Sanctum Fall 2010docshare01.docshare.tips/files/9000/90000999.pdfinformed his commitment to giving,...

SanctumFall 2010

In Search of Justice

STEPHANIE RIEDERMANEditor-in-ChiEf

JOSEFINA AGUILAManaging Editor

LEARNED FOOTEfinanCial ManagEr

RAY KATZ, SEnior EditorS

JODY ZELLMANart Editor

ALLY CONVINO, TAMARA EPELBAUMlayout EditorS

LEARNED FOOTE, CARLY SILVERCopy EditorS

AKIVA BAMBERGERWEbMaStEr

Sanctum Staff

Christian Union

thank you to our SponSor:

4 EDITORIAL NOTE: Finding Common Ground in Social Justice

StEphaniE riEdErMan

6 JEW-ISH

ariana orvEll

10 I GOT IT FROM MY MAMA

CarloS blanCo

13 FOUR SPECIES AND THE OTHER

dara MaranS

15 THE SCHOLAR, THE PHILOSOPHER, AND THE SOLDIER: A Story

Manal khan

20 UNLIKELY APOLOGISTS: Scientists Rejecting an Objective Study of Religion

andrEW haMilton

24 HIS HOLINESS BHAKTI VASUDEVA SWAMI SPEAKS ON RELIGION AND SOCIAL JUSTICE

intErviEW by Shruti kylkarni

30 KANYE WEST AND THE ILLUMINATI: From “Jesus Walks” to Devil Worship?

nana aMoh

37 JEWISH HETER ISKA AND ISLAMIC BANKING: Adaption or Capitulation to Modernity?

raphaEl roSEn

46 RE-WRITING HISTORY: Protestant and Neo-Pagan Agendas in the Study of Mithras?

Carly SilvEr

Sanctum - Fall 2010

Cover photo courtesy of Steve Taylor; design by Tamara Epelbaum

Formany,nomattertheirlevelof religiousaffiliation,thedefiningmessageimpartedbyreligionistheimperativetoliveajustandmorallife.If westripawaythedifferingfoundingnarrativesandproscriptionsthatdistinguishreligiouscommunities,weareusuallyleftwithaffirmationsof thesanctityof allhumanbeings,instructionstoactunselfishlyandhelpothers,andutopianvisionsof peacefulsocietiesthatweareobligatedtoactualize.TheDalaiLama,whohaswrittenextensivelyonpluralisticapproachestoachievingpeaceandjusticeworldwide,maysayitbest:“Imaintainthateverymajorreligionof theworld—Buddhism,Christianity,Confucianism,Hinduism,Islam,Jainism,Judaism,Sikhism,Taoism,Zoroastrianism—hassimilaridealsof love,thesamegoalof benefitinghumanitythroughspiritualpractice,andthesameeffectof makingtheirfollowersintobetterhumanbeings.”1

Despitehistoricalandcontemporaryexamplesof religiouslycompelledviolence,religionhasalsoprovedtobeahugelysalientimpetusforsocialjusticework,andreligiouscharitieshavebetteredthelivesof billionsof people.Someof thelargestinternationalnon-governmentalorganizations(NGOs)arereligious.WorldVisionisoneprominentexample,workingwithabudgetof 1.7billiondollarstoparticipateinnumeroustypesof aidwork.2MuslimNGOsareontherise,whileWorldHealthOrganizationstudieshaveestimatedthatnearlyhalf of allpublicservicesinSub-SaharanAfricaareprovidedbyreligiousNGOs.3Countlessindividualsthroughouthistoryhavebeenmotivatedbyspiritualconcerns tohelpothers,dedicating their lives toaiding themosthelplesspeople in themostforgottenplaces.Datashowthattheyarestilldoingsotoday—andinoverwhelmingnumbers. Andyet,itisoftennotthatsimple.Religiousgroupsfrequentlypromoteparticularistsocialjusticeagendasaimedsolelyathelpingtheirownadherents,oratinitiatingconversionstogainnewadherents.Because,bydefinition,theyvaluetradition,religiousgroupsalsotendtousehistoricalcriteriatonarrowlydefinewhatconstitutesasocialjusticeissueandfailtoadapteasilytoarisingconcerns.Forexample,thoughmanyreligioustextshavetaughtfollowersthatourearthissacredandinourhandstopreserve,religiousgroupshaveoftenfacedcritiqueforfailingtoincorporateanenvironmentalistagendaintotheirobjectives.Thoughmanyreligiousgroupshavebeguntoengageinmoreenvironmentalactivism,therearestillgapstobefilled.Finally,religio-politicalaffiliationscanplayanimportantrole.Born-againChristianGlennBeckhasfamouslypaintedsocialjusticeactivismbyreligiouscommunitiesassocialismindisguise:“Ibegyou,lookforthewords‘socialjustice’or‘economicjustice’onyourchurchWebsite.If youfindit,runasfastasyoucan.Socialjusticeandeconomicjustice,theyarecodewords.”4

Inthisissue,entitled“InSearchof Justice,”Sanctumhopestoengagewiththetensionbetweenthecorevaluesof socialjustice,whichareinherentinmostreligions,andtheopposingsocial,cultural,andinter-religiousfactorsthatoftenforcethemtobeovershadowed.Atthesametime,ourwritershaveexploredvaryingapproachestosocialjusticeindifferentreligiouscommunitiesandhowtheimperativetoachieveitfactorsintotheirtraditionsandpractice.For

Editorial Note: Finding Common Ground in Social JusticeStephanie Riederman

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someof us,adheringtoreligiouslawsthatarestructuredtosupporttheseidealsisthefavoredpathwaytorealizingsocialjustice.Inhisessay“JewishHeteriskaandIslamicBanking,”RaphaelRosenexploreshowJudaismandIslamhaveinstitutedlimitationsoncharginginterestinordertosupporttheiruniquevisionsof economicjustice.Stillforothers,socialjusticevalueslearnedinareligiouscontexthaveremainedwiththemevenoutsideof thatcontext.In“IGotitFrommyMama,”CarlosBlancodescribeshowgrowingupinafamilyinvolvedinCatholiccharityworkhasinformedhiscommitmenttogiving,despitehislessenedaffiliationwithCatholicism.Finally,inShrutiKylkarni’sinterviewwithBhaktiVasudevaSwami,hisholinessexplainshisunderstandingof theconnectionbetweenfaithandsocialjustice,howitisexpressedinhisowncommunity,andhowthesevaluesareoftencomplicated. Theprojectof teasingthroughthesequestionsisdifficultandcomplex;nonetheless,Sanctum’seditorialboardhaslearnedatremendousamountwhileputtingthisissuetogether,andwehopeitisjustasmeaningfulandinformativeforallof ourreaders.Thesearticlesaremeanttopromotedialogue,andwevalueyourparticipation.Inthatvein,pleasefeelfreetoe-mailanyletterstotheeditortocolumbia.sanctum@gmail.com.

Thanksforreading,

StephanieRiedermanEditor-in-Chief

Stephanie RiedeRman iS a SenioR in Columbia College majoRing in politiCal SCienCe and middle eaSteRn, South aSian, and afRiCan StudieS.

(Endnotes)1Gyatso,Tenzin.“AHumanApproachtoWorldPeace.”HisHolinesstheFourteenthDalaiLamaof Tibet.TheOfficeof HisHolinesstheDalaiLama.Web.12Dec.2010.<http://www.dalailama.com/messages/world-peace/a-human-approach-to-peace>.2Petersen,MarieJ.“InternationalReligiousNGOsatTheUnitedNations:AStudyof aGroupof ReligiousOrganizations.”Journalof HumanitarianAssistance|.TheFeinsteinInternationalCenter,17Nov.2010.Web.03Dec.2010.<http://jha.ac/2010/11/17/international-religious-ngos-at-the-united-nations-a-study-of-a-group-of-religious-organizations/#_ednref8>.3Banda,Marlan,EvaOmbaka,SophieLogez,andMartheEverard.“Multi-CountryStudyof MedicineSupplyandDistributionActivitiesof Faith-BasedOrganizationsinSub-SaharanAfricanCountires.”TheWorldHealthOrganization.Web.3Dec.2010.<http://www.who.int/medicines/areas/access/EN_EPNstudy.pdf?bcsi_scan_A8AA4F79F19141A2=0&bcsi_scan_filename=EN_EPNstudy.pdf>.4Sessions,David.“GlennBeckUrgesListenerstoLeaveChurchesThatPreachSocialJustice.”PoliticsDaily.AOLNews.Web.03Dec.2010.<http://www.politicsdaily.com/2010/03/08/glenn-beck-urges-listeners-to-leave-churches-that-preach-social/>.

Sanctum — Fall 2010

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“Jew-ish”Ariana Orwell

Tchaikovsky’sTheNutcrackerSuitesprinkledwithJewishklezmermusic,mygreatAuntBertha’sturkeymatzoballsoup,thehippieHebrewschoolwhereIsangsongsandlearnedtheIsraelinationalanthem,findingthehiddenpieceof mazoh,theafikoman,attheendof thePassoverseder,lightingthecandlesonthemenorahonenightandopeningpresentsundertheChristmastreethenextmorning…religiosityinmyhousewasneverstrict,butitwasawaytosharethingstogether.MymomwasraisedCatholic,sowecelebratedChristmas,despiteherrejectionof thechurch.MydadisJewishandlikesJudaism,sowecelebratedtheholidays,madepotato latkes,weresenttoHebrewschool,andweretaughttoappreciateJewishhumor.Thedualityof myreligiousupbringingalwaysseemednormaltome.MyJewishfriendswhodidn’tcelebrateChristmaswerehappytocomeoverandhelpmyfamilydecorateourtreewithunconventionalornaments,liketennisplayers,cats,shoes,andbirds.Thiswasallpartof growingupwithdifferentreligioustraditions.

IlikedbeingJewish,andmyexposuretoJewishtraditionsandculturefaroutweighedmylimitedexposuretoChristiantraditions.So,whenthetimecame,Ichosetohaveabatmitzvah,whichisthe

photo CourtESy of aMalia rinEhart

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comingof ageceremonyforJewishchildren.IswitchedHebrewschoolsandbeganattendingclasstwotimesaweekattheconservativesynagogueinmyneighborhood.OurlessonsfocusedonlearninghowtoreadHebrewandJewishtenetsliketkkunolam,repairingtheworld.WediscussedstoriesfromtheTorah,reflectingon the lessons andvalues they taught, and learnedaboutupcomingholidays. I spenthourslearningmyTorahportionthepassageof theHebrewBiblethatIwouldchantbeforethecongregationonmybatmitzvah),andIwrotemyd’varTorah,ordiscussionof theholytext,onwhatitwasliketobeawomanwhentheTorahwaswrittenandhowthathaschangedtoday.

Asthedayof mybatmitzvahapproached,IwastoldthatIwouldhaveamikveh,aceremonialbathtorestorespiritualpurity,topreparemeforthebigday.Inactuality,itwastomakemereallyJewish;Iwasbeingconverted.Inmytwelve-yearoldreality,though,thiswasnotquitegrasped.Ienvisionedthemikvehassomethingspecialanddrewamentalpictureof abeautifultemple,withhigharchingstoneceilings,intricatecarvings,bluetiledfloors,andalargestonebasin.Tomygreatdisappointment,themikvehlookedlikeaYMCAJacuzzi.

WhenIcametoColumbia,Iexpectedtofindlotsof Jews,andIdid.ButtheseJewsweredifferentfromsomeof mymorereligiouscousinsandtheJewswithwhomIhadgonetoHebrewschool.Manyof themobservedShabbos—thedayof rest—notusingtheircomputersandnotridingtheelevators.Manykeptkosherandtheyallseemedtohangoutwitheachother.IhadneverreallyknownJewslikethis.Inmyliberalneighborhood,theconservativesynagoguehadafemalerabbiandamalerabbi,manymembersof thecongregationonlycameontheHighHolidays,andaquarterof thekidsinmyHebrewschoolclasswerefrommixedreligiousbackgrounds.Wasthereaslidingscaleof Jewishness?

Duringfreshmanyear,inaconversationwithaJewishfloormate,ImentionedthatmymomwasraisedCatholic.Heaskedmeif shehadconverted,andIanswered,“No.”

“Oh,you’renotreallyJewish, then,”heresponded.Asfarashewasconcerned, thiswasfact.Hisgirlfriendconcurred.

Idefendedmyself,arguing thatIwasraisedJewish, thatIwasbatmitzvah-ed,d, thatIconsideredmyself Jewish.

Theylookedatmeskeptically;thegirlfriendturned,asif Iwasn’tthere,andsaidtohim,“She’snotreallyJewish.”

Exasperatedanddesperatelywantingtobeacknowledgedaspartof theclub,Iblurtedout,“Iwasmikveh-ed!”

“Oh!”Theboyanswered.Then,yeah,youare.Then,turningtohisgirlfriend,“Sheis.”Sheappearedunconvinced.

AtfirstIfeltrelieved;IhadproventhatIreallywasJewish.But,themoreIthoughtaboutit,themore

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botheredIwas:whoweretheytotellmethatIwasn’twhatIconsideredmyself tobe?Andwhydidthemikvehchange theiropinion?AsfarasIwasconcerned, itwasanuncomfortablebath—Ididn’t feeldifferentlyafterwards,didn’tactdifferently,didn’tthinkdifferently.Idecideditcamedowntobelief andtradition.Forme,Judaismwasaboutculture:sharingholidayswithfriendsandfamilies,feelingasenseof collectivecommunityinsynagogueservices,watchingWoodyAllenmovies,fightingforsocialjusticeandequality,debatinganddiscussing,readingillustratedstorieslikeHershelandtheHannukahGoblins,anddancingaroundto”HavaNagila”inmylivingroom.LightingthecandlesforHanukukahwasspecialbecauseof thewaythelightfilledtheroommoreandmoreeachdayacandlewasadded,castingbeautifulshadowsacrossthetablewhileweate,andbecausemydadandIwouldmakepotatolatkesfromscratch:wewerecontinuingancienttraditionsandmakingthemourown,aswell.

I hadbeen taught that Judaismwas about coming together, honoring a sharedhistory, upholdingtraditions,andformingacollectivecommunity.Ihadalwaysunderstoodthattherewasmorethanonewaytodothis,butneverconsideredthemmutuallyexclusive.Myconservativesynagoguerequiredmetohaveamikvehbeforemybatmitzvahbecauseitwastherule.ButIwasn’tanymoreJewishafterthebaththanIwasbefore.Tome,itwasatechnicality,andI’dliketothinkitwasfortherabbi,aswell.Inhindsight,Iresentthatittookmentioningthemikvehformyfloor-matestoconsidermeJewishenoughforthem.Ihaven’tuseditasawaytolegitimizemyidentitysince.

BelievinginGodanddevoutlyobservingreligiouslawsareprimaryformanyJews.Still,whenIthinkaboutbeingJewish,thesestandardsdon’tdefineme.Inaway,theboyonmyfloorfreshmanyeardidmakemereevaluatemyidentity:HeaffirmedthatIamJewishbecauseJewishculture,customs,andtraditionshaveinformedmysenseof self;theycolormychildhoodmemoriesandascribemeaningtofamily,tofood,tomusic,tosinging,tocommunity,andtolife.

ariana orvEll iS a SEnior in ColuMbia CollEgE Majoring in urban StudiES With an ConCEntra-tion in pSyChology.

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photo CourtESy of EMily SElingEr

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“I Got It From My Mama”Carlos Blanco

IwasprettyyoungwhenIrealizedmyfamilywaspoor.IthinkithadsomethingtodowithseeingwhatmyfamilyhadversuswhattheAmericanmediatoldusweshouldhave.Wedidn’thaveasecond-storyhouse,therewasnopoolinourbackyard,andgoingouttoeatmeantaveryspecialoccasion.But,whilemyfamilysawourshareof struggles,everySundayduringmass,mymomwoulddonatetwentydollarstothecollectionpin. Now,Iknowtwentydollarsisnotaheftyamountof cash,but,toaseven-year-oldkid,twentydollarswastheworld.Thoughtsof thethingsIwouldhavebought—Pokemoncards,toys,andcandy—wouldhauntmeasIsawmymomgiveherweeklytithe. But,morethanlamentingthethingsImissedouton,Ineverunderstoodwhymymother

photo CourtESy of CarloS blanCo

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gaveupherhard-earnedmoneytoSt.Bernadette’s,anditoftenangeredme.Ijustcouldn’twrapmyheadaroundthehypocrisy:howcometheChurchneededmoremoneythanwedid?If Godwassopowerful,thenwhyshouldwehavetohelphim?Itwasallthemoreperplexing,givenhowmuchthosedonationsaffectedus;mostSundays,mymotherwouldquietlypatmyheadandtellmewecouldn’tevenaffordtobuydonutsonthewayhome,liketheotherkids.Mymother’sactionsonlyseemedtoreinforcesomeof thedoubtsIbegantohaveaboutreligioningeneral. DuringmyfirstyearatColumbia,myfinancialsituationstoodoutwithanewstarknessagainstthebackdropof mostlywealthystudentsthatsurroundedme.ItreinforcedhowpoorIwas,andIhavetoadmitthat,onceagain,Ifeltashamed.Backhome,thekidsinmycommunitytendedtoreachanunderstanding:theyknewtheyhadtocutcornersandfindcreativewaystobeactivethatdidn’tinvolvespending.Icouldn’tsaythesameaboutMorningsideHeights. Myfirstgroupof friendsatColumbialovedtospendmoney.Iwasnewlyliberatedandhavingabankcarddidn’thurt,soItriedmybesttokeepupwiththemandtoleavethelimitationsof mychildhoodbehind.Inevitably,Icouldn’taffordfrequentsushidinnersandtoseeeveryconcertornewmovie,asmynewfoundManhattanitelifestyledemanded.Ifeltdefeated,and,atthesametime,terrifiedof missingout. Ihadanotherveryscaryrealizationduringmyfirstsemesterof collegeasIstruggledtofitin:ColumbiaUniversitybreedsclassism.Wedon’tliketosayit,but,inreality,theseinstitutionsof higherlearningexisttoreplicatetheprivilegethatestablishedthem.If you’repoorhere,itmeansyouhavetoinventyoursociallife,notjustbuyit.Columbiadiditsbesttomakesurethat,asastudentof color,butnotasastudentof lowincome,Iwouldhavetheresourcesneededtofeelempowered.Truthfully,itwasabittermomentwhenIrealizedhowoutof placeIfeltduringmyfirstsemester.But,aftermakingsomeprettyembarrassingadmissionstomymotheroverwinterbreakaboutmyspending,Iresolvednottosuccumbtothosesocialpressuresanylonger.Ihadlostsightof thevalueswithwhichIwasraised.Moneybecamesolelyaboutsatisfyingmyownexaggeratedmaterial“needs”andnotabouthelpingtoeasethepain,anddiresituationsof others. ItwasalsotheyearIrealizedwhymymother—despiteourstruggles—donatesmoneyeveryweektothechurch.IhadgroupedtogethertheCatholicpracticeof tithingwithalltheothertraditionallyCatholicritualsinwhichmyfamilyengagedManyof themseemedthoughtlessandrepetitive.Manyof themIdon’tpracticeonmyownwhenI’matschool.ButIunderstoodthatithadbeenamistaketogroupmymom’scontributionstocharitywiththerestof thethingswithwhichIgrewup,becausesupportingthepoordoesn’thavetodependonreligiousaffiliation.


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Mymotherdonatesmoneybecausesheunderstandswhatit’sliketobepoor.It’sthesamereasonwhyshegivesmoneytopeopleonthestreetortipsannoyinglywellatrestaurants:shegrewupinsmall-townTexasinapoorMexicanfamily.But,justbecauseshe’sbeenabletoprovideforherself,doesn’tmeanshecouldforgethercommunity.Whenmymommakesadonation,itdoesn’tmatterthatwe’repoororthatwe’vestruggled—whatmattersisthatsomeonewillbefedorclothedorgivensomethingspecial.Inreality,actuallyknowingwhatit’sliketobepoorcanbeoneof themostpowerfulcatalystsforcharitableactivity.AsIlearnedatColumbia,manyof theprivilegedpeoplewithwhomIwassurroundeddedicatedamuchsmallerpercentageof theirampletimeandresourcesthanmymotherdidbackhome,despitetheiradvantages. Ihaven’talwaysbeenthedevoutCatholicIwasraisedtobe,but,despiteafewmissteps,thevaluesof socialjusticeIlearnedfrommymotherhavestayedwithme.ImaynotbeabletoaffordtheluxuriesavailableinMorningsideHeights,butI’mdoingsignificantlybetterthanalotof people,wellenoughtocontributemyshare.Mymothergivesadamn.Andnow,sodoI.

CaRloS blanCo iS a junioR in Columbia College majoRing in Religion and human RightS.


draWing by Maddy kloSS

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“Four Species and the Other”Dara Marans

Alarmsounds,slumberends,shadesopen,sunlightdrenchesthespace:thequotidianearlymorningrhythmof acollegedorm.

Butasthisdayunfolds,oneroommatesensessomethingnewlyplantedintheroom.Ensconcedinthecornerarebranchesof myrtle,willow,andpalm.Perchedregallyonadesksitsafragrantyellowcitron.

Redecoratingwithoutconsultation?Never.HowcanIdescribethesignificanceof theFourSpeciesonthisJewishholiday,theFeastof the

Tabernacles?Howwillwavingmygreeneryintheairappeartomynewfriend:Turkish,atheist,andmid-western?

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draWing by Maddy kloSS

Icouldtellherthatif evenoneof theFourSpeciesusedinthisritualshakingismissing,theentireactisinvalid,symbolizingtheessentialnatureof everytypeof Jewtothepluralisticpersonalityof Judaism.IcouldillustratethattheseSpeciesdependonwatertogrow,parallelingourrelianceonGodasweprayforrainfallduringthisautumnharvestseason.

OrIcouldsimplysaythattheFourSpeciesformanage-oldBiblicalmandateandthatasapracticingJewmyveryessenceisobservingandcherishingsuchcommandments.InLeviticus,itstates:“Andyoushall takeforyourselvesonthefirstday[of Sukkot], thefruitof thebeautiful [citron] tree, tightlyboundbranchesof datepalms,thebranchof thebraided[myrtle]tree,andwillowsof thebrook,andyoushallrejoicebeforetheLordyourGodsevendays”(23:40).

ThewavingceremonywasonceperformedallsevendaysintheTemple,andelsewhereononlyoneday.Butfollowingthedestructionof theSecondTemplein70C.E.,RabbiYochananBenZakaiorderedthattheSpeciesbewavedeverywhereasamemorialtotheTemple,asIdoinmycollegedormitoryonthisspecialday.

Iseemyself inmyfriend’seyes.Westandacrossfromoneanother,eachwithourownsystemsof belief, emanating from various traditions. The face-to-face encounter with the other—arguedEmmanuelLevinas,the20thcenturyJewishFrenchphilosopher—isarecognitionof difference,anditcausesabetterself-understandingtodevelop.AsIfacemyroommate,Ireachintothedepthsof tradition,andaccessanewfoundspiritualunderstanding.

Irecitetheblessingaloudformyroommate,proudlyemphasizingeachsyllable,lengtheningeachwordasittakesonnewmeaning.Idemonstratetomyfriendtheritualact;thesystematic,technicalshakingallaroundremindsmeof myacceptanceof God’subiquitousdominionoverallspaceandall time.Ourdifferencesaremanifest,butthissharedmomentof ritualisticbeautyunitesmewithmyfriend.Theechoingof Hebrewlettersinmyearsamplifiestheirsignificanceandstirsmysoul.Front,right,back,left,up,anddown:throughgenerations,customs,andpeoples,helpingtocreateaconnectionthroughourfundamentaldifferences.

daRa maRanS iS a fiRSt-yeaR in Columbia College.


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The Scholar, the Philosopher, and the Soldier: A Story

Manal Kahn

The story is set sometime in the Golden Age of the Abbasid Caliphate (between the ninth and twelfth centuries), and is a parable for three different approaches to Allah, the Divine Being, in classical Islamic tradition.

Threepeople—ascholar,aphilosopher,andasoldier—werejourneyingtogetherthrougha desert. Whennight fell, theypitched camp and set about preparing ameal. The soldier atelittle,quicklywashedup,andhastenedtohisIsha1prayer:“Forthenightisbeautiful,myLord,andthoughthetoilof thedayandtheheatof sundistractedmefromYourremembrance,IlongnowtosurrendertoYouincompletepeaceandoblivion.” Thescholarwasstillinthemiddleof hismeal—travelingalwaysmadehimhungry—but,whenhesawthesoldiergetup,heguiltilyhurriedtojoinhim—,for“Godisnodoubtdispleasedwithme,insolentcarnalmanthatIam,and,if Icannotbeconstantinevenmydailyprayers,whatelseistheretosavemefromhellfire?” Meanwhile, the philosopher contentedly ate his fill, as well as the scholar’s leftovers,ruminated tohimself upon therestorativequalitiesof goodfood,andwentstraight tobed, for“foodandsleeparetrulybountiesof Nature,thegreatrestorersof man,andIwouldnotdisclaim

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photo CourtESy of Manal khan

Sanctum —Fall 2010

Nature’srightsovermybody,asdothesetwosimplefellowswhothinkaritualprayer is something theyowetoGod.IoweGodnothing,forGodneedsnothing,leastof allashowof mygratitude,whichInonethelessfeelforHiminmyheart.SurelythatiswhatHereallylooksfor!” Thenextday,sometimeintheafternoon,thethreetravelerswereovercomebyaviolentsandstorm.Asthewindswhippedaroundthemandtheskieswhirledwithgold,thescholarfellonhiskneesandcried,“Ah,thisisindeedtheendof us!Wearesinnersandwickedandperverse,andGodhasfinallydecidedtometeoutHisJustice.Prayforsalvation!” Thephilosopherlookedamusedandremarked,“There’snoneedforthat,mygoodman.DoyouhonestlybelievetheAlmightyisatallconcernedwiththelivesandparticularsof littlepeoplelikeyou?IdaresayHedoesn’tevenknowyouexistorthatthissillylittlestorminthisobscurelittledesertiseventakingplace.So,if youaskme,themostsensiblethingtodoisnothing!”Withthathedrainedawaythelastdropsof waterinhisdrinkinggourd,wrappedhiscloaktightlyaroundhim,andsettleddownontheground. Thesoldier,meanwhile,closedhiseyesand,andspokesoftlytohimself,“OLord!If thisbetheendYouhaveordainedforme,thenletitcome;Iamnotafraid,forItrustinYoureverlastingmercyandforgiveness.Yetmyhearttellsmethisisnottheend,and,justasYoubroughtthisstormuponus,sowillYouseeusthroughit.ItrustYou.”Andhejoinedthescholarinprayer. Soonenough,thestormpassed,theskiescleared,andthethreetravelerscouldcontinueontheirjourney. Unfortunately, theywere lost. Thestormhadwhollyalteredthefaceof thedesert,nolandmarkwasfamiliar,andtheyhadmisplacedtheironlycompass. “Well, this is aprettymess,” thephilosophergrumbled. “Whichwaydoyou thinkweoughttogo?” Thescholarwasinagonies.“Whatdoesitmatternow?”hemoaned.“Ourfatehasbeensealed.CursethedayIdecidedtoembarkonthisinsanetrip!WhatamIdoinghereinthiswild,God-forsakenplace,whenIshouldbesittinginmystudyinBaghdadfinishingatreatiseonIslamicfamiliallaw?Thesultanexpectstoseeitinafortnight.Whatif Iperishbeforethat?Humiliation!God,Youarecruel!”Andheweptbitterly. Thescholarwasacity-dwellerandhadneverbeforesetfootinthedesert.Thefactis,hewasmortallyafraid. Itwaslefttothesoldiertodecidewhattheyshoulddo.Hewasaccustomedtohardship,aftermanywarsandhelovedthedesert.“Ifeelthisisasign,”hesaidtohiscompanions.“We’vebeendivertedfromouroriginalpathforapurpose.IseeinitGod’sWill. Weshallheadinthatdirection.Hegesturedeast.“Forthewindhascarriedtomethescentof smokeandwemayfindthereavillage.” Thephilosophershrugged.Hedidn’tcareonewayortheother.Hismindwastoopre-occupiedwithAristotle.“Really,Ifindthisplaceratherdistasteful,”hesaidtohimself.“Andthecompany!Onecannotgetawordof senseoutof thesetwo.Well,itisatestof mycharacter,of mysuperiormind,and,of course,Ishallendureit.But,al-Farabi2,youwouldbeproud!” Theyfollowedthesoldier.Bysunset,theyhadreachedasmalloasis.Theireyessparkledatthesightof therichgreendatepalms,thefresh,clearwater.ItlookedlikeParadise.

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Sanctum —Fall 2010

“Well, if you two don’t mind, I’m going to take a dip in that lovely-looking pool,” thephilosopherannounced. “I thinkwedeservesomerelief aftersuchadreadfullygruelingday!”Buthisplanswererudelyinterruptedbythreeblackformsthatsuddenlydescendeduponhimfromthedarkness. In a twinkling, the scholar, philosopher and soldier found themselves bound with handsbehindtheirbacks.Theywereconfrontedbythreemenacing,beardedfaces. “Whoareyou?Whatareyoudoinginouroasis?Whosentyouhere?Speak!” Thephilosopherwasreadytofalluponthethreemen,outragedat theforegonedip. Thescholarseemedtohavefainted.Butthesoldierreplied,incalm,firmtones,“Wearetravelersandwelostourwayinthestorm.Wecomeinpeace,onlytoaskof afewprovisionsforourjourney.Weshalldepartatdaybreak.” Thethreeassailantsseemedslightlyreassured.“Verywellthen.Youlooklikeamanof honorandwetakeyourword.ButyoumustcomenowtoseeourShaykh3,whoadministersalltheaffairsof thisvillage.Hewilldecidewhatistobedonewithyou.” TheShaykhwasanagedman,buthiseyesshonewithyouthandwisdom.“Wedon’toftengetstrangersinthisvillage,”hesaid,lookingkeenlyatthethreetravelers,“sothisisindeedquiteanevent.However,Iwillletyougo,assoonasyoueachanswerthreequestionsforme.” “First,”theShaykhbegan,“whatisit,inoneword,thatyouvaluemostinthisworld?” Thescholar,whohadjustrevivedfromhisstupor,repliedalmostinstantly,“Life!” Thephilosopher,ponderingawhileandwishingtoappearthemost intellectual,answered,“Knowledge!” Thesoldier,warmly,said,“God.” “Second,”saidtheShaykh,“whatisit,inoneword,thatyoufearmostinthisworld?” “Death,”thescholarshuddered.

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photo CourtESy of: Manal ahMad khan


“Insanity.Thephilosophercouldnotconceiveof it. “God,”saidthesoldierinaquietvoice. “And, lastly,”concludedtheShaykh,“if therewasonethingyoucouldattain intheworld,anythingatall,whatwoulditbe?” Thisrequiredsomethinking.Thescholar,feelingsuddenlyshamefulthathehadnotmentionedtheAlmightyinanyof hisanswers,declared,“IwouldliketobethegreatestIslamicscholarintheworldandbringgloriestomyGodandmyreligionthroughmyworks.” Thephilosophersaiddreamily,“Iwouldliketodiscoverallthosesecretsof rationalityandreasonthateventheAncientMasterswereunabletodiscover,toconclusivelyprovethatthereisnothingmorepowerfulinthisuniversethanthehumanmind!” Andthesoldier,thoughtfully,and,afteralongtime,said,“God”. Thephilosopherandscholargapedathimincredulously.Theywereboththinking,This soldier really is mad. What in the world does he mean? How can he fear, love, and desire the same thing? AndthentheShaykhfinallyspoke,addressingeachof theminturn. “Heconsidershimself anauthorityontheHolyBook,anexemplarof thelawsandlettersof ourgreatfaith,yetneverinmylifehaveImetsomebodyascowardlyandignorantasthisscholar.” “He thinkshe is above theworldly concernsof other humanbeings and that thatmakeshim privy with God, yet never in my life, have I met somebody as conceited and covetous as this philosopher.” “Andhe?Heconsidershimself anordinaryman,amanof faith,butwithweaknessesandfaultslikeanyother,yetneverinmylifehaveImetsomebodyasstrong,brave,andwiseasthisyoungsoldier.” “For,knowthis.Truefaithdoesnottakerootinaheartwhereliesfearorgreedorprideoranynegativeemotion.Onlyaheartthatlovesisthebelievingheart.Onlyaheartthatloveswillrespectandobeyandtrust.Onlyaheartthatlovesisselfless,ishumble,isbrave—andisloved,inreturn,bytheOriginatorof Love,bytheOriginatorof Wisdom,Knowledge,Courage,andJustice—byAlmightyGod. “You,scholar,areforbiddentoleavethisdesertuntilsuchatimeasyouarepurgedof youremptybookknowledge,learntolistentotheuniverse,andfindinnerwisdom.” “You,philosopher,arecommandedtoalifeof asceticisminourvillageseminary,whereyouwillteachyoungstudentsandliveonbreadandwatertillsuchatimeasyourprideallowsyoutobegforyourfood. “Andyou,Osoldier,Ineednotcounsel.Youarefree—youalwayswere.Go.”

manal Khan iS a fReelanCe jouRnaliSt fRom paKiStan CuRRently baSed in new yoRK City.

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(Endnotes)1.Ishaisthenighttimeprayer,lastof thefivedailyritualprayersinIslam.2.Knownas“Alpharabius”intheWest,al-FarabiwasamedievalMuslimphilosopher,sociologist,scientist,andAristotelianlogician,recognizedintheMuslimworldasa“Rationalist,”togetherwithAvicennaandAverroes.3.ShaykhisanhonorificArabictermfor“elder”or“wiseman,”usedinSufismforaspiritualteacherandguide.

photo CourtESy of EMily SElingEr

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Unlikely Apologists: Scientists Rejecting an Objective Study of

ReligionAndrew Hamilton

Religion is a central component of human nature andoffersawindowintothehopes,fears,anddreamsof menandwomen. Wemuststudyittobetterunderstandourselves.However,manyscientistsimpedethisprojectbyconflatingitwiththeequallyimportantoneof democraticallyengagingourfellowcitizensindialogueabouttheirbeliefsandontologies.

What exactly According to William James, studyof religiondealswith “concretestatesof mind”and“religiousemotions.”1Thuswearetoinvestigateexperience–people’sbeliefs,behaviors,andinnermentalliveswithrespecttothetranscendentorthesupernatural.However,becauseanyinvestigationinvolvesaninvestigator,andexperiencesexistonlyinthecontextof ahumanbeing,inthiscontextwewillbeforcedtotalkeitheraboutpersonal,first-personinquiry–inwhichtheinvestigatordiscusseshisorherownexperiences–orobjective,third-personinquirydirectedatothers.Thereisaprotectionisttendencyamongscholars–fromJameshimself tocontemporaryneuroscientists–toviewthelatterasincompleteorotherwisesuspect.

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CourtESy

of

andrEW

haMilton

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are tostudy?we


NeuroscientistAndrewNewberghasmadesignificantcontributionstohisfieldinfivebooksandover100scholarlyarticles.InHow God Changes Your Brain, afterwritingaboutbrainimagingandtheneuralcorrelatesof religiousexperiences,hearguesthatevenif wecouldunderstandreligion,weshouldn’t,becauseitis“arroganttobelievethatwefullycomprehendwhatGodis…Idoubtwhetherthelimitationsof thehumanmindwilleverallowustoaccuratelyperceive…therealityof God.”2Thisperspective,whichwouldperhapsbeparforthecoursefromatheologian,comesfromascientistwho,whetherreligiousornot(hedoesn’tsay),isnotspeakingfromareligiousperspective. ThedistinguishedbiologistRobertPollack,inasimilarvein,saysthatwecannothopetounderstandothers’experienceobjectivelybecausetheabsolute,unqualifiedobjectivityrequiredforthetaskis,strictlyspeaking,animpossibility.Moreover,wereitnot,theprojectwouldbeethicallysuspect:

“Because ‘right’ and ‘wrong’ are in our experience and not ‘out there’ in nature, it is wrong for an investigator to seek a complete understanding of human religious experience using the language and tools of science. In doing so, he places himself on a pedestal above his fellow humans. Such a withdrawal from human socialization and from shared subjective emotional states is always regrettable and sometimes dangerous.”

Thisrathercommonviewispuzzlingcomingfromscientistswhohavedonesomuchtoadvancehumanknowledge.Itisoftenfeltthatsomethingaboutreligiousexperiencecanorshouldbeunderstoodonlybytheexperient;that“religiousrevelationcomesfromanintrinsicallyunknowableplace,”3asPollackwrites.Inthesamevein,thehistorianMirceaEliadewrites:

To try to grasp the essence of [religion] by means of physiology, psychology, sociology…or any other study is false; it misses the one unique and irreducible element in it — the element of the sacred.”4

Afirst-personperspectivelikethisoftenseekstounderstandthesupernaturalandcomeswithpre-existingepistemiccommitments.Forexample,seminarystudents,trainingtobecomeclergy,typicallybringtheirfaithtotheirstudieswiththem.Incontrast,athird-personperspectivewouldstudyreligionfromoutsideof anyparticularreligiousperspective. Howmightthiswork?Let’sstartwiththeviewoutward,atotherpeople.Modernthird-personinquiry,of asort,hasbeenconductedatleastsinceWilliamJamesthroughhistory,sociology,anthropology,andpsychology.Morerecently,therehasbeenaflurryof biologicalresearchintothecorrelatesandcausesof religiousexperience. WayneProudfoot,Professorof ReligionatColumbiaUniversity,doesnotseeanyproblemwithflatlyobjectivestudy.Inofferinganexplanationof religiousexperience“intermsthatarenotthoseof thesubjectandthatmightnotmeetwithhisapproval,”5thescholardoesnotabdicatehisresponsibility.“Justasanartcriticcanappreciateapaintingwithoutbeingapainter,thedevotionalexperiencesof otherscanbedescribedandstudiedwithoutsharingthoseexperiences,”saysProudfoot. NeuroscientistJoshuaFostagrees:“Toexemptcertaindomainsof lifefromobjectivestudy

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istofundamentallymisunderstandtheessenceof scientificinquiry.Theimportanceof thescientificmethod,withitsabilitytouncoverfacts,isatitshighestpreciselywhenwearemostlikelytobebiased.”Inthisview,religiousclaims–justlikeanyotherhumanbehaviororexperience–aretheexplanandum,andascientificexplanationcanonlyenrichourunderstanding.Fostpointsoutthatspiritualityiserroneouslysingledout:noonemakessimilarclaimsfor,say,proprioception,audition,orotherareasof humanexperience. Now,let’sconsiderthefirst-personperspective.WhenyouorIexamineourpersonalbeliefs,wearegrapplingwithreligioussubjectmatteritself –“WhatisGodlike?”,“whathappensafterdeath?”,andsoon.Theconfusionof perspectivesisevidentasearlyasWilliamJames:heendshisseminalsociologicalwork,The Varieties of Religious Experience, withaverystrangeclaim:

The science of religions would depend for its original material on facts of personal experience, and would have to square itself with personal experience through all its critical reconstructions...it would forever have to confess, as every science confesses, that…there is in the living act of perception always something that glimmers and twinkles and will not be caught.6

Afirst-personengagementwithpeoplemakingreligiousclaimsisapersonaldialogueaboutthewaytheworldisandhowitoughttobeinvestigated,whereasanobjectivestudyseekstounderstandandexplainwithinarational,empiricalframework.Conflatingthesetwois,ineffect,acallforanendtoinvestigationandaself-imposedlimitationonaflourishingscienceof religion. Whyisthisalimitation?If weconvinceourselvesthatcertainareasof investigationareforeverbeyondourreach,theycertainlywillbe:wemaydenyourselvesaframeworkforrealunderstandingbyeschewingrelevantexperimentsorchoosingnottoentertaincertainconclusions.Thisisnottosaythatthird-personinvestigationistheonlyacceptableorworthwhilewaytoengagereligion.Infact,quitetheoppositeistrue:personaldialogueiscritical,whichiswhywemustavoidconflatingitwithscience.Rather,initsseparatesphere,itisavitalcomponentof anopenanddemocraticsociety. Inthiskindof dialogue–distinctfromthestudyof religion–weregardothersasequallycompetentinvestigatorsinadiscussionof sharedvaluesandmethodsforlearningabouttheworld.Thisisanimportanttaskbecausepeopleactontheirbeliefs,anditiseveryone’sdutytomovesocietyforwardthroughclearandrespectfuldiscourse.Wecannothopetorelatetoafellowcitizen’spointof view,letaloneconvincethemof anything,bystudyingthemdispassionately. Thepoint?Religionisnodifferentfromanyotherhumanphenomenawestudy,anddoingsocannomorelessenourvalueashumansthananartcriticcandiminishapainting’sbeauty.Wehaveonlyaricherunderstandingof ourselvestogainbyaninvestigationdistinctfromfirst-personengagement,andinreality,nothingtolose.

andRew hamilton iS a SophomoRe in the SChool of geneRal StudieS majoRing in neuRoSCienCe and behavioR.

(Endnotes)

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1 James,William.TheVarietiesof ReligiousExperience,p.28.2 Newberg,Andrew.How God Changes Your Brain (2009),p.242-2433 Pollack,Robert.The Faith of Biology and the Biology of Faith (2000),p.14,4 Eliade,Mircea.Patterns in Comparative Religion(1963),astranslatedbyRosemarySheed,p.xiii5 Proudfoot,Wayne.Religious Experience(1987),p.1976 James,William.The Varieties of Religious Experience.(1902),p.446

photo CourtESy of jody ZEllMan

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His Holiness Bhakti Vasudeva Swami Speaks on

Religion and Social Justice Interview By Shruti Kylkarni

HisHolinessBhaktiVasudevaSwami(VasudevDas)isareligiousleaderof theGaudiyaVaishnavaHindufaith,adoctoralresearcherof leadershipandorganizationalchange,andascholarof thesocialsciences.HewasborninBayelsaState,Nigeria,andcommencedhiswide-reachingreligiousandcommunalactivitiestherein1984withtheInternationalSocietyforKrishnaConsciousness(ISKCON).HisHolinessfrequentlytravelsaroundtheworldtoeducatediverseaudiencesonthevaluesof love,peace,unityindiversity,self-realization,positivechange,andcommunitydevelopment.HisHolinesssatdownwithSanctumtodiscusshowheunderstandstherelationshipbetweenreligionandsocialjustice. There are a number of varying ideas on what constitutes social justice, some of which conflict with each other. What is true social justice and how is it best achieved? Itisaveryimportantissueinsocialjustice.Rudimentarily,socialjusticereferstotheideaof creatinganegalitariansocietyorinstitutionthatisbasedontheprinciplesof equality,

photo CourtESy of bhakti vaSudEva SWaMi

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justice,andsolidaritythatunderstandsandvalueshumanrightsandthatrecognizesthedifferencesof all.Itiseasilyachievedwhenweunderstandourpristineidentity—thatis,thefactthat,despiteourdifferences,inbodilydesignationlikerace,gender,age,etc.,wehaveacommonspiritualessence,and,basedonthatspiritualessence,wecanvaluepeopleinsteadof tramplingtheirrights.So[socialjustice]canbeachievedveryeasily,if werecognize,firstof all,whoweareandwhoothersare—despitethecolorof theirskinanddespitetheirgenderanddespitetheirage,etc.That’swhyIcallsocialinjustice…beingrootedinan“identitycrisis.”Thatisignorance,ignoranceof ourtrueidentity. Are we naturally inclined toward establishing and maintaining social justice or are we more naturally inclined toward destroying it, due to our inherent or developed qualities? Letmeexplainitthisway:thedegreeof ourinclinationtomaintainsocialjusticeisdirectlyproportionaltooursocialinsightandoursocialinsighthastodowithourmoralreasoning.And,of course,ourmoralreasoningis,tosomedegree,rootedinthepurificationof ourconsciousness.Forexample,if someonehasapathologicalstateof consciousness,thereisnoquestionof himorherstrivingforsocialjustice.Weneedtounderstandthat,inthepresentera,manypeopleareimbuedwithsomuchhypocrisy,quarreling,andagitationthattheirconsciousnessisnotpurified. Thereisatime-testedanddefinitemethodologyof becomingpurifiedinconsciousness,andthatmethodologyisgivenpracticallyinallsastricliteratures,orbonafidescriptures.Icallit“sonictherapeuticintervention,”orauditionandrecapitulationof thenamesof God.Basically,weunderstandthatGodhasmultifariousnames—suchasJehovah,Allah,orKrishna—anddedicatetimeeverydaytoHimthroughtheserepetitions.If wedon’ttakecaretogivesomequalitytimetoGod,wemayhavegoodintentionsaboutsocialjustice,butourintentionsmaybethwartedbecause,if wedon’thavethatpurifiedconsciousness,itisverydifficulttostriveforsocialjustice. We’veseeninthepastthatmanypeoplewhochampionsocialcausesareveryeloquentspeakersandveryscholarlypeople,butwecanfind,eveninthehistoryof thiscountry,thattheyhavefallenrightinthenoose.Soweneedsomepurification.Weneedtopurifyourconsciousnesstostandfirminthepursuitof socialjustice. This practice of chanting the holy names of God as a method of purification of consciousness implies belief in a God and, thus, holds little meaning to the faithless. Is there a way to purify the consciousness without such a theistic or religious practice? Firstly,if wediscussconsciousness,weshouldalsounderstandwhatessentiallyconsciousnessisbecause,if wedon’tunderstandthat,wewillbeledastray.Toansweryourquestion,yes,wecanalsopurifyourconsciousnessbytranscendentalausterities,bydiettherapy,byabstinencefromintoxicationandlies,and,of course,bysexualrestraint.Wecanalsopurifyourconsciousnessthroughspirituality.Youmaysaythatspiritualityandreligionarethesame,butthereisadifferencebetweenspiritualityandfaith—yourfaithcanchange,butyourspiritualidentitydoesnotchange.Researchshowsthatthesustainabilityof thepurificationof consciousnessismoreprominentwiththeauditionandrecapitulationof thenamesof God. What is the ideal connection between faith and social justice? To what extent should faith in general be connected with social justice?

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Whenyoutalkaboutfaith,itisaverybroadconcept.Basically,wehavetounderstandthatweareallchildrenof oneCreator;therefore,weshouldupholdhumanrightswithimpunityandweshouldrespectandhonoreveryone,becauseweareallessentiallyspiritualbeings–partsandparcelsof theSupremeBeing.YoucallHimGod,Jehovah,Allah,etc;wecallHimKrishna.Whenoureyesbecomeanointedwiththesalveof loveorwhenoureyesbecomeanointedwithtranscendentallove,wewillbeabletohaveauniversalvisionnotbasedoncolor,gender,race,age,etc.,butbasedonthefactthateveryoneisasparkfromtheCreator.Therefore,inasense,faithhasaveryvitalroletoplayinoriginatingsocialjusticeorevenintheexecutionof socialjustice. Faith,inessence,impliesthatwebelieveinsomethingandeveryonebelievesinsomething—infact,thevariableistheobjectof ourbelief.Andso,theveryprosecutionof socialjusticeisfaith—because,inaliteralsense,faithimpliesconvictionorbelief andeachandeveryonehasabelief insomething.Andso,yes,faithhassomemajoringredientorsignificanceinsocialjustice,basedontheconceptthatwehavesomeconvictionandwehavetofulfillthatconviction.



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If someoneisreallyspirituallyinclined,theyneedtobeinclinedinsocialjusticebecausethewholeconceptof socialjusticeisthatpeopleshouldnotbedehumanizedorpeopleshouldhaveequaltreatment.If someoneclaimstobeamemberof afaithandthatsomeoneisnotinclinedtowardsocialjustice,it[isproblematic]tome.Because, if weloveGod,weshouldloveHispartsandparcels.Weshouldlovethepeoplearoundus.Socialjusticeshouldbeginwithourfamiliesbecauseourfamilyisamicrocosmof society.Weshouldnotabuseourchildrenandourspousesandthengoouttochampionthecauseof socialjustice.

As Your Holiness has clearly explained, there is a strong connection between religion and the establishment and maintenance of social justice. However, despite this connection, in the past, religion has been misused in a number of ways for the obstruction of social justice and the detriment of the well-being of the people. What is the root cause of these problems? Thecauseispollutedconsciousness.Whenpeoplebecomeswayedbylust,theirthinkingisclouded,andsotheysubscribetoallof thedictatesof themindandtheimpulsesof thesenses.Theseveryinstancesarebeingperpetratedbypeoplewithpollutedconsciousness,notwithpureconsciousness,andthisisduetothefactthattheydon’tpracticeanygenuinereligiousorspiritualculturetopurifythemselves.Theymayevenhavegoodintentions,but,if theyareundertheimpulseof lust,theydon’tthinkproperlyandsotheydothewrongthings.Peopleabusereligiousinstitutionsjusttogratifytheirsensesandpeoplearerunningawayfromreligionbecauseof thesenastyactivitiesandtheydonotreallyunderstandthecultureof spiritualityandreligiosity.Itisaverysaddevelopment. Theconceptof religiouswarsisalsoverysadandveryharmful.Theplebeiansonthestreetmaycarrybombsandtrytoharmpeopleandthisisfromalackof socialresponsibilityandalackof understandingof philosophicalconceptsrootedinpurespirituality.Thebestwaytoavoidthesetypesof socialissuesistotrainthesepeopletoreadthescriptures.Thepeopleatthetop–thatis,thetopreligiousscholars—areworkingtogetherinthesameschools;theyarepeacefulandintelligentpeople.Whyisitthatthoseonthestreetmustbecarryingbombstogoandkillpeople? How does Your Holiness respond to the assertion that,as practitioners of spirituality, we should focus only on the spiritual and reject the material, and, therefore, we should ignore issues related to social injustice because they are on the material platform and focus only on our spiritual practice? If ourphilosophiesdonothaveaproblem-solvingorientation,peoplewillnotembracethem,becausewhywouldtheypraytoGodforhelpwhenthepeoplearoundus,thechildrenof God,arenotcaringforus?TheInternationalSocietyforKrishnaConsciousness,forexample,distributesfreefoodatcollegecampuses,athospitals,atabandonedbabies’homes,andeventothepublicingeneraltopracticallyapplysocialjusticeprinciples.Weshouldbecaringandnotjustgoafterourownliberationwhiletheworldissuffering.Rather,if wedon’tcare—forexample,if areligiouspersonseesthatsomeoneisbeingrapedandheorshe


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justshiesawaybecausethatcrimehasnothingtodowithhisloveforGod—heorshebecomesanaccomplice.Weshouldbeinclinedtowardhelpingpeopleand,atthesametime,practicingourfaith.Wecannotignorethepeoplearoundusif weprofesstobelieveinGod. One major problem in the realm of social justice is that of discrimination, particularly against women and minority races. Some religious leaders have chosen to remain silent on such issues, whereas others have spoken strongly against them. What view does Your Holiness hold on the subject? Todenypeopleopportunitiesbecauseof raceorsexisterriblybarbaric.Whenwefindthesetypesof developmentsandpeopledon’trespond,it’sabsurd.Theconceptof discriminationisallbasedonthebodyanddisproportionatefocusonthematerial.Peopleneedsomehigherrationale,includingtranscendentalknowledgeandculture,tobeabletomovepastdiscrimination.WelearnintheVedicliteraturethatthewholeplanetisundertheauspicesof awoman,MotherBhumi.Andso,forustosaythatsomepeopleareunqualifiedtodosomethingisaninaccurateandunwholesomeattitudetowardslife. Your Holiness is personally involved in the Hare Krishna movement, the International Society of Krishna Consciousness (ISKCON),which is a very large and prominent worldwide organization. What has been its specific role in encouraging the establishment of social justice, in bringing peace and harmony to this world, and in helping the people in general? We’redoingthispracticallyeverywhere.Togiveyouapracticalexample,IhavebeenpreachingformanyyearsinAfrica-IhappentocomefromNigeria,and,inNigeria,wehavebeenchampioningthesecauses.Socialjusticeisleadingbyexampleandthatisbasicallywhatwedo.Wedon’tjustprofess“peace.”Whateverwehave,wesharewiththepeople.If someonecomestoourtemple,hewillgetafreemealeverymorning,afternoon,andevening.Thisis[showing]concernforourbrothersandsisters,foreveryone,becauseweseethemaspartsandparcelsof Godorpartsandparcelsof Krishna.Wearealsoworkingtohelpwiththetransmissionof transcendentalknowledgetoallwithoutdiscriminationandtospreadthemessageof Godtoeverytownandvillage. What are the consequences and repercussions of neglecting social justice from a material, as well as a spiritual, perspective? Of course,materiallyspeaking,if someonedoesn’traiseanalarm,hewilllendhimself abadnameandpeoplewillnottrusthim.If someoneisnotcaring,whatisthemotiveforhavingastrongrelationshipwiththatperson?Wewantourrelationshipswithpeoplewhoarecaring,andso,if someoneisnotseeinghowotherscanberectifiedorhowotherscanberelievedof theirsuffering,wecan’tacceptthatperson.Wehavetostandfirmtobeabletohelpthosewhoarebeingvictimizedorthosewhoarebeingabused. Inasense,justasweexperiencematerialeffectsfromneglectingsocialjustice,we


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experiencespiritualeffects.The[spiritual]consequencesarethatweareresponsiblefortheinjusticeandsowecarrysomekarmicreactions,orconsequences[derivedfromthelawsof karma,an individual’srewardforgooddeedsand/orpunishmentforbaddeeds].Especially,forinstance,astheleadersof society—parents,teachers,theeducated,etc—if weseeothersbeingtreatedunjustlyandwedon’tact,webeartheconsequencesof ournegligence.Sonegligenceof dutyoranuninterestedapproachtoduty[are]centralproblem[s]weallmustcombatinoursocialjusticework.

ShRuti KylKaRni iS a fiRSt-yeaR in the SChool of engineeRing and applied SCienCeS.


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photo CourtESy of viCky du

Kanye West and the Illuminati: From “Jesus Walks” to Devil

Worship?Nana Amoh

“Isoldmysoultothedevil.”ThephrasefiguresprominentlyinWesternculture,croppingupineverythingfromFaustianlegendstoWashingtonIrvingfolktales.ButtypeitintoYouTubeandtheprominentroleitplaysinpopularculturetodayimmediatelysurfaces:UppopsavideofeaturingKanyeWestatfellowrapperKidCudi’sconcert,entitled“KanyeWestAdmitsHeSoldHisSoulToTheDevilDuringFreestyleLIVEInATLw/KIDCu[sic].”1”Inthevideo,Westcomplainsabouttheemotionalsufferinghehasexperiencedatthehandsof musicexecutivesandthemedia;helaterrapsthathehassoldhissoultothedevilforwealth.Strangelyenough,theaudiencewildlyhollersitsapproval.“Wow,thecrowdapplaudedafterheadmittedhesoldhissoultothedevil,”onecommenteronthevideowrites.“Peopleaftertheconcertprobablywentlookingforawaytosellthey’re[sic]soulsforfameandmoneywell.2”Anotherpostavowsthatpeopleare

photo CourtESy of Erin fortang

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intentionallymisconstruingtheartist’sclaimsbecausetheyarescaredof hisinfluenceonlisteners:“Imean.......Istheworldsoafraidof Westyouarewillingtotakewhattheguysaysinafreestyleseriously....If youdon’tliketherap.....DON’TLISTEN!!!!3” Forthosewhohavepaidevenasemblanceof attentiontoWest’scareer,itshouldcomeasnosurprisethattherapper,withhispenchantforthesensational,hasyetagaininspiredcontroversy.Butwhetherorno--inthewordsof ananonymousYouTubecomment—onechoosesto“takewhattheguysaysinafreestyleseriously,”theequationof celebritywithdevilworshipwarrantssomeexploration.Celebrityinevitablyinvolvescompromise,forcingstarstorelinquishtheirvaluesformaterialandpecuniarybenefits;West,inparticular,hasbeenrepeatedlycriticizedforglamorizingtheevilsthatliebehindfindingsuccessinshowbusiness.Fromareligiousvantagepoint,thisexchangeisarguablyamoral—andindeed,somehaveinterpretedKanye’snotablelyricalandmusicaltransitionsoverthepastcoupleof yearsasevidenceof acertaincrisisof faith,asproof of areligiousdownfall.Butthestarknessof Kanye’sevolutionfromlikeablenewcomertocontroversialpariahundertheblindinglightsof famehasalsoattracteditsshareof quirkyconspiracytheorists.Theonce-devoutrapper’sevocationof devilworship,theysay,isnottobetakenasameremetaphor;rather,theypurportthatWest’smoraldeclineresultsfromhisliterallymakingtheultimatesacrifice:sellinghissoultothedevilforfameandfortune.Thesetheorieslinktherappertoasecret,devil-worshippingsocietyknownastheIlluminati,andalthoughtheyareextreme,theywarrantsomeexploration:Society’sfascination,whetherfringeormainstream,withKanye’smoralandspiritualstatus,aswellashisownevolvinguseof religiousrhetoricandimagery,shedspowerfullightonthewaysinwhichreligionandmoralityfigureintopopculturetoday.

Theaccusationsof devil-worshipthatnowlightuptheblogospherearenotparticularlynew.Fellowhip-hopartistJay-ZhasalsohadtobatawayrumorsthathismusicandvideoscarrySatanicmessagesandIlluminati-relatedimagery.4Tounderstandhowandwhytheworkof theseartistshasbeenlinkedtoasataniccult,somefamiliaritywithIlluminatihistoryisnecessary.TimeMagazine’sspecialissueonsecretsocietiesquotesilluminati-news.com,whichdefinestheIlluminatias“Super-richPowerEliteswithanambitiontocreateaslavesociety![They][are]themenwhoreallyrulethemenfrombehindthescenes…Theyareconnectedbybloodlinesgoingbackthousandsandthousandsof yearsintime”(26)5.Moreover,“[their]maingoalistocreateaOneWorldGovernment,withthemontoptoruletheworld[andcreate]slaveryanddictatorship.TheysaytheirGodisLucifer,‘TheLightBearer,’andbyoccultpracticestheymanipulateandinfluencethemasses”(26).6Thesite’smissionistoinforminnocentciviliansof thesedangerouspowersof theself-seekingelitethatissteadilyplottingtotakeovertheworldthatapparentlylieominouslyatbay—.

Unsurprisingly,thereisnosubstantialproof forthesetheories,althoughthedetailsof thegroup’sfoundinghavebeenwell-established:theIlluminatiinitiallyformedintheeighteenthcenturyas“aself-selectedgroupof intellectualsseekingtofreethemselvesfromage-oldchainsof churchandstate”(26).7Thefounder,AdamWeishaupt,wasaFreemasonandprofessorof canonlawattheUniversityof InholstadtinGermany(26).8So,whilethegroupwasradicalinthinking,theywerenotabsolutistextremistssetonworlddomination.“TheIlluminatiliveinpopularculture,ahandymagnetforsuspicionandrumor,andforconspiracytheoristswhoviewaBavarianprofessor’sfailedattempttoinstituteaNewWorldOrderasanenterprisethatstillthrivesintheformof ashadowysuper-élite”(27).9Theideaof awealthyeliteintentongainingpowerwouldseemtocoincidewiththeobsessive

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culturesurroundingcelebrityinoursocietyandwiththemegalomaniathatoftencomeswithitspowerandstatus.CoupledwithexplicitreferencestoLuciferanddevilworship,thescrambleforstatus,onethatisinherentinourpopularculture,makestheworkof celebritiespowerfulfodderforsuchconspiracytheories. Andthat’swhereKanyeWestcomesin.West’stransitionfromauniversallylaudednewcomertoanarrogantfigurewhoreferencesthedevilwasprominentenoughtocatchtheattentionof Illuminati-waryvigilantes.In2003,earlyinhiscareer,criticspraisedWestforhishonestandconsciousraplyrics.Hecommentedonthesocialandpoliticalillsof societywithacadenceandlyricalwitthatmadehisvoiceimmediatelyrecognizableineverysong(cite).Hiscleverplays-on-wordsanddouble-entendresallowedhimtosayamouthfulwithoutbeingtooabrasiveoroffensiveinsongslike“AllFallsDown,”“WeDon‘tCare,”and“Diamonds.”Onesonginparticular,“JesusWalks,”aboutthetrialsandtribulationsChristiansfacewhiletryingtoavoidsininaworldwheretemptationissowidespread,garneredWestalotof attention.ItwasthefirsttimethatamainstreamrapperhadrecordedasongaboutpraisingGod.Radiostationsplayedthetracknon-stop,andWestevencirculatedthreedifferentversionsof a“JesusWalks”musicvideo.Hewasseennotjustasanartisticrevolutionary,butasoneof hip-hop’srarereligiousandspiritualfigures.

ButthelaudatoryimageWesthadcreatedsoonbegantobecalledintoquestion.Aseverysinglehereleasedbecameanimmediatehit,hedevelopedareputationasanarrogant,outspokenpersonality,atonepointdeeminghimself “thevoiceof thisgeneration.”10 Not only doeshisextremehubrisseemtoundermineanymoralintegrityhemayhavehadasacelebrity,butthelyricsandimageryof hisnewwork,aswellashissporadicrapsaboutsellinghissoultothedevil,seemtoexplicitlysubverttheimageof thedevout,morally,andspirituallyconsciouspublicfigurethatheworkedtocreateatthebeginningof hiscareer.Thetitleof West’slatestalbum,My Beautiful, Dark Twisted Fantasy,alonesuggeststhatheismovinginanewdirection,bothartisticallyandlyrically.

Thefirstsingleoff thealbum,“Power,”featuresWestchanting,“Noonemanshouldhaveallthatpower.”Whomheisreferencinghereisunclear.Hecouldbereferringtohimself;afterall,Westhasbecomeanincrediblypivotalfigureinpopularculture.Infact,inasurveydonebyRolling StoneMagazine,resultsshowedthathehasbecomeevenmoreinfluentialthanPresidentBarackObama. 11Alternatively,thesongcouldbeareferencetoGod.Or,asthevideo’sblatantlyreligiousimagerysuggests,theanswercouldbeaconflationof thesetwotheories:thevideoportraysWeststandinginfrontof anetherealbackgroundwithcherubinsandwarringangelicfigureshoveringabovehishead,lendingtotheideathatWestactuallyseeshimself assomesortof demi-god,which,givenhisself-laudatorypublicstatements,wouldmakeacertainamountof sense.Forerstwhilebelievers—including,mostlikely,thevigilantefounderof illuminati-news.com—the“Power”videoservesasirrefutableproof of hisinvolvementinapower-hungry,devil-worshippingsecretsociety.Whyelse,theyask,wouldarappergofromdonningagoldchainwithJesus’sfaceembeddedonittoonebearingthefaceof anEgyptiangod?If heweren’tpartof acultintentonworlddomination,whywouldheportrayhimself asadivinityoruseMasonicimageryinhisvideos?12HowdoesKanyeuseMasonicimagery?Otherdivineimagery


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photo CourtESy of Mara kravitZ

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isreferencedabove.Evenforthosewhodon’tsubscribetothewarningsof Illuminaticonspiracytheorists,thistransitionispuzzling.WhywouldWestusehisworktopurportreligiousbelief awkwardphrasing,onlytoundermineitlaterbyusingexplicitlysubversivereligiousimagery?

YetWestrecentlydismissedallof theseconcerns.InanarticlepublishedbyCNN,Westclaimedthathehasneverheardof theIlluminati.Helatertweeted,“IsIlluminatianddevilworshipinglikethesamething?[sic]”13InaninterviewwithHot97,aNewYork-basedhip-hopradiostation,WestofficiallydispelledtheserumorsbyaffirmingthathestillbelievesinGod:“AsfarasGod,of courseIbelieveinGod.AmIapartof somesectorcult?Thatsoundsstupidtome.It’slikeignoranttoevensay,andumm…Iguessthat’llbethelasttimeIaddressthat.It’signoranttome.”14West’sclaim,however,thatheknowsnothingabout“sectsandcults,”whensongslike“Power”stronglysuggestotherwise,isoddlycoincidental.Inthisvein,perhapstheuseof subversivereligiousimagesandideasinhissongsandvideosissimplyastrategytogarnerrenewedinterestinhiswork.Westhasjustreleasedanewalbumandhepresumablyneedsagoodmarketinggimmicktoincreasesales.Hisnewmusicfeaturesamoreeccentricsoundandmightbelesslikelytoappealtothewideaudiencehehasattractedinthepast.Forthisreason,theuseof theoccultseemsagoodwaytocapturepeople’sinterest.RegularlistenersandconspiracytheoristsalikearereplayingWest’ssongsandre-watchinghisvideos,tryingtomakesenseof hispuzzlingallusionstoreligion.Kanyemaynotbeadevil-worshipperandhemaynotactuallythinkthathe’sagod—but,asfarasmarketingploysgo,he’sprettybrilliant. Insomeways,thebuzzKanyehasmanagedtocreate—theintriguesurroundingtheevolutionof hiscareer,bothconspiracytheory-drivenandmainstream—ismorefascinatingthanthetransitionitself.WhetherKanye’saltereduseof religioninhisworkisabonafidereflectionof hisbeliefsoraconsciousstrategyfocusedongarneringinterest,itisspecificallyhisuseof religiousimages,rhetoric,andsymbolismthathaspeopletalking.Inasense,far-fetchedconspiracytheoriesonhisinvolvementwiththeIlluminatiarejustextremeversionsof thespeculationsurroundinghismoralandreligiouscharacter—asevidencedbyhisblanketdismissalof both.

However,thequestionof whetherWest’scommentsondevilworshipcanbechalkeduptomarketingtechniquesalonestilllingers.Inacipherheperformedatthe2010BETAwards,Westrappedspecificallyaboutsellinghissoul15:“Isoldmysoldtothedevil/That’sacrappydeal/Sinceitcamewithafewtoyslikeahappymeal...Thisgameyoucouldneverwin/Becausetheyloveyou,thentheyhateyou/Thenloveyouagain/Getawayfrommeloneliness,/Getawayfrommemisery…”16 Westspeaksabouthowtheprofithehasgainedfromhis“dealwiththedevil,”sotospeak,hasbroughthimallthemoneyandrecognitionforwhichhewished.Yethepointsoutthatsuccessisnotafinalendandthetroublesthatcomewithitseemtocontradictthejoythatrenownbrings.Itappearsthatheiswinning,buthisspiritissufferingincredibly:“If Ididn’thavetheseends,Iwouldn’thavetheseimaginaryfriends.”17TheselyricssuggestthatWestisexperiencinganinnerconflict—onethatismoral,if notreligious,innature.Theyseemtoindicatethathehasbeencriticalof hisownevolution,thewaysinwhichhiscareerasacelebrityhasinformedhismoralchoices.

ItisWest’sself-awarenessthatallowsusconsiderthepossibilitythathisuseof religioninhisworkisneitheranadmissionof devilworshipintheliteralsensenorpurelyamarketinggimmick.PerhapsWest,byintentionallycastinghimself inamoralandreligiouslightandprecipitatingthecontroversythatheoftendoes,ismakingalargerstatementabouttheinherentlymoralnature

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of celebrityinoursociety.If weunderstandhisreferencestodealingswiththedevilonapurelymetaphoricallevel,itishardtoignoretheseriousnessof hismessage:thatprolongedcelebrityinevitablyinvolvesmoralcompromise.Whetheranartisticmetaphorforhisemotionalandspiritualsuffering,anaccidentalmessagepickedupbyIlluminaticonspiracytheorists,ormerelyapublicitystunt,KanyeWest’ssubversiveuseof religiousimageryandtheresultingpublicreactionsayworldsaboutthecultof celebrityinoursociety—theonlycultwecanbesureof whichKanyeisapart.

nana amoh iS a SophomoRe in Columbia College majoRing in pSyChology with a ConCentRation in engliSh.

(Endnotes)1 “YouTube-KanyeWestsAdmitsHeSoldHisSoulToTheDevilDuringFreestyleLIVEInATLw/KIDCudi12-23-09!.”YouTube-BroadcastYourself..N.p.,n.d.Web.19Nov.2010.http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bbmiOBN3U7Y.2 “YouTube-KanyeWestsAdmitsHeSoldHisSoulToTheDevilDuringFreestyleLIVEInATLw/KIDCudi12-23-09!.”YouTube-BroadcastYourself..N.p.,n.d.Web.19Nov.2010.http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bbmiOBN3U7Y.3 “YouTube-KanyeWestsAdmitsHeSoldHisSoulToTheDevilDuringFreestyleLIVEInATLw/KIDCudi12-23-09!.”YouTube-BroadcastYourself..N.p.,n.d.Web.19Nov.2010.http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bbmiOBN3U7Y.4 Williams,Houston.“Jay-ZAddressesDevilWorshipandIlluminatiRumorsonRickRossAlbum.”Allhiphop.comDailyNews.10July2009Web.28Nov20105 “TheIlluminati:AGermanprofessorsoughttochangetheworld.”Time Secret Societies (Decoding the Myths and Facts of History’s Most mysterious Organizations) Spring2010:26.Print.6 “TheIlluminati:AGermanprofessorsoughttochangetheworld.”Time Secret Societies (Decoding the Myths and Facts of History’s Most mysterious Organizations) Spring2010:26.Print.7 “TheIlluminati:AGermanprofessorsoughttochangetheworld.”Time Secret Societies (Decoding the Myths and Facts of History’s Most mysterious Organizations) Spring2010:26.Print.8 “TheIlluminati:AGermanprofessorsoughttochangetheworld.”Time Secret Societies (Decoding the Myths and Facts of History’s Most mysterious Organizations) Spring2010:26.Print.9 “TheIlluminati:AGermanprofessorsoughttochangetheworld.”Time Secret Societies (Decoding the Myths and Facts of History’s Most mysterious Organizations) Spring2010:27.Print.10 Dixon,Louise.“KanyeWest:I’mThe‘VoiceOf ThisGeneration’.”Breaking News and Opinion on The Huffington Post.N.p.,n.d.Web.4Nov.2010.<http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2008/11/13/kanye-west-im-the-voice-o_n_143703.html>11 USWeekly.“KanyeWestVotedMoreInfluentialThanObama|RollingStoneMusic.”Rolling Stone | Music News, Reviews, Photos, Videos, Interviews and More.N.p.,n.d.Web.4Nov.2010.<http://www.rollingstone.com/music/news/51942/225792>.12 13 Marino,Mark.“KanyeWest:What’stheIlluminati?–TheMarqueeBlog-CNN.comBlogs.”TheMarqueeBlogWatchShowbizTonightliveat5pmETand11pmET/PTonHLN-

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CNN.comBlogs.N.p.,n.d.Web.4Nov.2010.<http://marquee.blogs.cnn.com/2010/10/25/kanye-west-whats-the-illuminati/?hpt=Sbin>.14 Marino,Mark.“KanyeWest:What’stheIlluminati?–TheMarqueeBlog-CNN.comBlogs.”TheMarqueeBlogWatchShowbizTonightliveat5pmETand11pmET/PTonHLN-CNN.comBlogs.N.p.,n.d.Web.4Nov.2010.<http://marquee.blogs.cnn.com/2010/10/25/kanye-west-whats-the-illuminati/?hpt=Sbin>.15 2010BETHipHopAwardsShow.BET.12Oct.2010.Television.16 2010BETHipHopAwardsShow.BET.12Oct.2010.Television.17 2010BETHipHopAwardsShow.BET.12Oct.2010.Television.


photo CourtESy of raChEl valinSky

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Jewish Heter iska and Islamic Banking: Adaptation or

Capitulation to Modernity?Raphael Rosen

Oneof themostpressingissuesconfrontingMuslimsinthemodernworldistheirabilitytoparticipateinthemoderneconomywithoutcompromisingtheirreligiousvalues.TheQur’anforbidsMuslims from engaging in riba(interest)andcontraststhemtotheusuriousJewswhodefytheirreligionandareconsumedbygreed.TheQur’anitself invitesthecomparisonbetweentheShari’a’sprohibitionagainst riba and the Halakhic (Jewishlaw)prohibitionagainstribbit.BothwordsderivefromthesameSemiticrootR.B.H.whichmeans“increase.”Theparallelsbetweentherespectivedevelopmentsof theprohibitionsarestriking,buttherearealsostarkdifferencesthatindicatedifferentunderlyingrationalesbehindthetwoinjunctions.TheprohibitionagainstribbitallowsJewstolendtoandborrowfromnon-Jewswith interest.Themoral foundationunderlyingthisproscription, therefore,cannotbeadivinecondemnationof aninterest-basedeconomyinallof itsforms.Instead,themotivationistoengender


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charitablefeelingsandaspiritof mutualaidamongJewsinordertorescuedowntroddenindividualsin the Jewish community from economic collapse. The Islamic tradition, in contrast,makes noreferencetoaspecificfocusontheimpoverisheddebtor.Instead,Islamdictatesrulesthataremeanttoestablishasocietal,justice-basedsystemof economics,oneconsistingof sharedriskandsharedprofit.Ribaisaninherentlyselfishactivityinwhichonepartywishestobenefitfromatransactionregardlessof thesuccessorfailureof hispartner.Intrade,bycontrast,twopartnersstandtogaintogetherandtransactinthespiritof cooperationandassistance.Thisfarmoreambitiousgoalof legislatingamoraleconomyindicatesthereasonthatIslamdoesnotdistinguishbetweentheinterestchargedtoaMuslimoranon-Muslim;theprohibitionagainstribaisintendedforallof societyatalltimes. Ananalysisof IslamicfinanceascontrastedtotheJewishpracticeof heter iskawillshow thatMuslimshavebeenforcedtomaintainafarmoredistincttypeof economicsinordertoremainwithinthestricturesof theShari’a.Jews,ontheotherhand,havesidesteppedtheprohibitionwithrelativeeaseandlittlemoralangstthroughtheuseof legalloopholes.WhiletheJewishlegalsolutionsmayappearinsomewaysmoreunderhandedandless“organic”thantheIslamicones,thisisduetothenarrowermotivationof theprohibitioninJudaism.Thestructureof thisessayisasfollows:Iwillfirstpresenttheclassicalviewsonriba andshowhowtheydemonstrateabroad,societalbanoninterest.ThenIwilldescribethevariedtypesof modernIslamicresponsetotheprohibition,amongthemIslamicfinance.Iwillprovideabackgroundonribbit and describetheheter iska whichisusedtodaytocircumventtheJewishprohibition.Iwillarguethatthesomewhatunderhandednatureof heter iska islegitimatesinceitis,infact,consistentwiththeclassicalmotivationbehindribbit. In order to appreciate the conundrum facing modern Muslims, some backgroundinformation on ribaisnecessary.ThemostdetailedQur’anicrevelationpertainingtousuryisfromSurah al-Baqarah,verses275-281:

ThosewhodevourinterestbecomeliketheonewhomSatanhasbewitchedandmaddenedbyhistouch.Thehavebeencondemnedtothisconditionbecausetheysaytradeisjustlike interest,whereasAllahhasmade trade lawfuland interestunlawful.Henceforth, if oneabstainsfromtakinginterestafterreceivingthisadmonitionfromhis lord,nolegalactionwillbetakenagainsthimregardingtheinteresthehaddevouredbefore;hiscaseshallultimatelygotoAllah.Butif onerepeatsthesamecrimeevenafterthis,heshallgotoHell,whereheshallabideforever.Obelievers,fearAllahandgiveupthatinterestwhichhisstillduetoyouif youaretruebelievers;butif youdonotdosothenyouarewarnedof thedeclarationof waragainstyoubyAllahandHisMessenger.If,however,yourepentevennow,youareentitledtoyourprincipal…

TheQur’an’srankingof monetaryexpendituresisasfollows:zakat(alms-giving)islaudatory,tradeispermittedandriba isforbiddenandcondemned.Thedenunciationof riba issurprisinglyharsh,relegatingusurerstoeternaldamnation,anuncommonpunishmentforsinscommittedbybelievers.Al-Tabari, aninth-centuryQur’anexegete,holds that this severepunishment ismeanttorefertothosewhoholdthatusuryisfundamentallypermitted,whileabelieverwhoknowsthatusury iswrongbut surrenders tohisgreed isadmonishedbutnotwitheternaldamnation.Thiscomment of Al-Tabari is extremely instructive to understand the hesitancy and reluctancewith


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whichtraditionalscholarsapproachmodernIslamicfinance.Byprovidinglegalmeanstoaccomplishthe same goals as riba,theyessentiallyareholdingthatribaispermitted,somethingmoresinfulthaneven ribaitself. Several hadith (traditionsof theProphetMuhammad)exhortMuslimsabouttheevilsof riba anddescribetheexcruciatingpunishmentawaitingthosewhoviolateit.InonereporttheProphetcountsribaamongthesevencardinalsins,includingsuchothersinsasmurderandpolytheism. Inanothertradition,Muhammadequateseventheleastseveretypeof ribawithcommittingadulterythirty-threetimesandevencommittingadulterywithone’smother.Inanother,theProphetstates,“If interest-baseddealingsbecomecommonamongapeople,theysurelystartfacingdroughtandshortageof food.”Sincetheyareturningapredatoryprofitbyextortingthepooramongthem,surelymuchof thepopulationwillperishfromhunger.ItislikelythatwhentheProphetdescribestheeconomicdisasterthatwillbefallacommunityof usurers,heisnotdescribinganunnaturallyseverepunishmentimposedbyAllah,butadirecttangibleconsequenceof theiractions. Themodern responses of Muslims to economic pressures are varied, but they canbedividedintothreebroadcategories:reformists,traditionalists,andpragmatists.1Iwillillustrateeachcategorybypresentingaparadigmaticexampleof thatformof thought,withafocusonthelasttype. ThereformistapproachexpectsShari’ascholarstofindawaytoreinterpretthetraditiontomeetthechallengesof themoderneconomicclimate.MuhammadAfzal,aprofessorof economicsatGomalUniversityexemplifiesthisapproach.Afzalcitespositionsof modernscholarsthatbasedon theQuranicverseprohibiting“doublingand redoubling,”2 theonly typeof interestwhich isforbiddeniscompoundinterest,whilesimpleinterestispermitted.Inaddition,hecitesthepositionthatonlyloansforconsumptionareforbiddensinceduringthetimesof theProphetonlythattypeof loanexisted.Loanstakenforproductionshouldbepermittedsincetheyareclearlyfortheelectivefinancialbenefitof thedebtoranddonotstemfromeconomicdesperation.Whilenotendorsingany of theseminority views, Afzal quotes them as evidence that there are dissenting opinionswithintheIslamictraditionandthat,especiallyduetothedireneedof theMuslimcommunity,areinterpretationof ribabyscholarsisdarura (absolutenecessity).Hearguesforcefullythatevenif thereasonbehindtheprohibitionistodefendtheinterestsof theborrower,Shari’ahasgonetoofartotheoppositeextreme,exposingthelendertoriskwithnochanceof gain.YethedoesnotprovideaninternalmechanismthroughwhichhesuggeststhatthescholarsreinterprettheShari’a,otherthancitingnecessityastheubiquitousreasonbehindalladaptation. Fromatraditionalistperspective,theseargumentsamounttoanimpassionedcryfortheperceivednecessityof interest,butnotalegalargumentastowhyandhowitshouldbepermitted.The traditionalist approach is toview theprohibitionagainst riba as eternally applicable even intoday’sworld.GrandMuftiMohammadShafi andMuftiTaqiUsmani, twopreeminentmodernIslamicscholars,embodythisapproachintheirjointwork,The Issue of Interest,whichcallsfor astrictinterpretationof theQur’anwhilederidingthecapitalistsystemof interestasacancertosociety.Oneof themostimportantargumentsadvancedbyUsmaniandShafiistocountertheclaimthatsinceboththedebtorandthecreditoragreetotheloanbeforehand,theirconsentmustrenderthetransactionpermissible.Usmanicountersthattheconsentof thedebtorisnotatrueconsent.Only


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becauseof thecutthroatenvironmentcreatedbyaninterest-drivencapitalistsocietydidthedebtoreverencounterthesituationinwhichhewasdesperatetoreceivealoan.Theywrite:

Acloselookatthebusinessof interestbasedlending/borrowingandthephilosophybehinditwouldrevealthatthefinalresultoughttobe[the]impoverishedstateof avastmajorityof thesocietywhilefilingbeyondcapacitythecoffersof afewcapitalists.Theeconomicdisparityresultsinthedisasterof thecountriesandthatiswhyIslamhasforbiddenthisbusiness.3

Thisisanotherillustrationof howtheIslamicapproachtofinanceisonethatfocusesonthemacro-scaleandisunwillingtosacrificethemoralfiberof thecommunitybyusingacorruptingtemporarysolutionthatsuitstwoindividuals. Thesescholarsciteanddisputemanyargumentsmadebyreformers.Theycitenumeroushadithtodemonstratethattherewere,infact,commercialloansextantinthetimesof theProphetwhichwereincludedintheinterdictionagainstinterest,andnotethatevenif commercialloansdidnotexistinthetimeof theProphet,simplychangingthespecificcircumstancessurroundingtheprohibitiondoesnotpermitonetonullifytheprohibition. Thetraditionalistsfurtheraugmenttheirpositionbyquotingthestatementof Umar(thesecondcaliph)that“wehavegivenupninetypercentof alllegitimatetransactionsforthefearthatanelementof interestmightbepresent inthem”.Theyquotethisasprecedentthatevenahintof usuryissufficienttoforbidmosttypesof financialarrangements.Inaddition,Shafiimakestheintriguingargumentthatevenif productiveloanswithinterestarenotunfairtothedebtor,theyarestillunfairtowardthecreditor,sincethedebtor’sprofitisunlimitedandthecreditor’sgainisfixed.Thistypeof argumentonlymakessenseif thepurposeof ribaistoensureequitablefinanceforall,andnotsimplytodefendadowntroddendebtor.ShafiiandUsmani’s inherentlyconservativepositionallowsforverylittleacclimatizationof Shari’atothemoderncontext. The third andmiddleposition is thatof thepragmatists,whosemost commonlyusedapproachisthatof Islamicfinance.ThesearrangementsarestructuredbyprominentbankswithaShari’aboardwhichmustgivethestampof approvaltoanytransactionsandperformanauditof thebank’sholdingsattheendof everyyear.Thedefiningcharacteristic,andthemostchallengingaspect,of Islamicbankingistheavoidanceof interestwhilemaintainingprofitabilityforthebanks,and its depositors and investments. The risks inherent in Islamic banking far outweigh that inconventionalbanking,sincethebanksharesaproprietor’sinterestintheinvestment.Itisbecausebothpartiesbearriskthatthetransactionisnotconsideredusury. Oneof theidealpermittedfinancialarrangementsismudaraba,whichissimilartoaventurecapitalist arrangement.Both the investingpartner and themanagingpartner split theprofits bysomeratio.Theformerstandstoloseaportionof hisinvestmentwhilethelattercouldpotentiallysquanderhislaboronafailedendeavorandreceivenoprofit.ThisadherestotheintegralIslamicprinciplethattheprovidersandusersof capitalshouldshareriskandprofitequitably. AnotherSharia-sanctionedoptionismurabaha,whichispurchaseandresaleatamarkup.Insteadof anormalloaninwhichthebankwouldprovidethefundstothedebtor,whowouldusethemtopurchasesomecommodity,inmurabahathebankbuysthecommodityforthedebtor,whowillpaythebankbackininstallmentsamountingtoasumgreaterthanthebankpaidforthegood.


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Thereasonthisdoesnotfallunderthecategoryof ribaisthatthebankincursacertainamountof riskinbuyingandtransportingtheproducttotheclient.Whilethebanksufferslessriskthaninmudaraba,itstillincurssufficientriskforthistoavoidbeingclassifiedasriba. Islamicfinanceinitsidealformfusesthepositionsof thepragmatistandthetraditionalistandservesasanalternativemodeltowesternbankingwhichisatthesametimeusefultomodernMuslimsandauthenticallyauthorizedbyIslam.Thisdoesnotconstitutealegalfictionbutratherafulfillmentof thewillof Allahinthemoderncontext. Thesesolutionsmustbecontrastedwiththoseof Jewsinthemoderneconomicclimate.To understand the specifics of their predicament, a brief background of ribbit is in order.TheHebrewBiblefirstprohibitsribbitinExodus22:24,“If thoulendmoneytoanyof Mypeople,eventothepoorwiththee,thoushaltnotbetohimasacreditor;neithershallyelayuponhiminterest.”Alreadyinthisverse,Godemphasizesthatinterestisforbiddensolelyinloansto“Mynation,”theJews.ThemostexplicitverseinthisregardisfromDeuteronomy23:20-21:“Thoushaltnotlenduponinteresttothybrother:interestof money,interestof victuals,interestof anythingthatislentuponinterest.Untoaforeignerthoumayestlenduponinterest;butuntothybrotherthoushaltnotlenduponinterest.”Itisapparentfromtheversesthattheydomeantoeradicateinterestfromtheworld.Rather,theyintendtoinstillafeelingof uniquecamaraderieamongJewsandtoencourageJewstoprovidemutualaidforeachother. In fact, early jurists debated whether the verse in Deuteronomy actively commandedJewstolendwithinteresttonon-Jews.Sefer HaChinuch,ananonymousSpanish13thcenturylegaltext,explainsthatthereasonbehindthiscommandmentisthatJewsshouldnotgiveequallykindtreatmenttoJewandtonon-JewinordertodemonstratetotheworldthattheadherencetoTorahis


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thesuperiorpath.ItisapparentthatbothinitslegalexpressionanditstheoreticalrationalethattheintentistoengendergoodwillandcharityamongJewsandtoaidunfortunatebrethrenbyofferingtheminterest-freecapital.If theTorahmeanttoeliminateinterestfromtheworlditwouldnothavepermittedcharginginteresttogentilesandcertainly(accordingtosomeopinions)wouldnothavecommandedJewstodoso. Themostradicalexpressionof thelimitedscopeof theprohibitionagainstribbitisfoundintheworksof thethe19thcenturyscholar,RabbiYosef Babad,theauthorof theMinchat Chinuch, a commentaryon theSefer HaChinuch.Hewrites that it ispermissible to lendwith interest to a“wicked”Jewwhointentionallydistanceshimself fromtherestof thenation.Thistypeof rulingwouldbeunimaginableintheIslamiccontextsinceinIslamthefocusisonthesocietaleliminationof interest,notthespecificdebtorunderourscrutiny.However,thisrulingisthelogicalextensionof aprohibitionthatislimitedtotheimmediateaidof adeservingcompatriot. TheclassicalHalakhicauthoritieswereawareof theattemptstocircumventthisprohibitionandexplicitlyforbadecertaintypesof loopholes.Rashi,aneleventh-centurybibleexegete,writesthattheversejuxtaposesthephrase“YoushallfearyourGod”totheprohibitionagainstribbit to implythatevenforthosethingsthataretechnicallyacceptable,Godknowsman’sinnerthoughtsandwillpunishsomeoneforusingaloopholelikelendingtoaJewthroughanon-Jewishintermediaryto evade formal violation of the interdiction. Furthermore, theTalmud records and rejects theargumentsof reformistswhotrytolocalizetheprohibitionagainstribbittotheancientpast:

R’Shimonsays:thosewholendoninterestlosemorethantheygain.AndnotonlythatbuttheyregardMosesourteacherasasageandhisTorahastruth[aeuphemismfortheirderisionof MosesandtheTorah],bysayingif Mosesourteacherwouldhaveknownthatthere isprofit in thematterof lendingon interest,hewouldnothavewrittenthat it isforbidden.4

DespitetheseconservativeprecautionsintheHalakhicsystem,economichardshipcoercedJewstostruggletofindawaytopermitinterestevenamongJews.Tomeetthisdemand,medievalrabbisformulatedwhatisknownasheter iska (permissibleventure).Inthe12thcentury,persecution,crusades and economic exclusion forced increasing numbers of Jews into the money-lendingbusiness.However,aJewwhodidnothaveastartingsumof capitalcouldnotenterthefield.Togainthisstartupcapital,aJewwouldoftenneedtoborrowfromasuccessfulJewishmoneylender.Tomake thisworthwhile for the successful usurer, there needed to be away to guarantee thathereceiveareasonablereturnonhis investment inthe juniormoneylenderandaguaranteethathewould not lose his principal. Even though the past ten centuries of scholars had uniformlyforbiddenanyattempttoremovethecreditor’srisk,necessitycarriedtheday.Themodernheter iskaworksasfollows:Thefinancierandmanagingpartneragreebeforehandaboutaparticularamountof profitthatwillbeguaranteedtothefinancier.If theventuresuffersaloss,theoreticallybothpartnersshouldsplittheloss.Accordingtotheagreement,however,themanagingpartnerisonlybelievedif headducestwoproperhalakhicwitnesses,suchastherabbiandcantor,aswellascompletedocumentation,whichishighlyunlikely.Inordertoavoidtheproblemof theusuryimplicitinthemanagingpartnerreceivinganequalshareintheprofitsdespitehiseffortsinmanagingthefunds,heispaidanominalfeeforhistime,sayonedollar.Whilesomearguethatif the


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heter iska isperformedcorrectlyitisnotalegalsubterfuge,itisclearthatitstretchestheboundsof whatwaspreviouslyconsideredanormalpartnership.RabbiBaruchHaleviEpstein,anineteenth-centuryLithuanianhalakhist, formulatedanoriginalandpowerful justificationfor thesepracticesbasedon theverse inLeviticus.Heargues thatphrase“that yourbrothermay livewithyou” istheguidingprincipleof ribbit. Inthetimesof Moses, theJewsprofitedthroughagriculture,andmoneylendingwasnottheprimarysourceof theirincome,soprovidingafreeloantoawretchedfriendwasafulfillmentof theversetosupportone’sbrethren.However,bythemiddleages,theJewshadbeenlongsinceexiledfromIsraelandtheirstaplesourceof incomewascommerceandusury.Itbecamenecessarytoallowcreditorstochargeinterestinsomeway,pursuanttotheselfsameverse.Therefore,themedievalsagessoughttopermitinterestinthemostHalakhicallyapprovedwaypossible. Whencomparingheter iskawiththevariousformsof Islamicbanking,itisapparentthatIslamicbankingadheresfarmorecloselytotheprincipleof sharedriskthanheter iska.However,thisisunderstandablesincethefocusof theIslamicprohibitionwastoconstructaneconomybasedonequity.Throughout its history, the Islamic tradition has derided and condemned the Jewish leniencytowardinterest.ThispositionoriginatedintheQur’an,continuedtothehadithandevenisquotedbycontemporaryMuslims.Theirderision ismisplaced,butunderstandablyso.FromtheIslamicperspective, theban against interest is a sweeping and fundamental one thatdoesnot take intoaccountthespecificcircumstancesorreligionsof thecreditorordebtor,sinceitseekstoeliminateinterestinallof itsformsfromeveryaspectof society.However,fromwithintheHalakhictraditionboth the limited nature of the prohibition and the seemingly faithless legal loopholes can berationalizedbyappreciatingthatHalakhaapproachestheissueof interestthroughadifferentandmoreparticularlens.Evenif alegalmechanismlikeheter iskaappearslikearusetopermitprofit,itwasdoneinawaythatisconsistentwiththepurposebehindtheoriginalprohibition,namelytheaidof desperateJews.

Raphael RoSen iS a SenioR in Columbia College majoRing in Religion.

(Endnotes)1.Qur’an,SurahAl-Nisaa160-161.2.Encyclopediaof Islam,491.3.Shafi,71,78,82.4.Ihavereformulatedslightlytheclassificationof AlexandreCaeiroinCaeiro,Alexandre.“TheSocialConstructionof Shari’a:BankInterest,HomePurchase,andIslamicNormsintheWest”.DieWeltdesIslams44,32004.3515.SurahAal-e-Imran,123.6.Afzal,62.7.Shafi,124.


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8.Shafi,40.9.Shafi,26.10.Shafi,39.11.“Principlesof IslamicBanking”Nida’ulIslamNovember-December,1995.12.SeferHachinuch,573.13.SeferHachinuch,573.14.Lev.25:37andRashi’scommentary.15.T.B.BavaMetzia75b.TalmudBavli:TractateBavaMetzia.Trans.RabbiMordechaiRabinovitch.NewYork:MesorahPublications,1993.16.Gamoran,162-165.17.Bleich,55.


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Re-writing History: Protestant and Neo-Pagan Agendas in the

Study of MithrasCarly Silver

In2003,DanBrown’sThe Da Vinci Codesetthescholarlyworldaflamewithitsboldclaimsabouttheoriginsof Christianity.ReligionprofessorsandCatholicpriestsalikescrambledtoinvestigateassertionsmadebyBrown,whosenovelclaimedthatChrist’sidentityandnarrativeintheBiblewerebasedonMithras,anIranian-sun-god-turned-Roman-military-deity.Inoneexcerpt,fictionalhistorianLeighTeabingrelaysBrown’scentralandoft-quotedpieceof damningevidence:that,likeJesus,“thepre-ChristiangodMithras...wasbornonDecember25…andthenresurrectedinthreedays.”1

AllegationsthattheChristiangodwasacopyof anotherwerehighlycontroversial,andseemedtounderminethevalidityof theentirefaith.Websitessupportingonesideoranotherhavesprunguptojointhedebatesurroundingtheexistenceof Mithras;theybeardomainnameslike“JesusNeverExisted,”“JesusPolice,”and“TruthBeKnown.”Therefore,afterappearingprominentlyinaninternationalbest-seller,theratherobscureacademicstudyof Mithrashas

photo CourtESy of thE britiSh MuSEuM

gainedanewlevelof wide-spreadattentionandreligioussignificance.Yet,atthesametime,manyscholarsintheProtestantandneo-paganacademictraditionswhohavewrittenonMithrasexhibitawarpedandunsubstantiatedtakeonMithraism,whichstemsfromthespecificreligiousagendasatplay. DanBrown’sfictionalexplorationof thesedebatesisultimatelythecontinuationof along-termtrend.Overthelastseveralcenturies,manyscholarshaveembarkedonattemptstofindthe“real”historicalJesus,withvaryingdegreesof success.Insodoing,somehavestrippedawayanyritualsinmodernCatholicismthatbeararesemblancetopaganismandidentifiedthemas“add-ons”frompaganreligions.Scholarsof Christianhistory,suchasStanleyPorterandStephenBedard,goasfarasdelineatingthisunfolding“rivalry”asonebetweenChristianandpaganbeliefs.2However,thetendencytodelegitimizethecharacterof theCatholicChristtracesbackthroughthecenturiestotheProtestantReformation.3Theritualof MithraismthathasmostoftenbeencomparedtotheChristiantraditionthroughouthistoryistheMithraic“feastof initiates,”seentobeanalogoustoChrist’slastsupper.EarlyChristiantheologians,promptedbyJustinMartyr,havearguedthatjustlikeJesus,Mithrasconducted“asacredmeal…intheformof consecratedbreadandacup.” 4ClaimshavealsoemphasizedthatbothMithrasandChristwereeachbornof avirginonDecember25.5 Regardlessof theveracityof thesestatements,itisimportanttonotethefluidityof religionintheRomanEmpireduringthefirstfewcenturiesC.E.ThesimilaritiesbetweenMithraismandChristianityarelikelyduetobothcults’emergenceataroundthesametimeintheRomanEmpire.Ideasmovedfromoneculttoanotherwithimpunity.Somegodsadoptedthetitlesandritualsof others,whileotherdeitiesoftenmergedentirely.Anewreligionmightgaincredibilitybyassumingsomeaspectsof anothergod’spersona.BecausebothMithraismandChristianityandtheirfollowerswouldlikelyhavecomeintocontactwithoneanother,itisnaturalthatsomeideaswereexchanged.However,somescholarshaveneglectedtorecognizethesyncretismof theHellenisticeraoutof whichMithraismandtheChristiancultemerged,whichlikelycausedtheirsimilarities.Justbecauseonegodoftentookonthecharacteristicsof anotherdeityduringtheGreco-Romanperioddoesnotmeaneithertradition“copied”fromanother,butratherthatthetimeperiodwasoneof religio-intellectualexchange. Anotherproblemof thesetrendsinvolvesscholars’delineationof definitionsandboundarieswithregardtoMithraism.WhenscholarsdiscussMithraismasaninfluenceonChristianity,theyimposeaunityonthecultthatneverexistedandimplythesetwomovementshadconsolidatedorthodoxiesbythefirstcenturiesC.E.Forexample,PorterandBedarddiscusshow“theMithrascultwaswidespread”throughouttheRomanEmpiretomakeargumentsaboutitsimpact.6However,eachMithraiccellwasdifferentandlikelyheldvaryingconceptionsof thegodatthattime;therewasnosingleinterpretationof Mithrasgoverningacentralized“cult.”Thesepresuppositionsabouttheunityof Mithraismindicatetheinfluencesof laterChristianthought. WhilevariedMithraea,orMithraicplacesof worship,allhadcertainelementsincommon,thereisnoevidenceof asingleauthoritybindingthesecellstogether.Though


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scholarsoncethoughttherewasa“unitaryMithraicsystem”linkingdifferentMithraiccellstoonedoctrine,theyhaverevisedtheiropinion.7Inreality,Mithraiccellswerefar-flung,andtherewas“nohierarchyatahigherlevel”toimposeuniformityupondifferentlocalizedformsof worship.8Eachsimplytookcertaincentralbeliefsandaddedvariouselements.ItislikelythatsomeMithraicdoctrineswereimpartedduringritualsthatwereexportedtolocalcells,andthentaughttothenextgenerationof recruits.Similarly,earlyChristianitydidnothaveonecoherentmovementduringitsfewcenturiesof existence,butinsteadhadmanylocalmanifestations.Therewere“manyearlyChristiangroups”withdifferentbeliefsabouthowJesuslivedandtheimportanceof hisdeath;nouniformideaaboutthesignificanceof histeachingsemergeduntilseveralcenturieslater.9 ItiseasierforscholarssuchasDonaldSharpestodealwiththesetwocultsasconsolidatedmovements,evenif theywerenot,becausethesearethegeneralizedtermsweusetodaywhendiscussingmodernreligions.Academicswouldrathersay“Mithras”asafigureinfluenced“Christ,”eventhoughthereweremanylocalvariationsof thosefiguresandtheirsignificances.Forexample,Sharpesstatesthat“Mithrasascendedintotheheavens”afterhislastsupperwithhisdisciples.10SharpeaddsthatMithraistsbelievedthatMithrasascendedtoheavenandprotectedhisdisciples,andagain,imposesonesingleviewof Mithras’safterlife,onethatisnotcorroboratedbywrittenorarchaeologicalevidencefromMithraea.However,hedoesnotstatetowhichMithraiccell’siconographyherefers.Evenif oneMithraistdivisionhadsimilarbeliefstotheChristianresurrection,whichisfarfromproven,Sharpes’sgeneralizationof allMithraicdoctrineisunfounded. Catholicismhasundoubtedlyadoptedsomepaganrites,butthewesternandProtestantacademictraditionhadavestedinterestindebunkingtheritualisticpracticesof theChurchwhichithopedtodelegitimize.AsscholarsdiscoveredmoreandmoreaboutMithraisminthenineteenthandtwentiethcenturies,theycontinuedtoexaggeratesomesimilaritiesbetweenMithrasandChristtobolstertheircritiqueof Catholicism.Protestanttheologianswereonegroupthatjumpedatthechancetorideawaveof Mithras-fueledreligiouscriticismduringtheheightof The Da Vinci Code’spopularity.Today,scholarslikePorter,BedardandSharpesattempttodownplaytheirdesireto“takedown”Catholicism,buttheimpulseremainstobelievethattheCatholicJesusissulliedbyoutsideinfluences. AscholarlytraditionwithasimilarvestedinterestinMithrasisthatof theneo-paganists,ormodernrevivalistsof ancientpaganreligions.Inthe1970s,manysectariangroupsbegantorevivewhattheysawasacceptingandnature-lovingpolytheisticfaithsof ancienthistory.11RenewedinterestinworshippingoldCeltic,Norse,andWelshfaithscamealongwithrenewedscholarlyinterestindiscoveringjustwhatthesepaganfaithsof antiquityentailed.RatherthanviewingpaganinfluencesasanoutsiderforcewithinChristianity,neo-paganscholarssuchasPayamNabarzandD.JasonCooperhaveinsteadattemptedtoplayupChrist’spaganbackgroundinordertolegitimizetheirmoderninterpretationsof ancientfaiths. Yetneo-paganauthorswhostudyMithraismoftendistortthefactstodepictpaganreligions,whichtheyportrayasunderdogsharmedbyChristianity.TheyalsoconflateChristianandpagantraditions,intheprocessglossingoverthepastof thereligionstheyare


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tryingtorevive.Forexample,D.JasonCooper,authorof Mithras:MysteriesandInitiationRediscovered,isanesotericistwhoacknowledgesthedividebetweenMithraismandChristianity,butwhoneverthelesssuggeststhat“there…wasoneandonlyonewaytoseetherituals,myths,andtheologyof thatreligion,”inthesingular.12

Neo-pagansaremorelikelytoespousetheMithraicoriginsof Christianitybecausetheywanttoportraytheirfaithsasworthreviving;theyindeedmaybeworthy,butsurelyMithraism’sdownfalldidnotresultinthe“earlydeclineandlossof truemeaning”inbothMithraismandChristianity.13AccordingtoPayamNabarz,authorof TheMysteriesof Mithras:APaganBelief ThatShapedtheChristianWorld,the“peace-lovingmessageof Christianity”felloutof earlyChristianmovementsbecauseitadoptedthemartialmessageof thesoldiers’god,Mithras.Inreality,thereisnoevidencetoconfirmthisboldclaim.Furthermore,Christ’smessagewasnotentirely“peaceful,”norwasMithrasonlyagodof war.Toassumethateitherreligioncanbedefinedbyasingleterm—“peaceful”or“warlike”—makesunjustifiedassumptionsaboutthenatureof theseancientfaithsanddemeanstheircomplexity.Indeed,throughoutthehistoryof theRomanEmpire,Christianity


photo CourtESy of Carly SilvEr

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hadmanydifferentinterpretationsandwasneverasinglemovement.ItislikelythatMithraismfaredsimilarly. Thefluctuatingreligiousatmosphereof theRomanEmpire,whichallowednewcultstoform,didallowChristianityandMithraismtointeract.Butitstilldidnotallowonetototallydominateanother.Forexample,themodernMithraistPayamNabarzclaims“theRomanMithraicpracticewasoneof thegreatestrivalstoearlyChristianity,”whichiswhyMithraismwasoneof the“firstpagancults”tocomeunderattackwhentheRomanemperorsadoptedChristianity.14 CooperaddsthatMithraism“viedwithChristianityfordominance”forfivehundredyears.Morelikely,however,isthatbothcultsco-existedinthefirstfewcenturiesof theRomanEmpirewithdifferentcorefollowings.Mithraswasprominentamongsoldiersallovertheempire,whileChristappealed,atfirst,perhapstoaMessianicJewish,thengraduallygentile,audience. Theideathatarivalrysprangupbetweenthesetwofaithswouldimplythatthefollowersof asingle“Christianity”werejustasprominentinthefirstfewcenturiesC.E.asMithraists.FalselyassumingChristianitywasastreamlinedreligion,neo-paganauthorsportrayitasadominatingthief thatstolethecustomsof otherstogivetheirgodlegitimacy.If oneistoregardChrist’svariedfollowingsas“Christianity,”thesescholarssayitsubduedMithraismwhenitrosetopower.ByportrayingMithraismasanunderdogreligionthatwasshovedintoacorner,modernrevivalistscanclaimthatMithraismwasathreattoChristianity,whichiswhyitfadedout.Belief inChristdid,indeed,laterbothsubsumeandbanotherpaganreligions,buttheideathatitwasinstrictcompetitionwithanyonereligion,forthesolereasonthatitdestroyedthevalidityof Christianity,exhibitsamplebias.Inaworldof manyfaiths,ChristianityprobablyhopedtosurviveandgainfollowersjustasmuchasMithraismdid.Yet,bymakingspuriousclaimsaboutearlyChristianity,theneo-pagansportrayMithraismasacontemporaryrivalthatlostoutinthebattleof religiousinfluenceinRome.TheclaimthatChristianityhasalong-standingvendettaagainstMithraism,asNabarzargues,isacademicallyunfounded. Thereisalonghistorywithinreligiousscholarshipof questioningtheoriginsof biblicalnarratives.ScholarshavefoundsimilarparallelsbetweentheBible’saccountof thefloodandaMesopotamianfloodstory,forexample,astheyhavebetweenthelivesof JesusandMithras.Theseacademicdebatesoftenarisefromtheparticulartheologicalstancesof manyreligioustraditionsandsecularcritics:thatreligioustruthisnotsomethingthatisshared,orsomethingthatdevelopsinthelongtermfrominteractionsbetweengroups,itmustbemonopolizedbyonegroupornoneatall.Furthermore,perhapsbecauseof theoppressiveinfluencethatCatholicism,inparticular,wieldedinlaterhistory,modernscholarshavestresseditspaganoriginsinordertodevalueitstheologicalclaims.DanBrown’sfictionalexplorationof theseissueshasdrawnsuchwidespreadinterest.Protestantsandneo-pagansbothhavemuchtogaininde-valuingtruthclaimsmadebyCatholicism.However,variedreligiousagendasareclearlyatworkwhenthesescholarsdistortevidenceandclaimthatMithrascopiedChristorvice-versa.Insuchinstances,theiragendasmustbeconsideredmorecloselybeforedrawinganyconclusionsfromtheirworkaboutthevalidityof Catholic,Protestant,orneo-pagantraditions.

CaRly SilveR iS a junioR in baRnaRd College majoRing in Religion.


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photo CourtESy of thE louvrE

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(Endnotes)1 DanBrown,TheDaVinciCode(NewYork:Anchor,2003)305.Online.2 StanleyE.PorterandStephenJ.Bedard,UnmaskingthePaganChrist(Toronto:Clements,2006)96.Online.3 JonathanZ.Smith,DrudgeryDivine:OntheComparisonof EarlyChristianitiesandtheReligionsof LateAntiquity(London:Schoolof AfricanandOrientalStudies,1990)22;65.Online4 DavidUlansey,TheMithraicMysteries:CosmologyandSalvationintheAncientWorld(NewYork:Oxford,

1989)144-145.Online.5 RogerBeck,BeckonMithraism(Wiltshire:Cromwell,2004)83.6 PorterandBedard967 RogerBeck,BeckonMithraism(Wiltshire:Cromwell,2004)6.8 Beck,Roger,“FourMen,TwoSticks,andaWhip:ImageandDoctrineinaMithraicRitual,”TheorizingReligionsPast:Archaeology,History,andCognition,ed.HarveyWhitehouseandLutherMartin(Lanham,Maryland:AltaMira,2004)99.Online.9 Beck(2004)99.10 DonaldK.Sharpes,Lordsof theScrolls:LiteraryTraditionsintheBibleandGospels,(NewYork:PeterLang,2005)245.11 SeanMcCloud,“NewandAlternativeAmericanReligions:Changes,Issues,andTrends,”FaithinAmerica:Changes,Challenges,NewDirections,Vol.1.,ed.CharlesH.Lippy(Westport,CT:Praeger,2006)237.Online.12 D.JasonCooper,“Questions,”e-mailtoCarlySilver,25October2010.13 PayamNabarz.TheMysteriesof Mithras:APaganBelief ThatShapedtheChristianWorld(Rochester,Vermont:InnerTraditions,2005)46.14 Nabarz12-13.


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