity,withitsdistinctivehistory,isentitledtoendorsethisdecidedlyontologicalunderstandingofwhatitmeanstobeaChristianwiththeuseofcreedalconceptsalone,sinceherethefusionofspiritualityand theology has not been defiled. However, in much of the Christian West, while retaining the possibility that the dominant epistemic conceptionoffaithanddoctrinemightbeforfeitedinthefuture, thecreeds’ethicalandontologicalimplicationsmustbeaddressedunequivocallyandforthrightly.Sixteenth-century Anabaptism’s resolve to do exactly that is justifiable when weconsiderthedegeneracyoftheirecclesialcontext,theconsequenceofthesegregationoftheology(doctrine)fromspirituality(ontology),withtheformerregrettablytakingprecedence.TheassimilationoftheAnabaptists’accent on the purity of the church with their affirming yet restrained approachtothecreedssuggestsareturntoanemphasisonrepentanceandrestoration typical of the patristic era, and an intentional estrangementfromtheunbridled,oftenviolentfocusonrecantationduringthesixteenth-centuryWesternecclesialsetting.


theology inherent in any dogmatic investigation by the Church Fathers,we could follow through with Reimer’s vision while allowing ourselvestobebetter informedby thepatristicconscience.Suchanapproachwill,I hope, also appease those holding to Weaver’s view, since behavior,ethics, and soteriological concerns are not only enhanced by what thecreeds communicate about the fusion of theology and spirituality, but,more significantly, because the church’s ethico-soteriological concerns couldbe–andindeedwere–acknowledgedbeforeandapart fromcreedalprescriptions.

ConclusionByevaluatingthe16th-centuryAnabaptistattitudetowardthecreedsthroughexaminingtheappropriatetextualattestationaswellaspatristicsources,andparticularlythoseofSt.GregoryofNyssa,whatitmeanstobeaChristianfromahistoricalperspectivebegins to surface. If creedsweredevelopedtopreserveapre-establishedemphasisonobedienceand the imitationofJesus, andcouldnot evenbe formulatedveraciouslyuntil thisobedienceand imitation or purification took place first, undoubtedly the nucleus ofChristianitywas, inbothpatristicandAnabaptist thought, theontologicalaffiliation of its adherents to the example and person of Christ.

EasternChristianity,withitsdistinctivehistory,isentitledtoendorsethisdecidedlyontologicalunderstandingofwhatitmeanstobeaChristianwiththeuseofcreedalconceptsalone,sinceherethefusionofspiritualityand theology has not been defiled. However, in much of the Christian West, while retaining the possibility that the dominant epistemic conceptionoffaithanddoctrinemightbeforfeitedinthefuture, thecreeds’ethicalandontologicalimplicationsmustbeaddressedunequivocallyandforthrightly.Sixteenth-century Anabaptism’s resolve to do exactly that is justifiable when weconsiderthedegeneracyoftheirecclesialcontext,theconsequenceofthesegregationoftheology(doctrine)fromspirituality(ontology),withtheformerregrettablytakingprecedence.TheassimilationoftheAnabaptists’accent on the purity of the church with their affirming yet restrained approachtothecreedssuggestsareturntoanemphasisonrepentanceandrestoration typical of the patristic era, and an intentional estrangementfromtheunbridled,oftenviolentfocusonrecantationduringthesixteenth-centuryWesternecclesialsetting.


Notes

1 See discussions on the creeds by J. DennyWeaver in Anabaptist Theology in Face of Postmodernity: A Proposal for the Third Millennium (Telford,PA:PandoraPress,2000);byA. James Reimer in Mennonites and Classical Theology: Dogmatic Foundations for Christian Ethics (Kitchener, ON: Pandora Press, 2001); the dialogue in Mennonite Life(September2005)amongBenC.Ollenburger,B.RoyaleDewey,J.DennyWeaver,DuaneK.Friesen,andGeraldBiesecker-Mast;andapaperpresentationattheAnabaptistColloquiumatEasternMennoniteUniversity,April7-8,2006byAndyAlexis-Baker,“AnabaptistUseofPatristicLiteratureandCreeds.”2RolandBainton,“TheLeftWingoftheReformation,”The Journal of Religion21.2(April1941):125.3RobertFriedmann, “ConceptionofAnabaptists,”Church History 9.4 (December1940):349-50.4SometreatmentsofthisissuethatIwillnotbeinteractingwith,butareworthlookingintoinclude:A.JamesReimer,“Doctrines:WhatAreThey,HowDoTheyFunction,andWhyDoWeNeedThem?” CGR11.1(Winter1993):21-36;A.JamesReimer,“TrinitarianOrthodoxy,Constantinianism,andTheologyfromaRadicalProtestantPerspective,”inFaith to Creed: Ecumenical Perspectives on the Affirmation of the Apostolic Faith in the Fourth Century,S.MarkHeim,ed.(GrandRapids:Eerdmans,1991,129-61);J.DennyWeaver,“ChristologyinHistoricalPerspective,” inJesus Christ and the Mission of the Church: Contemporary Anabaptist Perpectives,ErlandWaltner,ed.(Newton,KS:FaithandLifePress,1990),83-105; J.DennyWeaver, “ChristusVictor,Ecclesiology,andChristology,”MQR68.3 (July1994): 277-90; John Howard Yoder, Preface to Theology: Christology and Theological Method(Elkhart,IN:GoshenBiblicalSeminary,1981),121-58.5EventhewritingofPaul’sepistlesandthegospelaccounts,andsubsequentacceptanceofthesewritingsbasedonwhattheChurchalreadywasandhowitworshipped.6Theemergenceoftheseheresiesrequiredamethodfordetermininganother’sontologicalstate or behavioral intentions, since soteriological variations resulted from specific theological deviations;itwasnotthatbeingaChristiannowmeantbelievingtherightthing,butthathowaChristianwasgoingtobehave,orbeing aChristian,couldnowbepredictedbyherorhisbeliefsystem.LatourettedescribestheApostles’Creedasasymbolthatwasa“signortestofmembershipintheChurch.”KennethScottLatourette,A History of Christianity: Beginnings to 1500, vol.1(Peabody,MA:PrincePress,2003),135.TheCreedwasanindicatorofone’saffiliation. 7AnOrthodoxtheologianobservesthattheProtestantconcernforChristianethicscoincideswith the Roman Catholic concern for moral theology and the Eastern Orthodox concernfor Christian spirituality. See John Chryssavgis, Light Through Darkness: The Orthodox Tradition(Maryknoll,NY:OrbisBooks,2004),25n.8ThisopinionisvoicedcontinuallybyJ.DennyWeaver.WhileWeaveriscorrecttovoiceitwhereneeded,heisfallingvictimtoaseparationofspiritualityandtheology.“OrthodoxtheologyrunsthedangerofhistoricallydisincarnatingtheChurch;bycontrast,theWestriskstying itprimarily tohistory,either in theformofextremeChristocentrism…lacking the


Notes

1 See discussions on the creeds by J. DennyWeaver in Anabaptist Theology in Face of Postmodernity: A Proposal for the Third Millennium (Telford,PA:PandoraPress,2000);byA. James Reimer in Mennonites and Classical Theology: Dogmatic Foundations for Christian Ethics (Kitchener, ON: Pandora Press, 2001); the dialogue in Mennonite Life(September2005)amongBenC.Ollenburger,B.RoyaleDewey,J.DennyWeaver,DuaneK.Friesen,andGeraldBiesecker-Mast;andapaperpresentationattheAnabaptistColloquiumatEasternMennoniteUniversity,April7-8,2006byAndyAlexis-Baker,“AnabaptistUseofPatristicLiteratureandCreeds.”2RolandBainton,“TheLeftWingoftheReformation,”The Journal of Religion21.2(April1941):125.3RobertFriedmann, “ConceptionofAnabaptists,”Church History 9.4 (December1940):349-50.4SometreatmentsofthisissuethatIwillnotbeinteractingwith,butareworthlookingintoinclude:A.JamesReimer,“Doctrines:WhatAreThey,HowDoTheyFunction,andWhyDoWeNeedThem?” CGR11.1(Winter1993):21-36;A.JamesReimer,“TrinitarianOrthodoxy,Constantinianism,andTheologyfromaRadicalProtestantPerspective,”inFaith to Creed: Ecumenical Perspectives on the Affirmation of the Apostolic Faith in the Fourth Century,S.MarkHeim,ed.(GrandRapids:Eerdmans,1991,129-61);J.DennyWeaver,“ChristologyinHistoricalPerspective,” inJesus Christ and the Mission of the Church: Contemporary Anabaptist Perpectives,ErlandWaltner,ed.(Newton,KS:FaithandLifePress,1990),83-105; J.DennyWeaver, “ChristusVictor,Ecclesiology,andChristology,”MQR68.3 (July1994): 277-90; John Howard Yoder, Preface to Theology: Christology and Theological Method(Elkhart,IN:GoshenBiblicalSeminary,1981),121-58.5EventhewritingofPaul’sepistlesandthegospelaccounts,andsubsequentacceptanceofthesewritingsbasedonwhattheChurchalreadywasandhowitworshipped.6Theemergenceoftheseheresiesrequiredamethodfordetermininganother’sontologicalstate or behavioral intentions, since soteriological variations resulted from specific theological deviations;itwasnotthatbeingaChristiannowmeantbelievingtherightthing,butthathowaChristianwasgoingtobehave,orbeing aChristian,couldnowbepredictedbyherorhisbeliefsystem.LatourettedescribestheApostles’Creedasasymbolthatwasa“signortestofmembershipintheChurch.”KennethScottLatourette,A History of Christianity: Beginnings to 1500, vol.1(Peabody,MA:PrincePress,2003),135.TheCreedwasanindicatorofone’saffiliation. 7AnOrthodoxtheologianobservesthattheProtestantconcernforChristianethicscoincideswith the Roman Catholic concern for moral theology and the Eastern Orthodox concernfor Christian spirituality. See John Chryssavgis, Light Through Darkness: The Orthodox Tradition(Maryknoll,NY:OrbisBooks,2004),25n.8ThisopinionisvoicedcontinuallybyJ.DennyWeaver.WhileWeaveriscorrecttovoiceitwhereneeded,heisfallingvictimtoaseparationofspiritualityandtheology.“OrthodoxtheologyrunsthedangerofhistoricallydisincarnatingtheChurch;bycontrast,theWestriskstying itprimarily tohistory,either in theformofextremeChristocentrism…lacking the


essential influence of pneumatology or in the form of social activism or moralism which tries toplayintheChurchtheroleoftheimageofGod”:JohnZizioulas,Being as Communion(Crestwood,NY:St.Vladimir’sSeminaryPress,1985),20.9EvagriusPonticus(346-399C.E.)famouslysaidthat“Ifyouarea theologian,youtrulypray.Ifyoutrulypray,youareatheologian.”10MetropolitanKallistosWarestatesthat“wearetobecometheology”inhisForewordtoArchimandriteVasileios,Hymn of Entry (Crestwood,NY:St.Vladimir’sSeminaryPress,1998),9.11 See Alexander Schmemann, Introduction to Liturgical Theology (Crestwood, NY:St.Vladimir’sSeminaryPress,1996)andhisFor the Life of the World (Crestwood,NY:St. Vladimir’s Seminary Press, 1963); Metropolitan Kallistos Ware, The Orthodox Way(Crestwood,NY:St.Vladimir’sSeminaryPress,1995)andhisForewordtoHymn of Entry,9; John Chryssavgis, Light through Darkness: The Orthodox Tradition (Maryknoll, NY:OrbisBooks,2004).12Bornaround335C.E.,GregoryofNyssawasoneof the threecelebratedCappadocianFathers, the other two being Basil the Great, his older brother, and Gregory Nazianzen,theirfriend.GregoryofNyssacontinuedBasil’sworkonisolatingappropriatetriadologicallanguage,especiallyagainsttheteachingsofEunomiusafterBasil’sdeath.Gregorywasalsoinvolved incombating theApollinarianheresy.Basil, thenbishopofCaesarea,appointedGregoryasbishopofNyssain372C.E.,alittleknownSeeinCappadocia.HewasinstrumentalinthesecondEcumenicalCouncilatConstantinoplein381C.E.anddiedaround395C.E.13MostoftheinformationonGregoryofNyssaisadaptedfromAndrewKlager,The Eye of our Soul and its ‘Ontological Gaze’: The Iconic Function of Theological Epinoia in the Philosophy and Spirituality of Gregory of Nyssa(M.A.thesis,McMasterUniversity,2006).14Fr.JohnBehr,“FaithfulnessandCreativity,”inAbba: The Tradition of Orthodoxy in the West(Crestwood,NY:St.Vladimir’sSeminaryPress,2003),174.15 Fr. John Behr, The Mystery of Christ: Life in Death (Crestwood, NY: St. Vladimir’sSeminaryPress,2006),22.16“Doctrineisalivingtestimony–inthought,wordandexperience–ofwhathasbeenheard,seenandtouched(1John1:1).Itisthetestedevidenceofwhathasbeencontemplatedinfaithandexperiencedinlove”:Chryssavgis,Light Through Darkness,58.17Aristides,The Apology of Aristides (Greekversion), eds.AlexanderRobertsandJamesDonaldson,eds.,Ante-Nicene Fathers: The Writings of the Fathers Down to A.D. 325,vol.9(Peabody,MA:HendricksonPublishers,Inc.,2004),276.Here,AristidesclaimsChristwascrucified because his accusers ignored his “good deeds and the countless miracles.”18Tertullian,Adversus Marcionem,IV-14,inAnte-Nicene Fathers,vol.3,365. LatintextfromErnestEvans,trans.anded.,Tertullian: Adversus Marcionem(Oxford:Univ.ofOxfordPress,1972).19“ForGodaloneiswithoutsin;andtheonlymanwithoutsinisChrist,sinceChristisalsoGod.”Tertullian,De Anima,XLI,inAnte-Nicene Fathers,vol.3,221.LatintextfromJ.H.Waszink,trans.anded.,Tertullianus, De anima(Amsterdam,1947).20“[B]eingintruththeGodandChristofIsrael[...]Heraisedalsothewidow’ssonfromdeath[.…]NowsoevidentlyhadtheLordChristintroducednoothergodfortheworking


essential influence of pneumatology or in the form of social activism or moralism which tries toplayintheChurchtheroleoftheimageofGod”:JohnZizioulas,Being as Communion(Crestwood,NY:St.Vladimir’sSeminaryPress,1985),20.9EvagriusPonticus(346-399C.E.)famouslysaidthat“Ifyouarea theologian,youtrulypray.Ifyoutrulypray,youareatheologian.”10MetropolitanKallistosWarestatesthat“wearetobecometheology”inhisForewordtoArchimandriteVasileios,Hymn of Entry (Crestwood,NY:St.Vladimir’sSeminaryPress,1998),9.11 See Alexander Schmemann, Introduction to Liturgical Theology (Crestwood, NY:St.Vladimir’sSeminaryPress,1996)andhisFor the Life of the World (Crestwood,NY:St. Vladimir’s Seminary Press, 1963); Metropolitan Kallistos Ware, The Orthodox Way(Crestwood,NY:St.Vladimir’sSeminaryPress,1995)andhisForewordtoHymn of Entry,9; John Chryssavgis, Light through Darkness: The Orthodox Tradition (Maryknoll, NY:OrbisBooks,2004).12Bornaround335C.E.,GregoryofNyssawasoneof the threecelebratedCappadocianFathers, the other two being Basil the Great, his older brother, and Gregory Nazianzen,theirfriend.GregoryofNyssacontinuedBasil’sworkonisolatingappropriatetriadologicallanguage,especiallyagainsttheteachingsofEunomiusafterBasil’sdeath.Gregorywasalsoinvolved incombating theApollinarianheresy.Basil, thenbishopofCaesarea,appointedGregoryasbishopofNyssain372C.E.,alittleknownSeeinCappadocia.HewasinstrumentalinthesecondEcumenicalCouncilatConstantinoplein381C.E.anddiedaround395C.E.13MostoftheinformationonGregoryofNyssaisadaptedfromAndrewKlager,The Eye of our Soul and its ‘Ontological Gaze’: The Iconic Function of Theological Epinoia in the Philosophy and Spirituality of Gregory of Nyssa(M.A.thesis,McMasterUniversity,2006).14Fr.JohnBehr,“FaithfulnessandCreativity,”inAbba: The Tradition of Orthodoxy in the West(Crestwood,NY:St.Vladimir’sSeminaryPress,2003),174.15 Fr. John Behr, The Mystery of Christ: Life in Death (Crestwood, NY: St. Vladimir’sSeminaryPress,2006),22.16“Doctrineisalivingtestimony–inthought,wordandexperience–ofwhathasbeenheard,seenandtouched(1John1:1).Itisthetestedevidenceofwhathasbeencontemplatedinfaithandexperiencedinlove”:Chryssavgis,Light Through Darkness,58.17Aristides,The Apology of Aristides (Greekversion), eds.AlexanderRobertsandJamesDonaldson,eds.,Ante-Nicene Fathers: The Writings of the Fathers Down to A.D. 325,vol.9(Peabody,MA:HendricksonPublishers,Inc.,2004),276.Here,AristidesclaimsChristwascrucified because his accusers ignored his “good deeds and the countless miracles.”18Tertullian,Adversus Marcionem,IV-14,inAnte-Nicene Fathers,vol.3,365. LatintextfromErnestEvans,trans.anded.,Tertullian: Adversus Marcionem(Oxford:Univ.ofOxfordPress,1972).19“ForGodaloneiswithoutsin;andtheonlymanwithoutsinisChrist,sinceChristisalsoGod.”Tertullian,De Anima,XLI,inAnte-Nicene Fathers,vol.3,221.LatintextfromJ.H.Waszink,trans.anded.,Tertullianus, De anima(Amsterdam,1947).20“[B]eingintruththeGodandChristofIsrael[...]Heraisedalsothewidow’ssonfromdeath[.…]NowsoevidentlyhadtheLordChristintroducednoothergodfortheworking


of somomentousamiracleas this, thatallwhowerepresentgaveglory to theCreator.”Tertullian,Adversus Marcionem,IV-18,inop. cit.,375.21AddressingMarcion’sallegationconcerningthedemiurgeoftheOTandhisdissociationwiththeGodofJesusChrist,Tertulliandeclares,“Yououghttobeverymuchashamedofyourselfonthisaccounttoo,forpermittinghim[Christ]toappearontheretiredmountaininthecompanyofMosesandElias,whomhehadcometodestroy.This,tobesure,waswhathewishedtobeunderstoodasthemeaningofthatvoicefromheaven:‘ThisismybelovedSon, hear him.’”Tertullian designates Jesus as theChristus creatoris on evidence of thetransfiguration. Ibid., 382-83.22 IgnatiusofAntioch,Epistle of Ignatius to the Trallians, inAnte-Nicene Fathers,vol.1,69-70.23Aristides,The Apology of Aristides(Syriacversion),inop. cit.,265.Cf.Aristides,ApologyXV,inThe Faith of the Early Fathers,ed.WilliamA.Jurgens(Collegeville,MN:LiturgicalPress,1970),49.24Irenaeus,Adversus Haereses,inAnte-Nicene Fathers,vol.1,330-31.25Tertullian,De Praescriptione Haereticorum,inAnte-Nicene Fathers,vol.3,249.26ClementofAlexandria,Stromata,inAnte-Nicene Fathers,vol.2,509-10.27Hippolytus,Against the Heresy of one Noetus,inAnte-Nicene Fathers,vol.5,230.28Origen,De Principiis,inAnte-Nicene Fathers,vol.4,240-41.29GregoryThaumaturgus,A Declaration of Faith,inAnte-Nicene Fathers,vol.6,7.30Cyprian,Epistle LXIX: To Januarius and Other Numidian Bishops, on Baptizing Heretics,inAnte-Nicene Fathers,vol.5,376.31 ImmediatelybeforedelineatinghisCreed, the early second-centurybishopofAntioch,St.Ignatiusdeclared,“Becometheimitatorsofhissuffering,andofhislove.”IgnatiusofAntioch,Epistle of Ignatius to the Trallians,inop. cit.,69.32JaroslavPelikan,The Christian Tradition: A History of the Development of Doctrine,vol.1,TheEmergenceof theCatholicTradition (100-600) (Chicago:Univ.ofChicagoPress,1971),7-8;VladimirLossky,The Mystical Theology of the Eastern Church (London:JamesClarke&Co.,Ltd.,1957),9-10;MetropolitanKallistosWare,The Orthodox Way,73;SergiusBulgakov,The Orthodox Church(Crestwood,NY:StVladimir’sSeminaryPress,1988),31,34.33 “For tradition is thought to be ancient, hallowed by age, unchanged since it was first establishedonceuponatime.Itdoesnothaveahistory,sincehistoryimpliestheappearance,atacertainpointintime,ofthatwhichhadnotbeentherebefore”:Pelikan,The Christian Tradition: A History of the Development of Doctrine,vol.1,7-8.34Tertullian,Adversus Praxean,inAnte-Nicene Fathers,vol.3,598.LatintextfromErnestEvans,trans.anded.,Adversus Praxean liber (London:SPCK,1948).35Tertullian,De Praescriptione Haereticorum, inAnte-Nicene Fathers,vol.3,246.LatintextfromR.F.Refoulé,trans.,De Praescriptione Haereticorum,inQuinti Septimi Florentis Tertulliani Opera CorpusChristianorum, SeriesLatina, vol. 1, ed.DomEligiusDekkers(Turnholti:Brepols,1957).36Hippolytus,The Refutation of All Heresies,inAnte-Nicene Fathers,vol.5,126.37Ibid.,47.


of somomentousamiracleas this, thatallwhowerepresentgaveglory to theCreator.”Tertullian,Adversus Marcionem,IV-18,inop. cit.,375.21AddressingMarcion’sallegationconcerningthedemiurgeoftheOTandhisdissociationwiththeGodofJesusChrist,Tertulliandeclares,“Yououghttobeverymuchashamedofyourselfonthisaccounttoo,forpermittinghim[Christ]toappearontheretiredmountaininthecompanyofMosesandElias,whomhehadcometodestroy.This,tobesure,waswhathewishedtobeunderstoodasthemeaningofthatvoicefromheaven:‘ThisismybelovedSon, hear him.’”Tertullian designates Jesus as theChristus creatoris on evidence of thetransfiguration. Ibid., 382-83.22 IgnatiusofAntioch,Epistle of Ignatius to the Trallians, inAnte-Nicene Fathers,vol.1,69-70.23Aristides,The Apology of Aristides(Syriacversion),inop. cit.,265.Cf.Aristides,ApologyXV,inThe Faith of the Early Fathers,ed.WilliamA.Jurgens(Collegeville,MN:LiturgicalPress,1970),49.24Irenaeus,Adversus Haereses,inAnte-Nicene Fathers,vol.1,330-31.25Tertullian,De Praescriptione Haereticorum,inAnte-Nicene Fathers,vol.3,249.26ClementofAlexandria,Stromata,inAnte-Nicene Fathers,vol.2,509-10.27Hippolytus,Against the Heresy of one Noetus,inAnte-Nicene Fathers,vol.5,230.28Origen,De Principiis,inAnte-Nicene Fathers,vol.4,240-41.29GregoryThaumaturgus,A Declaration of Faith,inAnte-Nicene Fathers,vol.6,7.30Cyprian,Epistle LXIX: To Januarius and Other Numidian Bishops, on Baptizing Heretics,inAnte-Nicene Fathers,vol.5,376.31 ImmediatelybeforedelineatinghisCreed, the early second-centurybishopofAntioch,St.Ignatiusdeclared,“Becometheimitatorsofhissuffering,andofhislove.”IgnatiusofAntioch,Epistle of Ignatius to the Trallians,inop. cit.,69.32JaroslavPelikan,The Christian Tradition: A History of the Development of Doctrine,vol.1,TheEmergenceof theCatholicTradition (100-600) (Chicago:Univ.ofChicagoPress,1971),7-8;VladimirLossky,The Mystical Theology of the Eastern Church (London:JamesClarke&Co.,Ltd.,1957),9-10;MetropolitanKallistosWare,The Orthodox Way,73;SergiusBulgakov,The Orthodox Church(Crestwood,NY:StVladimir’sSeminaryPress,1988),31,34.33 “For tradition is thought to be ancient, hallowed by age, unchanged since it was first establishedonceuponatime.Itdoesnothaveahistory,sincehistoryimpliestheappearance,atacertainpointintime,ofthatwhichhadnotbeentherebefore”:Pelikan,The Christian Tradition: A History of the Development of Doctrine,vol.1,7-8.34Tertullian,Adversus Praxean,inAnte-Nicene Fathers,vol.3,598.LatintextfromErnestEvans,trans.anded.,Adversus Praxean liber (London:SPCK,1948).35Tertullian,De Praescriptione Haereticorum, inAnte-Nicene Fathers,vol.3,246.LatintextfromR.F.Refoulé,trans.,De Praescriptione Haereticorum,inQuinti Septimi Florentis Tertulliani Opera CorpusChristianorum, SeriesLatina, vol. 1, ed.DomEligiusDekkers(Turnholti:Brepols,1957).36Hippolytus,The Refutation of All Heresies,inAnte-Nicene Fathers,vol.5,126.37Ibid.,47.


38Latourette,A History of Christianity: Beginnings to 1500,vol.1,123.39Ibid.,95.40Ibid.,125.41SomeGnostics“feltfreetogotopaganfestivalsandtogladiatorialcontests,andeventohaveirregularunionswithwomenwhohadacceptedtheirdoctrines.”Latourette,A History of Christianity: Beginnings to 1500, vol.1,125.42“Nowifthis‘beingmadegod’,thistheosis,istobepossible,ChristtheSaviourmustbebothfullyGodandfullyhuman”:Ware,The Orthodox Way,20.43JohnBinns,An Introduction to the Christian Orthodox Churches(NewYork:CambridgeUniv.Press,2005),107.44 “In theOrthodoxChurch, the authority of the earlyFathers, of the communion of thesaints, reveals a virtual continuity between tradition and Christ. There is, here, no stifling enslavementtotraditionbutratherastrikingembodimentoftradition,whoseauthorityliesmoreinlivingandlessinprofessingordecreeing”:Chryssavgis,Light Through Darkness,49.45PeterBouteneff,Sweeter than Honey: Orthodox Thinking on Dogma and Truth,FoundationsSeries,vol.3(Crestwood,NY:St.Vladimir’sSeminaryPress,2006),20.46J.DennyWeaverinAnabaptist Theology in Face of Postmodernity,113.Weaverwonderswhether therecouldbeanalternative to themorephilosophicalconcernsof thehistoricalcreedsbyappealingtothelife,behavior,actions,andteachingsofChristasrecordedintheNT.HehasinmindthenonviolenceofJesus.47Pelikan,The Christian Tradition: A History of the Development of Doctrine,vol.2,The Spirit of Eastern Christendom(600-1700)(Chicago:Univ.ofChicagoPress,1974),286.48MetropolitanPhilaretofMoscow,asquotedinWare,The Orthodox Way,8.49 Metropolitan Kallistos Ware, Foreword to Hymn of Entry, 9. See alsoArchimandriteVasileos,Hymn of Entry,17-39foranexcellentanalysis.50Bouteneff,Sweeter than Honey,36.51Ibid.,39.52Chryssavgis,Light Through Darkness,57.RecallFriedmann’scontentionthatAnabaptismis more “existential” than representing any systematic expression of theology. RobertFriedmann, The Theology of Anabaptism: An Interpretation. Studies in Anabaptist andMennoniteHistory,vol.15(Scottdale,PA:HeraldPress,1973),18.53VladimirLossky,The Mystical Theology of the Eastern Church,14.Cf.8-10.54Chryssavgis,Light Through Darkness,56.55Ibid.,57.56SergeS.Verhovskoy,The Light of the World (Crestwood,NY:St.Vladimir’sSeminaryPress,1982),12.57Chryssavgis,Light Through Darkness,57.58Lossky,The Mystical Theology of the Eastern Church,9.59JohnZizioulas,Being as Communion,16-17.60 John Meyendorff, “Light from the East? ‘Doing Theology’ in an Eastern OrthodoxPerspective,”inDoing Theology in Today’s World,eds.JohnD.WoodbridgeandThomasEdwardMcComiskey(GrandRapids:ZondervanPublishingHouse,1991),340.


38Latourette,A History of Christianity: Beginnings to 1500,vol.1,123.39Ibid.,95.40Ibid.,125.41SomeGnostics“feltfreetogotopaganfestivalsandtogladiatorialcontests,andeventohaveirregularunionswithwomenwhohadacceptedtheirdoctrines.”Latourette,A History of Christianity: Beginnings to 1500, vol.1,125.42“Nowifthis‘beingmadegod’,thistheosis,istobepossible,ChristtheSaviourmustbebothfullyGodandfullyhuman”:Ware,The Orthodox Way,20.43JohnBinns,An Introduction to the Christian Orthodox Churches(NewYork:CambridgeUniv.Press,2005),107.44 “In theOrthodoxChurch, the authority of the earlyFathers, of the communion of thesaints, reveals a virtual continuity between tradition and Christ. There is, here, no stifling enslavementtotraditionbutratherastrikingembodimentoftradition,whoseauthorityliesmoreinlivingandlessinprofessingordecreeing”:Chryssavgis,Light Through Darkness,49.45PeterBouteneff,Sweeter than Honey: Orthodox Thinking on Dogma and Truth,FoundationsSeries,vol.3(Crestwood,NY:St.Vladimir’sSeminaryPress,2006),20.46J.DennyWeaverinAnabaptist Theology in Face of Postmodernity,113.Weaverwonderswhether therecouldbeanalternative to themorephilosophicalconcernsof thehistoricalcreedsbyappealingtothelife,behavior,actions,andteachingsofChristasrecordedintheNT.HehasinmindthenonviolenceofJesus.47Pelikan,The Christian Tradition: A History of the Development of Doctrine,vol.2,The Spirit of Eastern Christendom(600-1700)(Chicago:Univ.ofChicagoPress,1974),286.48MetropolitanPhilaretofMoscow,asquotedinWare,The Orthodox Way,8.49 Metropolitan Kallistos Ware, Foreword to Hymn of Entry, 9. See alsoArchimandriteVasileos,Hymn of Entry,17-39foranexcellentanalysis.50Bouteneff,Sweeter than Honey,36.51Ibid.,39.52Chryssavgis,Light Through Darkness,57.RecallFriedmann’scontentionthatAnabaptismis more “existential” than representing any systematic expression of theology. RobertFriedmann, The Theology of Anabaptism: An Interpretation. Studies in Anabaptist andMennoniteHistory,vol.15(Scottdale,PA:HeraldPress,1973),18.53VladimirLossky,The Mystical Theology of the Eastern Church,14.Cf.8-10.54Chryssavgis,Light Through Darkness,56.55Ibid.,57.56SergeS.Verhovskoy,The Light of the World (Crestwood,NY:St.Vladimir’sSeminaryPress,1982),12.57Chryssavgis,Light Through Darkness,57.58Lossky,The Mystical Theology of the Eastern Church,9.59JohnZizioulas,Being as Communion,16-17.60 John Meyendorff, “Light from the East? ‘Doing Theology’ in an Eastern OrthodoxPerspective,”inDoing Theology in Today’s World,eds.JohnD.WoodbridgeandThomasEdwardMcComiskey(GrandRapids:ZondervanPublishingHouse,1991),340.


61Lossky,The Mystical Theology of the Eastern Church,12.62Latourette,A History of Christianity: Beginnings to 1500, vol.1,146.63LatouretteexplainshowboththeNovatiansandDonatists“brokefromtheCatholicChurchinpart or entirely in protest againstwhat theyheld tobe toogreat leniencyof the lattertowardsmorallapses,especiallyapostasy.”Ibid.,216.TheInquisitionhelpedshiftChristiancorrectivemeasuresandemphasisfromtherigorouspenitentialprocedureofthepatristicera(ethicalorbehavioral-based)torecantation(knowledge-based).ThisshifthadalargeimpactonthemorethanfourthousandAnabaptistmartyrshighlytoutedfortheirethicalandmoralbehaviorbythesamemagistrateswhoexecutedthem.64GregoryofNyssa,On What it Means to Call Oneself a Christian,trans.VirginiaWoodsCallahan,Fathers of the Church, vol.58(Washington,DC:CatholicUniv.ofAmericaPress,1967),84.65 Lossky emphasizes the regulated though not entirely destroyed or restricted efficacy of theologicalknowledge:VladimirLossky,Orthodox Theology: An Introduction (Crestwood,NY:StVladimir’sSeminaryPress,1978),14.66GregoryofNyssa,De Beatitudinibus,OratioVI,in HildaC.Graef,trans.,Ancient Christian Writers, vol.18(NewYork:PaulistPress,1954),148.GregoryofNyssa,De Beatitudinibus,OratioVI,ed.J.P.Migne,Patrologia Graecae,vol.44(Paris,1863),1269-1270C.67HansSchlaffer,A Brief Instruction for the Beginning of a Truly Christian Life,inSources of South German/Austrian Anabaptism,trans.WalterKlaassen,etal. ed.C.ArnoldSnyder,ClassicsoftheRadicalReformation,vol.10 (Kitchener,ON:PandoraPress,2001),85.68MichaelSattler,Imprisonment: Letter to Horb,in The Legacy of Michael Sattler,trans.anded.JohnHowardYoder,ClassicsoftheRadicalReformation,vol.1(Scottdale,PA:HeraldPress,1973),59.69 Peter Riedeman, Account of Our Religion, Doctrine and Faith (Rifton, NY: PloughPublishingHouse,1970),38.70“FiveofthesevenrepresentativesoftheRadicalReformation[…](Menno,DirkPhilips,Denck, Hoffmann, Schwenckfeld, while Hubmaier and Marpeck do not) specifically state thattheirconceptofsalvationisthatofthedivinizationofman[….]Thus,graceisfortheRadicalReformersnotsomuchaforensicchangeinstatusbeforeGodasitisanontologicalchangewithintheindividualbeliever[…]”:AlvinJ.Beachy,The Concept of Grace in the Radical Reformation(Nieuwkoop:DeGraaf,1977),4.71“divinization”72 Thomas N. Finger, “Response to J. Denny Weaver’s ‘ParsingAnabaptist Theology,’”Direction Journal35.1(Spring2006):152(note8).Forasuccinctanalysisofthe“personaldimension”ofAnabaptistsoteriologyand“thecomingofthenewcreation,”seeFinger,A Contemporary Anabaptist Theology: Biblical, Historical, Constructive(DownersGrove,IL:InterVarsity Press, 2004), 109-32. Cf. Frances F. Hiebert, “TheAtonement inAnabaptistTheology,”Direction30.2(Fall2001):122-38.73DirkPhilips,The Incarnation of Our Lord Jesus Christ,inThe Writings of Dirk Philips,trans.anded.CorneliusJ.Dyck,WilliamE.Keeney,andAlvinJ.Beachy,ClassicsoftheRadicalReformation,vol.6(Scottdale,PA:HeraldPress,1992),145.74DirkPhilips,The New Birth and the New Creature, inop. cit., 294.


61Lossky,The Mystical Theology of the Eastern Church,12.62Latourette,A History of Christianity: Beginnings to 1500, vol.1,146.63LatouretteexplainshowboththeNovatiansandDonatists“brokefromtheCatholicChurchinpart or entirely in protest againstwhat theyheld tobe toogreat leniencyof the lattertowardsmorallapses,especiallyapostasy.”Ibid.,216.TheInquisitionhelpedshiftChristiancorrectivemeasuresandemphasisfromtherigorouspenitentialprocedureofthepatristicera(ethicalorbehavioral-based)torecantation(knowledge-based).ThisshifthadalargeimpactonthemorethanfourthousandAnabaptistmartyrshighlytoutedfortheirethicalandmoralbehaviorbythesamemagistrateswhoexecutedthem.64GregoryofNyssa,On What it Means to Call Oneself a Christian,trans.VirginiaWoodsCallahan,Fathers of the Church, vol.58(Washington,DC:CatholicUniv.ofAmericaPress,1967),84.65 Lossky emphasizes the regulated though not entirely destroyed or restricted efficacy of theologicalknowledge:VladimirLossky,Orthodox Theology: An Introduction (Crestwood,NY:StVladimir’sSeminaryPress,1978),14.66GregoryofNyssa,De Beatitudinibus,OratioVI,in HildaC.Graef,trans.,Ancient Christian Writers, vol.18(NewYork:PaulistPress,1954),148.GregoryofNyssa,De Beatitudinibus,OratioVI,ed.J.P.Migne,Patrologia Graecae,vol.44(Paris,1863),1269-1270C.67HansSchlaffer,A Brief Instruction for the Beginning of a Truly Christian Life,inSources of South German/Austrian Anabaptism,trans.WalterKlaassen,etal. ed.C.ArnoldSnyder,ClassicsoftheRadicalReformation,vol.10 (Kitchener,ON:PandoraPress,2001),85.68MichaelSattler,Imprisonment: Letter to Horb,in The Legacy of Michael Sattler,trans.anded.JohnHowardYoder,ClassicsoftheRadicalReformation,vol.1(Scottdale,PA:HeraldPress,1973),59.69 Peter Riedeman, Account of Our Religion, Doctrine and Faith (Rifton, NY: PloughPublishingHouse,1970),38.70“FiveofthesevenrepresentativesoftheRadicalReformation[…](Menno,DirkPhilips,Denck, Hoffmann, Schwenckfeld, while Hubmaier and Marpeck do not) specifically state thattheirconceptofsalvationisthatofthedivinizationofman[….]Thus,graceisfortheRadicalReformersnotsomuchaforensicchangeinstatusbeforeGodasitisanontologicalchangewithintheindividualbeliever[…]”:AlvinJ.Beachy,The Concept of Grace in the Radical Reformation(Nieuwkoop:DeGraaf,1977),4.71“divinization”72 Thomas N. Finger, “Response to J. Denny Weaver’s ‘ParsingAnabaptist Theology,’”Direction Journal35.1(Spring2006):152(note8).Forasuccinctanalysisofthe“personaldimension”ofAnabaptistsoteriologyand“thecomingofthenewcreation,”seeFinger,A Contemporary Anabaptist Theology: Biblical, Historical, Constructive(DownersGrove,IL:InterVarsity Press, 2004), 109-32. Cf. Frances F. Hiebert, “TheAtonement inAnabaptistTheology,”Direction30.2(Fall2001):122-38.73DirkPhilips,The Incarnation of Our Lord Jesus Christ,inThe Writings of Dirk Philips,trans.anded.CorneliusJ.Dyck,WilliamE.Keeney,andAlvinJ.Beachy,ClassicsoftheRadicalReformation,vol.6(Scottdale,PA:HeraldPress,1992),145.74DirkPhilips,The New Birth and the New Creature, inop. cit., 294.


75Finger,“ResponsetoJ.DennyWeaver’s‘ParsingAnabaptistTheology,’”152(note8).76Oftenreferredtoas“negativetheology,”theapophaticapproachtotheisticdiscourseisderivedfromtheGreekapophatike, whichmeans“awayfromspeech”:DeirdreCarabine,The Unknown God: Negative Theology in the Platonic Tradition: Plato to Eriugena (Louvain: Peeters Press, 1995), 2. Carabine asserts that “We may understand apophatictheologytobeginwiththeassertionthatGodisunknowabletothehumanmindandthatonemustproceedbymeansofnegations,ultimately,eventothenegationofthenegationinorderto attain to some ‘positive’knowledgeofhim.”See also J.P.Williams,Denying Divinity (Oxford:OxfordUniv.Pres,2000),3-4.77 Robert S. Brightman, “Apophatic Theology and Divine Infinity in St. Gregory of Nyssa,” Greek Orthodox Theological Review 18.1-2(1973):111.78Ibid.,106.79Ibid.,111.80GregoryofNyssa,De Beatitudinibus,OratioVI,op.cit.,146.81 “[Gregory affirms] that all the qualities predicated of the Father must also, of necessity, bepredicatedontheSonandtheSpirit.Theconsequences[…]areimmediatelyclear:iftheFather’sprimarycharacteristicisunknowability,thenthesamemustbetrueoftheSonandtheSpirit.”Carabine,The Unknown God,248.82GregoryofNyssa,The Great Catechism,eds.AlexanderRobertsandJamesDonaldson,trans.William Moore, Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, Series II, vol. 5 (Peabody, MA:HendricksonPublishers,Inc.,2004),477.83Greekontologicaltermusuallydenotingtheessenceorsubstanceofathing.84GregoryofNyssa,Letter XXXVIII,In Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers,SeriesII,vol.8,138.85 Gregory of Nyssa, De Vita Moysis, II:159, trans. Abraham J. Malherbe and EverettFerguson,Classics of Western Spirituality (NewYork:PaulistPress,1978), 93.86GregoryofNyssa,Contra Eunomium,Bk.II,in Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers,SeriesII,vol.5,101.87GregoryofNyssa,The Great Catechism,486.88 “Gregory in effect denies that the ousia of anything can be comprehended through itsenergeia.But in thecaseofGod, it isonly theenergeia thatwecanknow.”PaulosMarGregorios,Cosmic Man: The Divine Presence (NewYork:ParagonHouse,1988), 117.89GregoryofNyssa,Answer to Eunomius’ Second Book,inNicene and Post-Nicene Fathers,SeriesII,vol.5,265.90GregoryofNyssa,De Beatitudinibus,OratioVI,147.91Ibid.92Ibid.93MennoSimons,Confession of the Triune God,inThe Complete Writings of Menno Simons, c. 1496-1561, ed. J.C.Wenger and trans. LeonardVerduin (Scottdale, PA: Herald Press,1956),497-98.94Ibid.95GregoryofNyssa,Contra Eunomium,Bk.VII,198.96Simons,Confession of the Triune God,491.


75Finger,“ResponsetoJ.DennyWeaver’s‘ParsingAnabaptistTheology,’”152(note8).76Oftenreferredtoas“negativetheology,”theapophaticapproachtotheisticdiscourseisderivedfromtheGreekapophatike, whichmeans“awayfromspeech”:DeirdreCarabine,The Unknown God: Negative Theology in the Platonic Tradition: Plato to Eriugena (Louvain: Peeters Press, 1995), 2. Carabine asserts that “We may understand apophatictheologytobeginwiththeassertionthatGodisunknowabletothehumanmindandthatonemustproceedbymeansofnegations,ultimately,eventothenegationofthenegationinorderto attain to some ‘positive’knowledgeofhim.”See also J.P.Williams,Denying Divinity (Oxford:OxfordUniv.Pres,2000),3-4.77 Robert S. Brightman, “Apophatic Theology and Divine Infinity in St. Gregory of Nyssa,” Greek Orthodox Theological Review 18.1-2(1973):111.78Ibid.,106.79Ibid.,111.80GregoryofNyssa,De Beatitudinibus,OratioVI,op.cit.,146.81 “[Gregory affirms] that all the qualities predicated of the Father must also, of necessity, bepredicatedontheSonandtheSpirit.Theconsequences[…]areimmediatelyclear:iftheFather’sprimarycharacteristicisunknowability,thenthesamemustbetrueoftheSonandtheSpirit.”Carabine,The Unknown God,248.82GregoryofNyssa,The Great Catechism,eds.AlexanderRobertsandJamesDonaldson,trans.William Moore, Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, Series II, vol. 5 (Peabody, MA:HendricksonPublishers,Inc.,2004),477.83Greekontologicaltermusuallydenotingtheessenceorsubstanceofathing.84GregoryofNyssa,Letter XXXVIII,In Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers,SeriesII,vol.8,138.85 Gregory of Nyssa, De Vita Moysis, II:159, trans. Abraham J. Malherbe and EverettFerguson,Classics of Western Spirituality (NewYork:PaulistPress,1978), 93.86GregoryofNyssa,Contra Eunomium,Bk.II,in Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers,SeriesII,vol.5,101.87GregoryofNyssa,The Great Catechism,486.88 “Gregory in effect denies that the ousia of anything can be comprehended through itsenergeia.But in thecaseofGod, it isonly theenergeia thatwecanknow.”PaulosMarGregorios,Cosmic Man: The Divine Presence (NewYork:ParagonHouse,1988), 117.89GregoryofNyssa,Answer to Eunomius’ Second Book,inNicene and Post-Nicene Fathers,SeriesII,vol.5,265.90GregoryofNyssa,De Beatitudinibus,OratioVI,147.91Ibid.92Ibid.93MennoSimons,Confession of the Triune God,inThe Complete Writings of Menno Simons, c. 1496-1561, ed. J.C.Wenger and trans. LeonardVerduin (Scottdale, PA: Herald Press,1956),497-98.94Ibid.95GregoryofNyssa,Contra Eunomium,Bk.VII,198.96Simons,Confession of the Triune God,491.


97Ibid.,491-92.“InasmuchasGodissuchaSpirit,asitiswritten,thereforewealsobelieveandconfess the eternal, begettingheavenlyFather and the eternallybegottenSon,ChristJesus.Brethren,…theyarespiritualandincomprehensible(geistlich und unbegreiflich),asisalsotheFatherwhobegat;forlikebegetslike.Thisisincontrovertible”(491).WiththenumberoftimesMennousesthetermsunerforschliche,unaussprechlicheandunbegreiflich,wecouldconclude thathebecameacquaintedwithapophasis fromhis education for thepriesthood,exposuretoCanonLaw,andglossa ordinariaorthevariouspatristicflorilegia ofhisera.98Ibid.99Simons,Reply to Gellius Faber,inop. cit.,761.GermantextfromMennoSimons,Klare Beantwortung einer Schrift des Gellius Faber,inop. cit.,138.100Simons,Confession of the Triune God,493.101 Ibid., 494.Referring to the impotenceof creeds to affectobedience,Mennoobserves,“ThesefoolishpeopleimaginethattheyareChristian,butaretomymindmoreunbelieving,blinder,morehardened,andworsethanTurks,Tartars,oranyotherfarawayheathen.Their works testify that I write the truth.Theycannotbemovedtohearorobeythetruthbygodlymeansandservices,neither by doctrine nor exhortation […]”(emphasisadded).Simons,True Christian Faith,inop. cit.,384.102PilgrimMarpeck,The Writings of Pilgrim Marpeck, eds.andtrans.WilliamKlassenandWalterKlaassen(Scottdale,PA:HeraldPress,1978),78-79.103DirkPhilips,Concerning the True Knowledge of Jesus Christ,inop. cit.,167.104BrianE.Daley,“DivineTranscendenceandHumanTransformation:GregoryofNyssa’sAnti-Apollinarian Christology,” in Re-Thinking Gregory of Nyssa, ed. Sarah Coakley(Malden,MA:BlackwellPublishing,2003),73.105GregoryofNyssa,On the Faith,inNicene and Post-Nicene Fathers,SeriesII,vol.5,337;Ad Simplicium de Fide,ed.J.P.Migne,Patrologia Graecae,vol.45(Paris,1863).TheGreekformof“not”thatGregoryuseshereisουχ,whichheemploysonlyoneothertimeinthistreatisetoindicatethatthehereticalviewofChristasnotsharingintheFather’sessenceis“not(ουχ)ourGod.”106JohannesZachhuber,Human Nature in Gregory of Nyssa: Philosophical Background and Theological Significance (Leiden:Brill,1999),217.107GregoryofNyssa,Contra Eunomium, asquotedinZachhuber,216.108 For Ware, in a situation where an important characteristic of Christ is undervalued,this characteristic must be accentuated to preserve the ontological affiliation with Christ, deification, theosis, salvation. “A bridge is formed between God and humanity by theIncarnate Christ who is divine and human at once.[...] Each heresy in turn underminedsome part of this vital affirmation.[…] Each council defended this affirmation”: Ware, The Orthodox Church,21.109ForanEasternOrthodoxespousalofthenotionthatourcapacityandauthoritytoengagein theological inquiry is commensurate with our purity, see Chryssavgis, Light Through Darkness,53and56,andLossky,Orthodox Theology: An Introduction,17.110GregoryofNyssa,De Vita Moysis, II:157,93.111GregoryofNyssa,De Beatitudinibus,OratioVI,143.


97Ibid.,491-92.“InasmuchasGodissuchaSpirit,asitiswritten,thereforewealsobelieveandconfess the eternal, begettingheavenlyFather and the eternallybegottenSon,ChristJesus.Brethren,…theyarespiritualandincomprehensible(geistlich und unbegreiflich),asisalsotheFatherwhobegat;forlikebegetslike.Thisisincontrovertible”(491).WiththenumberoftimesMennousesthetermsunerforschliche,unaussprechlicheandunbegreiflich,wecouldconclude thathebecameacquaintedwithapophasis fromhis education for thepriesthood,exposuretoCanonLaw,andglossa ordinariaorthevariouspatristicflorilegia ofhisera.98Ibid.99Simons,Reply to Gellius Faber,inop. cit.,761.GermantextfromMennoSimons,Klare Beantwortung einer Schrift des Gellius Faber,inop. cit.,138.100Simons,Confession of the Triune God,493.101 Ibid., 494.Referring to the impotenceof creeds to affectobedience,Mennoobserves,“ThesefoolishpeopleimaginethattheyareChristian,butaretomymindmoreunbelieving,blinder,morehardened,andworsethanTurks,Tartars,oranyotherfarawayheathen.Their works testify that I write the truth.Theycannotbemovedtohearorobeythetruthbygodlymeansandservices,neither by doctrine nor exhortation […]”(emphasisadded).Simons,True Christian Faith,inop. cit.,384.102PilgrimMarpeck,The Writings of Pilgrim Marpeck, eds.andtrans.WilliamKlassenandWalterKlaassen(Scottdale,PA:HeraldPress,1978),78-79.103DirkPhilips,Concerning the True Knowledge of Jesus Christ,inop. cit.,167.104BrianE.Daley,“DivineTranscendenceandHumanTransformation:GregoryofNyssa’sAnti-Apollinarian Christology,” in Re-Thinking Gregory of Nyssa, ed. Sarah Coakley(Malden,MA:BlackwellPublishing,2003),73.105GregoryofNyssa,On the Faith,inNicene and Post-Nicene Fathers,SeriesII,vol.5,337;Ad Simplicium de Fide,ed.J.P.Migne,Patrologia Graecae,vol.45(Paris,1863).TheGreekformof“not”thatGregoryuseshereisουχ,whichheemploysonlyoneothertimeinthistreatisetoindicatethatthehereticalviewofChristasnotsharingintheFather’sessenceis“not(ουχ)ourGod.”106JohannesZachhuber,Human Nature in Gregory of Nyssa: Philosophical Background and Theological Significance (Leiden:Brill,1999),217.107GregoryofNyssa,Contra Eunomium, asquotedinZachhuber,216.108 For Ware, in a situation where an important characteristic of Christ is undervalued,this characteristic must be accentuated to preserve the ontological affiliation with Christ, deification, theosis, salvation. “A bridge is formed between God and humanity by theIncarnate Christ who is divine and human at once.[...] Each heresy in turn underminedsome part of this vital affirmation.[…] Each council defended this affirmation”: Ware, The Orthodox Church,21.109ForanEasternOrthodoxespousalofthenotionthatourcapacityandauthoritytoengagein theological inquiry is commensurate with our purity, see Chryssavgis, Light Through Darkness,53and56,andLossky,Orthodox Theology: An Introduction,17.110GregoryofNyssa,De Vita Moysis, II:157,93.111GregoryofNyssa,De Beatitudinibus,OratioVI,143.


112Ibid.,149.113Lossky,Orthodox Theology: An Introduction,25.114Simons,Confession of the Triune God,494.GermantextfromSimons,Ein ermahnendes Bekenntniss von dem dreieinigen, ewigen und wahren Gott, Vater, Sohn und heiligen Geist,inop. cit.,261.115Mennouses“operation”inreferencetohowoneapproachesGodinhopesofsalvation:“WhoisitthatisraisedupintothenewlifebythefaithoftheoperationofGod?Oncemore,isitnotthebeliever?”Simons,Christian Baptism,inop. cit.,261.116Simons,Confession of the Triune God,494.117ForanexampleofhowAnabaptistsinteractedwiththecreedswhentheissuewasinitiatedintothediscussionexternally,seeSimons,Reply to Gellius Faber,625-781.118 Thomas N. Finger, “The Way to Nicea: Some Reflections from a Mennonite Perspective,” Journal of Ecumenical Studies24.2(Spring1987):229.119J.DennyWeaverilluminatestwosuchproblems:(1)IfMennonitesinitiateanecumenicaldiscussion by invoking the Creeds, they are admitting the insignificance and dispensable nature of distinctivelyAnabaptist elements such as nonviolence and discipleship; (2) Itis contradictory to affirm the salience of the creeds that neglect the elements many early Anabaptistssoughttopreservethroughmartyrdom.Seehis“IdentifyingAnabaptistTheology:A Response to ‘True Evangelical Faith: The Anabaptists and Christian Confession,’”Mennonite Life 60.3 (Sept. 2005): http://www.bethelks.edu/mennonitelife/2005Sept/weaver%20response.php.Weaver’sperspectiveon the creedsmaybe somewhatpurpose-specific, where some of Reimer’s more insightful reflections might be able to fill it out more, butitisamoderatingvoicethatmustbeheard,nevertheless.120BenOllenburger,“TrueEvangelicalFaith:TheAnabaptistsandChristianConfession,”Mennonite Life 60.3 (Sept. 2005): http://www.bethelks.edu/mennonitelife/2005Sept/ollenburger.php.121Simons,Confessions of the Triune God,491.122Ibid.,492.123Ibid.124Ibid., 493. I admit that I am sporadically quoting from these same five pages, but with the sole purpose of filling in the gaps left by Ollenburger.125 Simons, The True Christian Faith, 392. German text from Simons, vom rechten, christlichen Glauben,219.126Riedeman, Account of Our Religion, Doctrine and Faith,22.127Ibid.,23.128Ibid.,25.129HansDenck,Widerruff [1527],inSchriften,ed.WalterFellman,Quellen zur Geschichte der Täufer,bd.6(Gütersloh:C.BertelsmannVerlag,1956),107.HansDenck,Recantation,inThe Spiritual Legacy of Hans Denck: Interpretation and Translation of Key Texts,trans.anded.ClarenceBauman,Studies in Medieval and Reformation Thought,vol.47(Leiden:Brill,1991),253.130 “A Jesus identified only in the abstract categories of ‘man’ and ‘God’ cannot be followed. Whenfaith inJesusChrist,orbeingChristian,means toshapeone’s lifebyhis teaching


112Ibid.,149.113Lossky,Orthodox Theology: An Introduction,25.114Simons,Confession of the Triune God,494.GermantextfromSimons,Ein ermahnendes Bekenntniss von dem dreieinigen, ewigen und wahren Gott, Vater, Sohn und heiligen Geist,inop. cit.,261.115Mennouses“operation”inreferencetohowoneapproachesGodinhopesofsalvation:“WhoisitthatisraisedupintothenewlifebythefaithoftheoperationofGod?Oncemore,isitnotthebeliever?”Simons,Christian Baptism,inop. cit.,261.116Simons,Confession of the Triune God,494.117ForanexampleofhowAnabaptistsinteractedwiththecreedswhentheissuewasinitiatedintothediscussionexternally,seeSimons,Reply to Gellius Faber,625-781.118 Thomas N. Finger, “The Way to Nicea: Some Reflections from a Mennonite Perspective,” Journal of Ecumenical Studies24.2(Spring1987):229.119J.DennyWeaverilluminatestwosuchproblems:(1)IfMennonitesinitiateanecumenicaldiscussion by invoking the Creeds, they are admitting the insignificance and dispensable nature of distinctivelyAnabaptist elements such as nonviolence and discipleship; (2) Itis contradictory to affirm the salience of the creeds that neglect the elements many early Anabaptistssoughttopreservethroughmartyrdom.Seehis“IdentifyingAnabaptistTheology:A Response to ‘True Evangelical Faith: The Anabaptists and Christian Confession,’”Mennonite Life 60.3 (Sept. 2005): http://www.bethelks.edu/mennonitelife/2005Sept/weaver%20response.php.Weaver’sperspectiveon the creedsmaybe somewhatpurpose-specific, where some of Reimer’s more insightful reflections might be able to fill it out more, butitisamoderatingvoicethatmustbeheard,nevertheless.120BenOllenburger,“TrueEvangelicalFaith:TheAnabaptistsandChristianConfession,”Mennonite Life 60.3 (Sept. 2005): http://www.bethelks.edu/mennonitelife/2005Sept/ollenburger.php.121Simons,Confessions of the Triune God,491.122Ibid.,492.123Ibid.124Ibid., 493. I admit that I am sporadically quoting from these same five pages, but with the sole purpose of filling in the gaps left by Ollenburger.125 Simons, The True Christian Faith, 392. German text from Simons, vom rechten, christlichen Glauben,219.126Riedeman, Account of Our Religion, Doctrine and Faith,22.127Ibid.,23.128Ibid.,25.129HansDenck,Widerruff [1527],inSchriften,ed.WalterFellman,Quellen zur Geschichte der Täufer,bd.6(Gütersloh:C.BertelsmannVerlag,1956),107.HansDenck,Recantation,inThe Spiritual Legacy of Hans Denck: Interpretation and Translation of Key Texts,trans.anded.ClarenceBauman,Studies in Medieval and Reformation Thought,vol.47(Leiden:Brill,1991),253.130 “A Jesus identified only in the abstract categories of ‘man’ and ‘God’ cannot be followed. Whenfaith inJesusChrist,orbeingChristian,means toshapeone’s lifebyhis teaching


and example, these formulas are insufficient; they have omitted the specifics of the New Testamentnarrativeonwhichfaithcanbebased[and]describeChristapartfromhisrejectionoftheswordandteachingsaboutloveofenemies.…TheformulasdonotgiveshapetothepeaceablecommunityofJesus’disciplesthatposesacontrasttotheworld.Ineffect,theyhavemarginalizedethicsfromchristologicalunderstanding,orhaveprovidedthespaceforethics to express convictions that do not stem from the particularity of Jesus”: Weaver,Anabaptist Theology in Face of Postmodernity,124-25.IwouldnuanceWeaver’sthoughtsby appealing to the Eastern fusion of spirituality and theology, but Weaver’s fittingly acerbic comments should be heeded for the current state of the Western, and specifically North American,church.131 B. Royale Dewey, “Making Peace with History:Anabaptism and the Nicene Creed,”Mennonite Life60.3(Sept.2005):http://www.bethelks.edu/mennonitelife/2005Sept/dewey.php.132 “[I]n evaluating any Creed Mennonites will likely ask not only what it affirms but also whatit leavesout,aswellaswhat itsecclesiasticalandsocialfunctionsare”:ThomasN.Finger, “The Way to Nicea: Some Reflections from a Mennonite Perspective,” 212.133AlainEppWeaver,“MissionaryChristology:JohnHowardYoderandtheCreeds,”MQR 74.3(July2000):426.WeavergivescreditforthisideatoJohnHowardYoder.134Ibid.,436.135ForexamplesofhowGregoryemphasizedeitherJesus’humanityordivinityindifferentsituations,seeAndrewKlager,The Eye of our Soul and its ‘Ontological Gaze’: The Iconic Function of Theological Epinoia in the Philosophy and Spirituality of Gregory of Nyssa(M.A.thesis,McMasterUniversity,2006),67-71.136ToachievetheresultsReimerseeks,itwouldbebettertoeducateanAnabaptistaudienceonthecreeds’importancenotbyshowinghowethicalbehaviorcanbederivedfromcreedalexpressionsbutbyshowingthatthecreedsemergedinserviceofapre-existingunderstandingofsalvation.Becomingcognizantofthehistoricallyaccuratesequenceisabetterservicetotheongoingdebate.137Reimer,Mennonites and Classical Theology: Dogmatic Foundations for Christian Ethics,355.138Ibid.,358.139Weaver, Anabaptist Theology in Face of Postmodernity, 47. Stuart Hall contrasts thenucleusofJesus’instructionwiththatofthecreeds:“TheonebelongstoaworldofSyrianpeasants,theothertoaworldofGreekphilosophers….[W]hyanethicalsermonstoodattheforefrontof the teachingofJesusChristandametaphysicalCreed in theforefrontoftheChristianityofthefourthcenturyisaproblemwhichclaimsinvestigation”;seeStuartG.Hall,Doctrine and Practice in the Early Church(GrandRapids:Eerdmans,1991),240.“Dogmatic definitions are made with the means and content of a given epoch and […]. reflect the style and peculiarities of that epoch. The Christological controversies and the definitions of the ecumenical councils most certainly reflect the spirit of Greek thought”: SergiusBulgakov,The Orthodox Church,31-32.140Fingerdiscusses investigating thepersonofChrist“fromabove”or“frombelow.”Hefavorsthelatter,whichishowhediscussestheworkandpersonofChrist,asdoesWeaver


and example, these formulas are insufficient; they have omitted the specifics of the New Testamentnarrativeonwhichfaithcanbebased[and]describeChristapartfromhisrejectionoftheswordandteachingsaboutloveofenemies.…TheformulasdonotgiveshapetothepeaceablecommunityofJesus’disciplesthatposesacontrasttotheworld.Ineffect,theyhavemarginalizedethicsfromchristologicalunderstanding,orhaveprovidedthespaceforethics to express convictions that do not stem from the particularity of Jesus”: Weaver,Anabaptist Theology in Face of Postmodernity,124-25.IwouldnuanceWeaver’sthoughtsby appealing to the Eastern fusion of spirituality and theology, but Weaver’s fittingly acerbic comments should be heeded for the current state of the Western, and specifically North American,church.131 B. Royale Dewey, “Making Peace with History:Anabaptism and the Nicene Creed,”Mennonite Life60.3(Sept.2005):http://www.bethelks.edu/mennonitelife/2005Sept/dewey.php.132 “[I]n evaluating any Creed Mennonites will likely ask not only what it affirms but also whatit leavesout,aswellaswhat itsecclesiasticalandsocialfunctionsare”:ThomasN.Finger, “The Way to Nicea: Some Reflections from a Mennonite Perspective,” 212.133AlainEppWeaver,“MissionaryChristology:JohnHowardYoderandtheCreeds,”MQR 74.3(July2000):426.WeavergivescreditforthisideatoJohnHowardYoder.134Ibid.,436.135ForexamplesofhowGregoryemphasizedeitherJesus’humanityordivinityindifferentsituations,seeAndrewKlager,The Eye of our Soul and its ‘Ontological Gaze’: The Iconic Function of Theological Epinoia in the Philosophy and Spirituality of Gregory of Nyssa(M.A.thesis,McMasterUniversity,2006),67-71.136ToachievetheresultsReimerseeks,itwouldbebettertoeducateanAnabaptistaudienceonthecreeds’importancenotbyshowinghowethicalbehaviorcanbederivedfromcreedalexpressionsbutbyshowingthatthecreedsemergedinserviceofapre-existingunderstandingofsalvation.Becomingcognizantofthehistoricallyaccuratesequenceisabetterservicetotheongoingdebate.137Reimer,Mennonites and Classical Theology: Dogmatic Foundations for Christian Ethics,355.138Ibid.,358.139Weaver, Anabaptist Theology in Face of Postmodernity, 47. Stuart Hall contrasts thenucleusofJesus’instructionwiththatofthecreeds:“TheonebelongstoaworldofSyrianpeasants,theothertoaworldofGreekphilosophers….[W]hyanethicalsermonstoodattheforefrontof the teachingofJesusChristandametaphysicalCreed in theforefrontoftheChristianityofthefourthcenturyisaproblemwhichclaimsinvestigation”;seeStuartG.Hall,Doctrine and Practice in the Early Church(GrandRapids:Eerdmans,1991),240.“Dogmatic definitions are made with the means and content of a given epoch and […]. reflect the style and peculiarities of that epoch. The Christological controversies and the definitions of the ecumenical councils most certainly reflect the spirit of Greek thought”: SergiusBulgakov,The Orthodox Church,31-32.140Fingerdiscusses investigating thepersonofChrist“fromabove”or“frombelow.”Hefavorsthelatter,whichishowhediscussestheworkandpersonofChrist,asdoesWeaver


but with less nuance. See Thomas N. Finger, A Contemporary Anabaptist Theology: Biblical, Historical, Constructive, 330. Finger also acknowledges the correct chronologythatanticipatedthecreedalformulationsinthe16th-centuryAnabaptistsandthereforethefusionofspiritualityandtheology.

Andrew P. Klager, a PhD candidate at the University of Glasgow, is evaluating sixteenth-century Anabaptist literary access to patristic sources, with special attention to Balthasar Hubmaier.


but with less nuance. See Thomas N. Finger, A Contemporary Anabaptist Theology: Biblical, Historical, Constructive, 330. Finger also acknowledges the correct chronologythatanticipatedthecreedalformulationsinthe16th-centuryAnabaptistsandthereforethefusionofspiritualityandtheology.

Andrew P. Klager, a PhD candidate at the University of Glasgow, is evaluating sixteenth-century Anabaptist literary access to patristic sources, with special attention to Balthasar Hubmaier.

St. Gregory of Nyssa, Anabaptism, and the Creeds...St. Gregory of Nyssa, Anabaptism, and the Creeds...

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