Foundations and Foundations and Framework of Framework of

Instructional Design Instructional Design

Pablo Salinas

Learning TheoriesLearning Theories

Psychological Foundation Psychological Foundation TheoriesTheories Cognitive Information Processing Schema Theory and Cognitive Load Situated Learning Gagne’s Theory of Instruction

Cognitive Information Cognitive Information ProcessingProcessing Three memory systems in a learner:

Sensory A learner observes a pattern and begins to identify

the pattern. Short-Term Memory

The learner mentally processes the pattern briefly and can associate the pattern with long term memory.

Long-Term Memory The learner learns and applies the information for an

extended\indefinite amount of time.

(Reiser & Dempsey, 2007)

Cognitive Information Cognitive Information Processing Processing

The environment plays an important role in learning.

Graphic adapted from (Pastor, 2009, p. 1)

Schema Theory and Cognitive Schema Theory and Cognitive LoadLoad Knowledge is represented in long-term

memory packets called Schemata. Schemata maintain related information in

categories. For example, when we think of going to a doctor’s office we think of nurses, medicines, injections, and so on.

Automation, such as partially completed math problems, allows for the construction of schemata to be more effective as mental “processing” is minimized and the working memory capacity is increased.

(Reiser & Dempsey, 2007)

Schema Theory and Cognitive Schema Theory and Cognitive LoadLoad Schemata exist in long-term memory and

allow “someone to solve a certain category of problems and at the same time saving working memory by chunking information elements and production rules into a whole” (Dempsy, 2006).

Research on the Cognitive Load Theory has shown that instructional designers who reduce unnecessary cognitive loads on students increased the level of learning (Lee, Plass, & Homer, 2006).

Situated LearningSituated Learning

Focuses more on social and cultural determinants of learning rather than psychology.

People learn through routine practice in everyday life rather than by text.

Individuals can learn from the current business community by observation and sharing resources.

(Reiser & Dempsey, 2007)

Situated LearningSituated Learning Reiser and Dempsey describe situated learning as

“an opportunity for learners to collaborate within the community and build a legacy for others to build upon” (Reiser & Dempsy, 2007, p. 40).

Woolf and Quien (2009) affirm some studies reveal only learners who have a high tolerance for ambiguity are successful in situated learning activities.

One can integrate both descriptions and understand that not all learners successfully obtain knowledge through the community. Some individuals learn best in a focused environment.

Gagne’s Theory of Gagne’s Theory of InstructionInstruction Focuses on instruction and how to relate it

to design Includes 3 components:

Taxonomy of learning outcomes that portray human learning capacities

Internal and external learning conditions for each learning outcome

Nine instructional events that enhance a learning cognitive process

(Reiser & Dempsey, 2007)

Gagne’s Theory of Gagne’s Theory of InstructionInstruction “Gagne’s theory describes fundamental

principles for designing and delivering effective instruction while incorporating nine events of instruction to activate internal learning processes.” (Hampton & Reiser, 2004)

LearningLearning EnvironmentEnvironment

Systems Approaches and Design Systems Approaches and Design PracticesPractices Provide processes that enable designers to

better handle diverse training issues. The fast-changing world of computer

technology requires constant evaluation and flexibility of the processes (Bullock, 2000).

Design practices will either “constrain or enable diverse learning environments” (Reiser & Dempsey, 2007, p. 55).

The learning environment is a based on learning needs.

Systems Approach and Design Systems Approach and Design PracticePractice “A system is technically a set of

interrelated parts which work together toward a definite goal. The parts of the system depend on each other for input and output, and the entire system uses feedback to determine if its desire goal has been reached” (Dick & Carey, 2005).

Virtual Learning Virtual Learning EnvironmentsEnvironments Virtual learning environments are largely

computer based and involve sharing information between students and instructors.

A virtual learning environment has the potential to improve communication through a non-traditional form of instruction.

(Leese, 2009)

Virtual Learning Virtual Learning EnvironmentsEnvironments Allows teaching and learning without the need for

face to face interaction. WebCT used by the University of Houston is an

examples of a virtual learning environment. Tiu, Johnson, Qumsieh, and Salinas (2009) found

that the percentage of students taking online courses has increase greatly throughout education. In fact, the University of Houston-Clear Lake online enrollment has increased by 36% in the last 5 years.

Technology Enhanced Technology Enhanced ClassroomsClassrooms Instructors use technology to boost the

students learning experience. Classrooms that have specific devices, i.e.

computers, electronic whiteboard, or control stations for the instructor (EDuTech Wiki, 2007).

Information can be saved on disk and easily presented to students.

Interactive Web SitesInteractive Web Sites

The user can navigate through a website and decide what he or she wants to see in a more personalized fashion.

The interaction increases interest which allows for a unique learning style that is guided by the user.

Learning Motivation Learning Motivation Theories/ModelsTheories/Models

Intrinsic MotivationIntrinsic Motivation

The cause of motivation exists within an individual and task (Cheng & Yeh, 2009)

“Behavior that is performed for it’s own sake” (Csupomoma.edu, 2009).

There is no tangible reward other than the pleasure of the experience (Reiser & Dempsey, 2007).

Describing ones work experience as rewarding is an indication of intrinsic motivation.

Intrinsic MotivationIntrinsic Motivation

“Students who demonstrate intrinsic learning motivation initiate learning activities and maintain an involvement in learning” (Griep, Hess, & Tress, 2003)

“It emerges spontaneously from psychological needs, personal curiosities, and innate strivings for growth” (Reeve, 2005,p.134).

Extrinsic MotivationExtrinsic Motivation

The individual is rewarded after completing the learning activity.

The person knows they will receive a reward with the accomplishment of the task.

People who are extrinsically motivated mainly seek to complete the task for the reward .

Different types of reward result in different effects (Brennan & Glover, 1980).

Extrinsic MotivationExtrinsic Motivation

Extrinsically motivated students are interested in following the proper procedure or guidelines that will lead to the reward (Bye, Pushkar, & Conway, 2007).

A pay increase or promotion are examples of extrinsic motivation.

Goal Setting TheoryGoal Setting Theory

Goals serve as a motivational force to performance.

A goal must be challenging and specific. “So long as a person is committed to the

goal, has the requisite ability to attain it, and does not have conflicting goals, there is a positive, linear relationship between goal difficulty and task performance” (Locke & Latham, 2006, p. 265).

ERG TheoryERG Theory

Alderfer believes that there are three important needs: existence, relatedness, and growth.

ERG suggests that as more concrete needs are satisfied, less concrete needs become more important.

Motivated students are interested in continuing to learn.

(Csupomona.edu, 2009).

Philosophical BeliefsPhilosophical Beliefs Motivational Theory

Intrinsic motivation inspires individuals to engage in an activity for the pleasure of engaging. Many students attend school because of intrinsic motivation, but I believe quite a few students are extrinsically motivated, i.e. seek a reward. The reward could be the degree that is being earn or any other material reward that would be offered. At some point students receive the reward and become intrinsically motivated as they seek education for the simple pleasure of learning.

Intrinsic motivation is more authentic and is a better fuel for individuals as it’s motivation that stems naturally without any interest in a compensation.

In my opinion, a combination of both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation will provide the best outcome.

ReferencesReferences

Brennan, T., & Glover, J. (1980). AN EXAMINATION OF THE EFFECT OF EXTRINSIC REINFORCERS ON INTRINSICALLY MOTIVATED BEHAVIOR: EXPERIMENTAL AND THEORETICAL. Social Behavior & Personality: An International Journal, 8(1), 27. Retrieved August 27, 2009, from Academic Search Complete database.

Bullock, C., & Ory, J. (2000, Fall2000). Evaluating Instructional Technology Implementation in a Higher Education Environment. American Journal of Evaluation, 21(3), 315. Retrieved August 27, 2009, from Academic Search Complete database.

Bye, D., Pushkar, D., & Conway, M. (2007, February). MOTIVATION, INTEREST, AND POSITIVE AFFECT IN TRADITIONAL AND NONTRADITIONAL UNDERGRADUATE STUDENTS. Adult Education Quarterly, 57(2), 141-158. Retrieved August 28, 2009, from Academic Search Complete database. 

 Cheng, Y., & Yeh, H. (2009). From concepts of motivation to its application in instructional design: Reconsidering motivation from an instructional

design perspective. British Journal of Educational Technology, 40(4), 597-605. Retrieved August 27, 2009, from Academic Search Complete database.

 Tiu, S., Johnson, P., Qumsieh, M., & Salinas, P. (2009). Demographics of Students Enrolled in Online Classes (University of Houston – Clear Lake

Fact Book). Retrieved from University of Houston – Clear Lake , Office of Institutional Effectives website:http://prtl.uhcl.edu/portal/page/portal/OIE/IR_PUBLICATIONS/FACT_BOOK/Fact%20Book%202008.pdf

Dempsey, J. (2006). Cognitive Load Theory (2006). In Instructional Design Workbook: Theories. Retrieved from: http://www.southalabama.edu/htdocs/oll/chikatla/iddtheorywb/htmlcognitiveload/terms5.htm Dick, W., Carey, L., Carey, J.O. (2005) The Systematic Design of Instruction (6th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson Allyn and Bacon.  Hampton, S., & Reiser, R. (2004). Effects of a Theory-Based Feedback and Consultation Process on Instruction and Learning in College

Classrooms. Research in Higher Education, v45(n5), p497. Retrieved August 28, 2009 from the ERIC database. Kerssen-Griep, J., Hess, J., & Trees, A. (2003). Sustaining the Desire to Learn: Dimensions of Perceived Instructional Facework Related to

Student Involvement and Motivation to Learn. Western Journal of Communication, 67(4), 357-381. Retrieved August 28, 2009 from the Academic Search Premier database.

 Lee, H., Plass, J., & Homer, B. (2006). Optimizing Cognitive Load for Learning From Computer-Based Science Simulations. Journal of Educational

Psychology, 98(4), 902-913. Retrieved August 28, 2009 from the PsycARTICLES database. 

ReferencesReferences

Locke, E., & Latham, G. (2006). New Directions in Goal-Setting Theory. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 15(5), 265-268. Retrieved August 27, 2009 , from Academic Search Complete database.  

Pastor, M. (2009). Short-Term Memory. Retrieved August 28, 2009, from SDSU Department of Educational Technology website http://coe.sdsu.edu/eet/Articles/stmemory/start.htm

Reeve, J. (2005). Understanding motivation and emotion (4th ed.). New York: John Wiley & Sons. Reiser, R. A. & Dempsey, J.V. (2007). Trends and Issues in Instructional Design (2ND ed). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill Prentice Hall. Technology-Enhanced Classroom. (2009). In Eductech Wiki.

Retrieved August 28, 2009 from: http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/en/Technology-enhanced_classroom Why Study Motivation. (2009). In Csupomana.edu.

Retrieved August 28, 2009 from: http://www.csupomona.edu/~msharifzadeh/chapter3.html

Woolf, N., & Quinn, J. (2009, February). Learners’ perceptions of instructional design practice in a situated learning activity. Educational Technology Research & Development, 57(1), 25-43. Retrieved August 28, 2009, from Academic Search Complete database.